This article is about the Chinese instrument. For other uses, see Pipa (disambiguation).

Pipa
Pipa MET DP216710.jpg
A pipa from the late Ming dynasty
Classification
Necked bowl lutes
String instruments
Related instruments
List[show]
Pipa
Pipa (Chinese characters).svg
"Pipa" in Chinese characters
Chinese 琵琶
Transcriptions
The pipa, pípá, or p'i-p'a (Chinese: 琵琶) is a four-stringed Chinese musical instrument, belonging to
the plucked category of instruments. Sometimes called the Chinese lute, the instrument has a pear-
shaped wooden body with a varying number of frets ranging from 12 to 31. Another Chinese four-
string plucked lute is the liuqin, which looks like a smaller version of the pipa. The pear-shaped
instrument may have existed in China as early as the Han dynasty, and although historically the
term pipa was once used to refer to a variety of plucked chordophones, its usage since the Song
dynasty refers exclusively to the pear-shaped instrument.

The pipa is one of the most popular Chinese instruments and has been played for almost two
thousand years in China. Several related instruments are derived from the pipa, including the
Japanese biwa and Korean bipa in East Asia, and the Vietnamese đàn tỳ bà in Southeast Asia. The
Korean instrument is the only one of the three that is no longer widely used; examples survive in
museums, as attempts to revive the Korean instrument have been partially successful in recent
years.

Contents
1 History
1.1 In Chinese literature
2 Playing and performance
3 Repertoire
4 Schools
5 Performers
5.1 Historical
5.2 Modern era
6 Use in contemporary classical music
7 Use in other genres
8 Electric pipa
9 Five-stringed pipa
10 Gallery
11 See also
12 References
12.1 Bibliography
13 External links
History

Musicians in a scene from paradise, Yulin Cave 25, Tang dynasty

There are considerable confusion and disagreements about the origin of pipa. This may be due to
the fact that the word pipa was used in ancient texts to describe a variety of plucked chordophones
from the Qin to the Tang dynasty, including the long-necked spiked lute and the short-necked lute,
as well as the differing accounts given in these ancient texts. Traditional Chinese narrative prefers
the story of the Han Chinese princess Liu Xijun (劉細君) sent to marry a barbarian Wusun king
during the Han dynasty, with the pipa being invented so she could play music on horseback to
soothe her longings.[1][2] Modern researchers such as Laurence Picken, Shigeo Kishibe, and John
Myers suggested a non-Chinese origin.[3][4][5]

The earliest mention of pipa in Chinese texts appeared late in the Han Dynasty around the 2nd
century AD.[6][7] According to Liu Xi's Eastern Han Dynasty Dictionary of Names, the word pipa
may have an onomatopoeic origin (the word being similar to the sounds the instrument makes),[6]
although modern scholarship suggests a possible derivation from the Persian word "barbat", the two
theories however are not necessarily mutually exclusive.[8][9] Liu Xi also stated that the instrument
called pipa, though written differently (枇杷; pípá or 批把; pībǎ) in the earliest texts, originated from
amongst the Hu people (a general term for non-Han people living to the north and west of ancient
China). Another Han Dynasty text also indicates that, at that time, pipa was a recent arrival,[7]
although later 3rd-century texts from the Jin dynasty suggest that pipa existed in China as early as
the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC).[10] An instrument called xiantao (弦鼗), made by stretching strings
over a small drum with handle, was said to have been played by labourers who constructed the
Great Wall of China during the late Qin Dynasty.[10][11] This may have given rise to the Qin pipa,
an instrument with a straight neck and a round sound box, and evolved into ruan, an instrument
named after Ruan Xian, one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove and known for playing
similar instrument.[12][13] Yet another term used in ancient text was Qinhanzi (秦漢子), perhaps
similar to Qin pipa, but modern opinions differ on its precise form.[14][15][16]

Relief sculpture from Gandhara showing a lute being played by a musician (right), 1st-2nd century
AD
The pear-shaped pipa is likely to have been introduced to China from Central Asia, Gandhara,
and/or India.[2] Pear-shaped lutes have been depicted in Kusana sculptures from the 1st century
AD.[17][18] The pear-shaped pipa may have been introduced during the Han dynasty and was
referred to as Han pipa. However, depictions of the pear-shaped pipas in China only appeared after
the Han dynasty during the Jin dynasty in the late 4th to early 5th century.[19] Pipa acquired a
number of Chinese symbolisms during the Han dynasty - the instrument length of three feet five
inches represents the three realms (heaven, earth, and man) and the five elements, while the four
strings represent the four seasons.[7][dubious – discuss]

