GUIDE ON THE INFLUENCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER SYSTEMS ON METALLIC PIPELINES Working Group 36.02 “Electromagnetic Compatibility with telecommunication circuits, low voltage networks and metallic structures” 1995(GUIDE ON THE INFLUENCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER SYSTEMS ON METALLIC PIPELINES contents Foreword 1 (Chapter 1- Introduction M Scope 12. Nature of the disturbances 1.2.1. Copecttive coupling 1.22, Inductive coupling 1.23, Conductive coupiing 13. Effects of disturbances 1.3.1. Safety problems 1.3.2. Damage to pipeline coating 1.33. Damage to the metal 1.3.4, Damage to flanges 1.35. omage to equipment connected to the pipelines 2. Chapter 2 - Influence by capacitive caupling 20 Description 2.1.1. Definition 2.1.2, Copacitive coupling mechanism 2.1.8, Effects due to a capacitive coupling : danger for people 22 Calculation 22.1. General considerations 2.2.2, Parallelism between the HV tne and the pipeline 2.2.8. Ordinary zone of influence 2.2.4, fxomplos of profies of the induced voltage 225, Consderations on the valiity of calculations Page23, 24 3 32. 33. 34. 4 Mitigation 23.1, Necessity of mitigation measures - maximum length of insulated pipeline 232. Mitigation means ‘Scample for copacttive coupling Chapter = Influence by inductive cewpling Description 3.1.1. Defaition 3.12, Inductive couping mechanisms 3.1.3. Effects of inductive couping Calculation ofthe induced voltages 32.1. Determination of the electromotive forces = Fault conditions = Noma! operation 322, Coleuation of the vaitages an the pipeline Perfect parallelism between the electrical Ine cond the pipeline - General stuation 323, Place ofthe foull ging ie to the most severe shesses tigation 33.1, Necessity of mitigation maone 33.2, Mitigation meons Exomple for Inductive coupling Chapter 4 - Infuence by conductive coupling Description 4.1.1. Definition 4.1.2. Conductive coupling mechanisms 4.13, Effects of conductive coupling 8 25 8 29 31 31 3a 45 46 ara2. 43, 5.1 $82, 53, 54, 58. 6 Calculation of the electiic stresses 42.1. Ground potential ise of electrical instatation 4.22. Earth potential se in the vicinity of electrical instatlations 428, Voltage transferred to pipatine close to a tower orasubstation 42.4. Voltage transferred to c pipeline bonded to ¢ around electrode Inside a station or a substation 428, Voltage across an insuating flange 426. Electric stresses applied upon a cathodic protection system. 42.7, Touch ond step voltages 42.8, Current flowing into the pipetine through coating defects. Principles of mitigation. ‘Chapter - Measurements Object Evaluation of snort-term interference 52.1. Measurements by means of test currents, 522, Short-ime Interference measurements by means of arecorder Long-time interference measurements 53.1, Measurements on an underground pipeline 53.2, Measurements on a ceria pipeline Measurements for the predetermination of a future influence situation 5.4.1. Installation of a pipeline in the vicinity of on existing HLV. line 5.4.2, Installation of an HV. tine in the vicinity of an existing pipeline Measurement of the intemal impedance of a steel pipe (Chapter 6 Mitigation Separation between pipelines and electrical installations 48 48 81 sa 87 87 ‘7 3 58 58 39 99, 2 6262, 63. 63.1 63.2. 633. 63.4 635, 636. 64, 6.1. Effectiveness 6.12. Practical aspects for the reduction of the conduc: tivo couing Measures applied to the electrical installations 6.2.1, Earthwkes on the HV tines 622, Improving the tower earth electrode 623, Transposition of the phase conductors 62.4. Choice of a different sequence of the phases in cate of ines with two ckoutts 625. Providing HV cobles with iow resistance sheaths Mesures applied to the pipelines Earthing of the pipeline Pipatine insuiting flonges Enhanced Insulation of the pipeline Earth conductors along the pipetne Equipotential grounding mot ot access points Protection of cathode protection installations, Measures required during installation of pioefnes Appendix A - General considerations conceming electrical Installations and pipelines BlectricalIstalations Transmission and cistibution networks High Voltoge tines and cables Operation of networks Eaxthing of the nautra! - Faull currents Pipetines ‘Appendix 8 - Calculation methods for capacitive coupling. Simpitied expressions ‘General considerations on the method of the potential coetiicients Determination of the influences, Utiisation of simplified 62 2 ra 3 Al AL Al Al & 81 BI Bs22, 31 32. 33. aa, 38. 4 42, 43, 4a, expressions No load pipetine-to-earth voltage Von) ‘Cutent in tne body when touching the pipeline Exact Method Appendix C - Mutual impedance of paraitel earth-return circus and impedance of conductors with earth-retum Evolation of the mutual impedance Poratlel earth-etumn circus Approaches and crossings Impedonce of the circuits wth earth-retun Appendix 0 Considerations on fault currents in H.V. systoms ond on their coleulation ‘General considerations on the fouls Calculation methods Power systern characteristics and fault to ground currents Shor-Circutt Current Levels Powar System Development system Neutal Point Condition Foultimpedonce impedances of systern components ‘Computation means used to assess the short-circuit current values Resistance computer: a.c. table Impedance computer: a.c. table ‘Computation numerical method Manual calculation for sightly meshed networks BRB B 1 1 ca cs 2228288 eee 8 g21 22 Appendix E- Effect of screening conductors on voltages induced during faults by inductive coupling General considerations Effect of the earthwire(s) Metalic sheath of the HV cables Bore conductors buried ciong the pipetine Appendix F- Calculction ofthe electromotive forces induced in nornal operation Overhead tines Lines without earthwives-Bolonced currents Lines with one eorthwie - Balanced currents Lines with two earthwires - Balanced currents 4 Systems with unbalanced currents High voitage cables ‘Appandlx G - Calculation of metalic pipelines electical parameters Used symbols Pipeline seies impecionce z Pipaline odmittence Pipaline choractettic impedance Ze Pipeline propagation constant CCharacterstic lenath of a pioatine Appendix H » Current of voltages resulting from Inductive coupling Parallelisms Classical zone of influence inclusing parallels, opproaches, crossings General method Node onoiysis el al 2 ea 4 Fl Fl Fl Fa Fa eI rc) e es Ga HI HI HS #524 22 3 32 33. ‘Appendix {- Soll resistivity ‘Appendix J - Earth potential ise around substations and transmission towers Earth potential distribution near a substation Earth potentiol distibution near a tower Potential se of tower earth electrodes during earth fouls. Earth potential dstbution Appendix K - Potential transterred to a pipeline through non-perfectly insulating coating ‘Appendix L - Considerations concerning admissible touch voltages General Considerations ‘Admissible currents in the human body Derivation of admisibie voltages CConverion acmissible currents fo admissible voltages Evctuation of the citferent impedances Determination of admissibte voltages Long duration influences Short duration intuences Very short duration disturbances (Discharge currents) ‘Appendix M - Uist of symbols used in the guide References a J 2 2 43 KI u u u 5 ry a bs myCases of close proximity of high voltage structures and metallic pipelines become more and more frequent. Therefore there is a growing concern about possible hazards resutting from the influence of electrical systems safety of people making contact with the pipeline, damage to the pipeline and to cathodic protection equipment. All these problems can be mastered but this control requires a serious consideration of the influences. The International Inquiry CIGRE Working Group 96.02 (EMC with telecommunication circuits, low voltage circuits and metalic structures) held a few years ago has shown the importance of the problem but it has also emphasized the absence of a systematic approach in many countries. Consequently, the Working Group has decided to undertake the redaction of a guide with the support of Study Committee 36 (Power System Electromagnetic Compatibility). ‘Three major objectives had been defined ~ description of the problems development of simple calculation and measurement methods - presentation of mitigation and protection measures. ‘The present guide is the result of team work of the members of the Working Group 36.02. Its membership during the preparation period was B, Jacquet (Belgium) convener G. Allen (Canada) LN. Arkinstall (Australia) L. Blanchet (France) AC. Britten (South Attica) 0.0. Campones do Brasil (Brasil) A Della Rocca (tay) ©. Dornemann (Germany) P. Kouteynikott (France) HG. Ohlin (Sweden) representative of CCITT ©. Pau (aly) HU. Paul (Germany) A. Pilatowicz (Poland) B, Poirson (France) H Rochereau (France) GL. Solbiati (Italy) JM. Thorson (usa)1A, CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ‘SCOPE Metal pipes are largely used to convey fluids, especialy quid or gaseous nydrocartons (Le. oll or naturel gas). They can reach several hundreds and even thousands of kilometres in length. Pipelines are generally buried at low depths but they can also be aerial. In order to prevent electrochemical corrosion of the metal, underground pipelines are provided with an outside insulating coating and connected to a cathodic protection installation, Because of the continuous growth of energy consumption, and also the tendency to site power lines and pipelines along the same routes, the close proximity of high voltage structures and metallic pipelines has become more and mora frequent. Moreover, steady-state and short-circuit currents become higher as electric networks increase in size and power. Therefore, there has been and stil is @ growing concern about possible hazards resulting from the influence of HV systems on metal pipelines = safety of people making contact with the pipeline, = _isks of damage to the pipeline coating and to the metal, = tisks of damage to equipment connected to pipeline, especially cathodic protection equipment In 1987, CIGRE Study Committee 26 (Interference) carried out an international inquiry on the probiems of vicinity of high voltage systems and pipelines and on regulations in the different countries. ‘The answers brought evidence that these problems are becoming more and more important around the world. They also showed that large differences exist between the protection measures which are adopted in the different countries, as well as between the regulations used. ‘The inguiry has confirmed the interest in a general guide on the problems of influence of high voltage systems on metal pipelines, ‘Therefore CIGRE Working Group 36.02 : "EMC with Telecommunication circuits, low voltage networks and metallic structures" undertook with the support of Study Committee 36 the preparation of the present guide with several objectives : - presentation of the different modes of influence and of the different resulting problems «description of relatively simple methods of calculation and measurement of disturbances = presentation of the main mitigation and protection methods ‘The guide is subdivided in six chapters. ‘The first one is a GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEMS. Chapters 2-3 and 4 analyse the different modes of influence = CAPACITIVE COUPLING in chapter 2, = INDUCTIVE COUPLING in chapter 3 and = CONDUCTIVE COUPLING in chapter 4 Chapter 5 concorns MEASUREMENTS. PROTECTION METHODS are presented in chapter 6 Several appendixes are included in the guide, Among others they present general considerations on electrical installations and pipelines, on the calculation methods of the capacitive, inductive and resistive influences, on the screening effects and on the admissible voltages.12, 124 122 123, 2 The effects of power lines on pipelines and telecommunication circuits are simitar in certain respects. The CCITT Directives concerning the protection of telecommunication lines against harmful effects from electricity lines [2] present a complete study of these influences. The Directives can also be very useful in the study of influences on pipelines. Electrical systems do not represent the only source of disturbances ‘or pipelines. Problems can also result from the influence of traction lines, However, they are not considered in this guide. Likewise, corrosion is not considered, NATURE OF THE DISTURBANCES Metal pipelines used to convey fluids can be considered as conductors insulated from earth. They may for part of their length be exposed to several types of influences and especially to influences of near high voltage lines. These influences can resuit of three types of couplings : capacitive, inductive and conductive. Under fault conditions, in the most severe cases and if no protective measures are taken, the voltages on influenced pipelines can reach magnitudes between several hundred volts and a few kilovolts In normal operation, influences are normally much more lower, but nevertheless safety problems can be created, CAPACITIVE COUPLING. Only aerial pipelines situated in the proximity of aerial high voltage lines are subjected to the capacitive influence of the conductors. This influence occurs in both normal operation and fault conditions. Power frequency voltages appear between the pipeline and the earth when the pipeline is insulated from the earth, their magnitudes depend mainly on the voltage level of the line, on the distance between power line and pipeline, and on the line operating conditions (normal operation or faults) INDUCTIVE COUPLING AA pipeline - even underground - which runs in the proximity of a power transmission tine or of a cable on a part of its route is subject to voltages induced by magnetic coupling; they reach their maximum amplitude during faults on HV lines. Their magnitude depends on the fauit current, on the length of the parallelism and on the distance between power line and pipeline; it can reach a few Kilovolt in the most severe situations. ‘Smaller induced voltages appear under steady stete conditions; their value can nevertheless reach several tens of vats. CONDUCTIVE COUPLING Fault currents flowing through the earthing electrode of a tower, substation or power plant produce a potential rise of the electrode and of the neighbouring soil with regard to remote earth. Pipelines will be influenced if they are connected to the ground electrode of the HV system, Le. a powerstation or if they enter into the zone of influence of the electrical installation; the insulating coating is then subject to the potential difference that exists between the local earth and the pipe potential and can be damaged.13. 134 132. 133, 134 135. 3 ‘The potential of the pipeline would in these cases rise to the local earth potential and be transferred over a relatively long distance - e.g. some kilometers. This Is a function of the insulating coating of the pipeline. EFFECTS OF DISTURBANCES SAFETY PROBLEMS ‘The first problem concerns danger for people coming in contact with the metalic pipe itself. The danger is a function of the intensity and duration of the current passing through the human body [3] Appendix L examines the different aspects of this problem. For practical purposes, itis often more convenient to express admissible limits in terms of voltages rather than in terms of intensities. Conversion from current to vottage requires @ good knowledge of the impedance of all the elements constituting the electrical circuit pipeline-body-earth and especially the human body, shoe impedance, soil contact impedance and the source impedance. It must be remembered that the risk is also dependent on the probabilty of exposure to dangerous voltages i.e. the probability of touching a pipeline during a fault causing voltages higher than the admissible values. 7 Problems may result from all three mechanisms, namely, capacitive, Inductive and resistive influences, DAMAGE TO PIPELINE COATING Coating damage may result from voltages produced by inductive or conductive coupling. Important differences may exist according to the type of coating. Investigations have shown that glow land are discharges occur on the whole surface area of bitumen coated pipelines, for relatively low voltages (1000 - 1200 V). (4] Such discharges produce as @ consequence a limitation of the voltages appearing on the pipelines, The situation may be relatively diferent with polyethylene - coated pipelines where the breakdown normally occurs at much higher voltages but generally in a much more localized area, DAMAGE TO THE METAL Risks of damage to the metal pipelines can occur during HV faults when the pipes pass very close to the earthing systems of electrical installations affected by the fault and especially those of transmission towers, If the electrical field in the earth exceeds the breakdown value, an electric discharge occurs between earthing systems and pipeline and can damage the metal. in worst conditions (high current density), perforation of the pipeline may occur. This problem is especially due to resistive coupling DAMAGE TO FLANGES. A flange used to insulate different sections of a pipeline may be damaged if the potential differences ‘across the flange exceeds its insulation withstand, Such high voltages can be produced by inductive or conductive coupling during faults on HV lines. AGE 1 TO THE PI Voltages produced by inductive or conductive coupling during faults can also damage equipment connected to the pipeline, and especially cathodic protection systems.CHAPTER 2 - INFLUENCE BY CAPACITIVE COUPLING 24. DESCRIPTION 2.4.4. DEFINITION ‘The capacitive influence concerns overhead pipelines situated in the vicinity of overhead transmission lines; it results from the capacitance between the line and the pipeline, Underground pipelines are not influenced because of the screening effect of the earth against electrical fields. Depending whether the pipeline is isolated from earth or not, capacitive coupling may produce = either @ voltage between the pipeline and earth ~ oa circulation of current in the pipeline and the earth connection. Fig. 2.1. Capacitive influence between an overhead line and a nearby aerial pipeline 24.2. i ‘The capacitive influence of an HV line on a near pipeline depends basically on the following parameters = Voltage of the overhead electrical line ‘The infivence increases proportionally with line voltage. ~ Separation between the transmission line and pipeline. ‘The induced voltage level is reduced with increasing separation,241.3, 22. 