“

,” Journal of Guidance, Control, and

Dynamics
Lavretsky, E., “,” IEEE
Transactions on Automatic
Control
Modern Control
Systems
Robust and Adaptive Control: With Aerospace
Applications
Brown, W., “On the

Tools,” AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference
Nejad, M.,
“Bounded –
Adaptive Control,” AIAA Guidance,
Navigation, and Control Conference

Annaswamy, A. M., Jang, J., Lavretsky, E., “Stability Margins for Adaptive
Delay,” AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control
Conference
“
Recent Results in Robust Adaptive Flight Control Systems,” International Journal of
Adaptive Control and Signal Processing, Special Issue: Robust Adaptive Control: Legacies
and Horizons
,
“,” AIAA
Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference
Lavretsky, E., “Adaptive Output Feedback Design Using
AsymptotiLQG/LTR Controllers,” IEEE Transactions on Automatic
Control
ADAPTIVE CONTROL WITH AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
by
Ross Gadient
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING)
May 2013
Copyright 2013 Ross Gadient
ii
Acknowledgments
First I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Petros Ioannou, who has been generous with his
time, his guidance, and his wisdom. I am grateful for our many discussions which led to the
exploration of topics contained within. His optimism and enthusiasm helped fuel my research
efforts even at times when hope seemed lost. I consider myself fortunate to have had an
advisor who provided such expertise coupled with sincere interest and care.
The members of my research committee deserve thanks for providing insight and
constructive criticism, along with enriching my knowledge in the classroom. Professor
Michael Safonov, Professor Henryk Flashner, and Professor Edmond Jonckheere all
contributed in significant ways to the construction of my dissertation and the direction of my
research.
I would like to acknowledge those who originally stoked my interest in the area of control
theory during my days at the University of Illinois. Professor Daniel Metz, Professor Carolyn
Beck, and Professor Juraj Medanic all played pivotal roles in my introduction to control
theory and subsequent continuing study. Special considerations go to Professor Francesco
Bullo, who helped to broaden my research horizons while serving as my M.S. thesis advisor.
I am indebted to professional colleagues and friends who have helped me better understand
both control theory and application, and I hope my research has positively contributed to
these areas. I would like to express my gratitude to Irene Gregory, Professor Gary Balas,
Professor Anuradha Annaswamy, Professor Naira Hovakimyan,
iii
Brian Whitehead, Travis Gibson, Jason Levin, Ryan Ratliff, Joseph Brinker, and many others
for their contributions.
Special thanks go to Eugene Lavretsky and Kevin Wise for their encouragement, for their
continuing demonstration of excellence in research, application, and teaching of control
theory, and for their friendship.
Most of all, I would like to thank my family: My grandparents Margaret & John and Bette &
Richard for instilling an early love of learning, the denizens of Onanguisse for sharing
positive energy, my brother John for providing inspiration and countless laughs, my parents
Denise and Jeff for their unconditional love and support, and my wife Kat for her grace, her
patience, and her love.
iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... ii
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... v
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. vii
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Model Following Using Dynamic Inversion.................................................... 7
Chapter 1.1: Baseline Dynamic Inversion Design ....................................................... 8
Chapter 1.2: Aircraft Longitudinal Design ................................................................ 11
Chapter 1.3: Aircraft Directional Design ................................................................... 14
Chapter 2: Model Following Using Dynamic Inversion Controller with State Limiting 18
Chapter 2.1: State Limiter – Motivating Example ..................................................... 20
Chapter 2.2: State Limiter Application to Aircraft Dynamics ................................... 36
Chapter 2.3: Application to X-48B Aircraft Simulation ............................................ 38
Chapter 2.4: Flight Test of the X-48B AOA and AOS Limiting System .................. 49
Chapter 3: Dynamic Inversion with Adaptive Augmentation ......................................... 62
Chapter 3.1: PID Control for Cascaded Systems with Uncertain Dynamics ............. 63
Chapter 3.2: Parameter Adaptation and Closed-Loop System Dynamics ................. 67
Chapter 3.3: Design Example: AOA Tracking .......................................................... 71
Chapter 4: Dynamic Inversion with State Limiting and Adaptive Augmentation ........... 81
Chapter 4.1: Baseline+Adaptive Control+State Limiting for Uncertain Dynamics .. 83
Chapter 4.2: Design Example: AOA Tracking .......................................................... 89
Chapter 5: Adaptive Design with Improved Performance under Input Time-Delays ... 100
Chapter 5.1: Problem Definition and Baseline Optimal Control Design ................. 103
Chapter 5.2: Adaptive Augmentation via Classical MRAC Architecture ............... 110
Chapter 5.3: Alternative Adaptive Augmentation via B-SPM Model ..................... 114
Chapter 5.4: Design Example: AOA Tracking ........................................................ 118
Chapter 6: Concluding Remarks and Suggestions for Future Work .............................. 137
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 142
v
List of Figures
Figure 1: Limiter Onset Modulation Function 22
Figure 2: Step Response Comparison – Nominal vs. Limited System 24
Figure 3: AOA Limiter Performance in Windup Turn 40
Figure 4: Elevator Response for AOA Windup Turn 42
Figure 5: Reference Model Parameters for AOA Windup Turn 43
Figure 6: AOS Limiter Performance, Step Input 45
Figure 7: Rudder Response for AOA Step Command 46
Figure 8: Reference Model Parameters for AOS Step Command 48
Figure 9: X-48B BWB Configuration 49
Figure 10: X-48B Positive AOA Envelope Limits 51
Figure 11: Windup/Wind-down Turn V-n Diagram 52
Figure 12: Representative Windup/Wind-down Turn V-n Diagram 53
Figure 13: Representative Windup/Wind-down Turn Airspeed/AOA Plot 54
Figure 14: AOA Limiter Results, Slat Retracted/Aft CG 56
Figure 15: AOA Limiter Results, Slat Extended/Fwd CG 57
Figure 16: Representative Sideslip Limiter Maneuvers 59
Figure 17: Sideslip Limiter Results, Slat Ret/Aft CG 60
Figure 18: Sideslip Limiter Results, Slat Ext/Aft CG 61
Figure 19: Representation of the Sets r b B R S S 70
Figure 20: Baseline Closed-Loop Response to AOA Doublet without Uncertainties 74
Figure 21: Total Matched Uncertainty vs. AOA at q=0 76
Figure 22: Baseline Closed-Loop Response in Presence of Matched Uncertainties 77
Figure 23: Baseline+Adaptive Closed-Loop Response in Presence of Uncertainties 79
Figure 24: Adaptive Parameter Norm vs. Time 80
Figure 25: Baseline Closed-Loop Response to AOA Doublet without Uncertainties 92
Figure 26: Closed-Loop Response to AOA Doublet: No Uncertainties, with Limiter 93
Figure 27: AOA Doublet Response: No Uncertainties, with Limiter (Zoom) 94
Figure 28: AOA Doublet Response: Uncertainties with Adaptive+Limiter 96
Figure 29: AOA Doublet Response: Uncertainties with Adaptive+Limiter (Zoom) 97
Figure 30: Adaptive Parameter Norm vs. Time 98
Figure 31: Time Response of Pure Time-Delay and Padé Approximations 106
Figure 32: Frequency of Pure Time-Delay and Padé Approximations 107
Figure 33: Baseline Closed-Loop Response to AOA Doublet without Uncertainties 120
Figure 34: Baseline Closed-Loop Response in Presence of Matched Uncertainties 122
Figure 35: Baseline+MRAC Closed-Loop Response in Presence of Uncertainties 124
Figure 36: MRAC Adaptive Parameter Norms vs. Time 125
Figure 37: Baseline+MRAC Closed-Loop Response with High Adaptive Gains 126
Figure 38: Baseline+B-SPM Normalized Response in Presence of Uncertainties 128
Figure 39: Baseline+B-SPM Adaptive Parameter Norms vs. Time 129
Figure 40: Comparison of Adaptive Closed-Loop Responses: with Uncertainties 130
vi
Figure 41: Comparison of Control Input Power Spectral Densities 131
Figure 42: Baseline Response: Input Time-Delay of 935ms 133
Figure 43: Baseline + B-SPM Normalized Response: Input Time-Delay of 935ms 135
vii
Abstract
Robust and adaptive control techniques have a rich history of theoretical development with
successful application. Despite the accomplishments made, attempts to combine the best
elements of each approach into robust adaptive systems has proven challenging, particularly
in the area of application to real world aerospace systems. In this research, we investigate
design methods for general classes of systems that may be applied to representative aerospace
dynamics. By combining robust baseline control design with augmentation designs, our work
aims to leverage the advantages of each approach.
This research contributes the development of robust model-based control design for two
classes of dynamics: 2nd order cascaded systems, and a more general MIMO framework. We
present a theoretically justified method for state limiting via augmentation of a robust
baseline control design. Through the development of adaptive augmentation designs, we are
able to retain system performance in the presence of uncertainties. We include an extension
that combines robust baseline design with both state limiting and adaptive augmentations. In
addition we develop an adaptive augmentation design approach for a class of dynamic input
uncertainties. We present formal stability proofs and analyses for all proposed designs in the
research.
Throughout the work, we present real world aerospace applications using relevant flight
dynamics and flight test results. We derive robust baseline control designs with application to
both piloted and unpiloted aerospace system. Using our developed methods, we add a flight
envelope protecting state limiting augmentation for piloted aircraft applications and
demonstrate the efficacy of our approach via both simulation and
viii
flight test. We illustrate our adaptive augmentation designs via application to relevant fixed-
wing aircraft dynamics. Both a piloted example combining the state limiting and adaptive
augmentation approaches, and an unpiloted example with adaptive augmentation show the
ability of our approach to retain desired performance in the presence of relevant system
uncertainty. Finally, we present alternative adaptive augmentation design developed to
mitigate time delays at the system input and which demonstrates significant improvement
over an existing widely used adaptive augmentation approach when applied to fixed wing
aircraft dynamics.
1
Introduction
Demands on safety and performance have necessitated the development of increasingly