Depictions of the pear-shaped pipas appeared in abundance from the Southern and Northern
Dynasties onwards, and pipas from this time to the Tang Dynasty were given various names, such
as Hu pipa (胡琵琶), bent-neck pipa (曲項琵琶, quxiang pipa), some of these terms however may
refer to the same pipa. Apart from the four-stringed pipa, other pear-shaped instruments introduced
include the five-stringed, straight-necked, wuxian pipa (五弦琵琶, also known as Kuchean pipa (龜茲
琵琶)),[20] a six-stringed version, as well as the two-stringed hulei (忽雷). From the 3rd century
onwards, through the Sui and Tang Dynasty, the pear-shaped pipas became increasingly popular in
China. By the Song dynasty the word pipa was used to refer exclusively to the four-stringed pear-
shaped instrument.

Lute detail from a Tang dynasty painting on silk, 897 A.D.

The pipa reached a height of popularity during the Tang Dynasty, and was a principal musical
instrument in the imperial court. It may be played as a solo instrument or as part of the imperial
orchestra for use in productions such as daqu (大曲, grand suites), an elaborate music and dance
performance.[21] During this time Persian and Kuchan performers and teachers were in demand in
the capital, Chang'an (which had a large Persian community).[22] Some delicately carved pipas
with beautiful inlaid patterns date from this period, with particularly fine examples preserved in the
Shosoin Museum in Japan. It had close association with Buddhism and often appeared in mural and
sculptural representations of musicians in Buddhist contexts.[21] For example, masses of pipa-
playing Buddhist semi-deities are depicted in the wall paintings of the Mogao Caves near
Dunhuang. The four and five-stringed pipas were especially popular during the Tang Dynasty, and
these instruments were introduced into Japan during the Tang Dynasty as well as into other regions
such as Korea and Vietnam. The five-stringed pipa however had fallen from use by the Song
Dynasty, although attempts have been made to revive this instrument in the early 21st century with
a modernized five-string pipa modeled on the Tang Dynasty instrument.[23]

Evolution of the pipa

Tang dynasty pipa
Tang dynasty pipa
15th century pipa
15th century pipa
Illustrations from the 15th century Korean work Akhak Gwebeom showing a Tang-style pipa (then
still played in Korea but with extra frets added not found in Tang dynasty pipa), and a Joseon
Dynasty folk pipa (reflecting Ming-style pipa) with a longer neck and more frets. Tang pipa was
played with a plectrum, but the Ming pipa was played with fingers.
During the Song Dynasty, pipa fell from favour in the imperial court, perhaps a result of the
influence of neo-Confucian nativism as pipa had foreign associations.[24] However, it continued to
be played as a folk instrument that also gained the interest of the literati.[21] The pipa underwent a
number of changes over the centuries. By the Ming dynasty, fingers replaced plectrum as the
popular technique for playing pipa, although finger-playing techniques existed as early as Tang.[25]
Extra frets were added; the early instrument had 4 frets (相, xiāng) on the neck, but during the early
Ming Dynasty extra bamboo frets (品, pǐn) were affixed onto the soundboard, increasing the number
of frets to around 10 and therefore the range of the instrument. The short neck of the Tang pipa also
became more elongated.[24]

In the subsequent periods, the number of frets gradually increased, from around 10 to 14 or 16
during the Qing Dynasty, then to 19, 24, 29, and 30 in the 20th century. The 4 wedge-shaped frets
on the neck became 6 during the 20th century. The 14- or 16-fret pipa had frets arranged in
approximately equivalent to the western tone and semitone, starting at the nut, the intervals were T-
S-S-S-T-S-S-S-T-T-3/4-3/4-T-T-3/4-3/4, (some frets produced a 3/4 tone or "neutral tone"). In the
1920s and 1930s, the number of frets was increased to 24, based on the 12 tone equal temperament
scale, with all the intervals being semitones. The traditional 16-fret pipa became less common,
although it is still used in some regional styles such as the pipa in the southern genre of
nanguan/nanyin. The horizontal playing position became the vertical (or near-vertical) position by
the Qing Dynasty, although in some regional genres such as nanguan the pipa is still held guitar
fashion. During the 1950s, the use of metal strings in place of the traditional silk ones also resulted
in a change in the sound of the pipa which became brighter and stronger.[2]