224 = Operating conditions!” When the electric system is operating under steady state conditions, each HV conductor couples capacitively with the pipeline Because of the different values of the three capacitances, there can only be partial cancellation of the influences of the three phases. The resulting current and induced voltage are a function of the differances of the capacitances. [fg 2.1]. For systems with more than one circuit, the phase arrangement of the circuits has an important influence If the electric system is in an unbalanced operating condition, for example, during a single phase to ground short circuit with single phase switching the influence may be increased. Nevertheless owing to the moderate stress increase, to the low rate of faults and to their short duration, it is generally not required to examine unbalanced situations. Consideration of this problem can be found in reference [1] Exposure length ‘The induced voltage level does not depend on the pipeline length exposed to the transmission line, However the discharge current passing through’a person in contact with the pipeline or through an ‘earthing of the pipeline increases with the exposure length. For a parallel between pipeline and HV line the current increases proportionally with the exposure length Ff E a : Problems due to a capacitive coupling essentially concer safely of people coming in contact with the metal. It is generally accepted that permanent §0 - 60 Hz currents passing through the human body are not dangerous if they do not exceed 20 mA; the sensing threshold is around 1 mA. In the most countries, protective measures are required when the permanent steady state current in the body exceeds values in the range 5-15 mA, CALCULATION GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS: ‘The classical method used to predict the capacitive influence of HV lines utilizes the Maxwell potential cootticients (1,3,4]. This method is described in Appendix 8; itis relatively complicated; it requires inverting the coefficient matrix and consequently utilization of computers. tization of simplified methods is generally sufficient; they are also presented in Appendix B. ‘The results given by the simplified methods are summarized hereatter, firstly for a parallelism between the HV line end the pipeline, secondly for an ordinary zone of proximity comprising parallels, approaches, crossings and removals. General considerations on the electrical lines are given in Appendix A,2.2.2. 2.23, PARALLELISM INTHE HV LINE AND THE PI A relatively simple expression has been defined for the voltage Vop induced on an insulated pipeline parallel on its whole length with a HV line, (24) where U = line voltage between phases (kV) hp = height of the pipeline above the ground (m) hj = mean height of phase conductor j(m), j= 1,2.3. djp = distance between phase conductor | and pipeline p(m) If the pipeline is earthed in one point, the current Igg in the ground connection is related to this voltage Vop by the expression Ig =JocLVop where (22) ~ cis the capacitance per unit length between pipeline and earth ~ Lis the length of the pipeline IARY | When the zone of influence comprises parallels, approaches, crossings and removals, it has to be subdivided in subsections which could be assimilated to parallels (see appendix B) since the general expressions of the influences are only valid for parallels. This subdivision has to respect some rules The calculation procedure follows from the fact that the total current in a single earthing of a pipeline is ‘equal to the sum ofthe currents in the single earthings of each subsection taken separately Nga 2 Wee) 2.3) ‘n being the number of the subsections Consequently the procedure will be as follows 2a) calculation of the voltage (Vpp), in each subsection | according expression 2.1224 b) calculation of the current in the earthings of each subsection taken separately according expression 22. (Iso) = Joel (Yop) 24) where cis the capacitance ofthe pipeline per unit length Luis the length of subsection i = Assimilation of an oblique approach to @ parallelism is valid if the ratio between the maximum distance line-pipeline and the minimal distance is lower than 3. If it is not the case, the oblique section has to be subdivided in several subsections = The crossing zone assimilated to a parallelism will correspond to the zone extending on 10 meter ‘on both sides of the line ©) calculation of the current in a single earthing of the pipeline according to expression 2.3. 4) calculation ofthe voltage induced on the whole pipeline Yop | # tse //e es) where C represents the total capacitance of the pipeline (C= 2 ¢, ) in Remark For sefety problems, the important parameter Is the current in the body when touching the pipeline. As “shown in Appendix B, 2 contact with an insulated pipeline gives rise fo @ body current practically equal 10 lg the current in a single earthing. It can be useful to mention here the relation between the voltage Vop induced on an insulated pipeline and the local field Ef: which is assumed to be uniform and vertical Vop=hp EF (26) where hg is the height ofthe pipeline above the ground. u u Hi Examples of calculated lateral profiles of the steady state voltage induced on a pipeline situated at an height of 1 meter and parallel to the line are shown in Fig. 2-4 to 2-6. The configuration of the fines are given in Fig. 2.2. If the height of the pipeline is different, one need only multiply the present value by the real height in meter. The short-circuit current per unit length is also given for a pipeline having a diameter equal to 0.6 m. For lines with a vertical configuration, two different phase sequences have8 been considered for the circuits : same sequence (ABC - A'B'C) and inverse sequence (ABC - C'B'A), (Fig. 2-3) Voltage | Phase | Configuration | Earthwres [HT] a] B |<] @ ta | Conductors tm | em | cms | em | em 150 1 ‘Vertical 1 13°] 6 7 4 oO 5 i Tague TPB PTS eo 705 z Vera rp ep pa a 7 Trangia TBR eyo cy z Tzoniah Ie Pao 7 750 4 Horizontal 2 20 T 13-7 15 [10 =. eee Pe: 7 eT 7 t © the value mentioned in the table Is the mean height of the conductor in the span, Fig. 2.2 Configuration of the lines studied, Fig. 2.3. HV line with two circuits a) same sequence b) Inverse sequenceyo be w is 2: ase ence BGA) | "” HEY. iw: 150 " (Neral sonieaion) [ ——~ Tet alte = Distance fom the axis oft Line (2) 2 cui: lac segpense (ACB:ALCBY Distace fom the axis of tet (x) Fig. 2.4, - Example of capacitive influence of a H.V. line on a parallel aerial pipeline. (diameter = 0.6 m, height = 1.0 m) Induced voltage on the insulated pipeline (kV). Body current per km of influence (mA/km) in a person touching the pipeline, at 50 Hr (\gq) and at 80 Hz (Igo)mask to bo ia TV ne 4007 Fy lenonzonal Songerton) Distance or the ais ofthe se (im) mate, te bo ww © | Avie ST] (nonizontalconiguration) s al® 7 2 je 190 90 82 70 50 Wo 49 2 049 © 1 aH Wo oD WO 7 eH 10 Distance fom th ai ofthe line Gx) Fig. 2.6. - Example of capacitive influence of a H.V. line on a parallel aerial pipeline, (diameter = 0.6 m, height = 1.0 m) Induced voltage on the insulated pipeline (kV). Body current per km of influence (mA/km) ina person touching the pipeline, at 50 Hz (Igo) and at 60 H2 (leo)as bas ew F as 7 2 » 1s 10 10) : os -100 9 50 109 Distance om the asf te line (0) mask Tee Ww Epa aH AUR HUTTE « {tiviline okV | 3s 20 ao Fig, 2.6. - Example of capaci 50 ° 0 r line on a parallel aerial pipeline 0 m) e influence of a H. 6 m, height (diameter Induced voltage on the insulated pipeline (KV). Body current per km of influence (mAV/krn) in a person touching the pipeline, at 50 Hz (lg) and at 60 Hz (lc) n225 12 RATIONS ON FE at ‘As mentioned in relation (2.6), the induced voltage is proportional to the electrical field Fig, 2-7 gives an example of the evolution of the electric field along a span for 2 400 KV line with two circuits (vertical configuration of the conductors). The important variation of the height of the conductors along the span and, at the ends of the span, the proximity of the tower lead to very high variations of the electric field. A precise evaluation of the influence is therefore quite difficult especially when the horizontal distance between the HV conductors and pipeline is lower than 20 m. ‘The practical difficulties in order to obtain good evaluation of the influence and, on the other hand, the existence of simple and unexpensive measures in presence of 2 danger (see 2.3,) emphasize the jerest of approximated but simple evaluation methods such as presented in 2.2.2. and in Appendix B (4,5). In many cases, consideration of figures giving the maximum admissible length for an insulated pipeline could also be sufficient. This point will be examined in 2.3. Fig. 2.7. Electric field (kV/m) around a 400 kV line with two circuits (vertical configuration of the conductors)hae att ‘Gurwen denied wih xefctnt potential method 150KV sk 400 50KV sional Cantguraton ° 20 0 6 %0 100 120 ‘lnaacebewees he asf ln andthe as ofthe pple (m) panel = ‘Curves dotined wit 80 m, it depends much on the current in the earthwire(s) and on the zero-sequence component.3.2.2. 3.2.2.1. 25 - Underground cables In the most general case with unbalanced currents and metallic sheaths earthed at both ends, we shall, have in the phase conductors a positive sequence current Ip a zero sequence ig in the sheaths ~ postive sequence cent & -aero sequence cet (we have supposed that the negative sequence currents are negligible) ‘Tho EMF can be expressed under the general form =Z (p+ 8))+ +8 E=Z(lp+ B))+Z'm(lo* I) with 2'= equivalent mutual impedance per unit iength ofthe cicult formed by the cable and the circu pipeline-earth (similar to the equivalent mutual impedance defined hereabove for the aboveground lines) ‘mutual impedance per unit length of the circuits cable/earth and pipeline/earth ‘The expressions are given in appendix F CALCULATION OF PIPELINE VOLTAGES ‘The following section concems the calculation of the response of the pipaline-earth electrical circuit to the EMFs. The voltage calculation method will be first demonstrated for the simple theoretical case of 2 parallelism. The principles for the general cases will be given thereatter. TPL n TE Pi The calculation presented hereafter is based on the folowing assumptions : = the pipeline is paralle! to the disturbing line = the leakage admittance of the pipeline is constant, i.e. for underground pipelines, the coating resistance per unit length of the pipeline is uniform and independent ofthe applied voltage. = the soil resistivity along the parallel route is constant.2% : wie] ft . L Ege a ) _ rte ia! a i}) ° wex | [ Fig, 3.8 - Influence of a HV Tine on a parallel pipeline (On basis of the above-mentioned assumptions the equations of the circult pipeline-earth (represented fon figure 3.8) are avon) (24x) <0 2) ox Bivvy <0 3) ox where z = impedance per unit length of the circuit pipetine-earth y admittance per unit length of the circuit pipeline-earth E = EMF Induced on the pipeline per unit length ‘The derivation of and y is considered in appendix G. These equations are the so-called “tranemission * equations whose solutions can be found in textbooks. They willbe only briefy recalled hereafter for three particular cases which are worth examining a) the pipeline extends for a few kilometres beyond the parallel route without earthing a) (3.5) Where = 137 = propagation coefficient of the pipetine-eah circuit ‘The maximum pipeline potential occurs at the ends of the parallel routing at x = Land x = 0a Gute IMO = Ml = Vinay = 5 (=) G6) Beyond the exposure, the pipeline potential decreases according to the exponential function Vi=V ye 7) with x = co-ordinate outside the paralla! section 4 4 i HV tine t ? Fig, 3.9 - Example of the voltage along a pipeline extending beyond the zone of influence bb) the pipeline extends beyond the parallel routing at one extremity (A) and stops at the other (B) without earthing yk, von == [eae (3.8) 2 VU =a Stt= 27 9) Vo) = (tet 5 20°74) (2.10)28 | Pipeline g o t ? Fig. 3.10 - Example of voltage along the pipeline when it extends beyond the zone in only one direction ©) the pipeline is perfectly earthed at one extremity of the parallelism (A). It extends at the other extremity (B). : @11) (3.12) Vo) 0 (3.13) Fig. 3.11 - Evolution of the voltage along the pipeline when itis earthed at one extremity2 9.2.2.2. GENERAL SITUATION ‘Subst "i ‘The zone of influence generally comprises a succession of parallelisms, oblique approaches, crossings such as presented in fig. 3.12. Determination of EMF's along the zone of influence requires a subdivision of the pipeline in sections which will be reduced to parallelisms according to the rules defined in Appendix C. Specially in the case of approaches the ratio between the maximal and the minimal horizontal distances shall never exceed 3, jon in sections Fig. 3.12,- Example of subdivi Approximate evaluation of the maximum induced voltage ‘The simplest evaluation consists in assimilating the complete zone of influence to a parallelism, with a constant equivalent EMF per unit length This equivalent EMF is given by the expression : (3.14) where Ej = EMF per unit length in section i j= length of section i = number of sections 0 total length of the zone of influence L= 2 t, a) ‘The maximum induced voltages are then found by applying expressions (3.6, 3.9 or 3.12 according to the various cases : extension of the pipeline outside the zone of influence, earthing at one extrerrity )323. 30 Such a rough estimate can lead to important orrors if the distances vary strongly along the influence zone. ‘More precise evaluation of the voltages The evaluation is based on the subdivision of the zone of influence in a relatively great number of sections. This is done in order to be able to determine voltages at many positions along the pipeline. The calculation principles are detailed in part 2 of appendix H. Each section is reduced to a x network exposed to an EMF. Calculation is carried out by solving the system of equations of the diferent cals Itgives the voltages at the extremities ofthe cells and the current in each cell (fg. 3.13), 21 2 2 tn < Ro Vv " ny my ay *y 4 2 zn 2 2 alli alk a val] [i fran Yel) [i ¥ [Oe ces nLottittc = em 2 me fa 6 zai i ion Fig. 3.13. Example of subdivision of the zone of influence in sections. The use of computers makes it possible to solve exactly the differential equations (similar to those given in 3.2.2.1.), Concordance of the calculation with the real stresses firstly depends on the good knowledge of the leakage resistance of the pipeline. ‘The same method can be used to calculate the effect of earthings of the pipeline in different places on the induced voltages. As explained in Appendix H, the subdivision in sections will then be realized so that the different earthing places coincide with extremities of sections TGIVING RI ‘The most severe stresses are not necessarily produced by a fault occurring at one extremity of the zone of influence; the place of the most severe fault depends on different factors = the relative value of the fault currents (Iq, Ig) coming from both sides of the line and their evolution inside the zone of inuence. In the example presented in fig. 3.14 - perfect parallelism and length of influence L. lower than the characteristic length ofthe pipeline 2, (2, = real component of (zyy"1!2). the most severe conditions appear for a fault in the vicinity of for condition 4 (intersection ofthe evolution curves of Ia and lg inside the zone of influence) B for condition 2(\4 > lg overall in the zone of influence)3.3. 