sophisticated flight control systems. The design of autopilots for high-performance aircraft
was one of the primary motivations for active research in adaptive control in the 1950s. In
comparison to gain scheduling, adaptive control has a learning capability which identifies
changes in the parameters of the flight dynamics by processing the input/output data and
adjusts its parameters accordingly. Adaptive designs may offer benefits over fixed-gain
counterparts such as improved performance, increased robustness to uncertainties, decreased
design cycle time, and lower cost. These benefits are a byproduct of their ability to adjust
control parameters as a function of online measurements. Early attempts at adaptive flight
control used controllers with unproven stability properties, which sometimes led to disastrous
consequences [5]. Since that time, significant research in the field of robust and adaptive
control has allowed the design of stable adaptive systems. Various adaptive control methods
have been developed for controlling dynamic systems with parametric and dynamic
uncertainties [6]-[17]. These techniques have been extended and applied to the problem of
aircraft control. Recently, a dynamic inversion baseline controller on the X-36 tailless fighter
was augmented by an adaptive neural network flight control system [18]. In addition,
adaptive augmentation has been used to augment baseline LQR control design in production
joint direct attack munitions (JDAM) unpowered weapons [19]. In this thesis, we take a
similar adaptive augmentation approach to a robust baseline controller and apply to dynamics
representative of an aircraft in all three axes.
2
This thesis considers two model following control system architectures designed to provide
robust baseline with adaptive tracking performance, applied to relevant flight dynamics. First,
given second-order dynamical systems in cascaded form, we design a baseline model-
reference dynamic inversion based tracking control law in both explicit and implicit forms.
Interest in considering this particular class of systems stems from flight control related
applications, where inner-loop controllers for fixed-wing aircraft are often designed based on
simplified models [1]-[4]. These models represent the decoupled fast responses in aircraft
pitch, roll and yaw axes and are given in such cascaded form. The benefit of such a baseline
control design is two-fold. Such a design allows for favorable closed-loop system
characteristics in terms of traditional robustness measures and disturbance rejection. In
addition, the choice of dynamic inversion architecture allows the designer to satisfy both
aircraft performance and handling qualities requirements in a convenient manner. The latter
is of significant importance in the case of piloted vehicles, where well-known robust control
techniques such as LQR may be used to provide good margins and robustness but may not
provide insight into handling qualities.
An additional challenge addressed is the need to keep the system dynamics in a prescribed
region of the corresponding state space. This region is often referred to as the “operational
flight envelope”. For example, an Angle-of-Attack (AOA) command tracking controller must
include an AOA protection system (often called the “AOA Limiter”), whose purpose is to
maintain the aircraft AOA within a pre-specified range, outside of which a loss of control is
expected. Vehicles with control augmentation
3
systems rely on state limiters to prevent the exceeding of predetermined state limits. These
limiters typically activate once predefined envelope boundaries are exceeded and introduce
sharp changes to control characteristics once active. The resulting nonlinearities make
analysis using conventional control system methods difficult or invalid. Current state-of-the-
art in limiter design consists of ad-hoc limiting schemes developed specifically for the system
under consideration. As a result, such methods require extensive design and test iterations
specific to each individual application. Often, these designs do not provide stability /
performance guarantees. The proposed method introduces a formal yet numerically efficient
limiting technique which gradually modifies the expected behavior of the system dynamics
when user-specified criteria are approached / exceeded. In essence, such a controller has to
blend two subsystems, the tracker and the limiter, with seamless transitions between the two
controllers while preserving closed-loop stability at all times. In this thesis we present a state
limiting augmentation design via formal methods that keeps the system state in a prescribed
region of the state space while maintaining closed-loop stability.
Another challenge addressed in this thesis is the use of adaptive augmentation to allow the
control system to maintain desired performance in the presence of system uncertainties.
Aircraft operate over a wide range of speeds and altitudes, and their dynamics are nonlinear
and often time-varying. As an aircraft moves through different flight conditions, the linear
design model at an operating point changes. A controller designed for each operating point
can be scheduled to be switched on when the operating point is reached. Between operating
points interpolation or other techniques may be used
4
to modify or mix the controllers of the neighboring operating points. This approach is
referred to as gain scheduling, and does not necessarily possess guarantees of closed-loop
stability when the system undergoes unexpected changes in its dynamics and environment.
We propose the use of adaptive augmentation to provide closed-loop stability guarantees and
improved performance in the presence of system uncertainties.
A resulting development derived in this thesis is the synthesis of a robust dynamic inversion
baseline controller with both state limiting and adaptive augmentation devices. This design
allows for insight into flying qualities design for baseline control of an aerial vehicle, state
limiting to keep the vehicle within a prescribed region of the system state space, and adaptive
augmentation to mitigate matched uncertainties. The combination of all three elements into
an aggregate design yields a flight control design that is both theoretically justified as well as
relevant to real-world flight control problems where concerns such as permissible flight
envelope restrictions are important to maintain safe piloted flight.
In addition to dynamic inverse based control for a class of cascaded 2nd-order systems, we
also develop robust baseline control for aerial vehicles using LQR-optimal approach. Again
using an augmentation approach, we apply classical MRAC adaptive augmentation to
representative flight dynamics to mitigate matched uncertainties. We advance existing results
by formulating the problem to specifically address and mitigate input time-delay, which is of
crucial importance in aerospace systems due to such factors as sensor latency and actuator
performance uncertainty. After reformulating the classical MRAC architecture to address
matched uncertainties and input time-delay, we apply and
5
extend the B-SPM method [7], [28] to representative aerospace systems and illustrate the
significant improvement in system performance under uncertainty and time delay. In all
chapters, relevant real-world aerospace systems and simulations are employed to illustrate
and validate the theoretical advances derived.
The thesis is organized as follows. Chapter 1 derives baseline model following control using
dynamic inversion, with application to aircraft longitudinal and directional dynamics. In
Chapter 2, we derive state limiting modification to the model following dynamic inversion
controller formed in Chapter 1. The efficacy of the state limiting component is illustrated via
high-fidelity piloted simulation and subsequent flight testing on the X-48B Blended-Wing-
Body (BWB) vehicle. In Chapter 3 we derive adaptive augmentation and apply the results to
flight dynamics corresponding to the longitudinal axis of a fixed-wing aircraft. We present
and discuss simulation data to substantiate our claims that the adaptive augmentation is able
to restore system tracking performance in the presence of matched uncertainties.
Chapter 4 combines the advances developed in the first three chapters to form a theoretically
justified control design consisting of robust dynamic inversion baseline control, adaptive
augmentation to mitigate matched uncertainties, and state limiting augmentation to keep the
system within a prescribed region in the system state space. We present simulation results
using representative aerospace data to show the efficacy of the design in keeping an aircraft
in its permissible flight envelope while restoring tracking performance in the presence of
matched uncertainties. In Chapter 5, we derive robust LQR-optimal baseline control law and
apply classical MRAC-based architecture
6
extended to explicitly address time-delay at the system input. We then apply and extend the
B-SPM adaptive approach to the same problem and show significantly improved
performance in the presence of input time-delay while restoring tracking performance in the
presence of matched uncertainties. Finally, Chapter 6 presents topics for further investigation.
7
Chapter 1: Model Following Using Dynamic Inversion
This chapter considers a class of model following control systems designed to provide
tracking performance. Given second-order dynamical systems in cascaded form, we design a
baseline model-reference dynamic inversion based tracking control law in both explicit and
implicit forms. Interest in considering this particular class of systems stems from flight
control related applications, where inner-loop controllers for fixed-wing aircraft are often
designed based on simplified models [1]-[4]. These models represent the decoupled fast
responses in pitch, roll and yaw axes and are given in cascaded form.
The dynamic inversion approach is particularly useful in flight control applications where the
designer may explicitly include vehicle handling qualities requirements in the selection of
reference model desired damping and frequency to meet handling qualities requirements.
After deriving dynamic inversion tracking control for the general case, we include specific
design for aircraft longitudinal and directional axes. The results of the chapter contribute
robust baseline flight control architecture in which both aircraft performance and handling
qualities requirements may be achieved in a convenient manner. The dynamic inversion
design presented will serve as robust baseline control architecture which to be further
improved in the following chapters via adaptive augmentation and state limiting
augmentation components.
8
Chapter 1.1: Baseline Dynamic Inversion Design
This section formulates the system dynamics, poses the control problem, and derives
baseline Dynamic Inversion (DI) Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID) control
architecture for flight dynamics.
Consider 2nd order dynamical systems in the cascaded form:


