Complex

Analysis Made Easy Proof of Mittag-Lefflers’ Expansion Theorem

Mittag-Lefflers’ Expansion Theorem

Let ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ be a meromorphic function whose only singularities in the finite part of the plane are simple poles at
ܽଵ , ܽଶ , ܽଷ ,∙∙∙, ܽ௡ ,∙∙∙, which can be arranged as 0 ൏ |ܽଵ | ൏ |ܽଶ | ൏∙∙∙ ൏ |ܽ௡ | ൏∙∙∙ with residues ܾଵ , ܾଶ , ܾଷ , ∙∙∙ , ܾ௡ ,∙∙∙,
respectively. Suppose also that ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ is bounded i. e; |݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ| ൏ ‫ܯ‬.

Consider a sequence of closed contours ‫ܥ‬ଵ , ‫ܥ‬ଶ , ‫ܥ‬ଷ , ∙∙∙ , ‫ܥ‬௡ ,∙∙∙, in the form of concentric circles of radii ܴଵ , ܴଶ , ܴଷ ,∙∙∙
, ܴ௡ ,∙∙∙, respectively, having centers at origin, such that, ሺiሻ ‫ܥ‬௡ encloses ܽଵ , ܽଶ , ܽଷ ,∙∙∙, ܽ௡ and no other poles and
ሺiiሻ lim ௡→ஶ ܴ௡ ൌ ∞. Then for all values of ‫ݖ‬, except poles
ஶ
1 1
݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௠ ൬ ൅ ൰.
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௠ ܽ௠
௠ୀଵ

ஶ
1 1
Or more generally, ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௠ ൬ ൅ ൰.
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௠ ܽ௠
௠ୀିஶ

1 ݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻd‫ݐ‬
‫܎ܗܗܚ۾‬: Consider the integral ‫ ܫ‬ൌ න ,
2ߨ݅ ‫ݐ‬ሺ‫ ݐ‬െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ
஼೙

where ‫ ݖ‬is a point with in ‫ܥ‬௡ other than poles of ݂ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ. The poles of integrand are at

ሺiሻ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ܽ௠ , ݉ ൌ 1,2,3,൉൉൉, ݊ ሺsimple polesሻ

ሺiiሻ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ 0 ሺsimple poleሻ

ሺiiiሻ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ ݖ‬ሺsimple polesሻ

The residues at poles are

ሺ‫ ݐ‬െ ܽ௠ ሻ݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ
ܴ௠ ൌ ܴ௠ ሺ݂, ܽ௠ ሻ ൌ lim , ݉ ൌ 1,2,3,൉൉൉, ݊
௧→௔೘ ‫ݐ‬ሺ‫ ݐ‬െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ

ܾ௠
ൌ ∵ ܾ௠ is residue of ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ܽ௠ ⇒ lim ሺ‫ ݐ‬െ ܽ௠ ሻ݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ܾ௠
ܽ௠ ሺܽ௠ െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ ௧→௔೘

݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ݂ሺ0ሻ
ܴሺ݂, 0ሻ ൌ lim ൌ
௧→଴ ሺ‫ݐ‬ െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ‫ݖ‬

݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ
ܴሺ݂, ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ lim ൌ
௧→௭ ‫ݐ‬ ‫ݖ‬

By Cauchy residues theorem

௡
1
‫ܫ‬ൌ ቎2ߨ݅ ቌ ෍ ܴ௠ ൅ ܴሺ݂, 0ሻ ൅ ܴሺ݂, ‫ݖ‬ሻቍ቏
2ߨ݅
௠ୀଵ

Prepared Guided and checked by: Dr. Amir Mahmood

Page 1 of 11
Complex Analysis Made Easy Proof of Mittag-Lefflers’ Expansion Theorem

௡
ܾ௠ ݂ሺ0ሻ ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ
‫ܫ‬ൌ ෍ െ ൅ ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ሺ1ሻ
ܽ௠ ሺܽ௠ െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬
௠ୀଵ

Now consider:-

1 ݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ݀‫ݐ‬
‫ܫ‬ൌ න
2ߨ݅ ‫ݐ‬ሺ‫ ݐ‬െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ
஼೙

1 ݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻd‫ݐ‬ 1 ݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻd‫ݐ‬ 1 ݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻd‫ݐ‬ 1 |݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ| |d‫|ݐ‬
|‫ |ܫ‬ൌ ቮ න ቮ ൌ ቮන ቮ ൑ නቤ ቤൌ න ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ሺ2ሻ
2ߨ݅ ‫ݐ‬ሺ‫ ݐ‬െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ 2π|݅| ‫ݐ‬ሺ‫ ݐ‬െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ 2π ‫ݐ‬ሺ‫ ݐ‬െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ 2ߨ |‫ ݐ| |ݐ‬െ ‫|ݖ‬
஼೙ ஼೙ ஼೙ ஼೙

But ห|‫ |ݐ‬െ |‫|ݖ‬ห ൑ |‫ ݐ‬െ ‫| ⇒ |ݖ‬௧ି௭| ൑ ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ሺ3ሻ

