The Theory of Congruences

If a and b are integers, m is a positive integer and m | ( a – b ), we say that "a is

congruent to b modulo m".  In symbols, we write this as a ≡ b (mod m). 
Congruence was introduced by Karl Friedrich Gauss at the beginning of the 19th
century and is a convenient statement about divisibility.
The following are equivalent and may be used interchangeably.

1. a ≡ b (mod m)
2. m | ( a – b ) or ( a – b ) is divisible by m.
3. a = b + mk , k ∈ Z.
Examples:
 8 ≡ 1 (mod 7) is true since 7 divides (8 – 1).
 5 ≡ -1 (mod 6) is true since 6 divides (5 – (-1)).
  It is not true that 12 ≡ 5 (mod 8) because 8 does not divide (12 – 5).

Let mbe a positive integer.  A collection of m integers  is called

a complete residue system modulo m if every integer b modulo m is congruent to
one of the elements in the collection.
For example, the set {0, 1, 2, 3} forms a complete residue system modulo 4. 
Properties of Congruences
Congruence is an equivalence relation in the set of integers, i.e. congruence
is reflexive, symmetric and transitive with respect to integers.

1. a ≡ a (mod m) (Reflexive)
2. a ≡ b (mod m) ⇔ b ≡ a (mod m) (Symmetric)
3. If a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m), then  a ≡ c (mod m) (Transitive)
 Examples:

1. 5 ≡ 5 (mod 6)
2. 1 ≡ 4 (mod 3), then 4 ≡ 1 (mod 6)
3. If 2 ≡ -1 (mod 3) and -1 ≡ 5 (mod 3), then  2 ≡ 5 (mod 3)
Other properties of congruences:
Given any integers a, b, c, d and any positive integer m and n:
 If a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡ d (mod m), then
o a + c ≡ b + d (mod m)
o a – c ≡ b – d (mod m)
o ac ≡ bd (mod m)
 If a ≡ b (mod m), then If an ≡ bn (mod m)
 If a ≡ b (mod m), then If ac ≡ bc (mod m)
 If ac ≡ bc (mod m), then a ≡ b (mod m/d ), where d = ( c, m )
Examples:
A. Find the least nonnegative residue of the following:
a. 25 (mod 5)
b. -11 (mod 6)
Answers:
a. 0
b. 1
B. Evaluate.
a. 24 + 39 (mod 11)
b. 32(14) (mod 14)
Answers: 
a. 8
b. 4
Some applications of congruences:
a. Finding the remainder when a very large number is divided by another number.
b. Finding the day of the week given a certain date.
c. Finding the actual time after a certain number of hours.