3.3.1 3.3.2, u A c 8 Fig. 3.14 Influence of the relative values of the fault currents coming from both sides on the place of the maximum induced voltage (case of a perfect parallelism, L < Ay) = the ratio between the length of influence L and the characteristic length of the pipeline Ay In the example presented in fig. 3.6 perfect parallelism and Ia higher than Ig in the whole zone of influence - the most severe conditions correspond to a fault in Dif L >> hy c but inside the zone of influence iL = = = = mer Fig 2.18 Voltage on the pipeline - Fault in s . oo ve = = ee Fig. 3.19 Current inthe pipeline - Fault in s vo Bins eoaiog \ unio me . me = - = ea ey Fig, 3.20 - Voltage on the pipeline - Fault in sHo Patetnfona coating er — . oe - my = oy rn Fig 3.21 - Voltage on the pipeline - Fault in g be —— | Fig. 322 - Voltage on the pipeline - Fault in g ; / wae ; p Fig. 3,23 - Voltage on the pipeline - Steady state conditions44 aaa 6 CHAPTER 4 : INFLUENCE BY CONDUCTIVE COUPLING DESCRIPTION DEFINITION When 2 ground fault occurs in an electrical installation (substation, power plant, tower) the current flowing through the earthing electrode produces a potential rise of the electrode and of the neighbouring soil with regard to a remote earth fig. 4.1). Conductive coupling occurs between the electrical installation and a nearby pipeline in the following ways ifthe pipeline Is directly connected to the ground electrode of the HV system (ie. inside power station) ~ if the pipeline enters the “zone of influence" of the electiical installation. A high difference of potential can then appear across the coating ofthe pipeline due to the local earth potential rise. In practice, conductive coupling cases most often result from the second case PotenlPofil (% eee GPR) mse ° 0 oC Diss om Og fe Fig. 4.1. Example of potential rise ofthe soil inside and outside a substation during a ground fault.42, 4422, ry CONDUCTIVE COUPLING MECHANISMS PIPE ROSSING A" \RTH POTENTIAL RISE" {fa pipeline is not influenced by capacitive or inductive coupling, its normal potential can be assumed {o remain very close to the reference potential of remote earth [1]. Therefore, any EPR (earth potential rise) at the pipeline location due to a fault in a near electrical installation is applied directly to the insulating coating of the pipeline, Problems may appear when the EPR exceeds the dielectric strength of the coating = in such a case, permanent, but usually very located, puncturing ofthe pipeline coating ccan occur. Melting ofthe pipeline steel may even occur only when the pipeline is very close to a tower earth electrode (see paragraph 4.1.3 for additional information). Fault ata tower Sp Electrical tne Pipeline Potertial of the pipetine 7 Mer breakiown earth patetiat rise ‘along the pipeline india pole ihe ibang 4.2. - Problems due to an EPR exceeding the breakdown voltage of the coating {A fraction of the EPR is then applied to the metallic pipeline (fig. 4.2.). This potential can be transferred by the pipeline to a remote point such as insulating flange, pipeline access point, or cathodic protection system, Depending upon its amplitude, the transferred potential may generate dielectric stresses at Insulating flanges in cathodic protection systems. It may also create touch and step voltages which may be applied to workers touching the pipeline at access points or standing nearby such points IPF ‘TRODE OF A H A similar situation appears when a pipeline section is direct bonded to the earth electrode of a power station (.e. : inside an cibfired power station) or inside the zone of influence of an electrical installation When an earth fault in the power network causes @ rise of potential ofthe station grounding grid, this potential is transferred to the pipeline44.34. 4132 4133. A134, 4138 4 Thus, touch voltages (between the pipeline and the earth) can appear within and outside the station. if safety precautions are not taken, such voltages might represent a risk for workers (in the station) and for the public (outside the station). In addition, the ground potential rise of the station is transmitted along the pipeline and ,before decreasing to a safe value, can be applied to the nearest insulating flange. EEFECTS OF CONDUCTIVE COUPLING DANGER RESULTING FROM TOUCH AND STEP VOLTAGES: When a transfered potential develops along a pipeline, workers touching the pipeline may be subjected to electrical shock The risk resulting from the electric shock - death and ventricular fibrilation - depends upon many factors : duration of the fault, voltage amplitude, combined probability for people to be in an exposed position during a phase-to-earth fault, votage distribution around the access point, quality of gloves and shoes worn by workers, ete. This subject is discussed in Appendix Lot this Guide DAMAGE TO COATING ‘Any voltage difference between the metallic pipeline and the surrounding soll Is applied to the insulating coating. Investigations [2] have shown that relatively low voltage values (1000 to 1200 V) result in glow and arc discharges on the entire surface area of bituminen coatings. During such phenomena, the pipeline transverse admittance to the earth is increased (i.e. the coating becomes more conductive). If the coating degradation is ireversibe, it will also result in an increased current being drawn from consumption of cathodic protection systems, and also in a smaller pipeline voltage increase in case of inductive coupling with a HV line (see chapter 3). Damage to polyethylene coatings willbe usually more localized DAMAGE TO THE METAL PIPELINE ‘Ahigh-intensity current passing through a smallsize coating puncture would heat up the pipeline stee! and, in theory, could make it melt [1], [4], [5]- Experiments {3] and calculations (see section 4.2.3) have shown that such a puncturing process cannot result from the sole “transferred potential” mechanism deseribed in section 4.1.2: it can happen only if the pipeline is so close to a HV. tower footing (or the substation grounding grid) that an electric arc appears in the soil and, by establishing @ very low resistance path between the electrode and the pipeline, makes it possible for a large current to flow directly into the pipeline. DAMAGE TO INSULATING ELANGES ‘Voltage transterred into a pipeline section can cause dielectric stresses across insulating flanges. If the flange dielectric strength is exceeded, flashover will occur, with the destruction of the insulating flange ‘as a possible result. However, such an accident is rather unlikely to ocour since voltages transferred by resistive coupling are most often much lower than voltages resulting from inductive coupling against which insulating flanges are dimensioned. Ds TQ GATHODIC PE ‘Active cathodic protection system, including SCRs (semi-conductor controlled rectifiers) can be damaged by high voltage resulting from transferred potential if no protective measures are taken,42 424 4.244. 48 CALCULATION OF ELECTRIC STRESSES RESULTING FROM CONDUCTIVE COUPLING. In order to predict the effects of conductive coupling on a buried pipeline, one has to determine various electrical quantities : EPR’s at pipeline location, voltage applied to the pipeline coating, voltage transferted to the metalic pipeline and voltages applied to insulating flanges and to cathodic protection systems, The following paragraphs will provide simplified methods for an approximate determination of these quantities. More accurate, but more complex, methods are available on a number of computer software products. GROUND POTENTIAL RISE OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS GROUND POTENTIAL RISE OF TOWERS ‘The potential rise of the earthing electrode during a fault at the tower (fig. 4.3.) is given by the following expression. Ve=Rele 4) where = Re= presents the earth resistance of the electrode |g is the current flowing to the earth through the electrode (I_ = IF - la - la) Fig. 4.3. Fault at a tower ‘The earth resistance depends on the sol resistivity and the structure of the electrode. According to the areas and the arrangements it can vary between less than 1 and a few dozens of ohms. When the line is not equipped with earthwires, the earth current is equal to the fault current, When it is equipped with earthwire(s), only a part of the fault current goes to the earth through the tower electrode, An important part is distributed between the nearby towers or returns directly to the substations through the earthwire (see Appendix J.2.) Figure 4.4. enables an approximated evaluation of the tower potentiel rise of lines provided with cearthwires in function of the mean earth resistance of the towers.a A more precise evaluation requires utilization of calculation programs that solve the equations of the different cells formed by the earthwire(s), the towers and the earth; it requires of course knowledge of the earthing resistance of each tower a . Sa eer) ee ot oe i * on {|S sone 1 cme se goee ae ee ae or | {EE fn! 2 ae oe gee Fig. 4.4. Evaluation of the potential rise of the earthing of a tower in function of the mean resistance of the towers 4.21.2. GROUND POTENTIAL RISE OF SUBSTATIONS ‘The general expression (4.1.) is also valid in the case of substations. Generally the current flowing to the earth through the earthing electrode is much lower than the fault current : = the current supplied by the local transformer retums directly to the source through the ground grid ‘without penetration in the soit (Ig on fig. 4.5.) = apart of the current supplied by the external tines returns to the source through the earthwires (Ia, Yo) | ototerate Fig, 4.5 - Earth fault in a substation Owing to the dimensions of the earth grid the earthing resistance of a substation is much lower than tower resistance. According to the soil resistivity and the dimensions of the substation, values can vary between a few hundredths of ohms and several ohms. Consequently the potential rise of the substations during faults will generally range between a few hundreds volts and several kilovots depending on the fault current and the earthing resistance422 EARTH POTENTIAL RISE IN THE VICINITY OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS ln any case of conductive coupling (except the direct connection of the pipeline to an earth electrode), itis first necessary to know the earth potential rise at pipeline location (2, along the pipeline route). For the sake of simplicity, let us first consider the case of a hemispheric earth electrode (radius : a) embedded in a homogeneous soil (resistivity : 1. It can be shown (6, (7, that if a fault current tg lows {rom the electrode into the earth, equipotential surfaces in the earth are hemispheres concentric to the earth electrode (figure 4.6) ; Fig, 4.6, - Ground potential variation with distance to the ground electrode £ (42) VQ00 = 35 e fe For xa, Vis the electrode potential. The electrode resistance Re is defined as the ratio of its potential V@@) to the current le (4.3) In the more general case of an earth electrode of arbitrary geometry in a homogeneous soil, the ‘ground potential distribution has a more complex pattern at close distance, but tends to follow more and more closely equation (4,1) as distance x increases (see figure 4.7). One can define the electrode hemispheric equivalent as the hemisphere having the same earth resistance R. The radius a of the hemispheric equivalent can be derived from equation (4.3), bet Fig. 4.7. Ground potential distribution around an hemispheric electrode423, 31 When an accurate knowledge of ground potential near an earth electrode is not required, replacement of the electrode by its hemispheric equivalent makes it possible to use simple methods for EPR calculations. Such calculations are detailed in Appendix J for the case of power line tower and substation ground electrodes. However, computer software is also available for accurate calculations at any distance (8), [9], [10] From equation (4.2), itcan be seen that any EPR calculation obviously requires a knowledge of current I and of resistivity r. Calculation of fault currents on HV networks is explained in Appendix 0. Methods for earth resistivity measurement are presented in Appendix | and described more thoroughly in the literature [6], [7], [11]. It should be remembered that earth resistivity must be known at depths of the same magnitude as the distance between the pipeline and the tower footings (or substation earth grid). EPR calculations in non-homogeneous soil require more complex methods whose presentation is outside the scope of this document {8}, [10] tr Pi r Fig. 4.8. Pipeline passing near a transmission line tower ‘When @ pipeline crosses a zone submitted to an earth potential rise for example the vicinity of a tower reached by a fault (fg. 4.8.) the voltage V(x) transferred to the pipeline in case of deterioration of the ‘coating depends on different factors82 (em, a] ive Fig. 4.9. Voltage transferred to the pipeline ~ the focal earth potential rise (EPR, fig. 4.9.) ~ the focal impedance of the pipeline to the earth that is composed of two terms : the earth resistance of the concerned section of the pipeline supposed In contact with the soll and the local residual resistance of the coating (If the metal is directly in contact with the earth on an area equal to s, the local resistance can be given by the approximate expression ate where p = soll resistivity) ~ the impedance presented at the considered point by the citcult pipelinelearth Zpe. If the pipeline ‘extends on a few kilometers, without earthing, on both sides, this impedance is practically equal to 0.5, Z, where Z¢ is the characteristic impedance ofthe circuit pipelinevearth eR, VoO)= Rez, (4.4. Fig, 4.10. Ground potential rise and voltage transferred to the pipeline ‘The complete general mathematical formulation of this problem is too complex to be dealt with in the present Guide, However a simplified approach is proposed in Appendix K, based on a few assumptions that can be met in most cases, at least to obtain a reasonable order of magnitude of the transferred voltages. From the calculations detailed in Appendix K, the variations of transferred potential along the pipeline can be derived424 for x > 0: V(x) = V(o) er (45) for x <0: V(x) = V(o) 1% (4.8) with: x + abscissa along the pipeline route (the origin is taken at the closest point to the tower) VO) + pipeline voltage at abscissa x (with reference to remote earth) y propagation constant of the buried insulated pipeline (g = [zy ]1/2; see appendix G. fornumerical values) ‘These simple analytical expressions still require the numerical integration of EPR, V[x) along the pipeline route. ‘They show in a qualitative manner the influence of the pipeline coating admittance y on the variations of transferred voltages V(0) and V(x) : the higher is y (the poorer the coating insulation) , the higher will be the maximum transferred voltage V(0) and the faster will be the decrease of the vansferred voltage V(x) away from abscissa x=0. VOLTAGE TRANSFERRED TO A PIPELINE BONDED TO GROUND ELECTRODE, INSIDE.A. PLANT OR A SUBSTATION ‘Again, the exact mathematical treatment of this case is complex and does not lead to reasonably simple analytical formula .For approximate calculations only, the simplifying assumptions of appendix G will be used in the following section, although assumption d) is generally not as well verified as in the case of a proximity with a tower ground electrade. Two cases will be considered, - The pipeline is electrically connected to the station ground mat and extends outside the station area (see figure 4.11). If there is no interruption of the electric continuity of the pipeline, the pipeline voltage can be assumed to decrease exponentially and Is therefore given by the following equation Vix) = Vs.e-r* (47) where x: abscissa along the pipeline route outside the perimeter ofthe station (the origin is taken at the outer lit of the station ground electrode end the abscissa is positive outwards from the station boundary) VO): pipeline voltage at abscissa x Vg: potential rise of the station earth electrode426. g Fig. 4.11. Pipeline bonded to a ground grid inside a power station Equation (4.7) is valid as long as no insulating flange has been installed on the pipeline “close” to the station ("close" meaning closer than 3 to 4 times the caracteristic length I=1/g of the insulated pipe- line). if there is an insulating flange at a distance xy “close” to the station, an additional term must be added fo equation (4.6) to take into acount the reflexion at xp eet gH) (48) Ty, et The voltage applied to the insulating flange is given by the value of the difference between V(xj) and the pipeline voltage on the other side of the flange. In most practical cases, this difference equals V(x) since the pipeline extends far beyond the insulating flange and its voltage is negligible in this section {assuming no other coupling mectianism is involved), - The pipeline is electrically interrupted by an insulating flange at the station outer limit. The situation is then similar to the case of transferred potential analysed in section 4.2.3, and equations (4.5) and (4.6) may be used, remembering that assumption d) of Appendix K is far less valid in the proximity of @ station, because the earth potential decrease is much slower than close to a tower. VOLTAGE AGROSS AN INSULATING FLANGE ‘A voltage will appear across an insulating flange (separating two sections of a pipeline), when one of those sections is subjected to transferred potential resulting from ether a EPR along the pipeline route, - oF a direct bonding of the pipeline to a ground mesh (i.e. inside a power station). In the frst case, voltage across the flange can be estimated from equations (4.6), (4.6), (4.7) and (4.8) In the second case, the mesh ground potential rise can be computed using methods presented ‘elsewhere (see Appendix J and references [8], [9], [10))428 427. 