‘The Earliest History of the Constellations in the near East and the Motif of the Lion-Bull Combat Willy Harmer Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1/2, (lan. - Apr., 1965), pp. 1-16, Stable URL: Journal of Near Eastern Snudies is currently publisheé by The University of Chicago Press, ‘Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of ISTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at upsaoww jstor orgiabout/ terms uu. 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For more information regarding JSTOR, plesse contact support@istor.org. htpi‘twwwsjstor org ‘Thu Mar 27 17.59.46 2008JOURNAL OF Near Eastern Studies JANUARY-APRIL 1965 + VOLUME XKIV. NUMBERS 1 AND 2 EIGHTY-SECOND YEAR ‘THE EARLIEST HISTORY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS IN THE NEAR EAST AND THE MOTIF OF THE LION-BULL COMBAT WILLY HARTER, Inatitus far Geschichte der Naturwissenschestens Johanes Wolfgang Gouthe Universitat, Frankfurt. M. To Benn Landsberg on Sie Seuenty fifth Birthdoy I. Tee Prontem "Tree symplegms of the lion and the bull as encountered in the monumental sculptures decorating the Achsemenian palaces of Persepolis is one of the oldest motifs and undoubtedly the most tenscious traceable in the history of Near Eastern ‘rt. To witness this it will suffice to co pare one of tke typicel Achaemenian versions (PLT)? wish a prehistoric Blamite seal impression dating from the Jourth millennium ».c. (Fig. 1) 2 Sumer- inn, vase decoration (Fig, 2)" tile from a Sumetion gaming-board (Fig. 3).4 and a 1 Wail acuipie at Paraepalia sath century 2 2M. Poca, "Btsds air a inaller esr, ‘Dldgacion ans Pete, Mame arenes Hobrevted BEDE, ao fr lato Volumen, ohare the Uo the ‘ere taper ts modied forma) XH tPeciy T0lt oh Fig 2 Thins ensury nn fom Tall Ueagment ef « goblet, ouasell ties Incas Bighorn Bayete patie ploagraphique dear (La Mande dn Laue) 1 Beciane “Pel” Pare 1895, 106 Pg, & SG" Lesosid Wooley, The “Deudopment of Sumerian avi (ew York, (808) PL. tty feo vost tile seen com a Persian miniature from che Mogu) period (Fig. 4) ° Bvidently, through five thousand years, in spite of innumerable wars, the downfall of dozens of old, and the ascent of just as many new, staten or kingdoms, sttended by changes of the dominant races and languages, not only the symbolic combination of two combtant. animals, but even some very characteristic details in the mode of representation, ware caze fully preserved. Thie fact slane deserves our attention ard justifies the interest whieh modern archeologists and historiane of art have been taking in the motif. Aa to their different, interpretations, those sttempte which are restricled lo an inde- pendent discussion ofone isolated historical phase, such as its appearanoe—however impressivenin Achaemenian art, will necessarily he far more dubious and eon: testable than the ones based on the assump. tion that the age-old iconographical tradition was at least to & certain extent Page Grom Pectan illuminated manuscript sha pencaion of te Mueatn of Fae Ars, Becton,2 Jounsas oF Neax Eastern Stupres poraleled by 6 similar semantic one oving to which the originel significance of the motif may still have been remembered even by the Acheomenian rulers whe chose it as the dominant emblem of their palaces Nevertheless, in. view of the clreum stance that there is no hterary evidence, one might say that conjectures on the ‘basis of contemporary iconographic doco mentation are just as probable or im- probable ae any theory that takes inta Account. she phuri-millennial history of the motif; in other words, that we shall never be able to trancgress the limits of mere speculation. There is good reason, however, for taking a lese pessimistic attitude. Tt is ry aitm to show this in the prevent so mary of the pertinent part of rather extensive studies, the very first beginnings of which T had the pleasure to discuss, about. twenty-eight years ago, with the Inte Professor, Ernst Hernfeld (who told me that he too had for a long time past heen convinced of the motif’s astronomical significance)® and also ta present in & Jectare ai the American Academy of Arts sand Sciences in Boston. In the meantime, the iconographic material collected by me hhas grown, while my views, though slightly revised in details, have stood the proof in their main poinss. So far it was only in some articles dealing with other aubjecta that [have profited by the opportunity to sketch out the chief features of my theory and to publish some of the moth string evidence.” See W, Hastner and R. Eningheoonn, CCongusting Lion, he Life Oye of Sem ‘led or psbeaton ix rue, XVI (1864, "Wi Hactear, "The Pebudoplonetary Nodes of the Moon's Orbit in Hinds ae ier Leonogeap leg" im are dalomage, V. Pte? (Aan Arbor; 1880) 2 ‘Sladien sr Synbslicdactedhehasachon Brsaee, 78 Tall VIaT on (p2ibly 2. Zur nsteolowtches Wate Cup.” in Au dar We ce Samschen Hurts Pestchaje for Bence Saknel (Belle. 195 ‘What Lam going to demonstrate here is based on the following consideration owing to the efforts of T. G. Pinches, F, X. Kugler, B. P, Weidner, L. W. King A. Kopf, F. Thurewu-Dangin, 0. Neuge bauer, A. Sache and, not least, B. L. van der Waerder, it has been possible to identify with certainty the majority of the constellations mentioned not only in Seleucid texts hut alsa in the much older Ineo series and in the so-called “esizo labes," and—though with @ somewhat lesser cortainty—also the rest of the constellations occurring there. As Van der Waerden has shown, the kelineal risings of the “Thirty-six Stats” prove sceurate for Une period between ca. 1490 and 900 .c., but there can be xo doubt, that the texts in question, by that time, sirendy kad a long series of predecessors going back at least to Old Babylonian times. Now the fact lone that by far most, of the ster names are Sumerian, not Akkadian, would seem to indicate the Suinerian origin of all, or at leest the ‘major part of those constellations (which, on the other hand, were taken over practically unchanged by the Greeks), unless we make the very improbable assumption that the Semitic Akkkadians, for purely archaistic reasons, should have decided to invent those Sumerian names. Evidently the laiter alternative cannot be taken seriously since it would imply that the Sumerians themselves ad not yet proceeded to grouping stars and calling them by names, or that in astronomy, contrary to the other branches of human intellectual activity, the tradition shoold have been discontinued after the decline of the Sumerian civilization As will result from the following, it is possible to establish a continuity of tradition thet can be traced back even farther then to Sumer: Tt had its origin about of even same time before 4000 w.c.