0
11112
0
22122
,
, , cmd
xFxzBx
xFxxzx


(1.1)
where 1 2
T
x x x is the system state vector, z is the known bounded external signal,
 12

00 F ,F are known state-dependent functions, 1 B is a known nonzero constant, and 2

cmd x
is the system control input. The control goal is to design the control input 2
cmd x so that the

system 1st state component 1 x tracks any given bounded time-varying command 1
cmd xt,
while keeping all the signals in the closed-loop system bounded, uniformly in time.
This approach will employ a model reference based design framework. The reference
model is driven by a bounded possibly time-varying reference command 1
cmd x , and is

chosen to be 2nd order, with desired damping ratio and natural frequency :

2
2
12211111 2
2
m cmd m m cmd m xxxxxx
ss






(1.2)
We note that in aerospace applications the desired damping ratio and natural frequency
are selected by the designer to achieve performance and, if applicable, handling qualities
for piloted aircraft.
Differentiating the first state component in (1.2) yields:
9
00
11
1112
1
FF
xxzBx
xz



(1.3)
Substituting the first equation in (1.1) into (1.3) results in:

1 2 
00
1010
11121212
1
,,,
cmd
fxxzz
FF
xFBxzBFBx
xz



(1.4)
or, equivalently:
1 1 2 1 2 , , , cmd x f x x z z B x (1.5)
One may immediately note that in (1.5) the function 1 2 f x , x , z, z and the constant
1 B are known. Dynamic Inversion (DI) based Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID)
control is introduced in the form:
 111
2111111
ˆ
m
cmd m m m
DPI
xx
xBxfKxxKxxK
s




(1.6)
Because system state derivative is often not available as a measurement, the quantity:
0
1111211
xˆ F x , z B x , xˆ 0 x 0 (1.7)
in (1.6) is estimated / predicted 1st state derivative. Let 1 1 1
m e x x be the reference
model tracking error signal. Substituting (1.6) into (1.5) results in the closed-loop
tracking error dynamics:
1
111 0 DPI
e
eKeKeK
s
(1.8)
Note that the error dynamics characteristic polynomial is given by:
3 2 0 D P I K K K (1.9)
10
As a result, exponential stability of the error dynamics in (1.8) can be achieved with
any appropriate PID gains selected via Routh tables or other methods. If we define
desired error characteristic polynomial as:
 22 2 k 0 (1.10)
where ,are the desired damping ratio and natural frequency while k 0 is a fixed
positive constant, we may expand (1.10) and compare to (1.9) to yield PID feedback
gains:
2
2
2
2
D
P
I
Kk
Kk
Kk








(1.11)
Using PID gains (1.11), closed-loop tracking error dynamics (1.8) become globally
exponentially stable. This implies that system state component 1 x t tracks reference
signal 1
m x t exponentially fast.
Under control (1.6), the closed-loop dynamics of the second state component in (1.1)
become:



0
22122
011
2121111
00
11011
1111211
1
,,
,,
cmd
m
DPI
m
DPI
xFxxzx
e
FxxzBxfKeKeK
s
FFe
BxFBxzKeKeK
xzs









(1.12)
Assuming zero initial conditions, error dynamics (1.8) and the PID gains (1.11) yields:

2
1
2222
11 22
cmd
m
x
ssskxskssx

(1.13)
11
Hence, the closed-loop transfer function from the model reference external command
1
cmd x to the system state 1 x has the desired 2nd order form:
2
1
22
12 cmd
x
xss




(1.14)
In order to show that the control in (1.6) solves the tracking problem, note that since
the selected PID gains yield asymptotically stable error dynamics, the error signal 1 e t
and its time derivative 1 e t are bounded. At the same time, the model reference signal
1
m x t and its time derivative 1
m x t are bounded by design. Consequently, the system

state components 1 x t and 1 x t are bounded. Using the first equation in system
dynamics (1.1) implies that 2 x is bounded, and therefore together with (1.8) the tracking
problem is solved in the sense that all signals are bounded and the tracking error
converges to zero exponentially fast.
Chapter 1.2: Aircraft Longitudinal Design
Assuming small angle-of-sideslip (AOS) 0, negligible lift due to elevator
L 0, and negligible thrust effects, fixed-wing aircraft short-period dynamics can be
written in the form of (1.1) [1], [4]:
grav
q IC cmd
LQq
qMMqMq






(1.15)
12
where is aircraft angle-of-attack (AOA), q is the angular pitch rate, Lis the known
lift curve slope, grav Q is the known gravity term, Mis the known static stability
(pitching moment), q M is the known constant pitch damping, IC M is the known pitching
moment increment due to inertial cross-coupling effects, and cmd q is the commanded
pitch acceleration (control input).
The AOA reference model dynamics is chosen in the form of (1.2):

2
2
22 2
2 m cmd m m cmd m s s






(1.16)
To perform the design, one needs to match the required components against the
corresponding AOA/pitch rate dynamics terms. Comparing (1.15) against generic
cascaded dynamics (1.1) yields:
 122
112
,,,
, 1,
T
cmd
grav IC cmd
grav q IC
xxqzQMxq
F L Q B F M M q M 




(1.17)
In this case, the baseline PID feedback gains are:

1
1
2
1
2
2
D
P
I
I
KKk
KKk
KKk









(1.18)
where the integrator pole 1 k is chosen as:
1k L(1.19)
Based on the AOA equation in (1.15) and the reference dynamics (1.16), define
reference model pitch rate signal:
13
m m m grav q L Q (1.20)
Substituting (1.17)-(1.20) into DI PID control (1.6) yields explicit model following pitch
acceleration command:

2
2
m
cmd m q IC m
qq
qqMMqMqq
s 






(1.21)
Alternatively, if it is desired to generate control (1.6) without explicit implementation
of reference model dynamics (1.16), an implicit model following pitch acceleration
command may be formed via (1.21), (1.20), and (1.16) as:

2 
2 cmd q IC cmd grav grav
sL
qMMqMqQQ
s








(1.22)
We verify that control input (1.22) results in desired closed-loop dynamics for system
(1.15) as follows. Differentiating the first state equation in (1.15) and substituting the
second state equation yields:
grav q IC cmd L Q M M q M q (1.23)
Employing control signal (1.22) in (1.23) gives closed-loop dynamics:
2 
2 cmd grav
sL
ssLqQ
s








(1.24)
Noting from the first state equation in system dynamics (1.15) that:
grav q s L Q (1.25)
and substituting into (1.24) yields:
2
2
cmd ssLsL
s 






(1.26)
14
Cancelling terms and reducing (1.26) gives:
2
2 2 cmd s
s

(1.27)
Finally, differentiating (1.27) produces the desired 2nd order closed-loop response for the
vehicle angle-of-attack dynamics:
2
22 2 cmd s s




(1.28)
Based on system dynamics (1.15), the resulting closed-loop response for the pitch rate
dynamics to an angle-of-attack command is:
2
22 2 cmd
qsL
ss
 





(1.29)
Note that in this case, if L 0 then the pitch rate dynamics would be non-minimum
phase, but the pitch rate dynamics would remain bounded in time.
Chapter 1.3: Aircraft Directional Design
Assuming small angles, fixed-wing aircraft AOS / yaw rate dynamics in stability axis
can be written in the form of (1.1) [1], [4]:
grav
r p IC cmd
YRr
rNNrNpNr





(1.30)
where is aircraft AOS, r is the angular yaw rate, p is angular roll rate, Yis the
sideforce slope due to AOS, grav R is the known yaw rate component due to gravity,
15
, , , N N N N represent dimensional yawing moment terms, and cmd r is the
r p IC

commanded yaw acceleration (control input).

