FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMY: Gross Anatomy structures that can

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY be examined

without a
OBJECTIVES microscope
 differentiate anatomy and physiology, Systemic Anatomy structure of specific
systems of the body
and name several subspecialties of
such as the nervous
these sciences
or respiratory
 describe the levels of structural systems
organization in the human body Regional Anatomy specific regions of
 apply directional terms in describing the the body such as
position of an organ or structure in the head or chest
relation to its surroundings Surface Anatomy surface markings of
the body to
DEFINITION OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
understand internal
 two branches of science that deal with anatomy through
body’s part and functions visualization and
palpation (gentle
Anatomy touch)
Radiographic/Imaging body structures
 science of body structures and Anatomy that can be
relationships visualized with x-
 first studied by dissection rays, MRI, CT scans
 imaging technique Pathological Anatomy structural changes
(gross to
Physiology microscopic)
 science of body functions associated with
disease
SUBSPECIALTIES OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
BRANCH OF STUDY OF
BRANCH OF STUDY OF PHYSIOLOGY
ANATOMY Neurophysiology functional properties
Embryology the first eight of nerve cells
weeks of Endocrinology hormones (chemical
development after regulators in the
fertilization of a blood) and how they
human egg control body
Developmental the complete functions
Biology development of an Cardiovascular functions of the
individual from Physiology heart and blood
fertilization to vessels
death Immunology the body’s defenses
Cell Biology cellular structure against disease-
and functions causing agents
Histology microscopic Respiratory functions of the air
structure of tissues Physiology passageways and
 lungs o connective – connects,
Renal Physiology functions of the supports, and protects body
kidneys organs
Exercise Physiology changes in cell and o muscular – body movement
organ functions due and heat generation
to muscular activity o nervous – processing and
Pathophysiology functional changes
transmitting information
associated with
disease and aging Organ Level

 organs – structures made up of two or

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION more tissues that have specific
functions and recognizable shapes
 chemical – cellular – tissue – organ –
 most organs contain all four tissue
system – organismal
types
Chemical Level  e.g. heart, lungs, stomach, and kidneys.
 atoms – smallest units of matter System Level
o essential elements for life:
 system – consists of related organs with
carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
a common function
oxygen (O), nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca),  some organs are in more than one
and sulfur (S) system
o e.g. pancreas (digestive and
 molecules – two or more atoms joined
together endocrine), gonads
o deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (reproductive and endocrine),
nose (nervous and respiratory)
 nucleotide is composed
of phosphorus, sugar,  eleven (11) systems of the human body:
and nitrogen base o integumentary system
o glucose (blood sugar) o skeletal system
o muscular system
Cellular Level o nervous system
o endocrine system
 molecules combine to form cells
 cells – basic structural and functional o cardiovascular system
units of an organism o organismal level
 many kinds of cells in our body e.g. o lymphatic system and immunity
muscle cells, nerve cells, epithelial cells, o respiratory system
etc. o digestive system
o urinary system
Tissue Level o reproductive system
 tissues – groups of similar cells that Organismal Level
work together on a specific task
 four (4) basic types of tissues:  organism – any living individual
o epithelial – covering, lining, and  all the parts of the human body
forming of glands functioning together
SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY
Integumentary System
 Components
o skin and associated structures
such as hair, fingernails and
toenails, sweat glands, and oil
glands
 Functions
o protects body
o helps regulate body
temperature
o eliminates some wastes
o helps make vitamin D
o detects sensations such as
touch, pain, warmth, and cold
Skeletal System
 Components
o bones and joints of the body
and their associated cartilages
 Functions
o supports and protects body
o provides surface area for
muscle attachments
o aids body movements
o houses cells that produce blood
cells
o stores minerals and lipids (fats)
Muscular System
 Components
o specifically, skeletal muscle
tissue—muscle usually attached
to bones (other muscle tissues
include smooth and cardiac).