ଵ ଵ
ห|௧|ି|௭|ห

Using ሺ3ሻ, ሺ2ሻ becomes

‫ܯ‬
|‫ |ܫ‬൑ න|݀‫ |ݐ‬, ∵ |݂ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ| ൑ ‫ܥ ݎ݋݂ ݀݊ܽ ܯ‬௡ ሺܿ݅‫ܴ ݏݑ݅݀ܽݎ ݂݋ ݈݁ܿݎ‬௡ ‫݊݅݃݅ݎ݋ ݐܽ ݁ݎݐ݊݁ܿ ݄ݐ݅ݓ‬ሻ, |‫|ݐ‬
2ߨ൫ܴ௡ หܴ௡ െ |‫|ݖ‬ห൯
஼೙
ൌ ܴ௡

‫ܯ‬ ‫ܯ‬
ൌ ሺ2ߨ ܴ௡ ሻ ൌ → 0 as ܴ௡ → ∞ ሺor equivalently as ݊ → ∞ሻ ∵ න|݀‫ |ݐ‬ൌ 2ߨ ܴ௡
2ߨ൫ܴ௡ หܴ௡ െ |‫|ݖ‬ห൯ หܴ௡ െ |‫|ݖ‬ห
஼೙

⇒ ‫ → ܫ‬0 as ܴ௡ → ∞ ሺor equivalently as ݊ → ∞ሻ

So, ሺ1ሻ takes the form, as long as ݊ → ∞

ஶ
ܾ௠ ݂ሺ0ሻ ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ
0ൌ ෍ െ ൅
ܽ௠ ሺܽ௠ െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬
௠ୀଵ

ஶ
݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ݂ሺ0ሻ ܾ௠
ൌ െ෍
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬ ܽ௠ ሺܽ௠ െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ
௠ୀଵ

ஶ
ܾ௠ ‫ݖ‬
݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍
ܽ௠ ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௠ ሻ
௠ୀଵ

ஶ
1 1 ‫ݖ‬ 1 1
݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௠ ൤ ൅ ൨ ∵ ൌ ൅
ܽ௠ ‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௡ ܽ௠ ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௠ ሻ ܽ௠ ‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௠
௠ୀଵ

ஶ
1 1
Or more generally, ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௠ ൬ ൅ ൰ ۶‫ܕ܍ܚܗ܍ܐܜ ܍ܐܜ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௠ ܽ௠
௠ୀିஶ

Prepared by: Mr. Haider Ali Guided and checked by: Dr. Amir Mahmood

Page 2 of 11

Complex Analysis Made Easy Solved Problems ሺMittag-Lefflers’ Expansion Theoremሻ
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ஶ
૚ ૚
‫ ܖܗܑܜܛ܍ܝۿ‬૚: ‫ܖ܉ܜ ࣊ ܜ܉ܐܜ ܍ܞܗܚ۾‬ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ൌ െ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ‫ ܜ܉ܐܜ ܍܋ܝ܌܍܌ ܌ܖ܉‬
ࢠ െ ࢔ െ ૚/૛ ࢠ ൅ ࢔ ൅ ૚/૛
࢔ୀ ૙

ஶ
࣊૛ ૚
ൌ ෍
‫ ܛܗ܋‬૛ ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ሺ ࢠ െ ࢔ െ ૚/૛ ሻ૛

࢔ୀ ିஶ

‫ܖܗܑܜܝܔܗ܁‬: Let , ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ tanሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ⇒ lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ lim tanሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0

௭→଴ ௭→଴

Since, lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0ሺൌ definedሻ, therefore, there is removable singularity at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0 ሺand hence no pole at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0ሻ.
௭→଴

1 1
Poles of tanሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ are determined by cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0 ⇒ ߨ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ൬݊ ൅ ൰ ߨ ⇒ ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݊ ൅ , ݊ ൌ 0, േ1, േ2, േ3,൉൉൉
2 2

൫‫ ݖ‬െ ሺ ݊ ൅ 1/2 ሻ൯ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0

ܴሺ݂, ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭ → ௡ ା
ଵ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ଶ
൫‫ ݖ‬െ ሺ ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻ൯ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0 ൅ ሺെ1ሻ௡ 1
ൌ lim ൌ ൌ െ
௭ → ௡ ା
ଵ െߨ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ ߨሺെ1ሻ௡ ߨ
ଶ

ஶ
1 1
Mittag Lefflers’ Formula: ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௡ ܽ௡
௡ୀ ିஶ

ஶ
1 1 1
tanሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0 ൅ ෍ ൬െ ൰ ൤ ൅ ൨ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െെ→ ሺ1ሻ
ߨ ‫ – ݖ‬ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻ ݊ ൅ 1/2
௡ୀିஶ

ஶ ିஶ
1 1 1 1
ߨ tanሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ െ ൭ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ െ ൨൱
‫ – ݖ‬ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻ ݊ ൅ 1/2 ‫ ݖ‬െ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻ ݊ ൅ 1/2
௡ୀ ଴ ௡ୀିଵ

Replace ݊ by – ݊ in second summation, we get

ஶ ஶ
1 1 1 1
ߨ tanሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ െ ൭ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ െ ൨൱
‫ – ݖ‬ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻ ݊ ൅ 1/2 ‫ ݖ‬െ ሺെ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻ ሺെ ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻ
௡ୀ ଴ ௡ୀଵ