The AOS reference model dynamics is chosen in the form of (1.2):

2
2
22 2
2 m cmd m m cmd m s s






(1.31)
In this case, comparing (1.30) against generic cascaded dynamics (1.1) yields:
 122
112
,,,
, 1,
T
cmd
grav IC cmd
grav r p IC
xxrzRNxr
F Y R B F N N r N p N 




(1.32)
Similar to AOA case, the baseline PID feedback gains are:

1
1
2
1
2
2
D
P
I
I
KKk
KKk
KKk









(1.33)
where the integrator pole 1 k is chosen as:
1k Y(1.34)
Based on the AOS equation in (1.30) and the reference dynamics (1.31), define
reference model yaw rate signal:
m m grav m r Y R (1.35)
Substituting (1.32)-(1.35) into DI PID control (1.6) yields explicit model following
yaw acceleration command:

2
2
m
cmd m p r IC m
rr
rrNNpNrNrr
s 






(1.36)
16
Alternatively, if it is desired to generate control (1.6) without explicit implementation of
reference model dynamics (1.31), an implicit model following yaw acceleration
command may be formed via (1.36), (1.35), and (1.31) as:

2 
2 cmd p r IC cmd grav grav
sY
rNNpNrNrRR
s








(1.37)
Similar to pitch dynamics, we verify that control input (1.37) results in desired
closed-loop dynamics for system (1.30) as follows. Differentiating the first state equation
in (1.30) and substituting the second state equation yields:
grav r p IC cmd Y R N N r N p N r (1.38)
Employing control signal (1.37) in (1.38) gives closed-loop dynamics:


2 
2 cmd grav
sY
ssYrR
s








(1.39)
Noting from the first state equation in system dynamics (1.30) that:
 r s Y R (1.40)
grav

and substituting into (1.39) yields:

2
2
cmd ssYsY
s 






(1.41)
Cancelling terms and reducing (1.41) gives:
2
2 2 cmd s
s

 (1.42)
Finally, differentiating (1.42) produces the desired 2nd order closed-loop response for the
vehicle angle-of-sideslip dynamics:
17
2
22 2 cmd s s




(1.43)
Based on system dynamics (1.30), the resulting closed-loop response for the yaw rate
dynamics to an angle-of-sideslip command is:
 2

22 2 cmd
rsY
ss






(1.44)
Note that in this case, if Y 0 then the yaw rate dynamics would be non-minimum
phase, but the yaw rate dynamics would remain bounded in time.
18
Chapter 2: Model Following Using Dynamic Inversion Controller
with State Limiting
While the controller developed in Chapter 1 was shown to solve the tracking problem, in
practical application there are additional requirements that must be considered during the
design process. Vehicles with control augmentation systems rely on state limiters to prevent
the exceeding of predetermined state limits. These limiters typically activate once predefined
envelope boundaries are exceeded and introduce sharp changes to control characteristics once
active. The resulting nonlinearities make analysis using conventional control system methods
difficult or invalid. Current state-of-the-art in limiter design consists of ad-hoc limiting
schemes developed specifically for the system under consideration. As a result, such methods
require extensive design and test iterations specific to each individual application. Often,
these designs do not provide stability / performance guarantees.
An aircraft flight controller must keep the vehicle in a pre-specified region of the
corresponding state. This region is referred to as the operational flight envelope. For example,
an AOA protection system (often called AOA Limiter) is typically employed to maintain the
aircraft AOA within an allowable range outside of which loss of control is expected. The
control challenge in such cases is to blend two subsystems, the tracking controller and the
limiter, with seamless transition between the two controllers while preserving closed-loop
stability at all times. We solve this problem by introducing state limiting augmentation to the
baseline dynamic inversion controllers introduced in Chapter 1.
19
The proposed method introduces a limiting technique which gradually modifies the expected
behavior of the system dynamics when user-specified criteria are approached / exceeded.
Given a baseline model following dynamic inversion control law designed to meet robustness
and performance requirements throughout a flight envelope, a state-limiting augmentation
component protects the system trajectories from leaving an allowable subset in the system
state space. The proposed design is applied to the X-48B blended-wing-body (BWB) aircraft
in both the longitudinal and lateral/directional axes with both piloted simulation and flight
test results included. The results of this chapter contribute theoretically justified state limiting
to a robust baseline control design, allowing for aircraft performance as well as protecting the
system from exiting a pre-specified region of the state space. The limiter design will be
further improved in subsequent chapters by including adaptive augmentation to mitigate
matched uncertainties.
20
Chapter 2.1: State Limiter – Motivating Example
In order to illustrate the main idea of the design, first consider scalar dynamics:
x u (2.1)
where x is the system state and u is the control input. The control goal is once again to
choose u such that x tracks the state of a user-defined reference model m x whose
dynamics are:
2 2 m m cmd m x x x x (2.2)
where and represent the desired damping ratio and natural frequency, respectively.
Note that we are dealing with a simplified version of the problem presented in Chapter 1.
Furthermore assume that it is required that the system state 1 x does not exceed prespecified
limits:
lim 1 lim x x t x (2.3)
In order to ensure feasibility of a control solution, we assume that the commanded
signal cmd x satisfies the same limits, and for clarity we assume that the state derivative x
is available on-line. For simplicity, limits (2.3) are defined as symmetric but we note that,
without loss of generality, this need not be the case. Choosing control solution as:
2 2 cmd u x x x (2.4)
yields closed-loop system:
2 2 cmd x x x x (2.5)
Let
21
m e x x (2.6)
denote the tracking error. Subtracting the reference dynamics from the system dynamics
gives:
2 e 2e  e (2.7)
This relation implies global exponential stability of the origin. Consequently, the
system state tracks the state of the reference model exponentially fast starting from any
initial conditions. However, the desired state limits (2.3) are not guaranteed.
We propose a formal design modification to enforce the state limits. The main idea is
to gradually change the reference model if the system state approaches any of its limits.
The modified reference dynamics in turn alter the control input to the system in such
regions. Resulting control commands maximize vehicle state-limited performance within
existing control law architecture. Specifically in this case, the proposed state limiter logic
introduces state-dependent damping ratio and natural frequency. Consider modified
damping ratio and natural frequency:


x
x
xx
xx




(2.8)
In (2.8), xis the modulation function described in [20] and based on work in
[21], and x is the aggregate state vector containing the degrees of freedom of the system.
This is a continuous state-dependent map which allows smooth transition of the desired
damping ratio and natural frequency. The modulation function allows the designer to
define the region sufficiently close to the state limits for the modified reference model
parameters (2.8) to become active. This ensures that for all nominal system conditions
22
(away from state limits), the desired baseline control system behavior and system
dynamics are achieved. Construction of the modulation function is presented below.
Suppose that 0 x is the center point of the sphere R 0 x x R . Also suppose
that the set R represents the allowable state domain. Let 0 be a small positive
constant and define R 0 x x R . The multidimensional modulation function
is defined as:

0,
0 1,
1,
R
RR
R
x
xxx
x

 







(2.9)
Formally, the modulation function can be written as:
0 lim max 0,min 1,1
xxx
x