428 $5 TRICAL STRI PI PC TET Ps Active cathodic protection system using SCRs can be damaged by voltages between the pipeline and the local protection earth bed, and by voltage between focal earth bed and remote earth (since the protection system receives energy from a LV distribution network). Each of these voltages can be calculated using the method presented in the previous paragraphs. {f votage is transferred to the pipeline or, conversely, if the cathodic earth bed is exposed to a EPR, some high amplitude current may flow trough the circuits of the cathodic protection system during the fault. Such current can be estimated using the equivalent circuit shown on figure 4.11 and protective devices must be designed accordingly Fig, 4.12. A simpliied equivalent circuit for an assessment of the current flowing through a cathodic protection system (CPS) Vc: pipeline voltage at the location of the CPS Zc pipeline caracteristic impedance Re : CPS earthing resistance TOUCH AND STEP VOLTAGES ‘As for capacitive and inductive coupling, refer to appendix L for touch and step voltages assessment. CURRENT FLOWING INTO THE PIPELINE THROUGH GOATING DEFECTS ‘As an example, let us consider a situation where a pipeline is buried near a HV tower and let us ‘assume that the pipeline coating has a single defect : a hole with a cross-section s. At the defect point, the pipeline has a resistance to earth whose approximate value is (considering the hole as an earth electrode having the form of a disk) = ES If the EPR value is Ve at the pipeline location, the current flowing through the coating defect is about : Ve ji eRe (4.10) as the impedance Zpe (expression 4.4.) is generally much lower than the resistance Re43 ‘Thus the current density J through the coating defect is ole (11) Taking typical vaiues (r= 102 Wm, s = 1 mm2, Ve = 5000 Vit can easily be shown that J has such a low value that the metal pipeline temperature is not signifcanty increased during earth fault on an HY system However, this conclusion is no longer true if soil ionization allows a high intensity arc current to flow directly from electrode of the power system into the pipeline. Because of the high value of the disruptive electric feld in the soil (12), such a discharge cannot occur when the distance between the earth electrode and the pipeline exceeds approximately 0.5 meter [3], unless it is initiated by a high amplitude impulse current resulting from a lightning stroke to @ HV tower. It may be questioned whether such a power-frequency discharge could be observed for large pipeline-to-tower separations when the discharge was initiated by @ lightning stroke to the tower. After examination, this event ‘appears rather unlikely to occur because . = in tow and medium earth resistivity areas, lightning can cause soil ionization only at a short distance (Le. a few tens of om) from a tower grounding electrode, ~ the soll discharge resulting from lightning would probably have been dissipated by the time the Power frequency fault current be established (14) However this phenomenon is not well understood. In areas of high earth resistivity and lightning activity, a larger separation (i.e. a few meters) is recommended between 2 pipeline and a tower. PRINCIPLES OF MITIGATION In the case of proximity between a pipeline and a transmission line tower, mitigation of conductive coupling effects may be achieved by reducing the EPR at pipeline location, increasing the pipeline coating dielectric withstand, using high withstand insulationg flanges, eto. In any case, a minimum distance is highly recommended (from + meter to a few meters, depending upon soil resistivity). Counterpoises buried along the pipeline are not generally considered very effective against resistive coupling54. 52. B24. 87 CHAPTER 5 - MEASUREMENTS. OBJECT Measurements are recommended to determine and to check disturbance levels. The measurements presented in this chapter mainly concern the evaluation of disturbances during HV faults (short-term interference) and under steady-state conditions. ‘Some indication is also given of measurements which can improve the pradetermination of disturbance levels. This applies to the installation of the HV lines or pipelines. EVALUATION OF SHORT-TERM INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTS BY MEANS OF TEST CURRENTS For operational reasons itis difficult - except in very special cases - to create a real fault with high certh fault currents on the HV networks, In many situations, itis nevertheless possible to carry out tests with a limited earth current - 200 A for instance - corresponding to a reduced earth fault. For such tests, the three phase circu is isolated from the high voltage network; a phase conductor is energized from a low or a medium voltage source and earthed at a point chosen with respect to the zone of influence, Measurements will concem the disturbing current and voltages on the pipeline at the various accessible places on the pipeline. For evaluating disturbances produced by higher currents a simple extrapolation of the measurements can lead to overestimation, especialy when pipelines are provided with a bituminous coating. Their leakage resistance decreases when the applied voltage reaches values of about 1 kV. In the case of pipelines with polyethylene coatings, the resistance to ground remains practically constant up to voltages of several kilovolts. Extrapolation of measurements is then generally quite vali. If the test current is relatively low, the voltages can range within the order of magnitude of the disturbing extraneous voltages which, as a rule, are always present, Extraneous voltages distort the ‘measuring results and therefore must be eliminated ‘An adequate technique with no great expenditure in terms of technical appliances is the so-called "pole-reversal method" power source (transformer), which is in synchronism with the network and whose voltage is reversed in phase by 180° after a currentess break. The voltages occurring during the flow ofthe test current are measured, namely voltage Vq before pole changing and voltage Vp after pole changing. The disturbing voltage Vaq is measured in the absence of the test current The voltage caused by the test current is then given by the following expression 64)522 63. 53.4 5.32. RT-TERM INTERFERENCE MEA‘ Recorders can be used to measure the voltages actually occurring in the case of short-term interference, It is especially appropriate to use recorders that can be triggered when a voltage threshold is exceeded. If such recording devices are connected to a pipeline and if the fault currents that cause 2 short-term interference are registered in the respective high-voltage systems it becomes evident as to what voltages can actually be induced by given current, In this case, the non-linear behaviour of the pipe coating would have to be taken into account. Moreover, peak voltmeters can be used, for instance, together with printers. LONG-TERM INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTS In order to be able to obtain results from long-term interference measurements, conditions should be clearly defined on both the influencing and the influenced side. Time co-ordination between measured values on the power side, ic, the operating currents, and the measured values on the influenced pipeline must be clear. That is why its important to use recording meters MEASUREMENTS ON AN UNDERGROUND PIPE ‘With pipelines exposed to interference, itis necessary to know the potential difference between the pipe and the surrounding soll along the entire length of the line and specially at all pipe points accessible for measuring purposes. Such points include compacting stations, branch stations, measuring contacts in sign posts or in valve boxes. In order to obtain @ correct measurement of the local voltage with reference to the neutral earth, in the vicinity of an earthing of the pipeline, the measuring rod against which the pipe potential is to be measured, should be driven into the ground at ‘a distance of some ten meters from the pipe. If certain pipe sections, which have no measuring points, are to be examined more closely, an insulated measuring conductor can be leid overground immediately above the pipe line in accordance with the method for pipe modelling described in [5] and [6]. To this end, the measuring line has to be electrically connected to the pipe at the nearest measuring points. The pipeline potentials of the section concerned are derived from the potential ofthe measuring conductor atthe respective point ‘The registration of a measuring quantity at a measuring point of the influenced line should take at least five minutes in order to facilitate its coordination with the respective values measured on the power side, MEASUREMENTS ON AN AERIAL PIPELINE. In the case of aerial pipelines, long duration disturbances are generally due to capacitive and inductive couplings. Measurements on the pipeline such as described in 5.3.1. can be carried out on aerial pipelines but the differences between the various influences require careful consideration.54, 6.4.1 542 59 ‘The source impedances are very different for inductive and capacitive coupling; in the first case, the impedance is normally between a few ohms and a few tens of ohms; for capacitive coupling, the source impedance is generally between several tens and several hundreds of k®, Measurements will be carried out with different impedances. Measurements on high impedances (1-10-100 kQ for instance) will be converted in terms of currents to be compared to the permissible currents, MEASUREMENTS FOR THE PREDETERMINATION OF A FUTURE INFLUENCE SITUATION ‘When only one element - HV line or pipeline - is installed, measurements can be carried out in order to Improve the accuracy of calculation. INSTALLATION OF A PIPELINE IN THE VICINITY OF AN EXISTING HV LINE ‘The main measurement concerns the EMF induced by the line along the future route of the pipeline. Evaluation of short-term disturbances requires as in 5.2.1, creation or simulation of an earth fault with @ limited current on the HV line, For the evaluation of the EMF along the future route ofthe pipeline, relatively long isolated wires a few tens of meters in length are placed on the ground and earthed at one extremity. The voltage appearing atthe other extremity with respect to earth gives the EMF. The same precautions as described in 6.2.1 have to be taken in presence of permanent disturbances. A minimum length is requited for the circult in order to obtain measurable values. Such measurements are especially recommended in special situations where the presence of many metalic structures complicates the calculation of the EMF. INSTALLATION OF AN HV LINE IN THE VIGINITY OF AN EXISTING PIPELINE ‘The most relevant measurements concern the characteristics of the pipeline. A good knowledge of the impedance between the pipeline and the ground is required in order to obtain a valid predetermination of the induced voltages. This measurement requires the application of a voltage on the pipeline from a source grounded at a relatively long distance from the pipeline (at least 200 m) in order to avoid a great influence from the {ground potential rise of the source. In this situation measurements will be concerned with -the injected current -the local potential of the pipeline with respect to a neutral electrode as reference -the potential ofthe pipeline at other accessible points Injections in different places can give a good indication of the pipeline impedance and also of the attenuation along the pipelines. ‘When the pipeline is extending a few km in both directions, the measured impedance is equal to 0.5 Z- where Zc is the characteristic impedance, [At the extremity of a floating pipeline i.e. an isolated pipeline without earthing, the impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance if the pipeline length exceeds a few kilometers,55. MEASUREMENT OF THE INTERNAL IMPEDANCE OF A STEEL PIPE ‘The internal impedance Zin, defined in Appencix G.2,, can be measured as a function of the current with the circuit arrangement shown in Fig, 6.1 power supaly cron tetum tube : eel is IS; te Sine Fae ‘eter iS 4 Seer Aemetor Vernet Fig, 5.1. Circuit for measuring internal impedance of a steel pipe ‘The measuring fundamental frequency current is pathing through the measured pipe and returns on a coaxially arranged cuter return tube, This return tube simulates a distant return, such as earth, which does not result in proximity effect in the pipe concerned, ‘An insuiated conductor is layed on the outer surface of the measured pipe. It is electrically connected to the pipe at the “distant” end. The outer surface voltage Uj appears at the supply end between the outer surface conductor and a potential probe connected to the pipe at this end. The measuring length, lis equal to the distance between the contact point of the surface conductor and the contact point of the potential probe. The intemal impedance, per unit length, is, by the definition, equal to the ratio of the outer surface voltage, per unit length Uj /1, and the current in the pipe I, causing the surface voltage. ie. a ‘Measuring the rms value of the pipe current ||| and the outer surface voltage [Vi and the phase ‘9; Dotween them, we can express for a measured pipe the : = modulus of the internal impedance 2) «internal resistance Rj = Zintl C08 9} @) - internal reactance X= Zin! sin ot (4)6 Figures 5.2. and 5.3. give as examples, the values measured on pipes with respectively a diameter of 80 mm and 160 mm. Am Fig, 6.2. internal impedance of a steel pipe diameter : 80 mm de resistance : Rg = 0.198 O/km frequency : 50 Hz 2.0%) Fig. 6.3, Internal impedance of a steel pipe diameter : 160 mm de resistance : Rqg = 0.08 /km frequency : 60 Hz It is worth mentioning that, both the intemal reactance and especially the internal resistance increases ‘with the increase of the current up to reaching the saturation zone. The ac resistance of a steel pipe is ‘mora than twice the dc resistance even for small pipe currents.612 62. 624. 624.4, e CHAPTER 6 - MITIGATION Mitigation principles have already been briefly presented at the end of chapters 2.3 and 4, The purpose of the present chapter is to review all possible mitigation techniques and to give their respective field of pplication and effectveness, along with some details about their practical implementation. SEPARATION BETWEEN PIPELINES AND ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS EEFECTIVENESS Increasing the separation reduces capacitance, inductive and conductive coupling. However substantial re-routing is required to reduce inductive coupling because the decrease of mutual inductance with distance is slow (see figure 3.3.). Increasing separation is not commonly used to ameliorate capacitive coupling because simple and inexpensive pipeline earthing measures are effective. Increasing separation is especially suitable for conductive coupling in the vicinity of HV towers, where a reasonable increase of separation can overcome most problems. PRACTICAL ASPECTS FOR THE REDUCTION OF THE CONDUCTIVE COUPLING | case of conductive coupling, separation serves two purposes : it prevents a possible flashover between the pipeline and the tower earthing electrode during an earth fault and it avoids degradation of the coating. The minimum distance depends on the fault current, on the presence of earthwires or counterpoises and on the dielectric withstand of the pipeline coating. Considerations on the ground potential rise in the vicinity of towers are given in chapter 4 and Appendix J. This makes it possiole to define the required distance when the various parameters are known, If these distances cannot be achieved, other measures such as reinforcement of the coating are necessary. To avoid a direct flashover in the ground between a pipeline and a tower earthing electrode (or counterpoise) a minimum distance of 1 to 2 meters is always required, ‘A more important separation is required between HV towers and cathodic protection installations. it ‘can be necessary to place them at distances higher than 100 m apart in order to limit the potential rise of the local earth to values lower than 1000 V. In the case of long parailelisms very close the line, they should be installed at midspan positions MEASURES APPLIED TO THE ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS. BARTHWIRES ON THE HV LINES. EEEECTIVENESS Most HV lines are provided with earthwires. They make it possible for the following to be achieved an important reduction of the ground potential risos in the vicinity of towers a reduction of the voltages due to the inductive coupling during earth faults,621.2, REDUCTION OF THE GROUND POTENTIAL RISES IN THE VICINITY OF TOWERS 7] During an earth fault occurring at @ tower on a network with earthed neutral, the potential rise of the tower can approach the voltage phase to earth if the line is not provided with earthwire(s). This potential rise is greatly reduced when the line is equipped with earthwire(s). The improvement is especially a function of the local earth resistance as explained in chapter 4 and Appendix J. ‘The soll potential rise in the vicinity of the tower depends on the current passing to the ground through the local earthing I and on the soil resistivity 9. ‘Ata distance x of the center of the electrode greater than 3 times the equivalent radius of the earth electrode, the ground potential rise can be given by expression ° Yon * Bax E 4) 6.2.1.3. REDUCTION OF THE VOLTAGES DUE TO THE INDUCTIVE COUPLING ‘This reduction concems essentially the voltages induced during earth faults. Expressions of the screening factor due to the earthwire(s) are given in Appendix E. 6.2.2, IMPROVING THE TOWER EARTH ELECTRODE, Incase of conductive coupling between a tower and a nearby pipeline it may be possible to reduce the potential rise of the tower and the earth potential rise at pipeline location by improving the tower earth slectrode. However the equivalent radius of the earthing system will be increased and the earth potential rise at a distance may not be reduced unless the earthing systems of a number of towers are greatly ‘augmented. ‘Addition of earthing conductors laid in the direction opposite to the pipeline may enable the profile of potential to be modified so as to reduce the potential rise at pipeline location. 62.3. TRANSPOSITION OF THE PHASE CONDUCTORS This technique consisting in changing at regular intervals the sequence of the phase conductors on the towers can enable a reduction of the voltages induced (in steady-state conditions) by capacitive or inductive coupling on long aboveground pipelines. The efficiency is very limited for underground pipelines, because the characteristic length of the pipeline (as defined in Appendix K) is generally lower than the distance between the transposition points.624 625, 63. 63.1 63.1.1. 