Now, replace ݊ by ݊ ൅ 1 in second summation, to get

ஶ ஶ
1 1 1 1
ߨ tanሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ െ ൭ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ െ ൨൱
‫ – ݖ‬ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻ ݊ ൅ 1/2 ‫ ݖ‬െ ሺെ݊ െ 1/2ሻ ሺെ ݊ െ 1/2ሻ
௡ୀ ଴ ௡ୀ଴
ஶ
1 1 1 1
ൌ െ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൅ െ ൨
‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ െ 1/2 ݊ ൅ 1/2 ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ ൅ 1/2 ݊ ൅ 1/2
௡ୀ଴
ஶ
1 1
ൌ െ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ െ 1/2 ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ ൅ 1/2
௡ୀ ଴

Differentiate ሺ1ሻ with respect to ‫ݖ‬, we get

ஶ ஶ
ଶ ሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
1 1 ߨଶ 1
ߨ sec ൌ ෍ ⇒ ൌ ෍ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
ߨ ሺ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ െ 1/2ሻଶ cosଶ ሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ሺ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ െ 1/2 ሻଶ
௡ୀିஶ ௡ୀ ିஶ

Prepared by: Mr. Wasif Ali Guided and checked by: Dr. Amir Mahmood Page 3 of 11


Complex Analysis Made Easy Solved Problems ሺMittag-Lefflers’ Expansion Theoremሻ
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ஶ
࣊ ૚ ሺെ1ሻ௡ ૛ࢠ
‫ ܖܗܑܜܛ܍ܝۿ‬૛: ‫ ܜ܉ܐܜ ܍ܞܗܚ۾‬ ൌ ൅ ෍ ૛
‫ܖܑܛ‬ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ࢠ ࢠ െ ࢔૛
࢔ୀ૚

ߨ 1 ‫ ߨݖ‬െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
‫ܖܗܑܜܝܔܗ܁‬: Let , ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ െ ൌ
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ

‫ ߨݖ‬െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→଴ ௭→଴ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ߨ െ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→଴ ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ߨ ଶ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
ൌ lim ൌ 0
௭→଴ െߨ ଶ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ

Since, lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0ሺൌ definedሻ, therefore, there is removable singularity at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0 ሺand hence no pole at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0ሻ.
௭→଴

The poles of ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ are determined by sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0, ‫ ് ݖ‬0 ⇒ ߨ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݊ߨ ⇒ ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݊, ݊ ൌ േ1, േ2, േ3,൉൉൉
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻሺߨ‫ ݖ‬െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሻ 0
ܴሺ݂, ݊ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→௡ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻሺߨ െ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሻ ൅ ሺߨ‫ ݖ‬െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሻ
ൌ lim
௭→௡ ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
݊ߨ 1
ൌ ൌ ሺെ1ሻ௡ ∵ ൌ ሺെ1ሻ௡ , ∀ ݊ ∈ Ժ
݊ߨሺെ1ሻ ௡ ሺെ1ሻ௡
ஶ
1 1
Mittag Lefflers’ Formula: ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௡ ܽ௡
௡ୀ ିஶ

ߨ 1 1ᇱ 1
െ ൌ 0 ൅ ෍ ሺെ1ሻ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ ݊

௡ୀିஶ

ஶ ିஶ
ߨ 1 1 1 1 1
ൌ ൅ ෍ሺെ1ሻ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ሺെ1ሻ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀିଵ
1
ஶ
1 1 1
ஶ
1 by replacing ݊
ൌ ൅ ෍ሺെ1ሻ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ሺെ1ሻି௡ ൤ െ ൨ ൭by െ ݊ in second൱
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ ݊
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ summation
ஶ
1 1 1 1 1 1
ൌ ൅ ෍ሺെ1ሻ௡ ൤ ൅ ൅ െ ൨ ∵ ሺെ1ሻି௡ ൌ ൌ ሺെ1ሻ௡ , ∀ ݊ ∈ Ժ
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ݖ‬൅݊ ݊ ሺെ1ሻ௡
௡ୀଵ
ஶ ஶ
1 1 1 1 ሺെ1ሻ௡ 2‫ݖ‬
ൌ ൅ ෍ሺെ1ሻ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൌ ൅ ෍ ଶ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ‫ݖ‬൅݊ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ

ஶ
૛ࢠ
‫ ܖܗܑܜܛ܍ܝۿ‬૜: ‫ ࢠ ܖ܉ܜ ܜ܉ܐܜ ܍ܞܗܚ۾‬ൌ ෍
ሺ࢔ ൅ ૚/૛ሻ૛ ࣊૛ െ ࢠ૛
࢔ୀ ૙

‫ܖܗܑܜܝܔܗ܁‬: Let , ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ tan ‫݂ ⇒ ݖ‬ሺ0ሻ ൌ 0

1
Poles of tan ‫ ݖ‬are determined by cos ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0 ⇒ ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ൬݊ ൅ ൰ ߨ, ݊ ൌ 0, േ1, േ2, േ3,൉൉൉
2

