Differential equation

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Not to be confused with Difference equation.

Visualization of heat transfer in a pump casing, created by solving the heat equation. Heat is being
generated internally in the casing and being cooled at the boundary, providing a steady state
temperature distribution.

In mathematics, a differential equation is an equation that relates one or more functions and their
derivatives.[1] In applications, the functions generally represent physical quantities, the derivatives
represent their rates of change, and the differential equation defines a relationship between the
two. Such relations are common; therefore, differential equations play a prominent role in many
disciplines including engineering, physics, economics, and biology.

Mainly the study of differential equations consists of the study of their solutions (the set of
functions that satisfy each equation), and of the properties of their solutions. Only the simplest
differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas; however, many properties of solutions of a
given differential equation may be determined without computing them exactly.

Often when a closed-form expression for the solutions is not available, solutions may be
approximated numerically using computers. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on
qualitative analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many numerical methods
have been developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy.

Contents

1 History

2 Example

3 Types

3.1 Ordinary differential equations

3.2 Partial differential equations

3.3 Non-linear differential equations

3.4 Equation order

3.5 Examples

4 Existence of solutions

5 Related concepts

6 Connection to difference equations

7 Applications

8 Software

9 See also

10 References

11 Further reading

12 External links

History

Differential equations first came into existence with the invention of calculus by Newton and
Leibniz. In Chapter 2 of his 1671 work Methodus fluxionum et Serierum Infinitarum,[2] Isaac
Newton listed three kinds of differential equations:

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\frac {dy}{dx}}=f(x)\\[5pt]&{\frac {dy}{dx}}=f(x,y)\\[5pt]&x_{1}

{\frac {\partial y}{\partial x_{1}}}+x_{2}{\frac {\partial y}{\partial x_{2}}}=y\end{aligned}}}
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\frac {dy}{dx}}=f(x)\\[5pt]&{\frac {dy}{dx}}=f(x,y)\\[5pt]&x_{1}
{\frac {\partial y}{\partial x_{1}}}+x_{2}{\frac {\partial y}{\partial x_{2}}}=y\end{aligned}}}

In all these cases, y is an unknown function of x (or of {\displaystyle x_{1}}x_{1} and {\displaystyle
x_{2}}x_{2}), and f is a given function.

He solves these examples and others using infinite series and discusses the non-uniqueness of
solutions.

Jacob Bernoulli proposed the Bernoulli differential equation in 1695.[3] This is an ordinary
differential equation of the form

{\displaystyle y'+P(x)y=Q(x)y^{n}\,}y'+P(x)y=Q(x)y^{n}\,

for which the following year Leibniz obtained solutions by simplifying it.[4]
Historically, the problem of a vibrating string such as that of a musical instrument was studied by
Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and Joseph-Louis Lagrange.[5][6][7][8]
In 1746, d’Alembert discovered the one-dimensional wave equation, and within ten years Euler
discovered the three-dimensional wave equation.[9]

The Euler–Lagrange equation was developed in the 1750s by Euler and Lagrange in connection
with their studies of the tautochrone problem. This is the problem of determining a curve on
which a weighted particle will fall to a fixed point in a fixed amount of time, independent of the
starting point. Lagrange solved this problem in 1755 and sent the solution to Euler. Both further
developed Lagrange's method and applied it to mechanics, which led to the formulation of
Lagrangian mechanics.

In 1822, Fourier published his work on heat flow in Théorie analytique de la chaleur (The Analytic
Theory of Heat),[10] in which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling, namely, that the
flow of heat between two adjacent molecules is proportional to the extremely small difference of
their temperatures. Contained in this book was Fourier's proposal of his heat equation for
conductive diffusion of heat. This partial differential equation is now taught to every student of
mathematical physics.

Example

In classical mechanics, the motion of a body is described by its position and velocity as the time
value varies. Newton's laws allow these variables to be expressed dynamically (given the position,
velocity, acceleration and various forces acting on the body) as a differential equation for the
unknown position of the body as a function of time.

In some cases, this differential equation (called an equation of motion) may be solved explicitly.