63.1.2, CHOICE OF A DIFFERENT SEQUENCE OF THE PHASES IN CASE OF LINES WITH TWO. CIRCUITS, ‘When the transmission line carries two or more circuits, an appropriate choice of phase arrangements can bring about a significant reduction of the capacitive and inductive influence in steady-state conditions. (for example for 2 circuits with a vertical configuration, ABC downwards for the first one, CBA for the second one). PROVIDING HV UNDERGROUND CABLES WITH LOW RESISTANCE SHEATHS EARTHED AT BOTH ENDS. ‘An important reduction of the voltages due during earth faults to the inductive coupling can be obtained by providing the HV cables with low resistance sheaths earthed at both ends. Such sheaths reduce on the same scale the component of the fault current returning through the earth and the induced voltages. As shown in Appendix E the efficiency is the more important as the sheath resistance is low. Similar effects can be obtained by earth conductors aid along the HV cables. MEASURES APPLIED TO THE PIPELINES. EARTHING OF THE PIPELINE [1.2.3.4] EEEGCTIVENESS Connecting the pipeline to the earth represents a classical method to reduce voltages due to ‘capacitive and inductive coupling. The method is very efficient for the reduction of the capacitive influences but, to achieve a substantial mitigation of the inductive influences, numerous low resistance earthings are generally necessary. The interest of the method is consequently more limited in areas where the soil resistivity is high PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION QF THE REDUCTION OF VOLTAGES DUE TO CAPACITIVE. COUPLING Problems of capacitive influence are easily solved by earthing the pipeline. Such @ measure is required on overhead pipelines (included the sections of underground pipepines during the construction stage) when the capacitive current exceeds the admissible limits (see chapter 2). Except for long pipelines, only one earthing is required and, as shown in 2.3.2. a resistance of a few tens ohms can generally solve the problems. The required value can be easily obtained by using simplified expressions given in Appendix B ‘There is no special requirement for the location of the pipeline earthing electrodes but the proximity of towers must be avoided in order to prevent the influence of ground potential rises during H.V. earth faults. In the case of a parallelism between pipeline and H.V. line, the pipeline earthing will be implemented at mid-distance between two towers. The pipeline must never be connected to the earthing of a tower.6.3.13, PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE REDUCTION OF VOLTAGES DUE TO INDUCTIVE. CQUPLING -Earthing of the pipeline Is the most classical approach to reduce voltages due to inductive coupling in steady-state operation ar during faults. n the less critical situations, the pipeline will be earthed in ‘two points - the extremities of the zone of influence. In most cases, it will be connected to the earth in several places and especially wherever the metal is accessible, If the earthing has to limit steady-state disturbances, the pipeline must be directly connected to the earth electrodes. If it is only required to limit short-term interference the pipeline may be earthed through surge arresters, - Required earthing resistance The mitigation obtained near an earthing point depends on the earthing resistance and on the impedance presented in this point by the circuit formed by the pipeline and the earth. In the most favorable case, the attenuation is given by the relation R DR4Z, 6.4.) where R= earthing resistance Z¢ = characteristic impedance of the circuit pipeline/earth (at 60-60 Hz) ‘Therefore, the pipeline earthing resistance must be much lower than the characteristic impedance to be efficient, Itis recalled that the characteristic impedance is about = a few ohms for pipelines with polyethylene coatings ~ a few hundreds m&2 to 2 2 for pipelines with bituminous coatings ‘A.complete calculation such as presented in Appendix H, point 2 is generally required to determine the required number and values of the earthing resistances. = When an important reduction is required along a long zone of influence, numerous earthings with @ tow resistance are necessary. This solution is not applicable in areas where the soll resistivity is high, It would require too large earthing systems. 6.3.1.4. CURRENT IN THE EARTH ELECTRODES AND THEIR CONNECTION TO THE PIPELINE [1] By earthing the pipaline in different points (to reduce the voltages due to inductive coupling) significant circulating currents may be created ‘The current flowing to an earth electrode can be calculated from the residual potential of the pipeline at the installation point and the earth resistance. It can reach several amps and even several dozens of ‘amps in steady state conditions; during faults it can reach several hundreds of amps. The earth- electiodes and the earthing connections must have a sufficiently high current carrying capecity. The following table extracted from {1} gives the permissible currents in plastic insuleted copper conductors (final temperature lower than 70° C under long term influence, 100° under short term influence).63.1.5, 632 63.3, 634 Copper cross-section (mm) 4 to dis [2s Fault current (1 5) (kA) os [12 |19 [30 Permanent current (A) 45 [7a fia [437 The permissible current density given in the same document for galvanized steel electrodes in the case of short-term influences (1 s) is 60 Aim. -FFECT OF E m HOD ‘The earthing of a pipeline can result in an important increase of the cathodic protection current necessary to maintain an adequate protection level In order to limit this effect it is advised to use anades as earthing electrodes (zinc electrodes, galvanized conductors) If only short-term interference has to be limited, the.earth electrodes may be connected through surge arresters, PIPELINE INSULATING FLANGES Insulating flanges are frequently used at the entry ofa station to isolate the pipeline from the local earth grid. They must be able to withstand the potential rise of the station earth during earth faults (and eventually the supplementary stresses due to the inductive influence of a HV line) to avoid a transfer of this potential rise on the pipeline. They will provided with surge arresters to avoid destruction at the time ofa lightning stroke inthe station. They can also be used fo subdivide the pipeline into several sections inside a long zone of influence and reduce the inductive influence. To be efficient, insulating flanges have to be placed at regular distances shorter than the characteristic Impedance of the pipeline (see appendix K); practically this, measure can only present a relative interest for plastic coated pipelines. Concerning the voltages stressing the insulating flanges, they are practically equi to the total EMF induced in each section ENHANCED INSULATION OF THE PIPELINE ‘An enhancement of the pipeline insulating coating can be used to avoid problems due to conductive coupling in the near vicinity of a tower. It can be obtained by increasing the thickness of the coating ~ placing the pipeline inside an insulating sheath ‘The length of improved insulation has to be defined in terms of the local earth potential rise EARTH CONDUCTORS ALONG THE PIPELINE [4, 8 ‘The current that is induced in a bare conductor laid along a pipeline in the whole zone of influence produces in the pipeline an e.m.t. that partially compensates the em, produced by the the H.V. line. ‘Their efficiency depends on the resistance of the conductor and on the distance between the pipeline and the conductor. Reduction by a factor 2 is possible with a copper conductor presenting 2 cross- section of about 50 mmr,o Ifthe conductor is regularly connected to the pipeline (about every 100 m), a supplementary effect can be obtained, This solution, that can be considered as an extension of the lumped earthing described in 6.3.1., presents a big interest in areas where the soil resistivity is relatively high. Solutions using zinc conductors have been presented in [4]. These conductors also provide cathodic protection for very important lengths of the pipeline. 635. EQUIPOTENTIAL GROUNDING MATATACCESS POINTS: When the required mitigation of the voltages due to the inductive coupling is very important, the different methods that have been presented hereabove, may be insufficient or too expensive. Uilization of grounding mats in the points where touching the metal is possible (valve sites, metering points) combined with an earthing of the pipelines in different points represents the only valid solution. This gr that can be buried at a very low depth, is connected to the pipeline. It does not contribute to an important reduction of the voltages with reference to a far earth, specially in high resistivity soils, but ii enables to reduce considerably the touch voltages as shown in fig. 6.1 ‘The dimensions of this grid have to be determined so that the person in contact with the pipeline stays above the zone covered by the grid. The touch voltage over the grid represents only a small fraction of the local potential rise of the pipeline. etalon ponoa stews . vk ZC Fig. 6.1. - Earth potential rise in the vicinity of an equipotential grid - Touch voltage 636. FCAT! 1 Cathodic protection installations likely to be stressed by significant voitages should be protected by surge arresters.68 MEASURES REQUIRED DURING INSTALLATION OF PIPELINES [1] (Owing to frequent contacts with the pipeline during its installation, important safety measures have to be taken by the staffif the pipeline is situated in the proximity of HV lines, + The first measure concems earthing of pipeline. The pipeline must be connected to an earth electrode with 2 low resistance in the immediate vicinity of each work place. The values of the required resistances and the maximum distance between the workplace and the nearest earthing depend on the Induced EMFs and can be defined by calculation = A.second measure concems the recommended use of insulating gloves to avoid contact with the ‘metal and other equipment connected to the pipeline, Rubber boots must be worn when working in damp trenches. ~ Tower earthings must never be used to earth the pipeline. The earth electrodes must be far enough from the towers; the required distance is a function of the faut current, earth resistance of the tower, the presence of earthwires and the soll resistivity (see chapter 4),1. 12. Al APPENDIX A, GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS AND PIPELINES The following considerations are intended for non-specialists. They give basic data on electiical installations and on pipelines. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS. TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS, Electrical energy is mainly generated in powerplants and transmitted to the consumers through an interconnected network of lines and cables, Energy can be supplied either by alternative currents or by direct currents. Alternative currents are the most largely used, direct currents are oniy used for transmission of very high energies on long distances. This document concerns only altemative currents, To convey the energy from power plants to stations and to interconnect the important stations, three-phase high voltage networks are used in order to minimize the transmission cost. Used voltages for the HV transmission networks are generally in the range 60 to 600 KV but higher voltages (750-1150 kV) are used In some countries. Distribution networks supplying the consumers can be splitted in two categories, the Medium Voltage networks - with voltages in the range of a few kV to about 30 KV and the Low Voltage networks with voltages In the range of 110 V to about 660 V. In the most cases these networks are also three-phase networks, ‘Two frequencies are used for the alternative currents ~ 80 Hz used in Europe, Asia ~ 60 Hz specially used in North-America HIGH VOLTAGE LINES AND CABLES Aerial fines are generally used for HV networks, their length can range between a few tens of kllometers and a few hundreds kilometers, cables are also used for voltages going to 150 kV (especially in the FtPeyn Vertical configuration Triangular configuration Horizontal configuration Fig. A.1. Typical configurations of HV lines4.3, 14, A2. Fig. A shows three configurations of phase conductors of aerial lines, corresponding to the most Classical situations, Presently most of the HV transmission lines are provided with earthwires placed above the upper phase conductors. The role of such earthwires is threefold - protection against lightning + reduction of the earth currents and consequently of the voltages induced on telecommunication circuits and pipelines and of the potential rises of the earthings. - interconnection of the earthings of the towers. High Voltage underground cables are composed by three one phase cables that are lad in trefoil or layer. They are provided with a metalic sheath that is normally earthed at both ends. Such a sheath can then reduce significantly the voltages induced during earth faut, OPERATION OF NETWORKS The relation between power P, voltage between phases U and the current | in the conductors is given by the expression P= V3 Ulcos@ vihere cos 9 is the power factor. Powers transmitted by 400 KV lines are frequently in the range 500-700 MW what leads to a circulation of currents of about 700 to 1000 Amp in the phase conductors. Even if the voltage system is well balanced - voltages between phase conductors and neutral corresponding tothe following expressions bs yeh Lu + the currents in the phase conductors are not quite balanced. The unbalance results from unbalanced loads and from the differences of capacities between phase conductors and earth, mae 3 The capacitive current to the earth due to the unbalanced capacities is proportional to the voltage level, the frequency and to the length of the line; it depends also on the phase conductor configuration, being maximum for a vertical configuration of the conductors. For 400 kV lines it can then reach values of about 0.1 Alkm at 50 or 60 Hz. For problems of influence its effect can be neglected ifthe line length does not ‘exceed a few dozens of kilometers (about 50 km for a 400 kV line). ‘Transposition of conductors is often used in fong lines to reduce this unbalance, Earthwires equipping the HV lines are permanently crossed by power frequency currents. They result from the differences of distances between the earthwire(s) and the different phase conductors and are produced by the magnetic fields. They are proportional to the phase currents and can reach in the case of a line provided with two earthwires more than 5 % of the phase intensity in each earthwire EARTHING OF THE NEUTRAL - FAULT CURRENTS: In the High Voltage Transmission Networks a part of the neutrals of the power transformers are directly earthed, As a result, during a fault between a phase conductor and the earth, the fault current can reach several dozens of kloamps in the vicinity of the HV stations. In the case of HV lines provided with earthwires, the number of faults is about 1 to 2 faults per year and per 100 line km, A certain percentage of faults occur between phases but the most of them are faults to the earth.AS. ‘The most severe influences of HV lines on telecommunication circuits or on pipelines appear during faults to the earth, they can result from an inductive influence or from a conductive influence (potential rise of the earth), High Voltage Transmission networks are provided with efficient protective devices which can eliminate the faults in a very short time. Most of faults are now eliminated in less than 200 ms and even lese than 100 ms. Neutrals of Medium Voltage distribution networks are frequently earthed through a resistance, a reactance or a resonant system in order to limit the earth fault current, According to the countries the maximum earth fault current can be limited to 300, 1000 or 2000 A. Influence of MV distribution networks on pipelines is generally very limited. PIPELINES Metallic pipelines used to convey fluids present in the most cases diameters ranging between 50 to 150 cm. ‘They are made of steel and the thickness of the tube, function of the pressure, generally ranges between Sand 8 mm, Protection of the underground pipelines against corrosion is realized by the cathodic protectio Is polarized negatively with regard to the earth. In order to enable the protection, the pipeline has to be insulated from the earth. In the past insulation was mainly realized by a bituminous coating; presently polyehtylene coating are the most frequently used. The length of pipeline protected by a given cathodic protection installation depends on the nature of the coating, it will be longer for polyethylene coatings than for bituminous coatings. Protection of tong pipelines can require several cathodic protection installations. the metalAPPENDIX B. CALCULATION METHODS FOR CAPACITIVE COUPLING. SIMPLIFIED EXPRESSIONS 14 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE METHOD OF THE POTENTIAL COEFFICIENTS ‘The investigation of capacitive coupling is based on the formulation of the potential coefficients. The following assumptions are made +The lines and pipelines are long in comparison with the distances between them. They are parallel to the surface of the earth and to each other. + The effect of the earth is taken into account by the method of electrostatic images, which constitutes a valid approximation up to about 1 MHz. If a system of two conductors is considered, represented by i and j (Raure B.1) with charges er unit of length Q; and Qj, then by using the potential coefficients, the potentials of conductors i and j relative to the earth can be written as: Pi, Q) + P5 Q) (8.1) Pi Q)+ Py