Prepared by: Mr. Wasif Ali Guided and checked by: Dr. Amir Mahmood
Page 4 of 11

Complex Analysis Made Easy Solved Problems ሺMittag-Lefflers’ Expansion Theoremሻ
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ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ሺ ݊ ൅ 1/2 ሻߨሻ sin ‫ݖ‬ 0
ܴሺ݂, ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭ → ሺ௡ା ଵ/ଶሻగ cos ‫ݖ‬ 0
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ሺ ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨሻ cos ‫ ݖ‬൅ sin ‫ ݖ‬0 ൅ ሺെ1ሻ௡
ൌ lim ൌ ൌ െ1
௭ → ሺ௡ା ଵ/ଶሻగ െ sin ‫ݖ‬ െሺെ1ሻ௡
ஶ
1 1
Mittag Lefflers’ Formula: ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௡ ܽ௡
௡ୀ ିஶ

ஶ
1 1
tan ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0 ൅ ෍ ሺെ1ሻ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ – ݖ‬ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ
௡ୀିஶ

ஶ ିஶ
1 1 1 1
tan ‫ ݖ‬ൌ െ ൭ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ െ ൨൱
‫ – ݖ‬ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ‫ ݖ‬െ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ
௡ୀ ଴ ௡ୀିଵ

Replace ݊ by – ݊ in second summation, we get

ஶ ஶ
1 1 1 1
tan ‫ ݖ‬ൌ െ ൭ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ െ ൨൱
‫ – ݖ‬ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ‫ ݖ‬െ ሺെ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ሺെ ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ
௡ୀ ଴ ௡ୀଵ

Now, replace ݊ by ݊ ൅ 1 in second summation, to get

ஶ ஶ
1 1 1 1
tan ‫ ݖ‬ൌ െ ൭ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ െ ൨൱
‫ – ݖ‬ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ‫ ݖ‬െ ሺെ݊ െ 1/2ሻߨ ሺെ ݊ െ 1/2ሻߨ
௡ୀ ଴ ௡ୀ଴
ஶ
1 1 1 1
ൌ െ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൅ െ ൨
‫ ݖ‬െ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ‫ ݖ‬൅ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ
௡ୀ଴
ஶ ஶ
1 1 1
ൌ െ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൌ െ ෍ ଶ
‫ ݖ‬െ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ‫ ݖ‬൅ ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨ ‫ ݖ‬െ ሾሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻߨሿଶ
௡ୀ ଴ ௡ୀ ଴
ஶ
2‫ݖ‬
ൌ ෍ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
ሺ݊ ൅ 1/2ሻଶ ߨ ଶ െ ‫ ݖ‬ଶ
௡ୀ ଴

ஶ
૚ ૚ ૚ ૛ࢠ
‫ ܖܗܑܜܛ܍ܝۿ‬૝: ‫ࢠ ܜ܉ܐܜ ܍ܞܗܚ۾‬ ൌ െ ൅ ൅ ෍ ૛
ࢋ െ ૚ ૛ ࢠ ࢠ െ ૝࢔૛ ࣊૛
࢔ୀ૚

1 1 ‫ ݖ‬െ ݁ ௭ ൅ 1
‫ܖܗܑܜܝܔܗ܁‬: Let , ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ െ ൌ
݁௭ െ 1 ‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬ሺ݁ ௭ െ 1ሻ

‫ ݖ‬െ ݁ ௭ ൅ 1 0
lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→଴ ௭→଴ ‫ݖ‬ሺ݁ ௭ െ 1ሻ 0
1 െ ݁௭ 0
ൌ lim ௭ ൬ ൰ form
௭→଴ ‫ ݁ݖ‬൅ ݁ ௭ െ 1 0
െ ݁ ௭ 1
ൌ lim ௭ ൌെ
௭→଴ ‫ ݁ݖ‬൅ ݁ ௭ ൅ ݁ ௭ 2
െ1
Since, lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ሺൌ definedሻ, therefore, there is removable singularity at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0 ሺand hence no pole at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0ሻ.
௭→଴ 2

The poles of ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ are determined by ݁ ௭ ൌ 1 ൌ ݁ ଶ௡గ௜ , ‫ ് ݖ‬0 ⇒ ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 2݊ߨ݅, ݊ ൌ േ1, േ2, േ3,൉൉൉

Prepared by: Mr. Wasif Ali Guided and checked by: Dr. Amir Mahmood
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ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ 2݊ߨ݅ሻሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݁ ௭ ൅ 1ሻ 0
ܴሺ݂, 2݊ߨ݅ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→ଶ௡గ௜ ‫ݖ‬ሺ݁ െ 1ሻ
௭ 0
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ 2݊ߨ݅ሻሺ1 െ ݁ ௭ ሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݁ ௭ ൅ 1ሻ 2݊ߨ݅
ൌ lim ൌ ൌ 1
௭→ଶ௡గ௜ ‫ ݁ݖ‬௭ ൅ ݁ ௭ െ 1 2݊ߨ݅
ஶ
1 1
Mittag Lefflers’ Formula: ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௡ ܽ௡
௡ୀ ିஶ

1 1 1 1 ᇱ 1
െ ൌ െ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨
݁௭ െ 1 ‫ݖ‬ 2 ‫ ݖ‬െ 2݊ߨ݅ 2݊ߨ݅