 Functions
o participates in body
movements, such as walking
o maintains posture
o produces heat
Nervous System
 Components
o brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
special sense organs, such as
eyes and ears
 Functions
o generates action potentials
(nerve impulses) to regulate
body activities
o detects changes in body’s
internal and external
environments, interprets
changes, and responds by
causing muscular contractions
or glandular secretions
Endocrine System
 Components
o hormone-producing glands
(pineal gland, hypothalamus,
pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid
gland, parathyroid glands,
adrenal glands, pancreas,
ovaries, and testes) and
hormone-producing cells in
several other organs
 Functions
o regulates body activities by
releasing hormones (chemical
messengers transported in
blood from endocrine gland or
tissue to target organ)
Cardiovascular System
 Components
o blood, heart, and blood vessels
 Functions
o heart pumps blood through
blood vessels
o blood carries oxygen and
nutrients to cells and carbon
dioxide and wastes away from
cells and helps regulate acid–
base balance, temperature, and
water content of body fluids
 o blood components help defend stomach, small and large
against disease and repair intestines, and anus
damaged blood vessels o also includes accessory organs
that assist in digestive
Lymphatic System
processes, such as salivary
 Components glands, liver, gallbladder, and
o lymphatic fluid and vessels pancreas
o spleen, thymus, lymph nodes,  Functions
and tonsils o achieves physical and chemical
o cells that carry out immune breakdown of food
responses (B cells, T cells, and o absorbs nutrients
others) o eliminates solid wastes
 Functions
Urinary System
o returns proteins and fluid to
blood; carries lipids from  Components
gastrointestinal tract to blood o kidneys, ureters, urinary
o contains sites of maturation bladder, and urethra
and proliferation of B cells and  Functions
T cells that protect against o produces, stores, and
disease-causing microbes eliminates urine
o eliminates wastes and regulates
Respiratory System
volume and chemical
 Components composition of blood
o lungs and air passageways such o helps maintain the acid–base
as the pharynx (throat), larynx balance of body fluids
(voice box), trachea (windpipe), o maintains body’s mineral
and bronchial tubes leading into balance
and out of lungs o helps regulate production of
 Functions red blood cells
o transfers oxygen from inhaled
Reproductive Systems
air to blood and carbon dioxide
from blood to exhaled air  Components
o helps regulate acid–base o gonads (testes in males and
balance of body fluids ovaries in females) and
o air flowing out of lungs through associated organs (uterine
vocal cords produces sounds tubes, uterus, vagina, and
mammary glands in females
Digestive System
and epididymides, ductus
 Components deferens, seminal vesicles,
o organs of gastrointestinal tract, prostate, and penis in males)
a long tube that includes the  Functions
mouth, pharynx (throat),
esophagus (food tube),
 o gonads produce gametes
(sperm or oocytes) that unite to
form a new organism
o gonads also release hormones
REGIONAL NAMES
that regulate reproduction and
other body processes
o associated organs transport and
store gametes
o mammary glands produce milk
Principal Regions
BASIC ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
 scientists and health-care professionals
use common terms when referring to
the structures and functions of the body
to be able to communicate in a clear
and precise way
BODY POSITIONS
 common language referring to body
structures and their functions
 anatomists use a standard anatomical
position and a special vocabulary for
relating body parts to one another
Anatomical Position
 standard position of reference of any
region or part of the human body
 reference for anatomical nomenclature
 used to avoid confusion when referring
and relating the body parts to one
another
 description:
o stands erect facing the observer
o head level and the eyes facing
forward
o lower limbs are parallel
o feet are flat on the floor and
directed forward
o upper limbs are at the sides
o palms turned forward ANATOMICAL TERMS
o body is upright
 terms for reclining body:
 Supine Position Anterior View
o body is lying face up
 Prone Position
o body is lying face down
 terms given to specific regions