In Chinese literature

Ladies in palace enjoying an informal concert, Tang dynasty

Early literary tradition in China, for example in a 3rd-century description by Fu Xuan, Ode to Pipa,
[1][26] associates the Han pipa with the northern frontier, Princess Liu Xijun and Wang Zhaojun,
who were married to nomad rulers of the Wusun and Xiongnu peoples in what is now Mongolia and
northern Xinjiang respectively.[2] Wang Zhaojun in particular is frequently referenced in later
literary works and lyrics (although her story is often conflated with other women including Liu
Xijun),[27] as well as in music pieces such as Zhaojun's Lament (昭君怨, also the title of a poem),
and in paintings where she is often depicted holding a pipa.

Decorated back of a pipa from the Ming dynasty

There are many references to pipa in Tang literary works, for example, in A Music Conservatory
Miscellany Duan Anjie related many anecdotes associated with pipa.[28] The pipa is mentioned
frequently in Tang Dynasty poetry, where it is often praised for its expressiveness, refinement and
delicacy of tone, with poems dedicated to well-known players describing their performances.[29]
[30][31] A famous poem by Bai Juyi's Pipa xing (琵琶行), contains a description of a pipa
performance during a chance encounter with a female pipa player on the Yangtze River:[32]

大絃嘈嘈如急雨
小絃切切如私語
嘈嘈切切錯雜彈
大珠小珠落玉盤
The bold strings rattled like splatters of sudden rain,
The fine strings hummed like lovers' whispers.
Chattering and pattering, pattering and chattering,
As pearls, large and small, on a jade plate fall.

The encounter also inspired a poem by Yuan Zhen, Song of Pipa (琵琶歌). Another excerpt of
figurative descriptions of a pipa music may be found in a eulogy for a pipa player, Lament for
Shancai by Li Shen:[30]

銜花金鳳當承撥
轉腕攏弦促揮抹
花翻鳳嘯天上來
裴回滿殿飛春雪
On the plectrum, figure of a golden phoenix with flowers in its beak,
With turned wrist, he gathered the strings to pluck and strum faster.
The flowers fluttered, and from Heaven the phoenix trilled,
Lingering, filling the palace hall, spring snow flew.

During the Song dynasty, many of the literati and poets wrote ci verses, a form of poetry meant to
be sung and accompanied by instruments such as pipa. They included Ouyang Xiu, Wang Anshi,
and Su Shi. During the Yuan dynasty, the playwright Gao Ming wrote a play for nanxi opera called
Pipa ji (琵琶記, or "Story of the Pipa"), a tale about an abandoned wife who set out to find her
husband, surviving by playing the pipa. It is one of the most enduring work in Chinese theatre, and
one that became a model for Ming dynasty drama as it was the favorite opera of the first Ming
emperor.[33][34] The Ming collection of supernatural tales Fengshen Yanyi tells the story of Pipa
Jing, a pipa spirit, but ghost stories involving pipa existed as early as the Jin dynasty, for example in
the 4th century collection of tales Soushen Ji. Novels of the Ming and Qing dynasties such as Jin
Ping Mei showed pipa performance to be a normal aspect of life in these periods at home (where the
characters in the novels may be proficient in the instrument) as well as outside on the street or in
pleasure houses.[24]