Q) (82) uo Fig. 8.1 Representation of conductors i and j and of their images where is the self potential coefficient for conductor i, which is given 4) for transmission lines where conductor heights are much greater than conductor radi, by Pi=K, In — (m/F) (8.3)12, 82. If the wires of the transmission line are formed by bundled conductors, then ; will be substituted by the effective radius ao Fig, 8.2. - Example of bundle rn aNT (m) 1 = radius of each conductor in the i-th bundle N= number of conductors in the bundle (arranged symetrically on a circle of radius A) b) for aerial pipelines close to the ground, by : (6.4) 1S the mutual potential coefficient between the ith and jth conductor and is given by 5 Pyak, In ct (mF) (8.5) i where dj represents the distance between conductors i and |, Dy represents the distance between conductors i and the image of In these expressions Ko has the value 1 2 Kao ar 10? er ire eg isthe permitvly of vacuum; 9 = 10°9/38% (Fin) With @ number n of coupled conductors, the system of equations can be represented as followed (8.6)24. Bs. ‘When the problem concern the influence of conductors (1 ... n-1) on conductor n (isolated from the earth), we know in this system Vj; for i= 1 ... n-1 and Qn, equal to zero. The resolution goes through the determination of Q4 to Qn.4 DETERMINATION OF THE INFLUENGES. UTILISATION OF SIMPLIFIED EXPRESSIONS For a given exposure, two steps should be followed to evaluate the capacitive coupling interference : + Determination of the “initia” pipeline-to-earth voltage (Vop) : this is the voltage induced on the pipetine, insulated from the earth, within the length of exposure, = Determination of the discharge current passing through the body of a person in contact with the pipeline (ip). NO LOAD PIPELINE-TO-EARTH VOLTAGE (Vop) a) Paral Expressions B.7. and B.8. enable a relative good evalvation of the voltage induced on an insulated conductor by an HY line under balanced conditions & is 125 Uh, [ay 05 (gg + Aap) — (Aap wl @7) bh; = height of phase conductor i (m) dip = distance between phase conductor i and the pipeline p (m) eight of the pipeline (m) U_ = voltage between phases (kV) This expression can also be given under the form e7)Ba. Another expression is Vop = 1.4K dot Up IN] (88) where dm= Mean distance between the axis of the conductors of the power line, in meters, For a three-phase line 9 = Yas tac Soa 4 = positive sequence shunt capacitance of the power line, in Fim. Its typical range of variation is: 8 10°12 to 15 10°12 Fim Up. = positive sequence phase-to-earth voltage component of the power line, in V, ‘numerical values of the coupling functions, Table 8.1 gives the expressions for this function for typical configurations of overhead transmission lines, More details about the simplified method leading to expression 8.8. are given in The Directives of the CCITT (vol. 2, chapter 3) b) Non-parallel Exposures ‘An oblique exposure can always be divided in several sections that will be assimilated to parallelism, in accordance to the approximation shown in Figure 8.3. Ppetne Pipetne a ae ad Tine Fig. 8.3 - Assimilation of oblique exposures to parallelisms Under such assumption, the induced voltage on each section of the pipeline can be determined through the expressions given for the parallel exposures but using an equivalent separation equal to de = (da + dg) /2 ‘A crossing section should be defined in order to restrict the absolute value of separations da, and dg to 10m. maximumBS, ‘TABLE B+ : Expressions for the function NI Typical configuration ~_N1_ Unit (1m a=0 a>dlul>ot |a>olu| <04 Iv | >o4 ivi § - and 40 for hir = 2) EXACT METHOD. The induced voltage and the discharge current for a given exposure can also be obtained through the application of a method using matrix operations. We can take into account any number and type of phase conductors, shield wires and pipelines, with a high accuracy. The conductor system investigated by matrix operation is shown in Figure B.S. or 4 © gato oftibvnnes es kh N 1 PRASEHUNDLED ee } "SoNDUCTORS 4s owsulaTe FPELNES ox er Fig. 85Ba Based on the equations (B-1) and (B-2) the following matrix relation can be written for this system of M+Nen conductors vi] flPh (Plu Ple | fa, Yj |=|{Pla Plas Pie | ]% 8.16) Ye} [Pha PPleslPlee} Le Since the shield wires are earthed, thei voltages are nul, ie: Ve=0 ean Subsituting Ve on relations (B-16) and eliminating Owe have M=[P]n Qi +lP]u Qs W[P]1Q1+(P] Qs where Ph }u- Phe Pee Ples (2.18) PP] = (Plu ~ Phe Plat Ples Plo=Pla-Ple Pla Plea Fl “Flu In order to solve the matrix relations (8.16) it is necessary to impose the corresponding conditions for the pipelines. The most relevant cases are listed below ulated pipelines Making Qy = 0 and rearranging the equations (B.16) the no load pipeline-to- ‘earth voltages results Vor == Ply 21 = Uy Pe exBs, rthed pipelines When the pipelines are earthed, directly or through a low impedance, then Vy = 0. From equations (B.17) we can obtain Qy=[P}ulPla Plat -FPlaf' When the pipelines are sufficiently apart from the electrical conductors, it is to neglect the reaction of the pipelines on them. Hence we can write (PIs) (Ply Pl? Y= (PIGS Voy ‘The time derivative of (8-17) or (8-18) results in the charging currents for the pipelines Ont (6.22) egy, y If a person touches an unearthed pipeline and thereby connects it to earth, the discharge ‘current through the person is given by Ip=-Wb (8.23) where L = the pipeline fengih,4 ca DANCE OF Ci EVALUATION OF THE MUTUAL IMPEDANCE PARALLEL EARTH-RETURN CIRCUITS ‘The mutval impedance Zp of parallel earth-return conductors is a function of = the distance between conductors ~ the soll resistivity ~ the frequency Itis a complex impedance and not only a reactance.. Zmn= Rm +1 0bm The real component Fry (mutual resistance) accounts for losses in the earth-retum circuit and the imaginary component Ln corresponds to the mutual reactance between the circuit. Precise expressions have been established by Carson and Pollaczek but are very difficult to use because of their complexity. More simple expressions have been established. They are approximations of Carson or Pollaczeck’s ‘expressions. A few among the most valuable ones are proposed hereafter. a) Expression of Carson-Clem [1] Z,, (alm) (CA) where 4, f= frequency (Hz) 9 = 1.7811 - Euler's constant p= soil resistivity (Cm) d= geometrical distance between conductors (m) Expression C.1, can also take the following form : 4° 185 ad i (C.2. Sot Tig f in (C2) Zen) =c2 Carson-Clem expression is only valid for relatively short distances between circuits ds 90 fot b) Haberland’s formula [1] which gives @ very good approximation of the modulus of the mutual impedance for the industrial frequencies, for all the distances to be considered. (ca) ©) Gary-Dubanton's expression (valid only when both power fine and pipeline are aerial) [2] uf] fa2s6' B Zs fin — j are tg = CA. iam ly eRe (C4) where A =(hy+ nplib) +h +2 VB o]+s* B =26{(h;+h) J2+2a} d = distance between conductors i,j (m) i = height of conductor i (m) horizontal distance between conductors i,j (m) 330 Yoit p=4x107 Him 4d) Another expression, which can be useful for calculations on computers Is given in the CCITT Directives [1]. Its domain of validity is very broad Zn = (4 (6) +) f2 (2) 10°9 jo (2m) (C5) with Be Pn Ag oe ot f@i=a,-a, d+a,d?-a, P rad’ — ad? a o%+ a, ind 2 Vianer sereeee {(0=~b,+b, d-b, +d, dbo dt eb deb, € by ind d = distance between conductors (m)& Table | gives the coefficient a; and bjca 14) fold) ay 123.31 by 339.03 2 4.89 bp 193.67 23 23.93 ba 4976 a4 4.96 ba 8.97 25 0.44 » 0.52 25 0.01 be 0.01 a 0.00 by 180.44 En 199.98 bp 0.00 be 0.27 Table C.1 For approximate evaluations of the mutual impedance, tables and figures can also be of great use. Figure C.1, drawn from reference [3] gives both components of the mutual impedance per unit length ‘and per cycle in function of the parameter d¥f7p where d= distance between conductors (m) = frequency (Hz) = soil resistivity (Cm) sede a Mitiohns per km per cyclo avi” Fig. C.1. Mutual impedance of two earth-retum conductors [1] Fig. C.2. gives the evolution of the real and imaginary components at 60 and 60 Hz in function of the parameter 4/52, (maim . Bests pecan gatescear > ,—— 1 roa 1 © ae wt Fig. C.2. Evolution ofthe mutual impedance of circuit with earth-return with the distance and the sol resistivity 12. PROACHES AND GROSS! ‘Abovernentioned expressions and figures concem parallelisms In real cases, the zone of influence generally comprises also oblique approaches and crossings. For the calculations, approaches and crossings are approximated to paralielisms. ‘An oblique approach with distances dy and da at the ends can be approximated to @ parallelism with a separation d equal to fad, on condition that 13 2+ 4 SR, ——— (2g + &-¥ 2, a ete Gort 20) sequence component 3 Zao +20 +249 coming from A nt] Z,,+X 2, bo = faat® Fa) sero sequence component 3 Zn9 * 259 * 29 coming trom B where (ars) (21+ = 4) Z +2, 40 z, art Zar 4s Cue) Cap #2029) Zp0* gq th Zhso4EI Presence in the zone of influence of metalic conductors connected to the earth can reduce significantly the inductive influence on pipelines during faults to the earth. The current that is generated by inductive coupling in the circuit formed by such conductors and the ‘earth creates in the circuit pipeline/earth an e.m¥. which partially counterbalances the em¥. induced directly by the fault current, ‘The efficiency of such screening conductors can be determined from the equations of - the disturbing circuit - the circuit pipetine/earth - the circuit screening conductorfearth Fig. E.1, Presence of a screening conductor “The equation given hereafter supposes that the current is constant along the screening conductor; such an hypothesis is not always valid as it wll be shown later on, In the following 4 represents the disturbing circuit (phase/earth) 4 represents the screening circuit (screening conductor/earth) p represents the circuit pipeline/earth Z; represents the impedance of circuiti with earth return Z; represents the mutual impedance between circuits i and j , represents the total E.M.F. induced in the circuit pipeline/earth In absence of screening conductor (Epo = -Zpt ty 1) In presence of conductor 4 earthed at both ends, the systems of expressions (E2) and (E2) can represent the equations of circuits 4 (screening circuit) and p (pipeline/earth).2 Zaq le +Zay 14 =0 (€2) Zpa le +Zpt by = Epa (2 By solving these systems we obtain (3) «,) 4 Zo 4 Ifwe can suppose that presence of the screening circuit has produced no modification of the current 1 and if we consider as reference the same disturbing current we obtain from relations (E4), (Eg) the screening factor or the reduction factor of conductor 4 a ket oo (4) 244 pt ‘Two special cases are worth examining a) The screening conductor 4 is placed in the near vicinity of the inducing conductor 1 Zp4~ Zpi z, ko1-—t (e5) 2aa 'b) The screening conductor 4 is placed in the near vicnily ofthe influenced circuit 241 Zpt z kat-— (8) 24 ‘The expressions are quite similar, they correspond to the more favourable positions for the screening factors, Practically these cases can correspond to the metallic sheaths of HV cables and to a conductor lying along the pipeline. EFFECT OF THE EARTHWIRE(S) ‘The earthwires are connected to the earthing of the substations and to the different towers. if a fault occurs between a phase and a tower, the current in the earthwire is maximum in the spans adjacent to the fault; it decreases progressively and practically reaches its limit after a few spans (3-4 if the resistance of the towers is low, about 10 if the resistance is high).E38 Consideration of current constant equal to the limit value reached after a few spans leads to a conservative value of the reduction factor of the earthwire. Knowledge of the resistances of the tower enables, with the utilization of computers, a better evaluation of the reduction factor. Expressions hereafter suppose a constant current in the different spans of the earthwire between the fault point and the substation Expression (ES) is generally used to characterize the reduction factor of an earthwire eet Ze 4 yg ad) oa wy 10 gg where rag = resistance ofthe circuit eartire/earth per unit ength including the resistances ofthe conductor and of the earth-retum ‘omgg = reactance of the circuit earthwire/earth per unit length ‘om44= mutual reactance of the circuits earthwire/earth and phase conductor/earth per unit length In fact the condition required to utilize expression (E7) is that Zp4 = Zp4 ; this condition is not quite satisfied ifthe pipeline is relatively near the line and expression (E7) gives a reduction factor a litle too low. Utiization of expression (E4) Is recommended for near proximities. ‘The reduction factor due to the earthwire is also function of the phase conductor concemed by the fault, specially for lines with a vertical configuration of the conductors; the efficiency Is the lowest for a fault on the inferior conductor. ‘The reduction factor is generally ranging between 0.65 and 0.75 in function of the resistance of the earthwire and the position of the conductor concemed by the fault. IF the line is provided with two earthwires 4 and 5, the exact expression for Ep is given by ) ewer aly Zeer Zas Zar Zea Zos2a1~Zas251 208 | iggy etl Za -Zy Fog Ly Zeg- Ze 2 44 “55 ‘45, pt 44 55” 45. pt A more simplified expression is generally used, it is obtained by assimilating the two earthwires to a fictive earthwire having a resistance equal to the parallel resistance of both conductors and an inductance to the earth equal to fe as +My 2 maa being the inductance ofthe circuit formed by one earthwire and the earth per unt length mas, being the mutual inductance of the circuits with earth return per unit length The reduction factor due to the presence of two earthwires is generally ranging between 0.5 and 0.6ea METALLIC SHEATH OF THE HV CABLES For an earth fault at the extremity of an HV cable, the screening effect of the metallic sheath of the cables, earthed at both ends of the cables is given by the expression (E.5.) Z, +iolm,-™,) | fa. ale ae (9) 44 44 “4 ‘owing that the mutual impedance of the circuits 1 (phase conductorfearth) and 4 (sheath/earth) can be considered as practically equal to the self inductance of circuit 4 (sheaths/eerth). ‘As the global resistance of the sheaths of the 3 one-phase cables can be as low as 0.1 Q/km, the screening factor can reach value as low as 0.15 BARE CONDUCTORS BURIED ALONG THE PIPELINE [1] For relatively long parallelisms between pipeline and HV line, the current in a bare conductor buried ‘along the pipeline can be considered as practically constant along the greatest part of the zone of influence; this current is given by the expression | ~ Ez. where Eis the emf induced per length unit Ziis the impedance of the circuit pipleine/earth per unit length Expression (E6) is then applicable (E10) Efficiency of the conductor depends on the resistance of the conductor and on the separation pipeline/screening conductor: it can be important as shown in the following example 44 =0.3.0lKm, p =3000m; dap = 0.5m omyy~ 0.7 Am; —— wmMp4~ 0.5.9Ikm and finaly |k|014. 412, fl APPENDIX F CALCULATION OF THE ELECTROMOTIVE FORCES INDUCED IN NORMAL OPERATION ‘Overhead lines The symbols 1,2,3 represent the phase conductors 45 the earthwires P the pipeline taal with a= e In the case of lines without earthwire, the electromotive force induced per unit length by a perfectly balanced three-phase line in the circuit formed by the pipeline and the earth can be expressed in the following form (from the Carson-Clem approximation given in appendix 3) Sop Sy, Sag 6 =1t 2 n YE | vm © ‘s ‘o where dip represents the distance between the phase conductor i and the pipeline p (fig. 3.5.) Ni = BALANC! If the line is provided with one earthwiro, the expression of the electromotive force becomes (vim) a]. Hel gq S20. dee Sep) _ Zax gn dou das 24 (r= f- GE (ne +188 in ~ FE PEE + 8 In PA) a, ip Zu dy isa (F.2) ‘The first term corresponds to the influence of the balanced three-phase line; the second to the influence of the earthwire. Contrary to the fault condition, where the presence of an earthwire always reduces the e.m.t., the earthwire can produce an increase of the emf. under normal operation,13. 14. F2 LINES wim - When the line is provided with two earthwires called 4 and 5, the expression becomes (ac—ba) (da ~ bo) “yp FE bey BEY FS) where = 244, (supposed equal to zg) = impedance per unit length ofthe circuit formed by each earthwire and the earth b = 245 = mutual Impedance per unit length of the circuits formed by the circuits earthwirelearth ayy 4 aetok | JF in on ww e=in 4 d=in 15 S55 earth equal to (mgq + mag\/2 with ma = self inductance per unit length of the circuit earthwire/earth ‘mgs = mutual inductance per unit length of both circuits earthwire/earth fat dy, 4. 