 human body is divided into major
several regions
 Head
o skull – encloses and protects
the brain
o face – front portion of the head
(eyes, nose, mouth, forehead,
cheeks, and chin)
 Neck
o supports the head and attaches
it to the trunk
 Trunk
o chest, abdomen, and pelvis
o includes groin – area on the
front surface of the body
marked by a crease on each
side, where the trunk attaches
to the thighs
 Upper Limb
o attaches to the trunk
o shoulder, armpit
o arm – from the shoulder to the
elbow
o forearm – from the elbow to
the wrist
o wrist and hand
 Lower Limb
o attaches to the trunk
o buttock, thigh, leg, ankle, and
foot
 usually based on a Greek or Latin word
  cephalic – head  scapular – shoulder blade
o cranial – skull  vertebral – spinal column
o facial – face  olecranal/cubital – back of elbow
 frontal – forehead  sacral – between hips
 temporal – temple  coccygeal – tailbone
 orbital/ocular – eye  gluteal – buttock
 otic – ear  perineal – region between anus and
 buccal – cheek external genitals
 nasal – nose  upper limb
 oral – mouth o dorsum – back of hand
 mental – chin  lower limb
 cervical – neck o popliteal – hollow behind knee
 thoracic – chest o sural – calf
o sternal – breastbone o plantar – sole
o mammary – breast o calcaneal – heel
 abdominal – abdomen
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
o umbilical – navel
o coxal – hip  describe the position of one body
 pelvic – pelvis relative to another
o inguinal – groin  group in pairs with opposite meaning
o pubic – pubis o e.g. anterior (front) and
 axillary – armpit posterior (back)
 brachial – arm  only make sense when used to describe
 antecubital – front of elbow structure’s position relative to another
 antebrachial – forearm o knee is superior to ankle
 carpal – wrist o humerus is proximal to radius
 manual – hand
Anterior
o palmar/volar – palm
o digital/phalangeal – fingers  nearer to or at the front of the body
o pollex – thumb
Posterior
 femoral – thigh
 patellar – anterior surface of knee  nearer to or at the back of the body
 crural – leg
Superior
 pedal – foot
o tarsal – ankle  toward the head
o digital/phalangeal – toes
Inferior
o dorsum – top of foot
o hallux – great toe  away from the head

Posterior View Proximal

 cephalic – head  nearer to the attachment of a limb to

o occipital – base of skull the trunk
 acromial – shoulder
Distal colons.
Ipsilateral on the same The
 farther to the attachment of a limb to side of the gallbladder
the trunk body as and
Lateral another ascending
structure colon are
 farther from the midline ipsilateral.
Contralateral on the The
Medial opposite ascending
side of the and
 nearer from the midline
body from descending
DIRECTIONAL DEFINITION EXAMPLE OF another colons are
TERM USE structure contralateral.
Superior toward the The heart is Proximal nearer to The humerus
(cephalic or head, or the superior to the (arm bone) is
cranial) upper part the liver. attachment proximal to
of a of a limb to the radius.
structure the trunk;
Inferior away from The stomach nearer to
(caudal) the head, or is inferior to the
the lower the lungs. origination
part of a of a
structure structure
Anterior nearer to or The sternum Distal farther from The
(ventral)* at the front (breastbone) the phalanges
of the body is anterior to attachment (finger bones)
the heart. of a limb to are distal to
Posterior nearer to or The the trunk; the carpals
(dorsal) at the back esophagus farther from (wrist bones).
of the body (food tube) is the
posterior to origination
the trachea of a
(windpipe). structure
Medial nearer to The ulna is Superficial toward or The ribs are
the midline medial to the (external) on the superficial to
radius. surface of the lungs.
Lateral farther from The lungs are the body
the midline lateral to the Deep away from The ribs are
heart. (internal) the surface deep to the
Intermediate between The of the body skin of the
two transverse chest and
structures colon is back.
*Note that the terms anterior and ventral mean the same thing in
intermediate humans. However, in four-legged animals ventral refers to the
between the belly side and is therefore inferior. Similarly, the terms posterior
ascending and dorsal mean the same thing in humans, but in four-legged
animals dorsal refers to the back side and is therefore superior.
and
descending
†Recall that the midline is an imaginary vertical line that divides
the body into equal right and left sides.