An example of modeling a real-world problem using differential equations is the determination of

the velocity of a ball falling through the air, considering only gravity and air resistance. The ball's
acceleration towards the ground is the acceleration due to gravity minus the deceleration due to
air resistance. Gravity is considered constant, and air resistance may be modeled as proportional
to the ball's velocity. This means that the ball's acceleration, which is a derivative of its velocity,
depends on the velocity (and the velocity depends on time). Finding the velocity as a function of
time involves solving a differential equation and verifying its validity.

Types
Differential equations can be divided into several types. Apart from describing the properties of
the equation itself, these classes of differential equations can help inform the choice of approach
to a solution. Commonly used distinctions include whether the equation is: Ordinary/Partial,
Linear/Non-linear, and Homogeneous/heterogeneous. This list is far from exhaustive; there are
many other properties and subclasses of differential equations which can be very useful in specific
contexts.

Ordinary differential equations

Main articles: Ordinary differential equation and Linear differential equation

An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is an equation containing an unknown function of one real
or complex variable x, its derivatives, and some given functions of x. The unknown function is
generally represented by a variable (often denoted y), which, therefore, depends on x. Thus x is
often called the independent variable of the equation. The term "ordinary" is used in contrast with
the term partial differential equation, which may be with respect to more than one independent
variable.

Linear differential equations are the differential equations that are linear in the unknown function
and its derivatives. Their theory is well developed, and in many cases one may express their
solutions in terms of integrals.

Most ODEs that are encountered in physics are linear. Therefore, most special functions may be
defined as solutions of linear differential equations (see Holonomic function).

As, in general, the solutions of a differential equation cannot be expressed by a closed-form

expression, numerical methods are commonly used for solving differential equations on a
computer.

Partial differential equations

Main article: Partial differential equation

A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unknown multivariable
functions and their partial derivatives. (This is in contrast to ordinary differential equations, which
deal with functions of a single variable and their derivatives.) PDEs are used to formulate problems
involving functions of several variables, and are either solved in closed form, or used to create a
relevant computer model.
PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena in nature such as sound, heat,
electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly
distinct physical phenomena can be formalized similarly in terms of PDEs. Just as ordinary
differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential
equations often model multidimensional systems. Stochastic partial differential equations
generalize partial differential equations for modeling randomness.

Non-linear differential equations

Main article: Non-linear differential equations

A non-linear differential equation is a differential equation that is not a linear equation in the
unknown function and its derivatives (the linearity or non-linearity in the arguments of the
function are not considered here). There are very few methods of solving nonlinear differential
equations exactly; those that are known typically depend on the equation having particular
symmetries. Nonlinear differential equations can exhibit very complicated behavior over extended
time intervals, characteristic of chaos. Even the fundamental questions of existence, uniqueness,
and extendability of solutions for nonlinear differential equations, and well-posedness of initial
and boundary value problems for nonlinear PDEs are hard problems and their resolution in special
cases is considered to be a significant advance in the mathematical theory (cf. Navier–Stokes
existence and smoothness). However, if the differential equation is a correctly formulated
representation of a meaningful physical process, then one expects it to have a solution.[11]

Linear differential equations frequently appear as approximations to nonlinear equations. These

approximations are only valid under restricted conditions. For example, the harmonic oscillator
equation is an approximation to the nonlinear pendulum equation that is valid for small amplitude
oscillations (see below).

Equation order

Differential equations are described by their order, determined by the term with the highest
derivatives. An equation containing only first derivatives is a first-order differential equation, an
equation containing the second derivative is a second-order differential equation, and so on.[12]
[13] Differential equations that describe natural phenomena almost always have only first and
second order derivatives in them, but there are some exceptions, such as the thin film equation,
which is a fourth order partial differential equation.

Examples

In the first group of examples u is an unknown function of x, and c and ω are constants that are
supposed to be known. Two broad classifications of both ordinary and partial differential
equations consist of distinguishing between linear and nonlinear differential equations, and
between homogeneous differential equations and heterogeneous ones.

Heterogeneous first-order linear constant coefficient ordinary differential equation:

{\displaystyle {\frac {du}{dx}}=cu+x^{2}.}{\frac {du}{dx}}=cu+x^{2}.