(2.10)
where lim x is a vector whose components represent the limit value for each system degree
of freedom, and the limiter remains inactive in nominal conditions until system state
approaches defined limits within user-defined tolerance . The limiter is then gradually
applied as the system state approaches the state limits, avoiding undesirable behavior.
Graphical representation of the modulation function is shown in Figure 1.
0x x
1
0
limx 
x
lim x
Figure 1: Limiter Onset Modulation Function
23
Including modification (2.8) results in modified reference dynamics:
2 2 m x x m x cmd m x x x x x x x (2.11)
Note that in (2.8) the quantities and are user-defined incremental damping
ratio and natural frequency tables, respectively. These two tables are chosen to meet the
desired tracking performance and system robustness requirements. For example, the
reference model can be modified such that its state has no overshoot while tracking a
step-input command. Hence, if the latter is within the limits then the system state and the
reference model state will remain within the desired limits as well.
To illustrate the limiter concept, consider system (2.1) and reference model (2.2) with
baseline parameters 0.3 and 4 rad/sec. Obviously, in this case the baseline step
response will contain significant overshoot since the system is underdamped. Select
limiter parameters:
4.5, 4.5, 0.1 (2.12)
Parameters (2.12) indicate that once the system response comes within 10% of the
defined state limit, the damping and natural frequency will increase and reach values of
4.8 and 8.5rad/sec once the limiter is fully active, i.e. the system reaches the
limit. Consider a step command with magnitude 2, where the state limit for system state
1 x 2 . The step response for the baseline and state limited systems is shown in Figure 2.
The response shows that the limiter is able to arrest the system response and keep the
state response within the specified limit. The modulation parameter xis inactive until
the state response enters the modulation region defined by , at which point it
24
increments from zero to one as the state approaches the limit. The modified system
damping ratio and frequency stay at their respective baseline design values until the
system near the state limit, at which point both evolve to their modified values defined by
increments (2.12).
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
2
4

x
x
cmd
limit area
x (no limit)
x (limit)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
0.5
1

(x)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
5


x
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
5
10


x
time, sec
Figure 2: Step Response Comparison – Nominal vs. Limited System
25
In order to investigate the efficacy of the limiter design, we must consider both the
closed-loop stability of the system as well as determine whether the limit design truly
guarantees that the system state remains within the imposed limit for all time. To simplify
the analysis we define the system in state space form:
12
2
xx
xu


(2.13)
and apply control:
2
u 2x x x x x2 x x xcmd x1 (2.14)
yielding closed-loop dynamics:

11
22
22
010
2 cmd
xxxx
xx
x
x x x x x x


(2.15)
Similarly we may define reference dynamics (2.11) in state space form:

11
22
22
010
2
mm
cmd
mxxxmx
xx
x
x x x x x x


(2.16)
Based on relations (2.15) and (2.16) with error signal definition (2.6) we can now
derive the closed-loop error dynamics in state space form:
2
01
2 xxx
EAE
ee
e x x x e


(2.17)
alternately expressed as:
E AxE (2.18)
26
It is sufficient to analyze system (2.17) to show closed-loop stability of the system.
Based on definition (2.8) and limiter modulation function (2.10) we find three regions of
interest:
Case 1: 0 lim x x x . In this region, the modulation function is inactive, and the
error dynamics may be expressed in terms of the nominal damping and natural
frequency . Error dynamics (2.18) are no longer a function of x and instead satisfy
autonomous linear time invariant (LTI) relationship:
2
01
2
EE




(2.19)
The closed-loop poles of (2.19) are given by:
2

12,1 (2.20)
Because the nominal damping and natural frequency are selected by the designer,
they may be chosen to ensure that error dynamics (2.19) are exponentially stable.
Case 2: 0 lim x x x . In this region, the modulation function is completely active,
and the error dynamics may be expressed in terms of the full incremented damping
and natural frequency . Error dynamics (2.18) are no longer a function of
x and instead satisfy autonomous linear time invariant (LTI) relationship:
2
01
2
EE




(2.21)
The closed-loop poles of (2.21) are:
2
12,1 (2.22)
27
Once again, since the nominal damping and natural frequency is selected by the designer
and so are the incremental damping and natural frequency tables, they may be chosen to
ensure that the error dynamics (2.21) are exponentially stable. We note that although the
design goal of the limiter is to ensure that the system dynamics never enter a region
where 0 lim x x x , in practical application external disturbances may drive the system
into this region. One example of this behavior is a gust acting on an aircraft. This analysis
indicates that even should a system exceed its limit, the error dynamics remain
exponentially stable.
Case 3: lim 0 lim x x x x . In this region, the modulation function is active and
likely changing due to the evolution of the system states. The error dynamics become:
2
01
2 xxx
EE
x x x



(2.23)
We immediately note that, as shown in the analyses of cases 1 and 2, the designer may
choose the nominal damping and natural frequency as well as the incremental tables for
each parameter, so that the error dynamics (2.23) could be made exponentially stable for
any value of the modulation parameter . However, since dynamics (2.23) now represent
a time-varying system, one cannot determine the closed-loop stability by simply
inspecting its eigenvalues. In addition, since dynamics (2.23) are not autonomous as
posed, stability results such as LaSalle‟s Theorem do not apply and we must use an
alternate approach to show stability.
We demonstrate three stability results for dynamics (2.23). Since each of the results is
a sufficient condition for stability, they may be conservative in some cases.
28
Method 1: Vanishing Perturbation
Re-write error dynamics (2.23):
0 E A E g t,E (2.24)
where 0 A represents Hurwitz LTI component of error dynamics, while g t,E
represents time varying component due to the activity of the modulation function and
satisfies g t,00 . Since the modulation function operates between the values of zero
and one, we know that 2 2
g t,E E for all t 0 and all n Ewhere is a
nonnegative constant. Let 0 T Q Q and solve the Lyapunov equation:
00
T P A A P Q (2.25)
for P . The quadratic Lyapunov function T V E E P E will then satisfy:



22
min 2 max 2
2
0 min 2
2 2 2 max 2
2
222
T
T
PEVEPE
V
A E E QE Q E
E
V
EPPEPE
E










(2.26)
The derivative of V Ealong the trajectories of the perturbed system (2.24) satisfies:
2 2
min 2 max 2

V E Q x 2P x (2.27)

Hence, the origin is globally exponentially stable if min max Q / 2P . This ratio is
maximized with the choice Q I , and therefore the origin is globally exponentially
stable if:
29
max
1
2P


(2.28)
We note that (2.28) places a bound on the size of the perturbation permissible while
retaining stability. In this case, it is a restriction on the amount of change permitted in the
damping and frequency from nominal values. The result is likely to be extremely
conservative because the vanishing perturbation analysis is a worst case analysis.
Method 2: Input-to-State Stability
Consider error dynamics (2.23) as:
E f t,E,u(2.29)
where input ut g t,Eis a piecewise continuous, bounded function of t for all
t 0 . If we again model the system as in (2.24), we see that the unforced system:
0 E A E (2.30)
has a globally uniformly asymptotically stable equilibrium point at the origin. Due to the
modulation function, we may model the external bounded input as:
1 0 g t,E t A A E (2.31)
where 1 A corresponds to the fully active modulation system (2.21) and 0 A corresponds to
the nominal system (2.19). We can write the system dynamics solution as:

000
0

0 ,
AtttAt
t

E t e E t e g E d (2.32)
and use the bound:
A0 t t0 t t0 e k e (2.33)
30
to estimate the solution by:

0
0

0 ,
tttt
t
E t k e E t k e g E d (2.34)
Using relation (2.31), we may reduce (2.34):


0
0
0
0
0
010
,
tttt
t
tttt
t
EtkeEtkegEd
keEtkeAAEd










(2.35)
Noting the modulation parameter satisfies 0 t 1 and that quantity 1 0 A A now
represents a constant as written in (2.35), we may use the Bellman-Gromwell Lemma to
bound error dynamics as:
10
0
kAAtE t k E t e (2.36)
Therefore, for stability we require that:
10A A
k

(2.37)
Relationship (2.37) gives a bound on the maximum singular value of the matrix 1 0 A A
in relation to the slowest eigenvalue of the unperturbed system and corresponding
eigenvectors. Again, this result will be conservative but provides another sufficient
stability result.
Method 3: Second Method of Lyapunov
Rewrite error dynamics (2.23) as an unforced second-order differential equation as a
function of time:
E f t E g t E 0 (2.38)
where:
31