‘Tae Eantigst History oF rar Cor with the prebistoric settlers of Persia, Elam, and Mesopotamia, and it was taken ‘over by the Sumerians and Akkadians, from where it eventually passed over to the Greeks, ‘To avoid misunderstandings, may 1 insist here on one pertiewlar point: The following demonstrations have aothing whatever in common with the blooming Fantasice of the so-called Pen-Bahylonists, headed by Hugo Winckler, Alfred Jeremias, fand others, who claimed thet the earliest inhabitants of the Near Rast possessed a developed astronomical system, made very accurate observations, and knew, 1 mention only the most fanciful of their many assertions, the precession of the equinoxes, Nothing of whet Iam present: ing here is capable of supporting suck claim and it ig not my wish at all to enter upon this question in the present context, Ti. Tar Tazony ‘The casence of my theory can be summarized in a few words; The lion-bull combat. hed originally an astronomical meaning and eytbolived a well-defined célendrical event (e-solar date); for reasons ‘yet to be explained, the original astro. omical interpretation still made sense im Achaermenign times; the motif, more cover, had undaubtedly a strong admixture cof mythological connotations about which it will probably never be possible to make any kind of well-founded statement, 1 ‘thus claim the identity of the twa com. ‘ating animals with the zodiacal constel- lations of Lao and Taurus, which tagether with Scorpius are the ones the’ are most ‘easily recognizable as the pictures of the snimals (whole or in part} after which they ‘are called, A} three occur in the earliest astronomical cuneiform texts with their Sumerian names: Wurgule (ura) "Sion," Leo; “gu .anna ‘SreLLaTioNs ox THE Near Bast 8 ‘li tise = “the jaw of the bull” Taurus and ™giriab = “soorpion,” Scorpius.® All three, too, occar either separately or in double or triple combinations on in- rumerable seals, vases, reliefs, as small- sized sculptures, ete. To be sure, this alone wauld not justify en astronomical interpretation (and it is indeed fer from my mind te attribute astronomical signifi- cance to all lions, bulls, snd scorpions found in Ancient. Near Eastern art). But ‘where these animals are combined by two or three (Figs. 5,6, 7)* or accompanied by symbols (slars, dats, globes) which ex- clude interpretations other than setra nomical, we seem to be on @ safe ground Thus Fig. 8°° skews a lion from a seal Jmpreanion found in the lowest stratum of Suse, The tweaty-odd dots on its body mark it as the celestial species and show its kinship with the well-nown lion from ‘the horoscope of King Antiochus of Commagene (Fig. 9),!! from which it is For 9 et af eaty Sunero-Abdauian ear mes sed hair idecufcavicn, see BL. var dee Weerder lanien Auteansmy TL. the Thies Six Sea indHS, VILL Get, 626, a0 9.10, Tale, whch 1 based on the analog “Attolane Senta” (Bincer™ ttanecripan, Berio and Brasola taxa) ed onthe fret tablet oft seren "anon (05 82598), published By LW. King in Cunaferm ‘Ter, Vol XXRGIE ah, Pie 1 Lapraie, “The Caltre of the Babylonian (oom hie Bee it the Callachon of the Museu, UUniterity of Penmaylvatit, Phe Univernty Marea, Pablusiwone of the Betylonias Seon, Val XIU hledelonis 1820), Pi TE, No. a3 (= Fig. 9), PL BV.No. St (Fg. Bl V, No. 50 (= ig. 7) VA Busaro, “Complamant L Puecce ase les neues sienna" MDP, NIC (811), Pla, No. 178 "Alter F Snren, Die Wat ae all’ Pes (Deri, 1828), Pl 58 (Gre published in K- Bomenn See 0. Pustatein, Deckman der Nomrua Dagh Beton in Hicinoston end Nerdayrien (Berlin, {660 LXCKVI. Note thee the star symbol found on Ue ‘noalger of unezanved one im Ane Near ad Midele Essvern Gumerier, Bebyloiae, Raa Shama) is Bgyputan ast down ts the intertnives ons ok 2 SSeranien sliver piecher and lone on other Senin slver objete evidently ndlcavs the "eles low For ollection of sich tapvesniatons, cf. Bed Kater, Phe Shoulder Ocrament of Near Eesarn Liana," sais, Vi (att) a0 2 Gacuery to Mae Kenton, feline ehare no dood: tat the ator ‘cexrtence 2 ie nat w e0t Egyyean but Sumerian, (Gus lrenay the al fone (ove sing, two stanetng,4 Jounsan oF Neas Exsranx Suns sepersted by 3000 years at the least Figs. 10 and 12, 124 show a statuette of the celestial lien inlaid with precious stones and two similar statuettes of the celestial bull; both bodies are covered with ater-shaped rosettes and, to exclude any doubt, we find on top of ane of them (Fig. 12) the aymbals of the Sun, the Mecr, and probably Venus, represented, 8 in the miuch later period af the Babylo deudurrus (boundary stones—eee Fig. 18)" as a carefully-designed pointed ster. Remembering, moreover, that the con- stellation of Taurus, according to Greek tradition, does not show the whole bull but only its forenart (protome) or even the homed heed alone, dominated by the very bright star Aldebaran as the bulls eye, we will not be surprised to find isolated bull's heads (of. ir li-e = “bull's jaw") with star spmbols (Figs 14/15) >¢ furthermore bulls whose bodies are cut ously marked (‘cut off) by vertical lines (Figs. 16, 17), and finally, heady with grotesquely exaggerated triangular ot ‘eo ranting) wuepersing the throne of the goddess asian (Mate de Eoavrey os, 2500 he. ersoseousy baleved eo rapucent the Ling af Bune Barus hua ina, ve Pig. 9, alse Boe. phat alone nate 8, 220) areal adoeoed with the sar tances bese {Bis aot the Tees Shara bow votes ty Miss Kantor on p, 266 nomercas reams Gam “the Mosepatamian region can be fost SPrig. 10 afte V. Chistian, Abartonstunds des Buriaremande, Wo). Caen) Lalpeig, 340), ig a; Fig ty tue PL, Fig 12 fee Weatley, The Bauleprant of Sumerian ar Sew York, 805) 1S MDP. 1. BL XIV ue Fig, Ud after Mae Fok. v. Oppenbeivn, Tw Balog, WoL. 1 "Die prahatarischan Fone,” bear vor Hubert Schmidt (Bern, 1042), Frontagese, Fig. 3 Fig 5, "iten" cylinder sel, ther He Sp fe te reset Orde Sete te Cecio apiate, BP. ieoudl OLE. Vel. XXTY font Tage) No. 360, This ad soins ester eal moss publishog feet by Wil Wand Pe Seal Optedeny of Werern Aria (Washingson, 1910). >. 308, Sig 8860, and p $6, Fig. 1006, A dethed obaiyis ofthe too fla gen im W. Harte, "headin tee Symbols fee trkehineuschee Brones™ face note 7,9, 366 2s Fig, 10 fom L. Lngreiny Rieprestas cachet Homies (Pen Mi, te MDP, Fol. AVL FV Nel 00; Fig. 10 she, BU, e, 6h square eyes (Figs. 16, 19)°* Qn closer inspection we now alse recognize that the Sumerian bull attacked by s lon, as represented in Fig. 2, carries a star rosette in his horns and another lazenge for bud) shaped motif in front of them, whieh we encounter in numerous varia- lions (branches, tridents, com este, ete.) ‘(Figs 20-22}"7 es a characteristic attribute of the bull, the ibex, the deer, and the goat. And it now seems open ta discussion whether in Fig. 1 the lack of the bull's hindpast is due to the artiet’s remiseneas or maladroitaess, or rather to his pre- meditation. IIL. Tux Seaeax oF tHe Krenn Stans nx 4000 a. Of the twelve constellations of the zodiac, Taurus is the second, Lea the Bfth, and Scorpius the cighth. Since each of these constellations comprises ca, 30° (the actuai dimensions vary considerably, and it was uot before Seleucid astronomy that the normelized signs of 30° sherp Were introduced), our three constellations must lie roughly speaking 99° apart. A glance at a star chart will corroborate this. However, considering the fact that ‘the precession of the equinoxes (which, contrary to whet is often claimed, was almost certainly not recognized es a systematic, continuous veriation before Hellenistic times) over long periods couses 8 very considerable change in the situation of the celestial pole and of the equator in regard to the ecliptic, we have to recan- struct the starry heaven such as it looked to the observer at the time of the first Elamite end Mesopotamian settlements (ca. 4000 