Homogeneous second-order linear ordinary differential equation:

{\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}u}{dx^{2}}}-x{\frac {du}{dx}}+u=0.}{\frac {d^{2}u}{dx^{2}}}-x{\frac {du}

{dx}}+u=0.

Homogeneous second-order linear constant coefficient ordinary differential equation describing

the harmonic oscillator:

{\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}u}{dx^{2}}}+\omega ^{2}u=0.}{\frac {d^{2}u}{dx^{2}}}+\omega ^{2}u=0.

Heterogeneous first-order nonlinear ordinary differential equation:

{\displaystyle {\frac {du}{dx}}=u^{2}+4.}{\frac {du}{dx}}=u^{2}+4.

Second-order nonlinear (due to sine function) ordinary differential equation describing the motion
of a pendulum of length L:

{\displaystyle L{\frac {d^{2}u}{dx^{2}}}+g\sin u=0.}L{\frac {d^{2}u}{dx^{2}}}+g\sin u=0.

In the next group of examples, the unknown function u depends on two variables x and t or x and
y.

Homogeneous first-order linear partial differential equation:

{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial u}{\partial t}}+t{\frac {\partial u}{\partial x}}=0.}{\frac {\partial u}

{\partial t}}+t{\frac {\partial u}{\partial x}}=0.

Homogeneous second-order linear constant coefficient partial differential equation of elliptic type,
the Laplace equation:

{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial y^{2}}}=0.}{\frac

{\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial y^{2}}}=0.

Homogeneous third-order non-linear partial differential equation :

{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial u}{\partial t}}=6u{\frac {\partial u}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial ^{3}u}
{\partial x^{3}}}.}{\frac {\partial u}{\partial t}}=6u{\frac {\partial u}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial ^{3}u}
{\partial x^{3}}}.

Existence of solutions

Solving differential equations is not like solving algebraic equations. Not only are their solutions
often unclear, but whether solutions are unique or exist at all are also notable subjects of interest.
For first order initial value problems, the Peano existence theorem gives one set of circumstances
in which a solution exists. Given any point {\displaystyle (a,b)}(a,b) in the xy-plane, define some
rectangular region {\displaystyle Z}Z, such that {\displaystyle Z=[l,m]\times [n,p]}Z=[l,m]\times
[n,p] and {\displaystyle (a,b)}(a,b) is in the interior of {\displaystyle Z}Z. If we are given a
differential equation {\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}=g(x,y)}{\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}=g(x,y)} and
the condition that {\displaystyle y=b}y=b when {\displaystyle x=a}x=a, then there is locally a
solution to this problem if {\displaystyle g(x,y)}g(x,y) and {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial g}{\partial
x}}}{\frac {\partial g}{\partial x}} are both continuous on {\displaystyle Z}Z. This solution exists on
some interval with its center at {\displaystyle a}a. The solution may not be unique. (See Ordinary
differential equation for other results.)

However, this only helps us with first order initial value problems. Suppose we had a linear initial
value problem of the nth order:

{\displaystyle f_{n}(x){\frac {d^{n}y}{dx^{n}}}+\cdots +f_{1}(x){\frac {dy}{dx}}+f_{0}(x)y=g(x)}

{\displaystyle f_{n}(x){\frac {d^{n}y}{dx^{n}}}+\cdots +f_{1}(x){\frac {dy}{dx}}+f_{0}(x)y=g(x)}

such that

{\displaystyle y(x_{0})=y_{0},y'(x_{0})=y'_{0},y''(x_{0})=y''_{0},\cdots }
y(x_{0})=y_{0},y'(x_{0})=y'_{0},y''(x_{0})=y''_{0},\cdots

For any nonzero {\displaystyle f_{n}(x)}f_{{n}}(x), if {\displaystyle \{f_{0},f_{1},\cdots \}}\

{f_{0},f_{1},\cdots \} and {\displaystyle g}g are continuous on some interval containing
{\displaystyle x_{0}}x_{0}, {\displaystyle y}y is unique and exists.[14]

Related concepts

A delay differential equation (DDE) is an equation for a function of a single variable, usually called
time, in which the derivative of the function at a certain time is given in terms of the values of the
function at earlier times.