2
2 xx
x
fttt
gtt




(2.39)
Because of the relation (2.8), it is apparent that:


min max
min max
0
0
fftf
ggtg


(2.40)
From dynamics (2.38) or (2.23), we have:

12
212
ee
egtefte


(2.41)
Following the analysis presented in [22], define Lyapunov function:


22
12
1
V t,E e e
gt
(2.42)
Differentiating (2.42) along the system trajectories yields:





222
112
2
22
21
,2
2
Kt
eed
VtEeee
g t dt g t
gtftgt
e
gt






(2.43)
Using results from [22], if:

2
gt2ftgt
gt


(2.44)
and max f t f the solution is asymptotically stable.
32
Using (2.44), we may now investigate what the requirement of K t 0 indicates for
error dynamics with our specific structure (2.39). Using (2.44) while letting 1, for
stability we require:
g t 2 f t g t (2.45)
Substituting structure (2.39) into (2.45) yields stability requirement:
2 2 x x x t t t (2.46)
We immediately note that in the case where damping and frequency are constant and
satisfy bounds (2.40) that (2.46) is always satisfied, as should be expected. Rearranging
(2.46) yields:


2 2 x
x
x
t
t
t



(2.47)
Integrating both sides of (2.47):


2
00
2
tt
x
x
x
dd



(2.48)
Perform change of variables:

00, 
y dy d
yytt




(2.49)
Using new variable of integration, (2.48) becomes:



2
00
2
tt dy
d
y



(2.50)
Performing integration on the left hand side of (2.50) yields:
33



00
1
2
tt
d
y





(2.51)
Rearranging (2.51) yields condition for stability:



0
0
120
tt
d





(2.52)
We now note that it is not necessary to perform the integration in (2.52), because due
to conditions (2.39) and (2.40), we have that:

0
1 2 0 1, 0
t

dt (2.53)
As a result, stability requirement (2.52) can always be satisfied by using (2.40) and
selecting:
min min 0 g (2.54)
We must now show that the state limiter solution guarantees that the system does not
exceed its pre-specified state limit in addition to providing stable tracking response. First,
we return to Lyapunov function (2.42) which as shown via (2.54) confirms the stability of
error dynamics (2.38) in the region where the modulation function is active and timevarying.
Since Lyapunov analysis only provides sufficient conditions for stability, we
begin by ensuring that Lyapunov function (2.42) is also valid in the cases when the
modulation function is inactive. In these cases, the limiter is either completely active or
inactive, and stability has already been established by virtue of the fact that all
eigenvalues have negative real components. In the time-invariant case, we have:
34
2 2
12
1
VEee
g
(2.55)
In (2.55) we have either g 2 or 2
g  based on (2.19) and (2.21), but in
either case g is strictly positive. Differentiating (2.55) along the system trajectories
yields:
2 2
11
2
2
2
2
2
0
ee
VEee
g
f
e
g


(2.56)
Now, using LaSalle‟s method, from (2.56) we have:
 2
22
2
,:000
f
SeeVEee
g

(2.57)
Substituting 2 e 0 into error dynamics (2.41) yields:
1 1 1 e 0 e t e 0 (2.58)
Additionally,
2 2 1 1 e 0 e 0 g e 0 e 0 (2.59)

This indicates that the origin is the only point in the set S where V 0 , which indicates
that the error dynamics are asymptotically stable. Therefore, Lyapunov function (2.55) is
sufficient for use in cases when the modulation function is not varying.
Using error definition (2.6), suppose that system dynamics satisfy:
e k (2.60)
for some k 0 . In terms of system state, we may rewrite (2.60) as:
35
max
m x k x (2.61)
where max
m x is user-defined maximum permissible value of the reference model position
state, which must be less than the absolute system position limit lim x . Redefine:
max

mk x (2.62)
for some 0 . Substituting (2.62) into (2.61) yields:

lim

max 1m
x
x x (2.63)
Therefore, if error dynamics satisfy (2.60) system position will stay within the limit as
shown in (2.63). Solving (2.63) for , we get:
max
lim
max
m
m
xx
x


(2.64)
Substituting (2.64) into (2.62) yields:
max
k x x (2.65)
lim m
Returning to Lyapunov function (2.42) along with error constraint (2.60), we have:


max
22
max
,,
1
,
kgte
Veeke
gt

(2.66)
where max e is the maximum error rate achievable/allowable for specific system dynamics.
Lyapunov function (2.66) will form an elliptical level set with the specific shape of the
ellipse defined by user-selected value for max e . Because of results proved in [22], the
system trajectories will always be negative definite and therefore dynamics will evolve
36
toward the origin. In other words, once system dynamics begin in a Lyapunov level set
the dynamics must evolve in the negative (shrinking) direction. Therefore, we may
formally state:
max lim e 0 k V e,e k, g t ,e x t x , áz_®c‚@___t 0 (2.67)
Recalling that max
m x is the user-defined maximum permissible value of the reference
model, we see that (2.65) provides a tuning knob by which the designer may define the
maximum permissible error for which the system dynamics are guaranteed to remain
within system limits.
Chapter 2.2: State Limiter Application to Aircraft Dynamics
In order to apply the limiter augmentation to the aircraft pitch dynamics described in
Chapter 1.2, we note the implicit pitch acceleration command (1.22) may alternatively be
expressed as:
2
2
cmd q IC cmd cmd
grav grav
L
qMMqM
s
qQQ







(2.68)
Including limiter modification (2.8) to (2.68) yields:


2
2
cmd q IC cmd cmd
grav grav
L
qMMqMx
s
xxqQQ







(2.69)
Pitch acceleration command (2.69) now takes the form:
bl
q q x q (2.70)
cmd cmd cmd
37
where bl
cmd q is baseline pitch acceleration command (2.68), and



2
2
2
cmd cmd cmd
grav
L
q
s
qQ
 






(2.71)
is the state limiting augmentation component.
Similarly, returning to the aircraft yaw dynamics described in Chapter 1.3, we note
the implicit yaw acceleration command (1.37) may be formed without explicit integral as:
2 
2 cmd p r IC cmd grav r N N p N r N Y R 






(2.72)
Or, alternatively:
2 2 cmd p r IC cmd grav r N N p N r N Y R (2.73)
Including limiter modification (2.8) to (2.73) yields:


2
2
cmd p r IC cmd
grav
rNNpNrNx
xxYR






(2.74)
Yaw acceleration command (2.74) now takes the form:
bl
cmd cmd cmd r r x r (2.75)
where bl
cmd r is baseline yaw acceleration command (2.73), and

2
2 2 cmd cmd r (2.76)
is the state limiting augmentation component.
We immediately note from pitch acceleration command (2.71), yaw acceleration
command (2.75), and construction of the modulation function (2.9) that when the system
38
is in nominal (away from state limits) region the baseline tracking control law provides
the entire command. As the system approaches state limits within user-defined tolerance
, the state limiting augmentation component gradually activates and modifies the
reference model dynamics. This in turn modifies the closed-loop system dynamics, and
based on user-defined incremental damping ratio and natural frequencies may be used to
modify system behavior near state limits. For example, the user may define the
incremental damping ratio such that in regions near the state limits the closed-loop
behavior becomes overdamped, thus preventing overshoot of state limits.
Chapter 2.3: Application to X-48B Aircraft Simulation
The X-48B is an 8.5% scale version of a full-scale blended-wing-body (BWB)
aircraft designed to investigate the stability and control (S&C) characteristics of this
aircraft configuration. The flight test vehicle has successfully completed more than 75
flights at NASA Dryden since July 2007. Information on the vehicle and flight test results
may be found in [23]-[25]. As shown in [24], the latter portion of the first phase of flight
testing was high risk departure limiter assaults intended to investigate the ability of the
aircraft to prevent entry into uncontrolled flight regimes. The AOA and AOS limiters
presented in previous sections were specifically designed to address assault maneuvers
where representative reference model dynamics would experience overshoot into
undesirable regions outside of the flight envelope. We include simulation results in this
chapter but note that the results presented were subsequently taken to flight testing, where
a total of four successful limiter assault flights took place. Details of the flight test
39
approach along with presentation and discussion of the results may be found in the following
section and in more detail in [26].
The baseline longitudinal control system for the X-48B is defined most simply by (2.68),
with some additional components such as thrust and control allocation effects neglected for
the purposes of this work. The X-48B baseline control law originally contained an AOA
limiter that was satisfactory for large portions of the flight regime but was found to
insufficiently arrest AOA during aggressive assault maneuvers. As a result, limiter
augmentation component was included and pitch acceleration command modified to (2.70).
High-fidelity nonlinear piloted simulation results for slats retracted windup turn maneuver
comparing the original limiter with the proposed limiter augmentation are shown in Figure 3.
40
Time (sec)
(deg)
AOA Response, Wind-Up Turn
Command
Baseline + Aug.
Baseline
Figure 3: AOA Limiter Performance in Windup Turn
The results show that the limiter augmentation is able to arrest the AOA as the
response approaches the command, which in this case is equal to the limit. The original
limiter is not able to arrest the response and the vehicle would enter an undesirable flight
regime. It should be noted that there is some minor overshoot in the AOA response as the
41
windup turn maneuver is continued past the initial transient. In this specific case, this is
due to a modification of the limiter presented above. The portion of (2.71) due to the
AOA error is only active once the AOA limit is exceeded in implementation – this was
done to avoid the alpha rate decreasing prior to the limit being exceeded. The X-48B
program was willing to allow a small overshoot with graceful return to the limit in
exchange for improved pitch tracking (handling qualities) approaching the limit. We note
that the augmentation could provide strict adherence to the AOA limit if so desired, as
demonstrated in the lateral/directional axes.
The elevator surface position and rate responses to the wind-up turn maneuver are
shown in Figure 4. The elevator responses show that the addition of limiter augmentation
does not adversely affect the surface position or rate, both of which remain within
desirable ranges with smooth dynamics. Per design, the surface response remains dictated
completely by the baseline pitch acceleration command when the modulation function
x is not active (zero).
42