8.6.) Hg. 18, Bid, PVE, No, 6; Bg, 18, Bid, BL ve. 1 Atier Woolley, lo. ot (ae Hobe 4), Figa 8 and‘Tae Eanciesr Hiscony op rae Consrstrastons ts tHe Near East In Disgram 1, of the three concantrie circles about the north pole the middie one marks the equator, the interior, the northem, and the exterior, the southern, tropic. The outer rim corresponds to decination of —€0°; since our considera: tions are referred to the latitude of 30°, ie. Persepolis and approximately Ur (36°56') this is the limit of visibility in the meridian of the places mentioned.!? The ecliptic intersects with the equator st 0 and 180° ‘and touches the tropics at 90° and 270°, Tn the course of one year, the Sun travels in the direction of the signe (ie. clockwisein our dingram) along the edliptic. In terms of the Gregorian calendar (10 be chosen here on account of ite invariability fm respect of the seasons}, it. parses the verual point (0°) at Spring equinox, reaches the northern trople (90°) at Summer solstice, the austumnal point, (180°) at Autumn equinox, and the southern tropie (270°) at Winter coletice. TV. Coxsuxonion vensus Hecracat Rising, As ig seen, the three constellations, Taurus, Lao, and Soorpius do net occupy, fas might perhaps be expected, the points ‘corresponding ta the two equinoxes and te Summer solstice, but precede them by Only the briahtase cr ea pertietaly Steport sxc atae are tse. The projection ie thaLcommony ‘ed pe clr ama hat, with equicitandly progeaaing sites of Becinacon (parlisieer ‘SFr the ecnsallations none the eedine &shargs in geographical lsltude ef saree degeete wold cave tp eerous change in be phocomn te desc bed Ee uate ramotabored ths only appreciate hourvations cf groupe of eaer can evs buen hace St than remote dete, though my damonsteatons ‘Sete fr good reas with the exact postions faritcolar leading tate” (w Leone = Repulse Tauri = Plande, « Searpei ~ Antrcn, wa) The hele area condoned strtchas fon oh 30" tao 1° 90). Only for stare with ston, eg Vege ta Duras, aT 29) or Arauras fe Boots, Basson = 5) “woud the fainech 1, 10-25°. To us, being used to determin: ing the Sun’s position according to ita conjunction with 2 star or a constellation. or dlse eccording to ite longitude (“the ‘Sun stands in the constellation of aura,” or “the San has a longitude of 220°" ete), this seoms bathing at frst sight. But if we think of the fact thet the Sun's con. junction (contrary to thet of the Moon and fof the planets} cannot be observed directly, for the simple reason that stats are in- visible at daytime, it is obvious that a people that makes ite first steps to got an Insight into and to systematize the astconomical (calendrieal) phenomena will have to resort to a different kind of observation. Now, fortunately, the Jater phase of Mesopotamian (as well as Egyptian and, madatie mutandie, Chinese) astronomy tells us exactly how this problem used to be handled: Having once observed thet, in the course of ome year, ‘the stats or constellations rising before sunrise or setting after sunset are aub- jected to a periodical change, m such a way that either phenomenon Geliacal risinge o settinge) can be taken as indica- tors of the seasons, a calendar—be it solat of, as most in antiquity, lunisolae— could over Jong periods of time be made independent of direct, observations of the varying lengths of the day and based exclusively on observations of such “helia- cal” phenomena? In addition to, of ingtead of, the hetiacalrisings and settings, analogous phenomena such a8 apparent cronychal risings (je lst visible risings at evening twilight) and cosmieal settings (ie first visible settings at moming dawn) oF 1 An ens illustration of x Reine sing seen en Big. 28 fom Gestier and Lampe, “eoulles de Sosedlan." MDP, VIII, Pig. $86, pe 190 ("Grand ‘ave provaneat diene alpsttur," "Tepe All Abad). Bloular vases are found fepraonted si, Fga. 288 fed 260 aed (anpublsked nthe storeroame of the Muste du Lauvee, For an nosis of the lean raphe clemestay are W. Heavtncn, “Sidi, nr Ssrmsoie dar fuhohiessthen Bronson (eee nate, section 3, p 2086 Jounsat or Near Eastean Sromis else culminations at dawn or twilight could be used. The last-mentioned culmminations st twilight ploy an expecially important role in Chinese calendariography but were also paid attention to in the West. From the point of view af Hellenistic astrclogy, Im which @ planet or star when exlmi- nating (ie. standing at Medium Caslum, cusp of the tenth house, called "Regnim"} develops particular forces this moment assumes very great impostance. We shall see this bears ditectly on our eubject. YV. Tar Anctest Cazannans A few passages from a Greek calendar ?# attributed originelly to Geminos (frst half of first century pc), bet dating actually from ca, 200 0.c., will demonstrate the principle of these heliacal phenomens. A similer calender, based on Egyption solar months, was composed by Ptolemy ‘one Spanish-Arabie dating from the tenth century and ceferring to the aigns of the rodiac as well as ta the Arabic lunar tuansions was published by R. Dony.%® ‘The month axe those of the Syrian calendar, which is in principle identics! with the Julian calendar. The arrangement fs the same as in the preceding cases, To give two examples only, the heliscat setting and rising of the Pliades (al: Turayya}® ce listed on the 13th November and 16th May respectively, the Pits zodiacal month (starting with Summer solstice, oa, 23nd June) iat day: Cancer starte rising helincally, according to Callippus. Summer solstice, 1th day 18th day: 16th dey 23rd day, 25th dey, 30th day: Conmplete heliacal rising of Orian, according to Endoxus Complete heliacal rising of Orion, according to Euctemon. Corona Borealis starts setting heliacally, according to Desi ‘Sirius becomes visible in Egypt, accarding ta Dositheos, Weliacal rising of Sirius, secording to Meton, Leo starts rising heliacelly according ta Callippus, © Tenth sadinenl month (starting; ca. 2ist Macch) Ist day: Helineai rising of the Knot of the Flshes (Pisces), Vernal equinox. sccording to Callippuss Srd day: Anes starte rising heliacally, according to Callippus, oth day: Helisenl setting of Pleiades (m Tauri), according to Eudonve, and beginning of hhelisosl setting of Orion. The Pleiades sot halincally, according to Democritus, whereupon they remain invisible for 40 days ‘2st day: Heliacal setting of Hyades (2h Bleventh zodiacal month (etasting ca, 2874 April) 11h day: Scorpius starte seteing heliacally, according ta Eudoxus, head), according to Budexus. 13th day: Heliacal rising of Pleiades, according to Euctermon. S00 A. BovshbLeceren, Laubelagie grace (Pace oa), cape (pp 286°210) and, Meets, ‘The Mercury Horcasnpe of Mareentonio Nizhiat of erlen* Fastaen daurnamy ec. A. Dee} E(tenda sand Now York, THB), 80-108; Se in prt pe 408 2 contsined te Gerin Euimenta Astronamiae, oh Manian Goepigs hy pp 210-93 BL deter am enpretad in the Chegorian elena‘Tar Bantinsr History oF tus Conetextations 1 tae Near East 7 corresponding dates for Alddaran {e Tauri} being 26th November and 28th May. ‘As for Mesopotamia, a perfect analogon to the Greek calendars, operating essen: tially with the same constellations, is coniained in the fret tablet of ™arns:?” T 1: Shux.ga (Aries) rises 20: gam (Capella) rises TT 1: aul (Pleiades) rises VI. Covnerroxs ror Finst ayn Last Visrmure In order that a star may become visible when rising above the Eastern horizon or setting below the Western horizon, it necessary that the San he a sufficient, 20: Ge le (the Bull's jaw, ie, Aldebaran and the Hyades) rises V Biban (the “Bow,” iv, Sirius and neighboring stars in Canis Major® and Sarva (x Leone VIIE 5: girtab (Scorpius) rises 18: uza (Pega) and gab gir.tnb (e Scorpii Regulus) rise Antares) tise XT" si owns (e Aquarii) and Like (8 Pegaci) and helim (“the dees,” y Cassiop.) F Bleue dnkaede kerio in C. Pcemasi Opera Omnia, Wal IE) Ope ucenamica, Minor, ed I, eeng (Leipeig. 