Playing and performance

A mural from the tomb of Xu Xianxiu in Taiyuan, Shanxi province, dated 571 AD during the
Northern Qi Dynasty, showing male court musicians playing the pipa and liuqin, and a woman
playing a konghou
The name "pipa" is made up of two Chinese syllables, "pí" (琵) and "pá" (琶). These, according to
the Han dynasty text by Liu Xi, refer to the way the instrument is played - "pí" is to strike outward
with the right hand, and "pá" is to pluck inward towards the palm of the hand.[6] The strings were
played using a large plectrum in the Tang dynasty, a technique still used now for the Japanese biwa.
[35] It has however been suggested that the long plectrum depicted in ancient paintings may have
been used as a friction stick like a bow.[36] The plectrum has now been largely replaced by the
fingernails of the right hand. The most basic technique, tantiao (彈挑), involves just the index finger
and thumb (tan is striking with the index finger, tiao with the thumb). The fingers normally strike
the strings of pipa in the opposite direction to the way a guitar is usually played, i.e. the fingers and
thumb flick outward, unlike the guitar where the fingers and thumb normally pluck inward towards
the palm of the hand. Plucking in the opposite direction to tan and tiao are called mo (抹) and gou
(勾) respectively. When two strings are plucked at the same time with the index finger and thumb
(i.e. the finger and thumb separate in one action), it is called fen (分), the reverse motion is called
zhi (摭). A rapid strum is called sao (掃), and strumming in the reverse direction is called fu (拂). A
distinctive sound of pipa is the tremolo produced by the lunzhi (輪指) technique which involves all
the fingers and thumb of the right hand. It is however possible to produce the tremolo with just one
or more fingers.

The left hand techniques are important for the expressiveness of pipa music. Techniques that
produce vibrato, portamento, glissando, pizzicato, harmonics or artificial harmonics found in violin
or guitar are also found in pipa. String-bending for example may be used to produce a glissando or
portamento. Note however that the frets on all Chinese lutes are high so that the fingers and strings
never touch the fingerboard in between the frets, this is different from many Western fretted
instruments and allows for dramatic vibrato and other pitch changing effects.

In addition, there are a number of techniques that produce sound effects rather than musical notes,
for example, striking the board of the pipa for a percussive sound, or strings-twisting while playing
that produces a cymbal-like effect.

The strings are usually tuned to A-D-E-A, although there are various other ways of tuning. Since
the revolutions in Chinese instrument-making during the 20th century, the softer twisted silk strings
of earlier times have been exchanged for nylon-wound steel strings, which are far too strong for
human fingernails, so false nails are now used, constructed of plastic or tortoise-shell, and affixed to
the fingertips with the player's choice of elastic tape. However, false nails made of horn existed as
early as the Ming period when fingerpicking became the popular technique for playing pipa.[24]

The pipa is held in a vertical or near-vertical position during performance, although in the early
periods the instrument was held in the horizontal position or near-horizontal with the neck pointing
slightly downwards, or upside down.[17][14] Through time, the neck was raised and by the Qing
Dynasty the instrument was mostly played upright.

Half-section of the Night Revels of Han Xizai, a 12th-century remake of a 10th-century painting by
Gu Hongzhong. One lady is seen entertaining guests with a pipa and another lady is seen holding
onto one.
Repertoire

10th century tablature for pipa from Dunhuang Mogao Caves.

Pipa has been played solo, or as part of a large ensemble or small group since the early times. Few
pieces for pipa survived from the early periods, some however are preserved in Japan as part of
togaku (Tang music) tradition. In the early 20th century, twenty-five pieces were found amongst
10th-century manuscripts in the Mogao caves near Dunhuang, most of these pieces however may
have originated from the Tang dynasty. The scores were written in tablature form with no
information on tuning given, there are therefore uncertainties in the reconstruction of the music as
well as deciphering other symbols in the score.[37] Three Ming dynasty pieces were discovered in
the High River Flows East (高河江東, Gaohe Jiangdong) collection dating from 1528 which are very
similar to those performed today, such as "The Moon on High" (月兒高, Yue-er Gao). During the
Qing dynasty, scores for pipa were collected in Thirteen Pieces for Strings.[38] During the Qing
dynasty there originally two major schools of pipa — the Northern and Southern schools, and music
scores for these two traditions were collected and published in the first mass-produced edition of
solo pieces for pipa, now commonly known as the Hua Collection (華氏譜).[39] The collection was
edited by Hua Qiuping (華秋萍, 1784–1859) and published in 1819 in three volumes.[40] The first
volume contains 13 pieces from the Northern school, the second and third volumes contain 54
pieces from the Southern school. Famous pieces such as "Ambushed from Ten Sides", "The Warlord
Takes Off His Armour", and "Flute and Drum at Sunset" were first described in this collection. The
earliest-known piece in the collection may be "Eagle Seizing a Crane" (海青挐鶴) which was
mentioned in a Yuan dynasty text.[41] Other collections from the Qing Dynasty were compiled by
Li Fangyuan (李芳園) and Ju Shilin (鞠士林), each representing different schools, and many of the
pieces currently popular were described in these Qing collections. Further important collections
were published in the 20th century.