e
Elevator Activity
Baseline + Aug.
Baseline

e
dot
Baseline + Aug.
Baseline
Time (sec)

Baseline + Aug.
Figure 4: Elevator Response for AOA Windup Turn
Finally, the reference model parameters for the AOA maneuver are shown in Figure
5. Per design, the reference damping and natural frequency remain static when the
modulation function x is not active. As the modulation function activates, the
43
damping of the reference model increases, causing the closed-loop system to move
toward overdamped characteristics and preventing overshoot of the state limits.

AOA Augmentation Parameters
Baseline + Aug.

Baseline + Aug.
Time (sec)

Baseline + Aug.
Figure 5: Reference Model Parameters for AOA Windup Turn
In the lateral/directional axes, the baseline control system for the X-48B is defined by
(2.72). The original baseline control system did not include an AOS limiter, so the
44
augmentation scheme described in this paper was designed specifically to address the limiter
assault flight test maneuvers. Limiter augmentation component was included and yaw
acceleration command was modified to (2.75). High-fidelity nonlinear piloted simulation
results for slat extended level flight sideslip step input maneuver comparing the baseline
unlimited control law against the proposed limiter augmentation are shown in Figure 6.
45
Time (sec)
(deg)
AOS Step Response
Command
Baseline + Aug.
Baseline
Figure 6: AOS Limiter Performance, Step Input
The results show that in the lateral/directional axes, where the theory presented above
was implemented without modification, the limiter is able to fully arrest the closed-loop
dynamics and prevent the AOS from exceeding the limit – which is equal to the
command in this case. We again point out that the nominal AOS response remains intact
46
until such time that the AOS is sufficiently close to the limit to activate the limiter
augmentation. This allows the design to satisfy limiter requirements while still meeting
performance and handling qualities requirements. The rudder surface response is shown
in Figure 7.

r
Rudder Activity
Baseline + Aug.
Baseline

r
dot
Baseline + Aug.
Baseline
Time (sec)

Baseline + Aug.
Figure 7: Rudder Response for AOA Step Command
47
Just as in the longitudinal axis, the rudder response remains smooth and within desirable
ranges for surface deflection and rate with the inclusion of the limiter augmentation
component. The acceleration command and surface response is entirely dictated by the
baseline command until the limiter augmentation component becomes active, which is
illustrated in the similar surface response until the modulation function becomes nonzero.
The reference parameters for the AOS step maneuver are shown in Figure 8.
48

AOS Augmentation Parameters
Baseline + Aug.

Baseline + Aug.
Time (sec)