4, d, gw] hPa oy eo Ste re 16 Sag ‘SYSTEMS WITH UNBALANCED CURRENTS Influence of unbalanced currents can be calculated by using the symmetrical component method where the unbalanced system is replaced by three balanced systemsFa - the positive sequence systems where 42 lp.2# aly tg=a"lp ‘The influence of positive sequence currents has been examined hereabove, it is given by ‘expressions F.1 to F.4. ‘The influence of negative sequence is given by similar expressions taking in consideration the inversion of phases 2 and 3 For example in the case of lines without earthwires, mn riftoly fo= 24 ]In ae en (FS) Sp ep Calculation of influence of zero-sequence currents is to be carried out in the same way as for ‘fault currents Influencing the whole zone of influence. tensa oe” Fig, F.3. Example of induced voltage profile in normal situation Curve A - line without earthwire - Balanced currents (1000 A) Curve 8 - Ine with earthwire - Balanced currents (1000 A) Curve © - fine with earthwire - Unbalanced currents (ly = 1900 A, lg = 50 A) |g in phase with current in the lowest conductor Curve D - tine with earthwire - Unbalanced currents (ly = 1000 A, Ip = 50 A) Join phase with current in the highest conductor.Fa 2. High Voltage Cables Expression (F1) given for the influence of balanced currents in overhead lines can be used for HV-cables. Because of the short distances between phase conductors the emfs due to balance currents are much lower than for overhead lines and can be neglected. Problems of influence in normal situation have only to be considered for long parallelisms if the zero- sequence currents can be important,cl APPENDIX G CALCULATION OF METALLIC PIPELINES ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS 1 USED SYMBOLS Zo 8 pipeline series impedance (sum) pipeline internal impedance (Sm) Pipeline admittance (112m) frequency (Hz) 2af (rads) magnetic permeabilty of the air = relative permeability ofthe pipeline soil electrical resistivity (Cm) resistivity ofthe pipeline (Com) pipeline coating electrical resistivity (Cum) electrical permittivity of the air, eo = 8,8510-12. F/m {elative permittivity of the pipetine coating electrical permittivity ofthe soil specific coating resistance (rq = p¢ 8c) diameter ofthe pipeline (rn) radius of the pipeline (mm) equivalent radius (m) of buried pipetines fa? + an? D height of the pipeline centre (m) i 10°7 Hi depth of buried pipeline (m) thickness of the coating (m) propagation constant (m-1) of the circuit pipeline/earth characteristic impedance (2) of the circuit pipetine/earth 2 PIPELINE SERIES IMPEDANCE Z = For above ground pipelines zaZine + 8 Oe | Hoy 2a (az)G2 - For buried pipelines 2a egg + 28S 4 SHS in 7 Bt GEE I) a (im) (42.2) “4 2 depends on the propagation constant y what seriously complicates the calculation a fy? + jo ne Expression (A.2.1,) can generally be considered as a good approximation of (A2.2,) and is normally used even for buried pipelines (except for bare pipelines or pipelines with low values of specific coating resistance ro) ‘Typically zing can be approximated by Pp Hob @ nD +i) Expression A.2.1. can be expressed under the following form z=r+jom Pp Ro Kr® xD V2 m= eHotr® oe, 37 ypous xDv2 "ar D Current valve used forthe relative permeatilly of steel pip of stee! pipeline (pp) : 0.17 10° am. ir is 900 and for the resistivityPIPELINE ADMITTANCE - For above ground pipelines ane = Jo pe forh, 22a :y= jo in a - For buried pipelines ‘The total admittance results on the admittance y- between the pipeline and the surrounding (ground (yg is due to the coating) and on the admittance Yq due to the earth. y, = (tam) nD Sg fe 20 + ja 2 P. 8, 5 z(i/p+joe) In(u2ry a) Ye depends on the propagation constant y Generally for coated pipelines ye>> Yo, therefore y =o zDD. &6"D +io Po Pe e y* Current value used for the relative permittivity of pipeline coating is 5. Values of the resistivity ic Of the pipeline coating are very different according to the nature of the coating. For bituminous coatings pe ~0,2-2 108 what leads to values of the specific coating resistance fg = pg & of about 103 - 104 am?For polyethylene coatings, pg = 2-20 107; fo# 108-108.0.08 am TI Ry) Ae where R(7) is the real component of 7os 0 23 100m? 12 10'Omt oa tam? 1,93 10am? D ° 7200 ‘400 00 ‘800 4000, mn oat Fig. G-1 Characteristic values of the module of the propagation constant for pipelines’ as function ofthe pipeline diameter f= 50 cps, p= 100 0m, 20 oo i fenton L- ~ re310'0n? [+7 om | ! retofan? oo 30am - SS 7 Peat rew'on' | 1e30'amt 30 1 D ° 200 400 600 00 1000 mm Fig, G-2 Characteristic values of the angle of propagation constant for pipelines as function of the pipeline diameter f= 50 cps, p=ce 121 100 10 oa . ° 200 400 ‘800 200 1000 mm Fig, G-3 Characteristic values of the characteristic impedance for pipelines as function of the pipeline diameter f= 50 cps, p= 100 Am, - T f3t0'am? | r,<10'Gm? 4 L bt 4 o | —t Team an | o ° font > ie t0fan 40" 1 D ° 20 400 200 00 4000 mm Fig, G-4 Characteristic values of the angle of characteristic impedance for pipelines as function of the pipeline diameter f = 50 cps, p = 100 Om,HI APPENDIX H. CALCULATION OF VOLTAGES RESULTING FROM INDUCTIVE COUPLING PARALLELISMS Figure H.1 represents the situation with 2 parallelism between x= 0 and x= L Z, is the impedance of the pipeline situated at the left side of O and seen from point 0 2g is the Impedance ofthe pipeline situated at the right side of L and seen. from L (On basis of the above-mentioned assumptions the equations of the circuit pipeiine-earth (represented con figure H.1) are \ piste \ ONE B i (a yas vay T Fig. H.1 - Influence of a HV line on a parallel pipeline V(x) —= +21) -E (x) =0 (Ht) dx dlls) ——tyVe) =O (H2) dx where 2 = impedance per unit length of the circuit pipetine-earth y= admittance per unit length of the circuit pipeline-earth E (x) = em. induced on the pipeline per unit length The evaluation of z and y is considered in appendix C.Ha ‘Combination of equations (H.1) and (H.2) leads to the following expressions of V(x) GE (x) oo YE) (Ha) dx’ 1) yeigy 4600) «0 (ay oe I we consider a fault outside the zone of parallelism, or the influence in normal operation, the disturbing current is constant along the zone of influence and consequent : E (x) = constant Solutions of equations (H.3) and (H.4) can be written under the form, Vin) =-Ze (A et - Be 1%) (45) Isa e+ Be K+ = (He) E , characteristic impedance of the circuit pipeline - earth y fay » Propagation coefficient ofthe circuit pipeline - earth, ‘The constants A and B depend on the boundary conditions at the ends vt E_ (layyhy- (tv )e! Aa Bit eet a me E (yyy See At ze wy Za ~Ze vis FASZE reflection facta he beinning of the ppeine 2p -2e P v2 reflection factor at the end of the pipetineHS ‘Three particular cases are worth examining a) the pipeline extends fora few kilometres beyond the parallel routing without earthing Z4= 2 = Ze: v4 =0; v2 =0 a vaese™ é waa ) 1h _ gy We We (2 < If the line is uniform, the maximum pipeline potential occurs at the ends of the parallel routing at x = L and x=0 Outside the exposure, the pipeline potential dectines according to exponential function E a0 ay ol Meal Yee V2 Vmax e™ with x = co-ordinate outside the subdivided section dL 1 Pipeline HY Line Fig, H.2 - Evolution of the voltage along a pipeline extending beyond the zone of influenceHa ») the pipeline extends beyond the paralle| routing at one extremity (A) and stops at the other extremity (B) without earthing. for example Zp * Ze, Zp = 0 : v4 =0:vg Ela vod = =[(e™ cae (x) y ( dere yy Eee 7 21, hy, —. 4 z=(t-et) wy Yo) o t ? Fig. H.3 - Evolution of the voltage when the pipeline extends beyond the zone in only one direction ©) the pipeline is earthed at one extremity of the parallelism (A), It extends at the other extremity. 1B). For example Zq=0; 2p = Ze: v4 =-1; vp=0 voy = Ee 2) oy = Er ety 2y — V(o) = 0; ViL) =24 HS 4 o t t Fig. H.4 - Evolution of the voltage when the pipeline is earthed at one extremity CHES, CROS GENERAL METHOD The zone of influence is subdivided in sections which may be assimilated to parallelisms according to the rules defined in Appendix C, point 1.2, Each section is represented by a x col submitted to the influence of the e.m.t.s calculated according the method developped in Appendix E for the normal operation and in Appendices C and F for fault conditions. Fig. HS ‘The longitudinal impedance Z.is the sum of the internal impedance of the pipeline and of the external impedance of the circuit with earth return, The admittance Y comprises two terms, the first one corresponds to the stray resistance and the second one to the capacitance between pipeline and earth Expressions of Z and Y ere detailed in appendix G They are reminded in table 2He Table 2 - Electrical characteristics of the circutt pipeline/earth 1 [PotoHr® | noe és - 37. fox Ham) = 35 oo + io fm + t Zintemal Z extemal xD ¢, nD y = +jo 1 lim 8, with = diameter (rn) p= fesistvity ofthe metal (am) Wo=4n 107 (Him) bir = relative permeability of the metal p= resistivity of the (alm) fg = tesistance ofthe coating (Cm*) ¢= thickness ofthe coating (m) 9 = 8.85 10 Fim 2 = relative permeability of the coating. Fig. HS47 Equation of cel is given by the expression Zing bea + Seas 2+ Zin) he -Zyied lied =i Ui (a7) with 24.12 20¥i4 + ¥) L; = length of section i Concerning the equations the 1st and ofthe last cel, they have to take info consideration the part of the pipeline extending possibly outside the zone of influence; it can be represented by the characteristic impedance 2, = /2/ y if the pipeline is extending a few kilometers outside the zone. “The equation of cel is, in this condition Zo, +24 + 24,2) 4-24.21 = Ek withZ5,4=Ze (24) fnow the pipeline stops at the extremity of the zone of influence, equation of cel n becomes Zp, nlnt + Sn-tyn* Zn + Zn, net) In = En bn with Zynet = 2%q “The system of equations can be presented as follows : Zo,1 +21 *24,2)14- 24,212 ey 24,24 21,2 + 22 + 22,3) l2-22,.3 13 | pet lng *Za-2.n +2net + Znetallnt ~Znetyn tn Zn-tinlnt * ZntntZn+2n, nein = en Resolution of the system enable determining = voltages at the extremities of the different sections currents along the pipeline Length of each section will ba limited In order to obtain a good evaluation of the profile of voltages and currents along the pipeline.2.2. He ‘The same system of relations may be used to take into consideration the influence of local earthings on the voltage level and profile. For an earthing with a resistance Ri.4 ; between cels i and i for example the impedance Zj.1 j= 2 / (Vist + ¥) will be replaced by ‘An other computation method has been presented in reference (5). This method is based upon Thevenin decomposition procedures. Evaluation of voltage at a determined point P can be obtained by replacing the left side and the right side by equivalent source voltages Vj, V_ and impedances Z;, Z,. A x Fig. H7 ZM-ZV, Po Ze ‘This representation enables also to define the effect obtained in earthing the pipeline in M. 2% 4-3) 224% I2,% where Ze represents the resistance of the earth in P. ‘As the previous methods, it enables the determination of the voltages at each extremity of section,APPENDIX! ‘SOIL RESISTIVITY For electrical problems the soil is characterized by different parameters, specially the permeability, the dielectric constant, the dielectric strength and the resistivity, ‘The permeability may be regarded 2s constant, the dielectric constant varies within rather wide limits within 1 and 80 depending on the nature of the soil its value influes on the leakage admittance of the underground pipeline, ‘The dielectric strength is of importance in lightning phenomena, ‘The soll resistivity is the most important parameter in all problems involving the earth as a return conductor it will play an important role in the problems of conductive and inductive couplings between pipeline and H.V. line during earthfauits. 7 The soil resistivity is given in Om, its value varies within very wide limits from 10 Qm to more than 10000 2m in function of the soil nature. The resistivity depends on its composition, the size of particles, compactness, moisture content, Table 1 gives data on the resistivity of different soils, Table 1 Range of soil resistivity Type of Earth ‘Average resistivity (am) Wet organic soil 49 Dry. humous soil 30 Moist sot 100 Limestone shale 300 Moraine sandstone 41000 Coarse sand, gravel 3000 Bedrock 10000 ‘The general expressions used in the guide for the resistance of earth electrodes, and the mutual impedance of circuits with earth return suppose an uniform assumption. In the reality the soil is nonuniform, some expressions have been defined for two-layer soils but consideration of an equivalent resistivity may be sufficient in the most problems. ‘The value of the soil resistivity is particularly Important for the problems of conductive coupling; the earthing resistance is directly proportional withthe soil resistivity pRee5 E where F represents the equivalent radius of the electrode like the ground potential rise around an earth electrode crossed by a current le Veeck x represents the distance to the centre of the electrode In some countries the upper layer of the soil may freeze during the winter, what can influence the resistance of earth electrodes, specially when they are buried at a low depth. The sol resistivity influences also but toa limited extent the self impedance and the mutual impedance of circuits with earth return For example, for f= 50 He, d 2py = 0,24 Gxlkm for p = 100m. qn = 0,31 Ck for p = 1000 Om 0m “The induced e.m. is increasing with higher soil resistivity. For induction at 50 or 60 Hz, the resistivity at large depths is most important due to the fact that the equivalent depth of the current retuming by the earth is proportional to Ypt ‘The freezing of the upper layer of the soil has no effect on the equivalent soil resistivity due to the fact that the average depth for the current is about a few hundred meters, The soll resistivity is normally measured with the four electrode method (fig. 1.1.) ‘The four electrodes are aligned and placed at equal distance 4. ‘A-current | is injected between the outer electrodes and a voltage V is measured between the inner electrode, The apparent earth resistivity is given by the expression 2ndv 1 The apparent resistivity is measured with different spacings between the electrodes from 1 meter to several dozens of meters.‘The result is plotted and when the soil resistivity varies with the depth, the resistivity and depth of the different layers can be evaluated Fig, I, - Measurement of soll resistivity7) EARTH Pt TH PC t For an approximate calculation of earth potential distribution Ve at a substation, analytical formulas are applicable only inside a substation or at relatively large distances from the grounding grid, assuming a homogeneous soil inside substation: V, = ( oe ol atlarge distances: (x)= PE 02) oe ex where gis the current driven into the soi p is the earth resistivity P is the ground grid perimeter xis the distance from the geometric center of the grid ‘Comparisons with exact calculations made with a computer software for grids of various geometries showed that formula (J-2) is valid for distances larger than d—r (dm, being the greatest dimension of the substation ground grid). For an approximate determination of earth potential distribution near a grounding grid, the following graphical method may be used. It consists of two steps : ~ draw on a paper having a double logarithmic scale the variations of earth potential Ve(d) against distance d = for points above the ground grid (up to a distance called b) Vo = Vg (equation J-1) and for points farther than dm use equation (J-2) : on a double logarithmic scale, one should obtain two staight ine segments : = to obtain the earth potential variations close to the ground grid, simply connect the points at the ‘outside limit ofthe grid (d=b) end at dy (d=dm, V = p Ie/2m dn)24 J2 Potential (Vots) 1000 - ; |. antzm ‘00 600 400 ‘ 200 f= 1000 4 p+ 100 am \ rmetam ira dus = 5. em IX | | dept 08m \ | 100 50 10 20 4 68000 200 Distance from canter © (m) Fig, 4.1. - Exact (computed) and approximate potential distributions above and near a rectangular earth arid. Figure (J-1) shows how this method applies in the case of a rectangular grid (solid lines are the exact computed earth potential, dotted lines are the approximate potential distribution), EARTH POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION NEAR.A TOWER Pe ING ‘The general expression of the potential rise of a tower earth electrode with respect to a remote reference is given by the relation (3)22 J3 where Re is the earth resistance of the tower Ie is the current flowing into the soil through the electrode For a fault ccouring between a phase conductor and a tower ofa line without earthwires the current I is equal to the fauit current le. In the case of lines provided with earthwires a precise evaluation of the current flowing into the soil through the tower earth electrode requires the knowledge of the earth resistance of the diferent towers and the resolution of al the circuits formed by the earthwires of the towers (fg. J-2). If the earth resistances of the towers present the same order of magnitude, expressions (J4 and J5) can be used as good approximations of Ig and Ur as far as the fault occurs at a distance of a few kilometers at least of the nearer substation, zy b Ry +2, kh (J-4) Zz +t kL 5) T aR +2, where kis the reduction factor due to the earthwires (see appendix E point 2). Zrris the impedance of circuit formed, by the earthwire(s) and the different towers. 