1807), pp. oe 4 Le Calan de ondour to Canad S60 Leiden, 4673); nouvel eaiion mctompagnie Gane trasue: tien frangane ennotde par Oh. Peat (Leder, 198 A wil be seen, the Pleiedee ence ‘remote antigay played « mest ‘eae Fardly a talncdance, therfore that tele Arab name; uray la dered, fran the reening “ta be'opalant, 0" aLin toi penetrated by bumidiy of se) Te sem km Fossible that ever the word for Bally Pair is th ome way a other teluted to the other two wes "Bee neve Se ta seit ee ae gb By at Seat ey hee pean i ake tata Sen ere se area Saab rh SS cet ee ae eee wana fas sae ts crisis Ee eat i Scie tuoiden de deg & ha Siva Sik ieiemee ete tae number of degrees under the horizon ("Bepressed”) to prevent Its rays from interfering with those of the star. Depend ing on the brightness (“magnitude”) of the star and its animuth distance from the Son, the minimom “depression (or negative altitude) of the Sua varies from a. 10° for the brightest (like Sirius or Canopus) to 20° (complete darlinese) for the faintest stare visible with the naked eye, The theoretical minimum of 16°, however, is of no interest here, singe the flightest haze gear the horizon ‘wll eavse an inerease of to or more degrees at the least, In view of the fact that all our considerations are bound to be rather rough approximations, it obviously aufices to operate with an average value of 12-15° for bright, and of 18-20 for faint, stars, VIL. Tue Coxsrenuatios of mae Bute (Paws) axp TAR Pleiades AAs for the delineation of the piotures of ‘our three main constellations (ball, lion, scorpion}, only the bull requires some more explanation. The shape of the8 Jovnsat of Nean Basten Srunies trisngular head, with the bright alar Alésbaran. a5 its right (eastern) eye is clear enough. But its horns ean be seen in two essentially different ways: If straight, they end in the stare (right) and f (left), and this is the way they are common!y represented since Classical Antiquity: if curved and bent, however, which is in all probability the oldes’ conception (ef. the very carly Teli Halaf representations, as in Fig. 14}, they are marked by a seriet of stats on both sides of the head, #c., x, w8...r5 for the right. harm (toward Orion), and v, se A, 9 (Aleyone, main star of the Pleiades) for the let. However it he, there is no doubt. that. in ancient Near Enstern as well as in classical astronomy the Pleiades were siways regarded as an integral part of the constellation of Taurus Now it is weli known that the Pleiades in particalar always have attracted man's special attention and thet all over the world they play an important part in stellar mythology as well as in ealendari- ography. Inanoient China, the constellation, mao Bh (3. A. Giles, Chinese. English Die- tionary, No, 7694) = Eleiades in one ove of the four leading constellations (or stars) mentioned In the Shuching ("Boole of Documents”);% their heliacal rising is seoorded even in the esiendars of prim. ‘tives, stich as the Kanyakmut Eskimos; their heliacal setting followed by a forty: Gays’ period of invishility and, thereafter, by their heliacal rising is mentioned in Hesiad’s Works and Days; and we have seen they ate equally listed in the Babylo- nian, Greek, and Islamic calendars.°? Finally, in Sumer-Aickad, the denomine- ‘on "nut Star” par excellence shows the extreme importance attributed 2 Chagter anion: for roccarn Raghah tesnala. ten, em Bs Halgreny The 220k ef Dasuhente lace ‘eh"18G0, cepted “rom ‘he Musume 9f as Ease Aruiguet, Buln BB, pp. 15 Jus Seb 8 bee tne, Seely Eth >See above, Benin Ve te them; ite synonym, “sappu, “the bristly,” may refer to the Bull, but: more probably to thelr “hairy” or “comet like” (ef. Greelt ropsjras and Arabic Dit Diwaba, “the [star] with the hair taf") appearance The Pleiades, which I claimed marked originally the point of the Bull's left (Western) horn, thus are the star group holonging to the constallation of the Bull which becomes visible fret in the coarse of the solar year, and it seems natural that this little cluster or, mare precisely, most billiant star, y Tauri (Aleyane), is chosen to be the leading star of the whole constellation, VIL Aquarius, mie Inex, ra Movrtox AND THR StAG; THE EaGee AND Tue Saceno Thre Having stated that, about 4000 2.c., tbe consteligtions of Taurus, Lea, and Scorpius preceded the points of Spring equinox, Summer solstice, and Autumn equinox by ca, 10-25°, Jet us now tum to the corre. sponding region near the paint of Winter selstice (270" Right Ascension). The stare found there near the ecliptic, between Right Ascensions 220-260" are far leas brilliant (rc magnitude or fainter) then the ones mariing the other thrce constella- tions, whence it seema reasonable that, in the course of millennia, they have been grouped according to different viewpoints ot principles. The classical Aquarius (Water Cartier"), which stands in the confines diamettioelly opposite to Leo, has 3 very long history. Tt appears under thename of u.ta, which is also the name fof the Goddess of Healing, in the *arrx series (see above, Section V), where it is said to have its heliacal rising, together with Likd (the “Pegasus Rectangle,” ofy Pega anda Andromedae, with leading star B Pegasi} and lu-lim (the “Deer” or “Stag"Draonase 1.—~The Celestial Sphere 4000 n.c, (Aikadien Star Names Underlined)Braemar ved) Solstice — dotted concent 0 Pour Herisons, Meridians, andpe MARCH oe Wot ine at Morning Down at Spring Bqunox ——at Burner wi ne erect ibe medias ih he‘Disoaan 3—Timne of Heliocal Setting of the Pleiades, 10 Pebrucry 4000 9.6. The Lion-Bull Combat at the Dawa of Hiesn of Hittorymapen 21 0% aH Drsanane 4—Time of Heliaesl Rising of the Pleiades, 21 March 4000 v.c. The Resppeursnice of the B2 Bull Diagnant § Time al Heliseal Setting af the Pletader, 28 March 50‘arch 500.0, The Achemenisa Lon-Bull Combat as a Nowra Syme)‘Tae Banuizer Hrerony oF rie Consteycations 18 THE Near East a identified by Van der Waerden with abe Cassiopeiae, lending star 7), on XT 8, i.e. exactly six months after the leading star « of Leo (the "Royal Star,” Regulus), which is listed as rising on V 5. Ieonographically, it can be traced bseik to Sumerian times as one of the particularly favored eymhols, representing @ male deity, often standing on top of the Sacred Mountain, and pour Ing water from two vases (or having two stroams floating from the god's shoulders}, with fish swimming ja the streams or ander the figure, as stil in the “Round Zodiac of Dendera.” where the fish obviously represents the constellation of Piscit dustrinus with the brilliant star « (Fomalhavt). In the earliest phase of Mesopotamian ‘and Blamite