PLANES AND SECTIONS
Planes
 imaginary flat surfaces that pass
through the body parts
 divide the body in specific ways
 sagittal, midsagittal/median,
parasagittal, frontal/coronal,
transverse plain are at right angles to
one another
 sagittal plane – vertical plane that
divides the body or an organ into right
and left sides
o midsagittal/median plane –
divides the body into equal
right and left side
o parasagittal plane – divides the
body into unequal right and left
side
 frontal/coronal plane
o divides the body or an organ
into anterior and posterior
portion
 transverse/cross-sectional/horizontal
plane
o divides the body or an organ
into superior and inferior
portion
 oblique plane
o passes through the body or an
organ at an oblique angle
o between transverse and sagittal
plane
o between transverse and frontal
plane
Sections
 cut of the body made along a plane
 depends on which plane the section is
cut
 e.g. midsagittal section – a cut made
along the midsagittal plane
BODY CAVITIES
 spaces within the body that help
protect, separate, and support internal
organs
Cranial Cavity and Vertebral Canal (Dorsal)
 Cranial Cavity
o formed by the cranial bones
o protects the brain
and
 Vertebral Canal
o formed by the bones of
vertebral column
o contains the spinal cord
 Meninges
o three layers of protective tissue
that lines the cranial cavity and
vertebral canal
 pia meter (thin) is the
delicate innermost
membrane enveloping
the brain and spinal
cord
 arachnoid meter
(spiderweb) is one of
the three meninges, the
protective membranes
that cover the brain and
spinal cord
 dura meter (thickest) is
the tough outermost
membrane enveloping
the brain and spinal
cord
o cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) –
shock absorbing fluid surrounds
the brain and spinal cord
Thoracic/Chest Cavity (Ventral)
 formed by:
o ribs
o muscles of the chest
o sternum (breastbone)
 o vertebral column (thoracic  middle ear cavities (middle ears) -
portion) small bones of the middle ear
 Pericardial Cavity  synovial cavities - free movable joints
o fluid-filled space that surrounds with synovial fluid
the heart
CAVITY DESCRIPTION
 Pleural Cavities
Cranial Cavity formed by cranial
o two fluid-filled spaces that
bones and
surround each lung contains brain
 Mediastinum Vertebral Canal formed by
o central part of the thoracic vertebral column
cavity and contains
o between lungs spinal
o extending from sternum to the cord and the
vertebral column beginnings of
o first rib to diaphragm spinal nerves
o Diaphragm Thoracic Cavity chest cavity;
contains pleural
 dome shaped muscle
and pericardial
 separates the thoracic
cavities and the
cavity from the mediastinum
abdominopelvic cavity a potential space
Abdominopelvic Cavity (Ventral) Pleural Cavity between the
layers of the
 extends from diaphragm to groin pleura that
 encircled by the abdominal muscular surrounds a lung
wall and the bones and muscles of the a potential space
pelvis Pericardial between the
Cavity layers of the
 Abdominal Cavity (Superior Portion)
pericardium that
o superior portion
surrounds the
o stomach, spleen, liver, heart
gallbladder, small intestine, and central portion of
most of the large intestine Mediastinum thoracic cavity
 Pelvic Cavity (Inferior Portion) between the
o inferior portion lungs; extends
o urinary bladder, portions of the from sternum to
large intestine, and internal vertebral column
organs of the reproductive and from first rib
to diaphragm;
system
contains heart,
Other Cavities thymus,
esophagus,
 oral (mouth) cavity - tongue and teeth trachea, and
 nasal cavity - nose several large
 orbital cavities (orbits) - eyeballs blood vessels
Abdominopelvic Cavity subdivided into
 abdominal and  parietal pleura – lines
pelvic cavities the chest wall, covering
Abdominal contains stomach, diaphragm (superior
Cavity spleen, liver, surface)
gallbladder, small o Pericardium
intestine, and  serous membrane of
most of large
pericardial cavity
intestine; the
 visceral pericardium –
serous membrane
of the abdominal covers the heart
cavity is the  parietal pericardium –
peritoneum lines the chest wall
Pelvic Cavity contains urinary o Peritoneum
bladder, portions  serous membrane of
of large intestine, the abdominal cavity
and internal  visceral peritoneum –