The pipa pieces in the common repertoire can be categorized as wen (文, civil) or wu (武, martial),
and da (大, large or suite) or xiao (小, small). The wen style is more lyrical and slower in tempo,
with softer dynamic and subtler colour, and such pieces typically describe love, sorrow, and scenes
of nature. Pieces in the Wu style are generally more rhythmic and faster, and often depict scenes of
battles and are played in a vigorous fashion employing a variety of techniques and sound effects.
The wu style was associated more with the Northern school while the wen style was more the
Southern school. The da and xiao categories refer to the size of the piece – xiao pieces are small
pieces normally containing only one section, while da pieces are large and usually contain multiple
sections. The traditional pieces however often have a standard metrical length of 68 measures or
beat,[42] and these may be joined together to form the larger pieces dagu.[43]

Famous solo pieces now performed include:

Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin English (translation)

十面埋伏 十面埋伏 Shí Mìan Maífú Ambushed from Ten Sides
夕陽簫鼓/春江花月夜 夕阳箫 鼓 鼓 /春江花月夜 Xīyáng Xīao Gǔ/Chūnjiāng Huā Yuèyè Flute and
Drum at Sunset / Flowery Moonlit River in Spring
陽春白雪 阳春白雪 Yángchūn Baíxuě White Snow in Spring Sunlight
龍船 龙船 Lóngchuán Dragon Boat
彝族舞曲 彝族舞曲 Yìzú Wúqǔ Dance of the Yi People
大浪淘沙 大浪淘沙 Dàlàng Táo Shā Big Waves Crashing on Sand
昭君出塞 昭君出塞 Zhàojūn Chū Saì Zhaojun Outside the Frontier
霸王卸甲 霸王卸甲 Bàwáng Xiè Jiǎ The Warlord Takes Off His Armour
高山流水 高山流水 Gāoshān Liúshuǐ High Mountains Flowing Water
月兒高 月儿高 Yuè'er Gāo Moon on High
Most of the above are traditional compositions dating to the Qing Dynasty or early 20th century,
new pieces however are constantly being composed, and most of them follow a more Western
structure. Examples of popular modern works composed after the 1950s are "Dance of the Yi
People" and "Heroic Little Sisters of the Grassland" (草原英雄小姐妹). Non-traditional themes may
be used in these new compositions and some may reflect the political landscape and demands at the
time of composition, for example "Dance of the Yi People" which is based on traditional melodies
of the Yi people, may be seen as part of the drive for national unity, while "Heroic Little Sisters of
the Grassland" extols the virtue of those who served as model of exemplary behaviour in the
People's commune.[44]

Schools

Scene from a Ming dynasty painting, Tao Gu Presents a Poem, c. 1515, by Tang Yin.
There are a number of different traditions with different styles of playing pipa in various regions of
China, some of which then developed into schools. In the narrative traditions where the pipa is used
as an accompaniment to narrative singing, there are the Suzhou tanci (蘇州彈詞), Sichuan qingyin
(四川清音), and Northern quyi (北方曲藝) genres. Pipa is also an important component of regional
chamber ensemble traditions such as Jiangnan sizhu, Teochew string music and Nanguan ensemble.
[45] In Nanguan music, the pipa is still held in the near-horizontal position or guitar-fashion in the
ancient manner instead of the vertical position normally used for solo playing in the present day.

There were originally two major schools of pipa during the Qing Dynasty — the Northern (Zhili, 直
隸派) and Southern (Zhejiang, 浙江派) schools, and from these emerged the five main schools
associated with the solo tradition. Each school is associated with one or more collections of pipa
music and named after its place of origin -

A page of music notation from the Li Collection by Li Fangyuan.