civilization, however, this symbol does nat yet ocour. What. we find insterd are pictures of large capridee or covidae, above all ibexes {in the lowest stratum of Persepolis and in Talli. Bakun A, mouffons), eareying in inaumer- able variants either a solar emblem (the picture of the Sun or & lange pointed star, thus in most. places exept Suaa T, Per. wepolis I and Bakun A, see the examples feom Tepe Hisar, Fig. 24%) or @ Aying eagle (symbolizing equally the Sun} or else a circle, a rectangle or a lozenge, Which axe filled with checkerboard pattern, with wave lines or with « stylized plant or tree (thus in Suss I, Persepolis I, and Bakon A, see Figs, 25-27%), That this constelletion of the Thex or Movfion, which comprised ix all probability all the main stars of both Capricorn and Aguarius (the horns being formed by a Aquari, be Pegasi and a Eguulei, see Diagram 3), was actually the zodiacal constellation indicating by ite heliacal rising the Winter 5 Frome B-F. Scheidt, “Tope Hier Bxtnvations 195," The Muon Jaret, Vel, NLM dee hua 1831, FLEA EVIL Sh Fgs. 26 end 26 from MBP, Vol, Xn Fo 1, aod 5, Fig. £0 fom MDM, Val XIE, PIE, solstice or a date close to it, is proved by its consistent combination or confrontation with the three other enimel ‘Thus Fig. 28° shows in the eenter the Ggure of & man flanked hy a stick ending in & sharp point (depicted by stardota), which is probably the goxd spurring the celestial bull (cf Fig. 29)® and an anchorshaped object that has a close similarity with the ancient Mesopotamian plow,*" cf. “army. To the right, « highly stylized thex is seen standing on its head. above it (behind the eueved horns}, soler symbol (large six-pointed star) and two rows of stare reminiscent of the ‘common later representation (an seals, on kudurras, etc.) of the Pleiades (there are actually nine stars on the picture, but the ‘oper two, separated clearly from the seven Pleiades, belong lo the upper row of star-dots characterizing the scene as celestial one), To the left, « configuration ‘of stellat dots it seen which has the shape ‘of a recumbent lion, again standing on ite head,% thereafter a stylized plant and, finally, two crossed scorpions, stylized in the same abstrect (“linear”) fashion 86 the ibex: the claws and the stings of the scorpions are cleatly recognizable. All three animals, we have stated, are represented with their heads tamed downwards, On the oylinder, the Sacred Tree® (visible on ae Pasar, “Boa MOISE Sac ag on tn te end Het Wes oad aga ego SSE tion tom ty inetd, Metoust ToortidTeceose, ‘rho moat gereroces lent tne he eavice whenever ented te ‘eThae daeitad eetedy by M. Plast oe. cit, pos e Socgining the sigideance of he Sacred Tres (egmtel of che Suse foye otuinatng the horton ‘cio runsae) ond of tbe evountain fared ty ‘peering contelons, ts yaa of oe ech (er semetites also the wesere| hotiton, le Red Wels “Tvs ens Bing ma Cools! Soinbale th Wenach Asien Verh d Wow 8 tan Weta happen ie dmardame ACG. Lateteands Nise esha, Dal 24, e190) BrelSe SAUER ia oan cLO TRUNNION RAMONE S05 re RRORLR RRA RUSE ABANAREE ICL 10 Jovawar o Naan Exevsan Sauptes both sides of the seal impression) thus separates Leo-Scorpius from Taurus (Plex tacies)-Ihex, while the celestial Iahorer with hig emblems, the goad and the plow, is placed between the two groups. In the "igen tablet (see Section V), the “Fired Laborer,” "hun.gd (identical with our Aries is listed ae rising heliacally on I 1, ebout Spring equinox; if stands right below the “Plow,” amv Tn 4000 9.6. these two constelietions had their heliacal rising dvring the first half of February, ¢ thousand years later, in Sumerian times, during the seeond half of February (the two weeks’ period ending ca. Ist March with he heliacal rising of « Arieti). Owing to a remarkable coincidence, from the earliest time down to and even beyond thatof the Achsemenians, the heliaeal setting of the Pleiades aecurred exactly curing that period of the heliacal rising of “Bungd and "Aarne (see below, Section XITj,.sa that the two phenomena could he used as interchangeable indicetors of one particulaely important solar date the beginning of Spring plowing, harrow. ing, and sowing. Por, as Lancsberger has shown,*! the “frst green" is observed and ‘Summer sowing started in February and continues through March, while the (carly) berley harvest begine in April and continues through May (m Elam, harvest takes place in Mey}; thus it makes good sense that the time of Spring sowing, during the period ca. 4000-2500 3.0., is recorded in two different ways, by reforring to either one of tbe two inde pendent astronomical phenomena, For an interpretation of Fig. 20— anticipating what will be explained in greater detail in Seotion XI—we turn to Diagram 4, where the oval curve through ‘© See Ding 1 sod Vas der Weenden, dae ee nate 8p iS ‘i ahytenten fmt Samesach-Altaaache BNRS, VEL (194%), 2un-9%, eee iD postive Fp tee NESW represents the horizan of Persepolis in 4000 2.0. at Spring equinox, oa. one hhour before sunrise: The Pleiades, as the leading star group of the Bull are ising hhelineally (the San being 20° below the horison} s few degrees from the Exst point; to the right, the Hired Laborer, hun .ga, end the Plow, apn, are teen, and on the opposite side, dose to the West point, the Scorpion with its brilliant star @ (Antares) is. setting cosmically. Actually, the Sgures shown on the picture could not be arranged better to symbolize this _moment. A terrestrial interpretation, here and in similar cases, is obviously excluded by the fact thar the Bull and the Scorpion are attributed equal site and importance and that no sensible reason else can bo found to explain the jstter anluat's fosting in the air, (2. About 3000 .c., which may be the approximate date of the seal, the con- figuration depleted there oarresponds ta & ste o2. ten days after Spring equinox; the change is not great enough to be noticed by an unskilled observer.) In later times, however, the change ‘caused by the precession of the equinoxes is s9 considerable that the heliseal rising of ary and the helincal setting of the Pleiades ean only with due adjustments be considered appropriate indicatare af the ‘begianing of Spring plowing in Southern Mesopotamia and Elam. It is different farther North (and equally in other regions of the Ancient World), where the phenomenon still im the fest milennioma B.C. wes observed for the same purpose, 88 evident from a famous pastege in Hesiod’s Works and Days (vss, 383-84): qdBeay pec" When the Pleiades, Atlas’ daughtere, rise, begin your harvest, ond plowing when they et. ayevdey ence eddoperdaae row, dpéave 54 Sucopendainieee ‘Tse Banrzest Hestoay oF Tee Constentations my tHe Near East U1 Here, with drréidew, the beliecal rising is meant, which cocurred in the eighth century p.0., in Boeotia (latitude ea 384°), ea. on May 15, and this eeems indeed 4 fitting date for harvesting the Winter seed. But the correspanding term, leaden, indicates of caurse not the feliacal, but the comical setting (last visible setting at dawn}, about November 10, which is ssid to be the best time for (Autumn or carly Winter) plowing: it coincides with the terrestrial phenomenon of the shriek of the erane (ve. 448). In the subsequent part of his poem (vs. 479-82), Hesiod exhorts not to plow