௡ୀିஶ

ஶ ିஶ
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ ௭ ൌ െ ൅ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨
݁ െ 1 2 ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ 2݊ߨ݅ 2݊ߨ݅ ‫ ݖ‬െ 2݊ߨ݅ 2݊ߨ݅
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀିଵ
1 1 1
ஶ
1 1 1
ஶ by replacing ݊
ൌ െ ൅ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ െ ൨ ൭by െ ݊ in second൱
2 ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ 2݊ߨ݅ 2݊ߨ݅ ‫ ݖ‬൅ 2݊ߨ݅ 2݊ߨ݅
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ summation
ஶ ஶ
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ൌ െ ൅ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൅ െ ൨ ൌ െ ൅ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨
2 ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ 2݊ߨ݅ 2݊ߨ݅ ‫ ݖ‬൅ 2݊ߨ݅ 2݊ߨ݅ 2 ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ 2݊ߨ݅ ‫ ݖ‬൅ 2݊ߨ݅
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ
ஶ
1 1 2‫ݖ‬
ൌ െ ൅ ൅ ෍ ଶ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
2 ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬൅ 4݊ଶ ߨ ଶ
௡ୀଵ

ஶ
‫ܖܑܛ‬ሺࢻࢠሻ ૛ ࢔ ‫ܖܑܛ‬ሺࢻ࢔ሻ
‫ ܖܗܑܜܛ܍ܝۿ‬૞: ‫ ܜ܉ܐܜ ܍ܞܗܚ۾‬ ൌ ൅ ෍ሺെ૚ሻ࢔ ૛
‫ܖܑܛ‬ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ࣊ ࢠ െ ࢔૛
࢔ୀ૚

Solution: This is exactly the solved example 6 on page 293 of the book “Fundamentals of Complex Analysis” by
“Dr. Iqbal”. You may see solution there.

Question 6: Construct a function ࢌሺࢠሻ which is holomorphic except at the poles ࢠ ൌ േ૚, േ૛, േ૜,൉൉൉ and is
such that ࢌሺࢠሻ െ ‫ܜܗ܋‬ሺ࣊ࢠሻ tends to zero at each of these poles.

‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
‫ܖܗܑܜܝܔܗ܁‬: Consider the function , ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݖ‬cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ

‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→଴ ௭→଴ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
െ ߨ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 1
ൌ lim ൌ
௭→଴ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ߨ

1
Since, lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ሺൌ definedሻ, therefore, there is removable singularity at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0 ሺand hence no pole at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0ሻ.
௭→଴ ߨ

The poles of ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ are determined by sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0, ‫ ് ݖ‬0 ⇒ ߨ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݊ߨ ⇒ ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݊, ݊ ൌ േ1, േ2, േ3,൉൉൉
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ܴሺ݂, ݊ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→௡ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻሺെ ߨ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሻ ൅ ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ݊ሺെ1ሻ௡ ݊
ൌ lim ൌ ൌ
௭→௡ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ߨሺെ1ሻ௡ ߨ

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ஶ
1 1
Mittag Lefflers’ Formula: ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௡ ܽ௡
௡ୀ ିஶ

ஶ ஶ

1 ݊ 1 ᇱ1 1 1 ᇱ 1 1
݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݖ‬cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൌ ൅ ෍ ݊ ൤ ൅ ൨ ܑ‫ܖܗܑܜ܋ܖܝ܎ ܌܍ܚܑܝܙ܍ܚ ܍ܐܜ ܛ‬.
ߨ ߨ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ ݊ ߨ ߨ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ ݊

௡ୀିஶ ௡ୀିஶ

ஶ
૚ ૛ࢠ
‫ ܖܗܑܜܛ܍ܝۿ‬ૠ: ‫ܜܗ܋ ࣊ ܜ܉ܐܜ ܍ܞܗܚ۾‬ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ૛ ‫ܛܜܔܝܛ܍ܚ ܏ܖܑܟܗܔܔܗ܎ ܍ܐܜ ܍܋ܝ܌܍܌ ܌ܖ܉‬:
ࢠ ࢠ െ ࢔૛
࢔ୀ૚

ஶ
ࢠ૛ ૛ ૛ ૟ ૟ ૚૙ ૚૙
ሺ࢏ሻ ‫ܖܑܛ‬ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ൌ ࣊ࢠ ෑ ቆ૚ െ ቇ ‫ ܌ܖ܉‬ሺ࢏࢏ሻ √૛ ൌ ൉ ൉ ൉ ൉ ൉ ൉൉൉
࢔ ૛ ૚ ૜ ૞ ૠ ૢ ૚૚
࢔ୀ૚

1 ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 1 ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ

‫ܖܗܑܜܝܔܗ܁‬: Let , ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ ൌ െ ൌ
‫ݖ‬ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ

ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→଴ ௭→଴ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
െ ߨ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
ଶ
െ ߨ ଶ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ൌ lim ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→଴ ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ௭→଴ ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ଶ ሾߨ‫ݖ‬
െ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሿ
ൌ lim ൌ 0
௭→଴ െߨ ଶ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ

Since, lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0ሺൌ definedሻ, therefore, there is removable singularity at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0 ሺand hence no pole at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0ሻ.
௭→଴

The poles of ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ are determined by sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0, ‫ ് ݖ‬0 ⇒ ߨ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݊ߨ ⇒ ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݊, ݊ ൌ േ1, േ2, േ3,൉൉൉
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻሾߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሿ 0
ܴሺ݂, ݊ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→௡ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻሾെ ߨ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሿ ൅ ሺߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሻ
ଶ
ൌ lim
௭→௡ ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
݊ߨሺെ1ሻ௡
ൌ ൌ 1
݊ߨሺെ1ሻ௡
ஶ
1 1
Mittag Lefflers’ Formula: ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௡ ܽ௡
௡ୀ ିஶ

1 1 1
ᇱ
ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ ൌ 0 ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ ݊

௡ୀିஶ

ஶ ିஶ
1 1 1 1 1
ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀିଵ
1 1
ஶ
1 1
ஶ
1 by replacing ݊
ൌ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ െ ൨ ൭by െ ݊ in second൱
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ ݊
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ summation
ஶ
1 1 1 1 1 1
ൌ ൅෍൤ ൅ ൅ െ ൨ ∵ ሺെ1ሻି௡ ൌ ൌ ሺെ1ሻ௡ , ∀ ݊ ∈ Ժ
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ݖ‬൅݊ ݊ ሺെ1ሻ௡
௡ୀଵ

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ஶ ஶ
1 1 1 1 2‫ݖ‬
ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൌ ൅ ෍ ଶ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ‫ݖ‬൅݊ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ

ஶ
ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 1 2‫ݖ‬
From ሺ1ሻ, we have ൌ ൅ ෍ ଶ
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ

Integrating above equation ሺon both sidesሻ, with respect to ‫ݖ‬, between the limits 0 to ‫ݖ‬, we get
௭ ஶ ௭
௭
൤ logሺsinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሻ൨ ൌቈlog ‫ݖ‬ ቉ ൅ ෍ ൤ logሺ‫ݖ‬ ଶ
െ ݊ ଶሻ
൨
௭ୀ଴ ௭ୀ଴
௭ୀ଴ ௡ୀଵ

⇒ logሺsinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሻ െ lim logሺsinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሻ ൌ log ‫ ݖ‬െ lim log ‫ ݖ‬൅ ෍ ሾ logሺ‫ ݖ‬ଶ െ ݊ଶ ሻ െ logሺെ݊ଶ ሻሿ
௭→ ଴ ௭→ ଴
௡ୀଵ

ஶ
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ ݖ‬ଶ െ ݊ଶ
⇒ log ቆ ቇ െ lim log ቆ ቇ ൌ ෍ log ቆ ቇ
‫ݖ‬ ௭→ ଴ ‫ݖ‬ െ݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ

ஶ
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ߨ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ ݖ‬ଶ െ ݊ଶ
⇒ log ቆ ቇ െ log ቆ lim ቇ ൌ ෍ log ቆ ቇ
‫ݖ‬ ௭→ ଴ ߨ‫ݖ‬ െ݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ

ஶ
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ଶ
⇒ log ቆ ቇ െ log ߨ ൌ ෍ log ቆ1 െ ଶ ቇ
‫ݖ‬ ݊
௡ୀଵ

ஶ
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ଶ
⇒ log ቆ ቇ ൌ log ෑ ቆ1 െ ଶ ቇ
ߨ‫ݖ‬ ݊
௡ୀଵ

ஶ
sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ଶ
⇒ ൌ ෑ ቆ1 െ ଶ ቇ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െെ→ ሺ1ሻ
ߨ‫ݖ‬ ݊
௡ୀଵ

ஶ
‫ݖ‬ଶ
⇒ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ߨ‫ ݖ‬ෑ ቆ1 െ ቇ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ

Put ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 1/2 in ሺ1ሻ, we get,

ߨ ஶ
sin ቀ ቁ
2 ൌ ෑ ൬1 െ 1 ൰
ߨ ሺ2݊ሻଶ
2 ௡ୀଵ

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ ൌ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൉൉൉ െ െ െ െ െ→ ሺ2ሻ
ߨ ሺ2ሻଶ ሺ4ሻଶ ሺ6ሻଶ ሺ8ሻଶ ሺ10ሻଶ ሺ12ሻଶ ሺ14ሻଶ

Put ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 1/4 in ሺ1ሻ, we get,

ߨ ஶ
sin ቀ ቁ
4 ൌ ෑ ൬1 െ 1 ൰
ߨ ሺ4݊ሻଶ
4 ௡ୀଵ

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4 1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ ൌ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൉൉൉ െ െ െ െ െ→ ሺ3ሻ
√2 ߨ ሺ4ሻ ଶ ሺ8ሻ ଶ ሺ12ሻ ଶ ሺ16ሻ ଶ ሺ20ሻଶ ሺ24ሻଶ

Dividing ሺ2ሻ by ሺ3ሻ, we get

2 √2 ߨ 1 1 1 1
൬ ൰ቆ ቇ ൌ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൬1 െ ൰ ൉൉൉
ߨ 4 ሺ2ሻ ଶ ሺ6ሻଶ ሺ10ሻଶ ሺ14ሻଶ