An integro-differential equation (IDE) is an equation that combines aspects of a differential

equation and an integral equation.

A stochastic differential equation (SDE) is an equation in which the unknown quantity is a

stochastic process and the equation involves some known stochastic processes, for example, the
Wiener process in the case of diffusion equations.

A stochastic partial differential equation (SPDE) is an equation that generalizes SDEs to include
space-time noise processes, with applications in quantum field theory and statistical mechanics.
A differential algebraic equation (DAE) is a differential equation comprising differential and
algebraic terms, given in implicit form.

Connection to difference equations

See also: Time scale calculus

The theory of differential equations is closely related to the theory of difference equations, in
which the coordinates assume only discrete values, and the relationship involves values of the
unknown function or functions and values at nearby coordinates. Many methods to compute
numerical solutions of differential equations or study the properties of differential equations
involve the approximation of the solution of a differential equation by the solution of a
corresponding difference equation.

Applications

The study of differential equations is a wide field in pure and applied mathematics, physics, and
engineering. All of these disciplines are concerned with the properties of differential equations of
various types. Pure mathematics focuses on the existence and uniqueness of solutions, while
applied mathematics emphasizes the rigorous justification of the methods for approximating
solutions. Differential equations play an important role in modeling virtually every physical,
technical, or biological process, from celestial motion, to bridge design, to interactions between
neurons. Differential equations such as those used to solve real-life problems may not necessarily
be directly solvable, i.e. do not have closed form solutions. Instead, solutions can be approximated
using numerical methods.

Many fundamental laws of physics and chemistry can be formulated as differential equations. In
biology and economics, differential equations are used to model the behavior of complex systems.
The mathematical theory of differential equations first developed together with the sciences
where the equations had originated and where the results found application. However, diverse
problems, sometimes originating in quite distinct scientific fields, may give rise to identical
differential equations. Whenever this happens, mathematical theory behind the equations can be
viewed as a unifying principle behind diverse phenomena. As an example, consider the
propagation of light and sound in the atmosphere, and of waves on the surface of a pond. All of
them may be described by the same second-order partial differential equation, the wave equation,
which allows us to think of light and sound as forms of waves, much like familiar waves in the
water. Conduction of heat, the theory of which was developed by Joseph Fourier, is governed by
another second-order partial differential equation, the heat equation. It turns out that many
diffusion processes, while seemingly different, are described by the same equation; the Black–
Scholes equation in finance is, for instance, related to the heat equation.

The number of differential equations that have received a name, in various scientific areas is a
witness of the importance of the topic. See List of named differential equations.
Software

Some CAS softwares can solve differential equations. These CAS softwares and their commands
are worth mentioning:

Maple[15]: dsolve

Mathematica[16]: DSolve[]

SageMath[17]: desolve()

Xcas[18]: desolve(y'=k*y,y)

See also

Complex differential equation

Exact differential equation

Functional differential equation

Initial condition

Integral equations

Numerical methods for ordinary differential equations

Numerical methods for partial differential equations

Picard–Lindelöf theorem on existence and uniqueness of solutions

Recurrence relation, also known as 'difference equation'

Abstract differential equation

System of differential equations

References

Dennis G. Zill (15 March 2012). A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications.
Cengage Learning. ISBN 1-285-40110-7.

Newton, Isaac. (c.1671). Methodus Fluxionum et Serierum Infinitarum (The Method of Fluxions
and Infinite Series), published in 1736 [Opuscula, 1744, Vol. I. p. 66].

Bernoulli, Jacob (1695), "Explicationes, Annotationes & Additiones ad ea, quae in Actis sup. de
Curva Elastica, Isochrona Paracentrica, & Velaria, hinc inde memorata, & paratim controversa
legundur; ubi de Linea mediarum directionum, alliisque novis", Acta Eruditorum

Hairer, Ernst; Nørsett, Syvert Paul; Wanner, Gerhard (1993), Solving ordinary differential
equations I: Nonstiff problems, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-56670-0
Frasier, Craig (July 1983). "Review of The evolution of dynamics, vibration theory from 1687 to
1742, by John T. Cannon and Sigalia Dostrovsky" (PDF). Bulletin (New Series) of the American
Mathematical Society. 9 (1).