organs of covers the abdominal
reproduction viscera
 parietal peritoneum –
THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL CAVITY lines the abdominal
MEMBRANE wall, covering
diaphragm’s inferior
Viscera surface)
 organs inside the thoracic and o retroperitoneal
abdominopelvic cavities  located between the
parietal peritoneum
Membrane and the posterior
abdominal wall
 thin, pliable tissue that covers, lines,
 kidneys, adrenal glands,
partitions, or connects structures
pancreas, duodenum of
 Serous Membrane
the small intestine,
o slippery, doubled-layer
ascending and
membrane which covers the
descending colons of
viscera and lines the walls of
the large intestine, and
thorax and abdomen
portions of the
o Parietal Layer
abdominal aorta and
 lines the walls of the
inferior vena cava
cavities
o Visceral Layer ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND QUADRANTS
 covers the viscera
 used to describe the location of
within the cavities
abdominal and pelvic organs more
o Pleura
easily
 serous membrane of
pleural cavities Abdominopelvic Region
 visceral pleura – clings
the surface of the lungs
 the nine-region designation is used for
anatomical studies, together with the
organs found in each region
 anatomists and clinicians use two
methods of dividing the abdominopelvic
cavity into smaller areas: tic-tac-toe grid
and quadrants
 Tic-Tac-Toe Grid
o two horizontal and two vertical
lines, aligned like a tic-tac-toe
grid, partition this cavity into
nine abdominopelvic regions
o the four lines divide the
abdominopelvic cavity into a
larger middle section and
smaller left and right sections
o Subcostal Line (Top Horizontal
Line)
 top horizontal line that
passes across the
lowest level of the 10th
costal cartilages
 inferior to rib cage
o Transtubercular Line (Bottom
Horizontal Line)
 a line that passes across
the superior margins of
the iliac crests of the
right and left hip bone
 inferior to the tops of
hip bones
o Midclavicular Line (Two
Vertical Lines)
 midpoints to clavicles
and medial to the
nipples
o nine abdominopelvic regions
 right hypochondriac region – epigastric
region – left hypochondriac region
 right lumbar region – umbilical region –
left lumbar region
 right inguinal/iliac region
hypogastric/pubic region – left
inguinal/iliac region
 Right Hypochondriac Region
o liver
o right kidney
o gallbladder
o small intestine
o large intestine
 Epigastric Region
o liver
o stomach
o spleen
o duodenum
o adrenal glands
o pancreas
 Left Hypochondriac Region
o liver’s tip
o stomach
o pancreas
o left kidney
o spleen
o small intestine
o large intestine
 Right Lumbar Region
o ascending colon
o small intestine
o right kidney
 Umbilical Region
o duodenum
o small intestine
o transverse colon
 Left Lumbar Region
o descending colon
o small intestine
o left kidney
 Right Inguinal/Iliac Region
o appendix
o cecum
o ascending colon
o small intestine
 Hypogastric/Pubic Region
o bladder
– o sigmoid colon
o small intestine
o reproductive organs
  Left Inguinal/Iliac Region o right ureter
o sigmoid colon o right reproductive organs
o descending colon (ovary, fallopian tube,
o small intestine spermatic cord)
 Left Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Quadrants
o small intestine
 midsagittal line (median line) and a o large intestine
transverse line (transumbilical line) o left ureter
pass through the umbilicus or belly o left reproductive organs
button (fallopian tube, ovary,
 the quadrants are more commonly used spermatic cord)
by clinicians for describing the site of o sigmoid colon
abdominopelvic pain, a tumor, or some
abnormality
 four abdominopelvic regions
 Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) – Left
Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
 Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) – Left
Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
 Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
o liver
o stomach
o gallbladder
o duodenum
o right kidney
o pancreas
o transverse colon
o right adrenal glands
o small intestine
 Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
o liver
o left adrenal gland
o stomach
o left kidney
o pancreas
o spleen
o transverse colon
o small intestine
 Right Lower Quadrant (LUQ)
o small intestine
o large intestine
o cecum
o appendix