√2 ሺ2ሻଶ െ 1 ሺ6ሻଶ െ 1 ሺ10ሻଶ െ 1 ሺ14ሻଶ െ 1

ൌቆ ቇቆ ቇቆ ቇቆ ቇ ൉൉൉
2 ሺ2ሻଶ ሺ6ሻଶ ሺ10ሻଶ ሺ14ሻଶ

1 ሺ2 െ 1ሻሺ2 ൅ 1ሻ ሺ6 െ 1ሻሺ6 ൅ 1ሻ ሺ10 െ 1ሻሺ10 ൅ 1ሻ ሺ14 െ 1ሻሺ14 ൅ 1ሻ

ൌ൤ ൨൤ ൨൤ ൨൤ ൨ ൉൉൉
√2 ሺ2ሻሺ2ሻ ሺ6ሻሺ6ሻ ሺ10ሻሺ10ሻ ሺ14ሻሺ14ሻ

Taking reciprocal on both sides of above expression, we get

ሺ2ሻሺ2ሻ ሺ6ሻሺ6ሻ ሺ10ሻሺ10ሻ ሺሺ14ሻሺ14ሻ

√2 ൌ ൤ ൨൤ ൨൤ ൨൤ ൨ ൉൉൉
ሺ2 െ 1ሻሺ2 ൅ 1ሻ ሺ6 െ 1ሻሺ6 ൅ 1ሻ ሺ10 െ 1ሻሺ10 ൅ 1ሻ ሺ14 െ 1ሻሺ14 ൅ 1ሻ

2 2 6 6 10 10 14 14
√2 ൌ ൉ ൉ ൉ ൉ ൉ ൉ ൉ ൉൉൉ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
ஶ
૚ ૛ࢠ
‫ ܖܗܑܜܛ܍ܝۿ‬ૡ: ۲‫ ܖܗܑܜܛ܍ܝܙ ܎ܗ ܜܔܝܛ܍ܚ ܍ܐܜ ܕܗܚ܎ ܍܋ܝ܌܍‬૟ ‫ܜܗ܋ ࣊ ܜ܉ܐܜ‬ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ૛
ࢠ ࢠ െ ࢔૛
࢔ୀ૚

1 1 ᇱ 1 1
‫ܖܗܑܜܝܔܗ܁‬: In question 6, we have proved that: ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ݊ ൤ ൅ ൨
ߨ ߨ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ ݊

௡ୀିஶ

ஶ ିஶ
1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ ‫ ݖ‬cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ ൭෍ ݊ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ݊ ൤ ൅ ൨൱
ߨ ߨ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀିଵ
1 1 1
ஶ
1 1
ஶ
1 by replacing ݊
ൌ ൅ ൭෍ ݊ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ሺെ݊ሻ ൤ െ ൨൱ ൭by െ ݊ in second൱
ߨ ߨ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ ݊
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ summation
ஶ
1 1 1 1 1 1
ൌ ൅ ෍݊൤ ൅ െ ൅ ൨
ߨ ߨ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ݖ‬൅݊ ݊
௡ୀଵ
ஶ
1 1 ݊ሺ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ሻሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻ െ ݊ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ሻሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻ
ൌ ൅ ෍݊ቈ ቉
ߨ ߨ ݊ሺ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ሻሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻ
௡ୀଵ
ஶ ஶ
1 1 ݊‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ଶ ൅ ‫ ݖ‬ଶ െ ݊ଶ െ ݊‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ଶ ൅ ‫ ݖ‬ଶ െ ݊ଶ 1 1 2‫ ݖ‬ଶ
ൌ ൅ ෍ ൌ ൅ ෍
ߨ ߨ ‫ ݖ‬ଶ െ ݊ଶ ߨ ߨ ‫ ݖ‬ଶ െ ݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ

ஶ ஶ
2‫ ݖ‬ଶ 1 2‫ݖ‬
⇒ ߨ‫ ݖ‬cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 1 ൅ ෍ ଶ ⇒ ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ଶ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
‫ ݖ‬െ݊ ଶ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ

‫ૢ ܖܗܑܜܛ܍ܝۿ‬: ۳‫ܜܗ܋ ܌ܖ܉ܘܠ‬ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ‫ ܚ܍ܔ܎܎܍ۺ ܏܉ܜܜܑۻ ܡ܊‬ᇱ ‫ܛܜܔܝܛ܍ܚ ܏ܖܑܟܗܔܔܗ܎ ܍ܐܜ ܍܋ܝ܌܍܌ ܌ܖ܉ ܕ܍ܚܗ܍ܐܜ ܛ‬:
ஶ ஶ
࣊૛ 1 ࣊૛ 1
ሺ࢏ሻ ൌ ෍ ‫ ܌ܖ܉‬ሺ࢏࢏ሻ ൌ ෍ .
‫ܖܑܛ‬૛ ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ሺࢠ െ ࢔ሻ૛ ‫ ܛܗ܋‬૛ ሺ࣊ࢠሻ ሺࢠ െ ࢔ െ ૚/૛ሻ૛
࢔ୀିஶ ࢔ୀିஶ