Wuxi school (無錫派) – associated with the Hua Collection by Hua Qiuping, who studied with Wang
Junxi (王君錫) of the Northern school and Chen Mufu (陳牧夫) of the Southern school, and may be
considered a synthesis of these two schools of the Qing Dynasty.[39] As the first published
collection, the Hua Collection had considerable influence on later pipa players.
Pudong school (浦東派) – associated with the Ju Collection (鞠氏譜) which is based on an 18th-
century handwritten manuscript, Xianxu Youyin (閑敘幽音), by Ju Shilin.
Pinghu school (平湖派) – associated with the Li Collection (李氏譜) first published in 1895 and
compiled by Li Fangyuan who came from a family of many generations of pipa players.[46]
Chongming school (崇明派) – associated with Old Melodies of Yingzhou (瀛洲古調) compiled by
Shen Zhaozhou (沈肇州, 1859–1930) in 1916.
Shanghai or Wang school (汪派) – named after Wang Yuting (汪昱庭) who created this style of
playing. It may be considered a synthesis of the other four schools especially the Pudong and
Pinghu schools. Wang did not publish his notation book in his lifetime, although handwritten copies
were passed on to his students.
These schools of the solo tradition emerged by students learning playing the pipa from a master, and
each school has its own style, performance aesthetics, notation system, and may differ in their
playing techniques.[47][48] Different schools have different repertoire in their music collection, and
even though these schools share many of the same pieces in their repertoire, a same piece of music
from the different schools may differ in their content. For example, a piece like "The Warlord Takes
off His Armour" is made up of many sections, some of them metered and some with free meter, and
greater freedom in interpretation is possible in the free meter sections. Different schools however
can have sections added or removed, and may differ in the number of sections with free meter.[47]
The music collections from the 19th century also used the gongche notation which provides only a
skeletal melody and approximate rhythms sometimes with some playing instructions given (such as
tremolo or string-bending), and how this basic framework can become fully fleshed out during
performance may only be learnt by the students from the master. The same piece of music can
therefore differ significantly when performed by students of different schools, with striking
differences in interpretation, phrasing, tempo, dynamics, playing techniques, and ornamentations.

In more recent times, many pipa players, especially the younger ones, no longer identify themselves
with any specific school. Modern notation systems, new compositions as well as recordings are now
widely available and it is no longer crucial for a pipa players to learn from the master of any
particular school to know how to play a score.

Performers

A Sui Dynasty (581–618) terracotta pipa-player in a suit of armor

Historical
Pipa is commonly associated with Princess Liu Xijun and Wang Zhaojun of the Han dynasty,
although the form of pipa they played in that period is unlikely to be pear-shaped as they are now
usually depicted. Other early known players of pipa include General Xie Shang (謝尚) from the Jin
Dynasty who was described to have performed it with his leg raised.[49] The introduction of pipa
from Central Asia also brought with it virtuoso performers from that region, for example Sujiva (蘇
祇婆, Sujipo) from the Kingdom of Kucha during the Northern Zhou dynasty, Kang Kunlun (康崑崙)
from Kangju, and Pei Luoer (裴洛兒) from Shule. Pei Luoer was known for pioneering finger-
playing techniques,[25] while Sujiva was noted for the "Seven modes and seven tones", a musical
modal theory from India.[50][51] (The heptatonic scale was used for a time afterwards in the
imperial court due to Sujiva's influence until it was later abandoned). These players had
considerable influence on the development of pipa playing in China. Of particular fame were the
family of pipa players founded by Cao Poluomen (曹婆羅門) and who were active for many
generations from the Northern Wei to Tang dynasty.[52]

Texts from Tang dynasty mentioned many renowned pipa players such as He Huaizhi (賀懷智), Lei
Haiqing (雷海清), Li Guaner (李管兒), and Pei Xingnu (裴興奴).[31][53][54] Duan Anjie described
the duel between the famous pipa player Kang Kunlun and the monk Duan Shanben (段善本) who
was disguised as a girl, and told the story of Yang Zhi (楊志) who learned how to play the pipa
secretly by listening to his aunt playing at night.[28] Celebrated performers of the Tang Dynasty
included three generations of the Cao family — Cao Bao (曹保), Cao Shancai (曹善才) and Cao
Gang (曹剛),[55][56] whose performances were noted in literary works.[57][30]

During the Song Dynasty, players mentioned in literary texts include Du Bin (杜彬).[58] From the
Ming dynasty, famous pipa players include Zhong Xiuzhi (鍾秀之), Zhang Xiong (張雄, known for
his playing of "Eagle Seizing Swan"), the blind Li Jinlou (李近樓), and Tang Yingzeng (湯應曾) who
was known to have played a piece that may be an early version of "Ambushed from Ten Sides".[59]

In Qing dynasty, apart from those of the various schools previously mentioned, there was Chen
Zijing (陳子敬), a student of Ju Shilin and known as a noted player during late Qing dynasty.