about the time of [Winter] solstice, in case one hes mised the right time, but then says that plowing and sowing when the cuckoo first calls (ie, early in March) may yield as good results as Autumn plowing. For the latter date, Hesiod could no longer use the hreliacal setting of the Pleiades, as the carly settlers in Elam had done, because it then occurred on @ much too late date, ca, April Ist With the ascent of the Sumerian civ zation, in which, we have sean, the figure of Aquariue as the “Weater-carrier” was Already acoepted as a current eymbol, the Thex by no means diseppesred, On the contrary, we find it with a clearly calen- Arica} significance on art abjects auch at ‘the silver vase of Entemena of Lagash (Fig, 90)? where lion-headed eagles (symbolizing the Sun) hold in their claws pire of thexes, lions, and stage. This stag, occurring alsa already an prehistoric sels, now becomes easily identifiable: it is the constellation of lu-lim (the “Deer," apse Cass., leading star ») whish, secarding to the ““AFIN tablet (See Section V), tisee ‘on XI 6, together with av.ta (Aguarins) And Lika (the Pegarus Rectangle) Te ia 1 Brom B. Meisner, Babylnion und Assprisn, 1 (eiaeberg, 1e20), 37 "The some conatelnticn of the Slag (depos) ie mentioned by Bimicts Matsraus et # Bulk Space thos an early exemple of @ so-called paranatellon, i, a constellation north or south of the 2odine thet rises et the same time as a zodixcal constellation, The paranatelionta play an exceedingly im- portant part in ster astronomy and etrology. In the present case, the early necurrerce of the Stog as « paranatellon of the Iber is readily explained by the efr cumstance that ib is evidently easier to observe the first appearance of the brilliant stars of Cassiopeia than of the rather faint ones of Aquarius and Capri- TX. Ter Momss op tHe Scientay Gamino-Roasp, Tue CONSTELLATION oF ae Goat (ua, nse) Afier this, the major part of the pictures represented on the Sumerian gaming. hoard (Fig. 3}, tao, becomes interpretable the lion, o lions, attacking the ibex [alpsig, 1803), pp. 2580) a4 a paranaiticn to Piet, ‘whise Sty peielly became Todd bes Seta the (ie Putas ne belo, Secu X. Ancosing ta Fite 2s, the Gig has txo aespenis hls Wowie Tis Eetage. smmbinction a oequeat on ear) emi ECP Togosnoe,“Biudos sy ie sorpnte® MDPC RE (ati, Pig 408, p. 20m ane Fig 106, 208, Te hae aguived eb an acta moet in many plas e4 9 ‘Romanesave Chrasening, Ven iu foe Shureh f Frevdeasiadt in the Buu Fert, soe Fig. 32 Fost amptetennve stay al the mal and te hitory, See. Dosnghasee, “Phe Snaee Eating Stag in t8 Etat" to Late Chast! ond Medipedl Shudie in Hopor ef Albert Metieas Frond, Jv tds art Wits rane (Penceton, Nev Jarvey, 1050) po. 270-46 ‘Ae tor the svasuestion of toe female dey usa, whose stored animal che: dap, for Giga Ze, en noc cleas why he gare ef Aquarius the "Water catryng goa," salen seprsonies oe mele deity Z vente the conjeture thes the late Ackil epeesents Ea, oseanceeéenimel ie the oon (eeonecing to Peofeuse To Jacobues ove atan) and that porkape the term Suny thos cnt ot ete mart to refer Oh geidean of hauling, no mace than the name ofthe dimitri y sepoute ectsiaion, wrguts «Let, was. aver ‘sumed to sds to ber I'ao, ie moa ashe Patact sone tat tm luna cgi’ af the Sone Past Ie cccupies ny ether the gad bay whe governe the southernmost of ete “Three Wave,” ot by hi nares Giral In feonagrephee of eteonamcal charnce Ihave not bean atts tran x lormle deity dentate with quar12 Jounxat or Near Easteny Srepres (represented upside down) evidently syra- bolize the heliacal rising of Leo, which we have seen coincided, shout SUMMER SOLSTICE, with the apparent. cosmical vetting (first visible setting at-moming dawn} of the Thex. The bulls flanking symmetrically the Sacred Tree with a ster on its top, while the tree's branches, ending in lozenge-shaped bnids (see end of Section 11) become visible behind the animals’ backs, then symbolize the heliacal rising of Taurus, or SPRING EQUINOX. The pairs of goats depicted in exactly the same position are of couree not identical with the ber {observe the difference in the horns) and thus do not refer to the constellation’s heliacal rising, about winter soletice, although this would ft partie larly well. To explain their meaning, we again tum te the ™arur tablet (Geetion V); where the constellation of the Goat (uza, Ake. enzw = Vega or « Lyrae) is listed as a paranatellon of gab girtab = Antares, Tn 4000 3.0., at the latitude of 30° as chosen by me, the heliacal rising of Vega cccurred ca. twenty-five days after thet of Antares and coincided approxi. mately with the helincal rising of the Scorpion’s sting, in other words with the coniplete rising of the constellation.** The fost browsing the Sacred Tres thus symbolized already at the earliest, period the time near or shortly afler AUTUMN EQUINOX, What remain unexplained at this stage of our investigation, are the motifs of the lion-bull and lion-stag combats. We 1H See note 38. 16 A few dugroes north aca 36, the acearoent ‘would he perce, both sang at Acsutnn counen hoe ne fterence en sf ovis te drawn fom ti bevuuse we mutt eetome the pesiod of ute daring ‘which ths enviatcalonderepetam ws conelldated {ar have etched cote nthaunend yout ett epoch 4000 5.2 bang ony a names Ghat te astieenty well ith tae archesgicl evidence), end the googiaphicel aie in which the fystem evignated fo be eowpraed between the Teutite of a80 and 3, cf oats Ve shall retuen to this problem at the end of the present paper. X. Due Sywsot mv tex Hoans or THE Teex anp Mavetox, axp aH CoNerEnta- ‘HON Like The symbols filling the horns of the ibex (mouflan) or standing above tts beck (igs. 24-27) differ essentisly in s0 fer as there is one type that is 4 colar symbol pure and simple indicating the heliscal rising of the constellation, aud another more sophisticated one, which we aliell deal with now. There are round, square and loonge-shaped aymbols (the latter sometines surrounded by what looke like flying hirds interpretable as the fiying suneagle, see Fig, 27), furthermore different crosses (Greek, Maltese, Crose Petée, etc). Figure a2 (Susa I) arouses our special interest Decause it is a perfect iustration of the Thea rising with its head and kuge horns, which in turn comprise a Oreeke cross, above the horizon {indicated hy 2 aigeag Sine, in the present case dvefold, as found ‘on meuy other Susa [ vases). On the other hand, the same crosses are found also in the center of many vasen showing no cslestial association else, which leads us inevitably to interpret them ae a well known terreetrial eymbol: the “Navel of the Earth,” the “Four Comers of the Barth," ot just the Inhabited Barth par 1 Alter B Boer, “Reade hnariga o doce Toga oe et mas pats de Passopsie Sa ADP, Kitt (013) 46, Big 88, ooo lenient Tepteiniton ofthe ta Use ound on Bigs 30 (Bibbs xt that, 40 Fig hy whee bot of theca Taz ereele Ue Scrod Mout wae ® fezspainted sar dopctd ine ma ashi Se Iki eanvenional"Wanwsapetot on tusnepe ‘Aono wal, ey peceabig.repennts the Bah Siac deeld etal Seite Ae Senon les ‘ct oies he Dore emit nda het te ala ‘ating nt the Nog ie ane (When en ow BesSbd sea ts cin eb Wear “before afeoe at 1-80 a th varieties of eat erg‘Tus Banniey Histony of THe Constentavions ms tHE Nean Excr 13 excellence (Figs, 34-27).