21 =08 fs + {5(@RE+Z5) |= 05 Z5 + (Re Ze where 2g being the impedance of the circuit formed by the earthwire(s) and the earth between two successive towers EARTH POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION ‘The concept of hemispheric equivalent electrode is a useful tool for approximate calculations of earth potential distribution around poles and towers. The earth resistance of a ground electrode of any geometry is defined as the ratio between its earth potential rise (with respect to an infinity remote reference) and the current flowing into the sail through the ground electrode a= E v3)ka APPENDIX K POTENTIAL TRANSFERRED TO AN UNDERGROUND PIPELINE THROUGH NON-PERFECTLY INSULATING COATING ‘This section presents a simplified method for the determination of voltage transferred to a metallic pipeline buried near a transmission line tower subjected to a ground fault Notations x abscissa along the pipeline route (the origin is taken at the closest point to the tower) Velx!: EPR along the pipeline at the abscissa x fel pel Vix): pipeline voltage at abscissa x : x): current flowing in the pipeline at abscissa x y pipeline linear acmittance Y propagation constant ofthe buried insulated pipeline (y = vzy) 2g: Characteristic langth ofthe pipeline (iy = 1/R(y), R(y), being the real part of). Situations to be considered ‘Two situations are worth considering : 1) the coating presents a local hole in the EPR zone, leading to a focal contact between the metal and the earth, and a current injaction 2) The pipeline admittance depending on the voltage accross the coating increases temporarily on a limited section in the EPR zone (this situation specially concerns bituminous coatings) ‘Main assumptions @- Outside the two zones mentioned hereabove, the pipeline admittance is constant along the pipeline and does not depend on the voltage difference V(x) - Ve(x) across the coating b= there is no insulating flange in the pipeline section close to the tower c= the pipeline route follows a straight line e the pipeline section exposed to high EPR is significantly shorter than the caracteristic length 2g (this is most often a reasonable assumption). From assumptions a), b) and c), it can be easily derived that V(x) and I(x) follow the well-known “transmission fine” equations; thanks to assumption d), V(x) can be approximated by 2 simple exponential lawK2 for x> 0 v(xy= Viaje ?® «1 for x <0 V(x) = VidjetY® Determination of Vio). value. the pipeline voltage at the injection place o \V(o) can be determined from the equivalent circuit given in fig. 1 @ ae wie aN ~(EPR)q isthe earth potential rise in point 0 - (Z)q isthe local impedance pipelinelearth in point o. Its value can be obtained by using expressions of the pipeline admittance given in appendix G, point 3, Moo “eo i Yet Mo 11), where Ye = local admittance between the pipeline and the surrounding earth (Vis due to the coating) Ye = local admittance due to the eart, it depends on the sol resistivity Ts sf section s, in the second situation, if we suppose that p, and ¢, represent the mean values of the electrical resistivity and of the relative permeability of the coating modified on a length L’ during the fault producing the EPR. nD jozexd), rae a Te 9,8, a J x U(1/ p+ joe) e inti2/y a 2, _(€PR), Ma Z,+2(Z) et 2g with Z, = characteristic impedance ofthe circuit pipeline/earth outside the zone of injectionu APPENDIX L CONSIDERA’ CONCER! ICH ve GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Dangers for people touching a metalic pipeline submitted to the electrical influence of a H.V. line are function of the magnitude and the duration of the current injected into the body. ‘The purpose of this appendix is to present an introduction to the subject of touch voltages and to the rationale leading to the determination of admissible limits. A more thorough treatment can be found in the itterature (7] Concerning the admissible limits for the human body a distinction has to be done between three influences: a) long duration influences ») short duration influences corresponding to faults on H.¥. lines ©) very short duration influences corresponding to the discharge of the pipeline through the body of someone touching it. ADMISSIBLE CURRENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY For about 15 years, different medicat studies have been carried out in order to achieve a better characterization of the danger factor, The danger is a function of both the amplitude and duration of the current. Lot drawn out of IEC Publication n° 479-1 "Effects of current passing through the human body" [8), defines different zones of current effects of a.c, currents 50 - 60 Hz circulating in a path from the left hand to the feet. The figure concerns durations ranging between 10 ms and 10 s, i Duration of curant flow t 8 Body curent (8 Fig. Lt34 Zone Normally no perception 2-- Normally no dangerous pathophysiological effect 3- Normally no organic trouble 4-Fiilation probability less than 5 % 5 - Fibrillation probability between 5 and 50 % 6 - Fibrillation probability higher than 60 % It can be seen that the risk of ventricular fibrilations depends of the duration of the currant passing through the body. Columns 2 and 3 of table 1 give the values in millamperes corresponding to probabilties of ventricular firilation (main cause of death by 2 50 or 60 Hz shock) of 0.6 and § % and for duration of 0.1, 0.2, 0.35 and 1s. Table 1 Currents (mA) likely to produce ventricular fibrillaton, ‘Shock duration Current (mA) probability of fibrillation 0.5% 5% ot 560 750 O4 440 600 0.35 300 400 0s 140 200 4 60 70 For other paths of the current in the body, a heart-current factor has to be introduced. ‘This factor defines a relation between the current density in the heart for a given path and the path left hand-feet. The admissible current is equal to the admissible value in the path left hand-feet divided by this heart-current factor. Table 2 - Heart-current factor for a few paths of the current [2] Path of the current Heart-current factor Left hand or both hands-feet 1.0 Left hand - right hand 04 Right hand-feet 0 VATION OF. CONVERSION ADMISSIBLE CURRENTS TO ADMISSIBLE VOLTAGES Influences due to resistive or magnetic couplings produce voltages on conductors or pipelines. Although the risk depends on the current, it appears in practice more convenient to define the admissible values as a function of voltage for such influences. On the other hand influences by capacitive coupling produce injection of currents so that it is more logical for this kind of influence to maintain the limit under the form of current.32 Ls Conversion current to voltage requires a good knowledge of the impedance of all constitutive elements of the circult involving the human body, Fig. L.2 represents the equivalent circuit for both situations - circulation of current between hand and feet = circulation between hands VA Zrody Zp) v@) ZenoesZs) UC) Zrty Zp) Zeontat Zed sfowa Fig, L.2. Equivalent circuits for current circulation between feet (a) and between hands (b) EVALUATION OF THE DIFFERENT IMPEDANCES: Since the current through the body determines the danger for humans only influences by resistive or/and inductive coupling are considered when evaluating the impedances. Capacitive coupling is assessed directly through calculating the current. + Source impedance The source impedance Zg depends on the length of the pipeline. Its value generally can vary between a few ohms and a few tens of ohms. It is normally negligible. ~ Impedance of the human body Zy ‘The total impedance of the human body includes the intemal impedance of the body tissue and the impedance of the skin. In practice the last one can be neglected.33. For touch voltages of 50 V the mean value of the total body impedance is about 2600 © and it decreases to about 1000 0 for touch valtages of 1000 V.(See ret. for more details) - Impedance between feet and ground “This impedance comprises normally the impedance of the shoes and the contact impedance with the ground, ‘This contact impedance depends on the soil resistivity; Ro(in ohms) = 1,5 p where resistivity of the soil, is given in Im. Its value is generally between a hundred chm and a few thousands ohms. ‘The resistance of the shoes depends on the type and state of the shoes. The resistance of a dry shoe ‘can reach more than 10 MQ. For wet shoes, the value depend on the nature of the shoes, on their wear ; itcan exceptionnally be lower than § KA. DETERMINATION OF ADMISSIBLE VOLTAGES ‘With the hereabove considerations, it appears that for a given voltage, the contact between hand and hand is generally much more dangerous than a contact between hand and feet owing to the normally high value of the shoes impedance and in spite of the fact that the admissible current is 2.6 higher for a contact hand to hand due to the heart factor. Contacts hand to hand will serve as reference for the determination of admissible voltage. {f we consider a mean value for body impedance equal to 1 ke> Vaden = 108 tp where Ip is the admissible body current in Amps. If (IhM}agm is the admissible current in the circuit hhand to hand, = (hep dm /, with (Inp).adm being the admissible current in the circuit hand to feet Ch Jad (0.4 being the hear factor for the circuit hand to han. ‘Owing to the normal durations of faults (less than 0.15 -0.2 s) limits of about 1000 V are reasonable, According to fig. L.1 for a duration tower than 0.15-0.2 s a current of about 0.4 A in the path hand to feet presents a fibrilation risk practically equal to zero 038. Uadm = 103 x 0.410. puR, i Long duration influences can result from capacitive coupling or inductive coupling with a HV tine in normal operation. It is generally considered that the danger threshold corresponds to an circulation of current of about 30 mA; in the body the perception threshold is about 0.5 to 1 mALs = In the case of capacitive coupling precautionnary measures are required when currents can reach or exceed a value going from 5 to 15 mA depending on the national regulations. They are applicable on aerial pipelines and on underground pipelines during their lying = Concerning the inductive influence measures are required when the voltage exceeds 60 to 65 V, depending on country. ‘SHORT DURATION INFLUENCES During faults in the HV installations higher voltages can appear on the pipelines as a result of an inductive or a conductive influence, but owing to the short duration of the fault, admissible voltages are higher than in steady state operation The danger due to short duration influences results from the combination of different probabilities : + probability that an earth fault occurs on the H.V.line = probability that people touch the pipeline at the same moment ~ probability that the fault induces a body current exceeding the threshold of danger On basis of the results of an enquity made by CIGRE [4] in december 1983, the mean number of faults per year and per 100 km of transmission line is about 2.6 for HV lines with earth-wires. The number is higher (11,6) for lines without earth-wires but the proportion of such lines (12 % in 1978 according to the document [4]) is decreasing year after year. The duration of the faults is very short since high voltage lines are provided with protective relays and circuit breakers which become more and more efficient, Most faults occurring on 300 to 500 KV lines are eliminated in less than 150 ms and very offen in less than 100 ms, It is diffcutt to evaluate the probabilty of contact of people with pipelines and the duration of such contacts. They may be very variable from case to case, Except special and exceptional works on the pipelines, the mean duration per year of conctact is very low. ‘An inquiry conducted by CIGRE in 1970 [9] has shown that the limits, when existing, are relatively different from country to country. Several countries have adopted limits ranging between 600 and 1000 ems: VERY SHORT DURATION DISTURBANCES (DISCHARGE CURRENTS) Discharge currents are essentially due to a capacitive coupling between @ HV line and a pipeline. It cccurs when the person enters in contact withthe pipeline. At the first moment the energy stored in the pipeline capacitance -to - ground is discharged through his body. The energy can exceed 1 joule. itis generally considered that the danger is practically zero when the electrical charge is lower than 2.5, mCoulomb as much as the current impulse does not exceed 10 AAPPENDIX M LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN THE GUIDE = Electrical parameters HV.instalations: uv Voltage applied on a conductor (V) ‘Current intensity (A) Ig: Faultcurrent (A) lg: Earth current (A) lp: Zero sequence current (A) ip: Positive sequence current (A) In Negative sequence current (A) cos: Power factor EF : Electrical field (vim) General data R Resistance (2) Rp i Body resistance (2) Re, Ze: Resistance, impedance of an earthing (9) Rg: Shoes resistance z Impedance (02) i ‘Admittance (at c Capacitance (F) Frequency (Hz) 2 xf (rad fs) Soil resistivity (Am)M2 lo + Magnetic permeability of the air Ho = 4210-7 Him to 1 Eelectical permeability ofthe air £9 = 8.85 10°12 Fim Ko © Weatg= 18 108 (Fimyt a Youle 9: Euler's contant g = 1.7811 i a Reduction factor due to @ conductor ay Charge per unit of length on conductor i (C) Pj + Self potential coefficient for conductor Pi Mutual potential coefficient between conductors i and j Zm Mutual impedance of two circuits (0) 24: Mutual impedance of circuits i,j 2 2 Self impedance of circuit Earth potential in poi 2: Longitudinal impedance per unit length (Sum) y Admittance per unt length (sim) Ze ¢ x characteristic impedance () Yo: Z y_ propagation coefficient (m") de + Cearacteristic length of the pipeline (m) (= UR (y), R being the real part of y) E Electromotice force induced per unit length (Vim) V(x): Voltage between pipetine and earth at point (x)Ms I) + Current inthe pipetine at point (x) J ‘Current density (A/m?) Vop: Voltage induced by capacitive coupling on a pipeline Ize: Current forced by capacitive coupling in a unique earth connection of the pipeline (Vii : Induced voltage in section i ofthe circuit piepinelearth Pipelines parameters D Diameter (m) Bp : Thickness of the metal (cm) Pp 2 Resistivity of the metal (cam) Pc : Resistivity ofthe coating (Cam) br: Relative permeability of the metal be ‘Thickness of the coating (m) tq: Relative permittivity ofthe coating f= Pe Be :fesistance of the coating (Cm*) - Geometrical data Radius of conductor i (m) Height of conductor i above the ground (m) Height of pipeline p (m) Distance Distance between conductors i and k (mm) Distance between conductor i and the image of conductor R with regard to the earth (m) Horizontal distances between conductors i and k (m) Length (of a circutt, of the zone of infuence) (rm)a @ ® @ a @ @ o © o o @ ) @ o REEERENCES Chonter 1 Resuis of cn Intemational Survey of the Rules Ling Interference Coupled into Metalic Pipelines by igh Voltage Power Systems. Electra, ne 110, january 1987. . Kouteynikort CCITT Directives Concerning the Protection of Telecommunication Unes against Harrnful Effects from Electric Power and Electitied Rolway Lines - Geneve 1989, IEC Publication 479-1 (1984) - Effects of Current passing through the Human Body, Influence of high-voltage overhead linas on covered pipelines -CIGRE 1966 paper 326. J Pohl Chanter 2 CCITT- Directives conceming the Protection of Telecommunication Lines against Harmful Effects trom Electiic Power and Electitfod Reaiway Lnes - Geneve 1989. IEC Publication 479-1 (1984) - Effects of Current Passing through the Human Body. Working Group on Blectrostatic Effects of Transmission Lines - Electrostatlc Etfects of Ovemmead Transmission Unes (IEEE Sumer Meeting 1971). Transmission Lines Reference Book 345 kV and above (Book) Second Ecition, 1982, - EPR! Technical Recommendation nr 7, May 1982. Measures for the installation and Operation of Pipelines in the Vicinity of three-phase High Voltage Systems ond Single-Une Troction Systems (Germany). Expetience of CHESF conceming Interferences between EHV Transmission Lines and Pipelines (CIGRE Session 1986). AR. Docont! and D.O. Campones do Brosil Chapters Mutual Design considerations for Overhead AC Transmission Lines ond Gas Transmission Pipelines EPRI Document EL-904 - September, 1978 Study of problems ossociated with Ppelines occupying joint-use Cridoss with AC Tranmission Lines Bish Columbia Hydro and Power Authority Research Project 76-02 : January 1979 Anatysis of electrica’Iterference trom Pwer tines to Gas Ppelines IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery Vol. 4,3, July 1989 and vol. § nr 1. January 1990 FP. Dowalbl, 0, Southey Interferences between faulted Power Circuits and Communication Circuits oF Pipelines. Simplification using ithe decoupled Method IEEE Transactions on Powor Delivery, vol. 6, rv 4 october 1991 SIT. 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Taflove CCITT Directives conceming the Protection of Telecommunication Lines against Harmful Effects from Electric Power and Electrified Ratway Lines - Geneve 1989. Nouvelle méthode da calcul des inductances propres et mutuelles des lignes en présence du sol. Symposium CIGRE, Paper 420-05 - Bruxelles 1985 6.Cay Besondetheiten bel Langzeltbeeinflussungen. Eloutiztotswirtschatt, Jg. 85 (1986), Heft 3, Poul, HU Results of an Intemational Survey of the Rules limiting Interference coupled into Metallic Pipelines by High Voltage Power Systems. Becta nr 110, January 1987 P. Kouteynikoftt Effects of H.V. Systems on Pipelines. Measures and Technical Rules CIGRE Colloquium - Toronto 1977. A Kohimeyer Technical Recommendation nt 7, Measures for the Installation and Operation of Pipelines in the Vicinity of three-phase High Voltage Systems and Sngle-Line Traction Systems. May 1982 Germany. Contribution to the interference on Conductors acting as Earth Electrodes. Cigre Report 36-02, 1982. 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Gervais IEEE Standard 81, Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance. ond Earth Surface Potentials of a ground system, Port. 1 IEEE, 1988. Dynamic Model of impulse Characteristics of Concentrated Earths. Proc. IEE, vol. 121.12, feb. 1974 A.C. Liew, M. Darveniza, Mutual Dsign Considerations for Cethead AC Transmission Lines and Gas Transmission Pipelines. EPRI Report EL-904 (sept. 1978). J. Dobkowski, A. Tatlove CIGRE WORKING GROUP 36-02, Potential Rise of Eaithing Systems of High Voltage Towers during Faults and lightning. Report 36-xx, CIGRE Session 1988. Guide surle calcul, 'exécution et la mesure des prises de terre, revue Générale d'Electticité, tome 81, 10 7/8, pp. 455-467 (uilet-coat 1972) and nr 9, pp, 563-572 (sept. 1972). PG. Laurent,