Wheeler, Gerard F.; Crummett, William P. (1987). "The Vibrating String Controversy". Am. J. Phys.
55 (1): 33–37. Bibcode:1987AmJPh..55...33W. doi:10.1119/1.15311.

For a special collection of the 9 groundbreaking papers by the three authors, see First Appearance
of the wave equation: D'Alembert, Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli. - the controversy about
vibrating strings (retrieved 13 Nov 2012). Herman HJ Lynge and Son.

For de Lagrange's contributions to the acoustic wave equation, can consult Acoustics: An
Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications Allan D. Pierce, Acoustical Soc of America,
1989; page 18.(retrieved 9 Dec 2012)

Speiser, David. Discovering the Principles of Mechanics 1600-1800, p. 191 (Basel: Birkhäuser,
2008).

Fourier, Joseph (1822). Théorie analytique de la chaleur (in French). Paris: Firmin Didot Père et
Fils. OCLC 2688081.

Boyce, William E.; DiPrima, Richard C. (1967). Elementary Differential Equations and Boundary
Value Problems (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 3.

Weisstein, Eric W. "Ordinary Differential Equation Order." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web
Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/OrdinaryDifferentialEquationOrder.html

Order and degree of a differential equation Archived 2016-04-01 at the Wayback Machine,
accessed Dec 2015.

Zill, Dennis G. (2001). A First Course in Differential Equations (5th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-
37388-7.

"dsolve - Maple Programming Help". www.maplesoft.com. Retrieved 2020-05-09.

"DSolve - Wolfram Language Documentation". www.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-06-28.

"Basic Algebra and Calculus — Sage Tutorial v9.0". doc.sagemath.org. Retrieved 2020-05-09.

"Symbolic algebra and Mathematics with Xcas" (PDF).

Further reading

Abbott, P.; Neill, H. (2003). Teach Yourself Calculus. pp. 266–277.

Blanchard, P.; Devaney, R. L.; Hall, G. R. (2006). Differential Equations. Thompson.

Boyce, W.; DiPrima, R.; Meade, D. (2017). Elementary Differential Equations and Boundary Value
Problems. Wiley.

Coddington, E. A.; Levinson, N. (1955). Theory of Ordinary Differential Equations. McGraw-Hill.

Ince, E. L. (1956). Ordinary Differential Equations. Dover.

Johnson, W. (1913). A Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations. John Wiley and Sons.
In University of Michigan Historical Math Collection

Polyanin, A. D.; Zaitsev, V. F. (2003). Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential
Equations (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: Chapman & Hall/CRC Press. ISBN 1-58488-297-2.

Porter, R. I. (1978). "XIX Differential Equations". Further Elementary Analysis.

Teschl, Gerald (2012). Ordinary Differential Equations and Dynamical Systems. Providence:
American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-8328-0.

Daniel Zwillinger (12 May 2014). Handbook of Differential Equations. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-1-
4832-6396-0.

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Differential equation

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Ordinary Differential Equations

Wikiversity has learning resources about Differential equations

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Differential Equation.

Media related to Differential equations at Wikimedia Commons

Lectures on Differential Equations MIT Open CourseWare Videos

Online Notes / Differential Equations Paul Dawkins, Lamar University

Differential Equations, S.O.S. Mathematics

Introduction to modeling via differential equations Introduction to modeling by means of

differential equations, with critical remarks.

Mathematical Assistant on Web Symbolic ODE tool, using Maxima

Exact Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations

Collection of ODE and DAE models of physical systems MATLAB models

Notes on Diffy Qs: Differential Equations for Engineers An introductory textbook on differential
equations by Jiri Lebl of UIUC

Khan Academy Video playlist on differential equations Topics covered in a first year course in
differential equations.

MathDiscuss Video playlist on differential equations