Modern era

Wu Man playing pipa at WOMEX 15

In the 20th century, two of the most prominent pipa players were Sun Yude (孙裕德; 1904–1981)
and Li Tingsong (李廷松; 1906–1976). Both were pupils of Wang Yuting (1872–1951), and both
were active in establishing and promoting Guoyue ("national music"), which is a combination of
traditional regional music and Western musical practices. Sun performed in the United States, Asia,
and Europe, and in 1956 became deputy director of the Shanghai minzu yuetuan (Shanghai Folk
Orchestra). As well as being one of the leading pipa players of his generation, Li held many
academic positions and also carried out research on pipa scales and temperament. Wei Zhongle (卫
仲乐 ; 1903－1997) played many instruments, including the guqin. In the early 1950s, he founded
the traditional instruments department at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. Players from the
Wang and Pudong schools were the most active in performance and recording during the 20th
century, less active was the Pinghu school whose players include Fan Boyan (樊伯炎). Other noted
players of the early 20th century include Liu Tianhua, a student of Shen Zhaozhou of the
Chongming school and who increased the number of frets on the pipa and changed to an equal-
tempered tuning, and the blind player Abing from Wuxi.

Lin Shicheng (林石城; 1922–2006), born in Shanghai, began learning music under his father and
was taught by Shen Haochu (沈浩初; 1899–1953), a leading player in the Pudong school style of
pipa playing. He also qualified as a doctor of Chinese medicine. In 1956, after working for some
years in Shanghai, Lin accepted a position at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu
Dehai (1937-2020), also born in Shanghai, was a student of Lin Shicheng and in 1961 graduated
from the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu also studied with other musicians and has
developed a style that combines elements from several different schools. Ye Xuran (叶绪 然 然 ), a
student of Lin Shicheng and Wei Zhongle, was the Pipa Professor at the first Musical Conservatory
of China, the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. He premiered the oldest Dunhuang Pipa Manuscript
(the first interpretation made by Ye Dong) in Shanghai in the early 1980s.

Other prominent students of Lin Shicheng at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing include
Liu Guilian (刘桂莲 , born 1961), Gao Hong and Wu Man. Wu Man is probably the best known pipa
player internationally, received the first-ever master's degree in pipa and won China's first National
Academic Competition for Chinese Instruments. She lives in San Diego, California and works
extensively with Chinese, cross-cultural, new music, and jazz groups. Shanghai-born Liu Guilian
graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and became the director of the Shanghai Pipa
Society, and a member of the Chinese Musicians Association and Chinese National Orchestral
Society, before immigrating to Canada. She now performs with Red Chamber and the Vancouver
Chinese Music Ensemble. Gao Hong graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and was
the first to do a joint tour with Lin Shicheng in North America. They recorded the critically
acclaimed CD "Eagle Seizing Swan" together.

Noted contemporary pipa players who work internationally include Min Xiao-Fen, Zhou Yi, Qiu
Xia He, Liu Fang, Cheng Yu, Jie Ma, Yang Jing, Yang Wei (杨惟), Guan Yadong (管亚 东 ), Jiang
Ting (蔣婷), Tang Liangxing (湯良興), and Lui Pui-Yuen (呂培原). Some other notable pipa players in
China include Yu Jia (俞嘉), Wu Yu Xia (吳玉霞), Fang Jinlung (方錦龍) and Zhao Cong (赵聪).

Use in contemporary classical music

In the late 20th century, largely through the efforts of Wu Man (in USA), Min Xiao-Fen (in USA),
composer Yang Jing (in Europe) and other performers, Chinese and Western contemporary
composers began to create new works for the pipa (both solo and in combination with chamber
ensembles and orchestra). Most prominent among these are Minoru Miki, Thüring Bräm, YANG
Jing, Terry Riley, Donald Reid Womack, Philip Glass, Lou Harrison, Tan Dun, Bright Sheng, Chen
Yi, Zhou Long, Bun-Ching Lam, and Carl Stone.