* If this interpre- tation is correct, there arises the question as to the motif’s signifieance when we find it transferred to the celestial vault, To anewer it, we tum agein to the firet ‘siapim tablet Gaction V), where, on XI 5, the “Pegasus Rectangle” {afy Pag. and « Ande, with leading star P Pep), onder the name J-ikd is mentioned es a parano- tellon to o Aquars this Lilt ie the unit of square measure, the rectangular feld, standing metepharically for the cultivated soil or just for “Earth.” As to its shape in pictorial representations, it dezends on the Artist's teste whether he renders it as « squate (to indieate the four directions af the wind, 25 in accordance with the Chinese habit; it is this idea which is expressed hy the cross) or as a circle (indieating ‘the circular horizon). By ‘ling ite interior with a checker-board pattern, with wave lines (water, alluding to the oil's fertility), or wish stylized trees ot plante, the artist eeeras to leave no room for doubt as ta its significance The identification of the eymbol in the hex hom with 1-ékd, however, is borne out by one more fact. Our Diagrem 1, and likewise Von der Waerden’s Fig.” 3,** show the situation of the constelletion Lika between the to Fish (the western, Sim.mab, atid the eastern, Anunsin} at the site of the classical Pegasus. In catering it with Fig. 96° being a copy of the relevent part of the Round Zodiac of Dendera, we recognize the same symbol for ibd, filed with the same wave lines as are found for instance in the squsres surrounding the center of a Suse E bow! Fig. 26, No, 3}, which may actually be meant to express the idea of transposition St Aline EDP, Vol X1IE (1912), Pie X2EE, NVI, KYU, nod Sepptériens, PL. XLII. No. 3. Gbvaeve fat, te cone ae sometes replaced by & tart, ‘Folch a iaubietie tere sprsbe, “Los. a ieen ote th pfs afias Bott, Space, of Earth to the starry heaven since we find the identical motif also in the ibex home (Fig. 39). ‘The fusion of the J-ikg symbol with the ‘ibex homs into one motif is remarkable for the resson thet, about 4000 p.c,, the Nieliacal rising of the [ex occurred ca. ten days earlier than that. of 2-iki, which coincided exactly with Winter solstice (ave below, Section XT), while by 1600 2.0. they rose nearly simultaneously about January 25, or two months before Spring equinox, which is in perfect accordance with Van der Wasrden's interpretation of ‘the "ari series, Thus in the oldest, time the combination of the harns with Z-iki symbolizes not the exact day of Winter solstice but a period of several weeks Guring which the solstice occurs. This appears very plausible in view of the clroamslanee that without instraments (gnorcon}, the determination of the so stices will needs he affected with an uncertainty of + eight days or more As for the purely solar symbol (star of the like) and the sophisticated Zské emblem, we have seen that they express two entirely different ideas. However, this does not of course exclude the possibility that the solar significance is Implisitly understood elso in the Liki emblem, by associating or identifying the constellation rising hefore suntise with the ""Winter-Sun” iteelf, just as the Ton headed eagle has to be understood as a symbol of the Sum at its maximum power (Suramer-Sun"}, and, thereafter, of cauree, aso of the Son in general ‘To conclude this demonstration, mey 1 point out that one of the two Susa T vases (Figs. 25 and 26) shows the round becker. board pattern in the tbex horns, the other one, otherwise identical, the eross and plant in @ circle comprised by the horns, and, under the enimal's belly, the terrestrial After MDP, Vol RIN, Fis. 123, p. 2.4 Jourwat. oF Nean Eastern Stuns Eastern Mountain (indicating the helia- cal rising), again filled with the chesker- board pattern symbolizing the cultivated soil. The epace between the animals" legs filed with analogous eymbols is typical of the earliest period, but the tradition then hogun proves extractdinaily tenacious: as purely artistic motifs these ancientaymbals (slars, crosses, rosettes above the animale hacks, and the stylized Eastern Mountain under their bellies) are found by the Jnundzeds on early Greek vases. Similarly, the ihex with the round symbol in ite horns, though for several theusand years past removed from it ariginal place among the stars and recuced later to the Lite constellation of the Goal-Fush smd, Capricarn), aubsiste artistic motif throughout the millenvia. About 1000 3.¢. it ig found on the bronzes of Luristan and, another 1500 years Inter, on @ late Sasanian ar early Islamic vase (Figs. 40, 42}, which shows the animal facing the Sacted Tree in the same char- ‘cteristic attitude that ean be observed on uncounted cbjects ftom the lowest strata of the Near Esstern settlements, XI. Tae Accunacy Trst To test for the period envisaged (4000 B.c.) the accuracy of the heliacal risings of the four main constellations of the vodiae and to get an insight into concomitant phenomena, Jet us tum to Diagram 2. There the four ovals tacking the circles of declination (parallel circles) for +60° and —60° denote the situation of the hotizon of Persepolis (p = +30") relative ta the celestial vault at the times of the equinoxes and siletices at morning dawn. Tn accordance with what we have said before (see Section VI, p. 7), for ‘the visibility limit af Tauri, the round value of 26° is chosen; for the stars arr (e Leonia) gob ar. tal (a Scerpli) und Liki (f Pogasi), 15°. Eueh of the four horizons is drawn in different types of lines (con- tinuous, strokes-and-dots, long strokes, short strokes) as indicated in the legend; the corresponding meridians and East Wost lines are distinguished in the stme way. Then the zenith poiats aze the inter sections of the meridians with the dotted cirele about the pole with a radius of 60°. Parallel to the Easter horizon (left, of proceeding clockwise) @ curved line seg: tent is drawn indicating equal (negative) altitudes of 15° and 20° respectively (below the horizon, es mentioned). At their intersections with the ecliptic, correspond ing to the four main points of the year {equinoxes and solsties) the Sun is marked bby a conventional symbol, We then have: 1. Spring Epwinoz (21 March, ca. 2 65" a.st, Sum in the Equator, 20° below the horizon, Longitude = Right Ascension = 0°): The Pleiades rise heliacally (ehbreviated hereafter by HR), ‘The Scorpion is setting cosmically (OB, fret, visible setting xt dawn). ‘The C8 of a Scorp, (Antares) will aceer ca. five days later. ‘The home of the Bex and the "Monster with open mawh," uy ta.tuh.e (Panther?, the constellation Cyprus) are culminating, the latter standing at the aenith. The Seulhern Fisk (a Pse.Austy. stands oa, 7" ot one-haif hour past exlmination I, Sunsmer Solstice (23 June, ca, 3° 30" a.M., Sun ip the Northern Tropic, 18° below hhotizon, Longitude = Right Arcension = 90°}: Regulus (e Leonis) HR together with Siréus (gag.si.r5, « Can aj.) ‘The Horns of the Ibex near CS (~ Aqu. will have its CS ca. ton days after). The Deer (hil, y Cass.) near renith, ca. 1° 20 past cullination. © Sursey of Persian Art ot. AU. Bopey Wel IV (Oxford, M28), PL, 3543‘Tue Eanuiest History om tHe CoxstenLations is THB NEAR East 15 TLL Autumn Bguino (23 Sept, ca. 87 07 at, Sun in