Prepared by: Mr. Wasif Ali Guided and checked by: Dr. Amir Mahmood Page 9 of 11


Complex Analysis Made Easy Solved Problems ሺMittag-Lefflers’ Expansion Theoremሻ
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1 ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 1 ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
‫ܖܗܑܜܝܔܗ܁‬: Let , ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ ൌ െ ൌ
‫ݖ‬ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ

ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→଴ ௭→଴ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
െ ߨ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
ଶ
െ ߨ ଶ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ൌ lim ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→଴ ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ௭→଴ ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ଶ ሾߨ‫ݖ‬
െ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሿ
ൌ lim ൌ 0
௭→଴ െߨ ଶ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ

Since, lim ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0ሺൌ definedሻ, therefore, there is removable singularity at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0 ሺand hence no pole at ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 0ሻ.
௭→଴

The poles of ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ are determined by sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ 0, ‫ ് ݖ‬0 ⇒ ߨ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݊ߨ ⇒ ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݊, ݊ ൌ േ1, േ2, േ3,൉൉൉
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻሾߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሿ 0
ܴሺ݂, ݊ሻ ൌ lim ൬ ൰ form
௭→௡ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ 0
ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻሾെ ߨ ‫ ݖ‬sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ ߨ cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሿ ൅ ሺߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻሻ
ଶ
ൌ lim
௭→௡ ߨ‫ ݖ‬cosሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
݊ߨሺെ1ሻ௡
ൌ ൌ 1
݊ߨሺെ1ሻ௡
ஶ
1 1
Mittag Lefflers’ Formula: ݂ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ0ሻ ൅ ෍ ܾ௡ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ ݖ‬െ ܽ௡ ܽ௡
௡ୀ ିஶ

1 1 1
ᇱ
ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ െ ൌ 0 ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െെ→ ሺ1ሻ
‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ ݊

௡ୀିஶ

ஶ ିஶ
1 1 1 1 1
ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀିଵ
1 1
ஶ
1 1
ஶ
1 by replacing ݊
ൌ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨ ൅ ෍ ൤ െ ൨ ൭by െ ݊ in second൱
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ ݖ‬൅ ݊ ݊
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ summation
ஶ
1 1 1 1 1 1
ൌ ൅෍൤ ൅ ൅ െ ൨ ∵ ሺെ1ሻି௡ ൌ ൌ ሺെ1ሻ௡ , ∀ ݊ ∈ Ժ
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ݊ ‫ݖ‬൅݊ ݊ ሺെ1ሻ௡
௡ୀଵ
ஶ ஶ
1 1 1 1 2‫ݖ‬
ൌ ൅෍൤ ൅ ൨ ൌ ൅ ෍ ଶ
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬െ݊ ‫ݖ‬൅݊ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ ௡ୀଵ

ஶ
1 1 2‫ݖ‬
⇒ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ଶ ܑ‫ܜܗ܋ ܎ܗ ܖܗܑܛܖ܉ܘܠ܍ ܌܍ܚܑܝܙ܍ܚ ܍ܐܜ ܛ‬ሺ࣊ࢠሻ
ߨ‫ߨ ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ଶ
௡ୀଵ

1 ᇱ1 1
From ሺ1ሻ, we have: ߨ cotሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ ෍ ൤ ൅ ൨
‫ݖ‬ ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ ݊

௡ୀିஶ

Differentiating above equation ሺon both sidesሻ with respect to "‫"ݖ‬, we get

Prepared by: Mr. Wasif Ali Guided and checked by: Dr. Amir Mahmood Page 10 of 11


Complex Analysis Made Easy Solved Problems ሺMittag-Lefflers’ Expansion Theoremሻ
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ஶ

1 ᇱ 1
െ ߨ ଶ cosec ଶሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ െ ଶ ൅ ෍ ൤െ ൨
‫ݖ‬ ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻଶ

௡ୀିஶ

ஶ
ߨଶ 1 1
⇒ െ ଶ ൌ ෍ ൤െ ൨ , where the term െ corresponds to ݊ ൌ 0 in the summation sign.
sin ሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻଶ ‫ݖ‬ଶ
௡ୀିஶ

ஶ
ߨଶ 1
⇒ ଶ ൌ ෍ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚܘ ܍܋ܖ܍‬. െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െ െെ→ ሺ2ሻ
sin ሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ሻଶ
௡ୀିஶ

Replace ‫ ݖ‬by ‫ ݖ‬െ 1/2 in ሺ2ሻ, we get

ஶ ஶ
ߨଶ 1 ߨଶ 1
ൌ ෍ ⇒ ൌ ෍ ۶‫܌܍ܞܗܚ۾ ܍܋ܖ܍‬.
sin ሺߨ‫ ݖ‬െ ߨ/2ሻ
ଶ ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ 1/2 െ ݊ሻଶ cos ሺߨ‫ݖ‬ሻ
ଶ ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ݊ െ 1/2ሻଶ
௡ୀିஶ ௡ୀିஶ

Prepared by: Mr. Wasif Ali Guided and checked by: Dr. Amir Mahmood Page 11 of 11