Longitude = Right Ascension = 160° Antares HR. Aldebaran (a Tauri, Eye of the Bull) two to three days after CS. Hind part of Leo at zenith The Southern Cross and the main stars (except a) of the Centaur near the south eastern horizon. Winter Soltice (21 Dec., ca. 6 10 a.4t., Sun in Southern Tropic, 15° below horizon, Longitade = Right Ascension = 270°) Lika (6 Peg.) HR, two days before « Peg. ond six days before the Southern Pish uater, 15° belaw horizon, W, The Horns of the Thex hed their HR. ca, ten days earlier, on 1, Dee, The hind part of Leo CS. ‘The Soushern Cross and Centaurus near the southwestern horizon. ‘The Bow of Sagitsarins (y, leading star of the constellation ¥4.011,3a0) culminating As is seen, the coneordance ia perfects The HR of the Pleiades (Bull), Regulus (Lion), Antares (Scorpion) and B Pegasi {Liks) occurs, in Persepolis or Un, about 4000 B.c., practically on the very days of the equinoxes ond solatices, and the HR of the Horas of the Thex precedes by ten days, and thus announces thet of Liké, which mstks exectly the shortest day of the year. ‘The importance of this striking agree- ment, however, shauld not he overrated, I repeat thab the choice of a different geogtaphical latitude (e.g. 36°) and of a. different time (e.g. 500 years earlier) would have caused perceptible changes and thus resulted in a far lees perfect concordance; moreover, T repeal that, even in case I should have chanced to hit the right place and time, in consequence of the inevitable imperfection of observa. tion of the for cerdinal points, the intrinsic perfection of the system of hheliscal risings would necessarily have escaped the early settlera’ attention. But even without. such an awareness of this astounding accuracy, the observers were bound to recognize in ite major eutline the extraordinary harmony thet heppened ta lie in the disteibution of the main stars, Th was this, undoubtedly, that eeused them ta conceive the main constellations in their definitive shape and to depict ther in uncounted varistions and combinations fon their art objects, which, we mey be certain, wore primarily objects of worship, For it is well nat to averloak the feet that the calender, however indispensable to agriculture, has always had, and in many parts of the world, atleast, stills snother aspect of no lesser importance: the religious, XIL Tax Liox. Buen anp tie Lrow-Stae Comnars Conteary to the preceding chert, Diae gtem 3 shows the horizon of Pecsepolis at nightfall, om Feb. 10, 4000 2.¢., about 6° 40" pnt, when the Sun stands 20° below the horizon. ‘The situation then is as follows: The Pleiades are satting helixeaily (HS, last setting at evening twilight) The Scorpion's Claws (comprising origin. ally, ae depicted, the Scales of Libro}, are rising acrenychally (last rising at evening twilight). Regulus, « Hydvae avd Conopus (« Argus, the brightest star in the southern hemisphere) aro simultaneously culminate ing, Canopus being only a few degrees above the South point of the horizon, while the constellation af Leo occupies exactly the renith, with the royal star, Jarre Regudus standing only ea, 8° feom ‘he zenith point (marked 2),16 Jovaxar of eas Bastmew Stopmes ‘The thet needs herdly a justification that this striking moment, occurring once & year, should be paid due attention and find its expression in pictorial repre- scutationsof various kinds: The triumphent Lion, standing at zenith end dieplaying thereby its maximum power, kills and destroys the Hull trying to escape below the horizon, which during the stbsequent days disappears in the Sun's rays ta remain invisible for s period of forty Gays, after which it is reborn, rising again foc the first time (FIR on March 21) to ‘announce Spring equinox and the odvent of the ligat part of the year (Disgram 4, see also Disgram 2). There can be no doubt that this and nothing else has been the origin of the celebrated motif. However, we have overlooked one con comitast phenomenon: Along with the Pleiades, the last star, «, of the constella~ tion of the Deer Uulim = aySe Cass. Teading star y} has its heliacs! setting, while the leading star, y, itself has pre ceded it by only oa, five days, Thus the Lion-Deet combat, which we have seen depicted on the silver vase of Entemens and on the gaming-board {ace Section IX} will necessarily kave to be intorpreted ax an equivalent of the Lion-Bull cambat. ‘The gaming-board, whieh, we have atated lesrly represents Spring, Summer, and Antunm, thus hes no symbol for Winter but, instead, two different eymbols for a date lying somewhere between Winter solstice and Spring equinox, About 3600 2.6, (eerly Sumerian time) thie corresponds to ca, 25 February, and in 4000 2.0, to ca, 10 Februnry, coinciding in both eases-— and sill in Achaemenian times—exectly with the heliaeal sug of the “Hired Laborer” and the "Plow" (see Section VIM). ‘Thus, in the easly period, the Lion-Bull end the Lion-Deer combats were interchangeable symbols for the eginving of agricultural activity after Wintar seatice Finally, Disgram 5 shows the same heliaesl setting of the Pleiades in Acbae rmenian times, about 600 s.c. The positions of the relevant. stars, ie, the Plaiader ( Tauri}, Regulus, and Canopus axe in leated by encircled asterisks. As is s02n, Leo still occupies the aenith by the tine the Pleiades are setting, while the effect of ppreoossion, In the cace of Canopus, proves to have been far inferior, so thet it now stands almost 40° off the meridian. The relative positions of Leo and Taurus thus fare stl the same as 9500 yeers before, Dut the date within the eclac year hes changed: it is now the 28th Mareh, in other words only one week after Spring equiaox.®? By the middle of the Bret rillenninm 3.6, the old motif thus marks within the limits defined by the prabshle ingcsuracy of astronomical observation the solar date Bing the beginning of the Assyrian luni-solar calendar as well ss that of the Zoroastrian year: the Nouri 2 The agreement would bp pert abt 1200- 1000 9 which in wienie she tw fini 1400-1000 Be, indice by B. Uandaserger ("Cakeeseton in ‘Somenach Atuadiecher," AS, VEE i046), 259) tnd eanBrined by & peckape tox Won des Werder (1400-900 9.2," te ap 1M) for she tabebie tine of somponition of te ian tetiar a te poeaeet shop.Liaw axe Boot 9PLATE IL Pro. L—Liow avo Butt. ow 4 Panarstore Basan Seat. Fig, 2-—Fragwent oF Suxut Gomer enon Tsix0U1 abv‘Roun PLATE 1V Fe? Fra. f—Lion raow THe Haposoove oF AWtIocKUS oF ComMacen®PLATE ¥ Iso tHE Thaowe oF eH Goosees Tons,Bto, 10—Grasuerne of Leon Extato wine Paceiove Sroves Fro, 1) —-Stavuntre ap Ceneetiat. Buce wird Boor Aoonen wink Sranonaren Roverres Flo, 12—Staronere or Cetesntay Bucs Ista wirn Syuaous or Heavenat BootesPLATE VIE Fio, 13.—Bantuontaw Bounvany Stove Deconaten ete Srasoce or Heavenvy BontssPLATE Visi canation oF Bus INDER SPAL W ean wenn Stan Sunous Buu's Bean avn Stan SreaocePLATE X Pro, 20.~Ewonaveo Sketie wire Bouse Accastvanten nv Teapenrs on BaawetresPLATE XL Pig. 21.—Bonss wenn Bane oF Gray| ih Pm Pe xX RLV TEeavag unaigy, Nr Stexey any SOvES £0 BUIYY Ot Zs aX TLV asmPLATE XIV L~-Rowiiescue Crmerennse Basi iw or Citunen of BRptbaNstau®, Proroanarl roe oF Hemnien MULLERWHE io! Se ee Choa, oe area TY Ax ULEPLATE XVI ss Sempcuaiwa tae Ixanero Bane. ees Fncrea 25 Sacreo Tase