Baseline + Aug.
Figure 8: Reference Model Parameters for AOS Step Command
Once again, the reference model parameters remain constant until the modulation
function x becomes active, at which point the parameters change due to the limiter
augmentation. The damping ratio increases, corresponding to a smooth transition to an
overdamped system in order to prevent overshoot in the AOS response.
49
Chapter 2.4: Flight Test of the X-48B AOA and AOS Limiting System
The X-48B‟s Blended Wing Body (BWB) aircraft configuration, presented in Figure 9,
represents a design departure from the conventional “tube and wing” shape of traditional
transport aircraft. This novel configuration offers the potential for revolutionary improvement
in performance and efficiency over current day airframe configurations. A blended-wing
configuration is characterized by an overall aircraft design that provides minimal distinction
between wings and fuselage and fuselage and tail. It closely resembles a flying wing
configuration, but concentrates more volume in the center section of the aircraft than a
traditional flying wing.
Figure 9: X-48B BWB Configuration
The X-48B Low Speed Vehicle (LSV) is an 8.5% scale version of a full scale blended wing
body aircraft designed to investigate stability and control characteristics of this aircraft
configuration. Early analysis of blended wing-body aerodynamic characteristics
50
identified the potential for sustained spins and nose-up „tumble‟ post-departure modes.
As a result, one of the goals of the X-48B flight test program was to demonstrate AOA
and sideslip limiters that would provide departure resistance and allow aggressive
maneuvering up to max
L C and a sideslip limit equivalent to a full-scale normal landing in a
35kt. crosswind. In the final phase of X-48B handling qualities tests the airplane was
taken to its limit of controlled flight. In the third and final phase, “departure limiter
assaults” were performed to challenge the ability of the aircraft‟s flight control system to
prevent entry into uncontrolled flight regimes and to validate the software algorithms
employed in the computerized flight control system to prevent such occurrence. Through
simulation analysis and flight test the full-envelope AOA and sideslip limits that would
meet program goals and prevent departures from controlled flight were established. The
positive-AOA range of these limits is presented in Figure 10.
The X-48B currently uses a modified model-following control scheme with dynamic
inversion control mixing. The longitudinal and directional reference models are standard
2nd order equivalent systems with frequency and damping selected for handling qualities
requirements and stability margins. Tuning for handling qualities in general provides
predictable initial response and tracking characteristics; however, if the desired damping
characteristics are less than critically damped (<1) will result in an overshoot beyond the
desired steady-state response. If this response, for example, was an aggressive pull to the
AOA limit (coincident with max
L C ) the ideal system would experience an overshoot of up
to 2-4 deg AOA for X-48 representative reference model dynamics. Similar performance
would be experienced in the directional axis in response to an aggressive pedal input.
51
Flight testing indicated that this would result in AOA excursions into a region
characterized by an abrupt uncontrollable right wing drop, an undesirable flight
characteristic during maneuvers requiring maximum performance and minimum altitude
loss. Sideslip excursions beyond the recommended limit were not intentionally tested.
- deg
- deg
limit variation with 
Slat Retracted Limit
Slat Extended Limit
Figure 10: X-48B Positive AOA Envelope Limits
In order to reduce limit overshoots while maintaining excellent handling qualities
away from the limiter, the limiter developed in Section 2.2 was developed and applied to
the X-48B vehicle.
AOA limiter testing was conducted using the standard windup/wind-down turn
method [27]. A windup turn is a constant airspeed, increasing AOA (and thus normal
acceleration) turn at fixed power, where altitude is traded to maintain airspeed. Above
52
corner speed, the lowest airspeed at which the normal acceleration limit can be attained, a
windup turn will increase AOA until the normal acceleration limit is reached; below
corner speed the windup turn increases AOA and normal acceleration until the AOA limit
is reached. Once the limiting condition (AOA or normal acceleration) is reached, the
windup turn transitions to: a wind-down turn, a constant normal acceleration deceleration
to corner speed, and then a constant AOA deceleration below corner speed. Deceleration
rate, typically specified in knots per second, is modulated by increasing or decreasing the
rate of descent of the airplane. This is a high workload closed-loop test; however, test
tolerances are typically very broad, and usable test data can be obtained with wide
variations in airspeed during the windup portion and in deceleration rate during the
winddown
portion. A windup/wind-down turn progression is presented graphically in Figure
11.
WUT
WDT
Airspeed
NZ
1
0
Nz Limit
AOA Limit
Vc
Figure 11: Windup/Wind-down Turn V-n Diagram
53
To illustrate the interpretation of X-48B flight test data a representative windup turn
(WUT) / Wind-down turn (WDT) maneuver with annotations is presented in Figure 12.
All WUT/WDT maneuvers presented in this section adhere to this example.
Nz
V
c
B
D
F
GA
C
E
Figure 12: Representative Windup/Wind-down Turn V-n Diagram
The same maneuver, presented in terms of airspeed and AOA with identical phases
annotated, is presented in Figure 13.
54
AOA
cf
V
c
B
D
F
G
A
C
E
Figure 13: Representative Windup/Wind-down Turn Airspeed/AOA Plot
The segments of the maneuver presented in Figure 12 and Figure 13 are as follows:
A. Initial Condition. This corresponds to the start of data collection and is typically just
after a roll-in to a descending turn is initiated but before AOA has increased
significantly above 1g AOA at the test conditions.
B. Windup segment. During this portion of the maneuver altitude is sacrificed to
maintain airspeed as AOA and normal acceleration are increased. The goal is a
near-constant airspeed, increasing normal acceleration turn up to the test normal
acceleration limit
C. Point C corresponds to the limit normal acceleration for the test. At this point the
maneuver is continued; however, airspeed is allowed to decrease so that AOA
will increase.
55
D. Constant Normal Acceleration Wind-down segment: During this portion of the maneuver
the descending turn is shallowed such that airspeed decreases. AOA is increased to maintain
normal acceleration. The goal is a near-constant normal acceleration, increasing AOA,
decreasing airspeed turn up to the test AOA limit.
E. “Corner Speed”. This corresponds to the point at which the airplane achieves the limit
normal acceleration at the limit AOA. Below this speed the airplane is AOA-limited; above
this speed, normal acceleration limited.
F. Constant AOA Wind-down segment: During this portion of the maneuver the descending
turn is continued with decreasing airspeed and normal acceleration, while normal acceleration
decreases.
The maneuver is intended to be flown as a seamless transition from initial condition through
the windup segment and transitioning to the wind-down segments until termination at some
proscribed minimum airspeed. Ideally once at a limiting condition (segments C-G) the
airplane can “ride the limiter” and transition through each maneuver phase with no pilot
compensation to avoid exceeding a limit. Limiter functionality was evaluated during all
phases, and included limiter performance in the presence of high approach rates, changing
limits while limited, and changing flight conditions while limited. AOA limiter test results for
slat retracted/aft CG and slate extended/forward CG are presented in Figure 14 and Figure 15.
56
AOA
cf
V
c
WUT
g-limited WDT
AOA-limited WDT
Nz
V
c
WUT
g-limited WDT
AOA-limited WDT
Figure 14: AOA Limiter Results, Slat Retracted/Aft CG
57
Nz
V
c
WUT
g-limited WDT
AOA-limited WDT
AOA
cf
V
c
WUT
g-limited WDT
AOA-limited WDT
Figure 15: AOA Limiter Results, Slat Extended/Fwd CG
58
The AOA limiter limited overshoots to less than 2 deg in all cases tested, and generally less
than approximately 1 deg for all configurations and conditions tested, including up to 5
deg/sec AOA rates and 5 kt/sec deceleration rates. In the slat extended/forward CG case
approaching the limiter from above corner speed resulted in an approximate 1 deg steady-
state error below corner speed (i.e. the airplane settled approximately 1 deg above the AOA
limit rather than at the limit) with minimal overshoot. Limiter approaches from below corner
speed converged to the limit AOA condition with minimal overshoot. Limiter performance
was acceptable in all cases evaluated, and the limiter demonstrated functionality in the
presence of changing limits. It should be noted that the X-48B g-limiter is actually an AOA
limiter, with the AOA limit estimated as that AOA that will result in the normal acceleration
limit at the current flight condition (also known as the „AOA-for-g limiter‟). The AOA-for-g
function did not account for lift differences with control surface deflection; consequently, the
limiter with trailing edge up elevon during a windup turn typically underestimates g for any
given AOA, resulting in less than the normal acceleration limit when on the g-limit portion of
the V-n diagram. G-limiter performance was noted to improve somewhat during aft CG
testing, when trailing edge up control deflections were reduced. This phenomenon is
characterized by the „g-limited WDT‟ lines in Figure 14 and Figure 15.
The sideslip limiter was tested by abrupt full pedal inputs from a stabilized flight condition.
Buildup was conducted by initially performing these inputs from steady-heading sideslips,
resulting in smaller pedal inputs and sideslip command changes, eventually progressing to
step inputs from zero sideslip, the worst-case condition. Inputs
59
were tested in both directions to establish symmetry of the limiting function. To illustrate
the interpretation of X-48B flight test data representative step pedal input maneuvers with
annotations are presented in Figure 16. All sideslip limiter test maneuvers presented in
this report adhere to this example.
- deg
- deg
limit variation with 
Slat Ret Limit
B2
A1
A2
C2
C1
B1
Figure 16: Representative Sideslip Limiter Maneuvers
A. Initial Condition (Sideslip may be nonzero)
B. Sideslip Change due to Step Pedal Input, Near-Constant AOA and Airspeed.
C. Test Sideslip Limit and Maneuver Completion
In this example the maneuver with the smaller sideslip increment (A1-C1) was flown
prior to the larger sideslip input (A2-C2), thus building up in time rate of change of
C1A1 C2A2 C1A1 C2A2 
60
sideslip. Sideslip limiter test results for slat retracted/aft CG and slat extended/aft CG are
presented in Figure 17 and Figure 18 respectively.
- deg
- deg
limit variation with 
Slat Ret Limit
Step Input from Stabilized Sideslip
Step Input from Stabilized Sideslip
Figure 17: Sideslip Limiter Results, Slat Ret/Aft CG
61
- deg
- deg
limit variation with 
Slat Ext Limit
Step Input from Stabilized Sideslip
Figure 18: Sideslip Limiter Results, Slat Ext/Aft CG
Sideslip limiter performance was considered excellent at all conditions tested, with
typically less than 0.5 deg overshoot. The limiter also demonstrated excellent
compensation during sideslip limit changes as AOA varied (Figure 18).
The AOA and sideslip limiter system developed for the X-48B demonstrated
acceptable performance at all conditions tested, including slat extended and retracted,
forward and aft CG, and low and high assault rates. The incorporation of state-dependent
damping improved the limiter performance by decreasing the AOA and/or sideslip
overshoot at high assault rates. The limiter is now a part of the baseline X-48B control
laws and will be used for envelope protection in subsequent flight tests.
62
Chapter 3: Dynamic Inversion with Adaptive Augmentation
The baseline dynamic inversion control solution presented in Chapter 1 assumed complete
knowledge of the system dynamics. In practical applications, the inevitable presence of
system uncertainties requires additional control design. We propose using baseline dynamic
inversion control presented in Chapter 1 along with adaptive augmentation to provide
tracking performance in the presence of system uncertainties. The adaptive augmentation
component provides tracking performance in the presence of the system uncertainties.
As in the baseline control design, the control architecture including adaptive augmentation
will be developed for a class of second-order systems in the cascaded form. This particular
class of systems is chosen primarily to clarify and expose key features of the design process.
These systems also naturally appear in flight dynamics and control problems, which
constitute the primary focus and motivation for the control development. One may
immediately note that since the design is based on the dynamic inversion method, the
developed controller can be extended to a generic class of feedback linearizable MIMO
systems with cascade-connected dynamics.
The results of this chapter contribute theoretically justified adaptive augmentation design for
such a generic class of feedback linearizable MIMO systems in cascade form. The design will
be further improved in the next chapters by including the state limiter previously developed
to form an aggregate system containing the combined benefits of each of the design
components.
63
Chapter 3.1: PID Control for Cascaded Systems with Uncertain Dynamics
Similar to Chapter 1.1, we consider 2nd order dynamical systems in the cascaded
form, but now include system uncertainties:


0
1111211
0
22122212
,,
, , , , cmd
xFxzBxfxz
xFxxzxfxxz


(3.1)
where components 1 2 f , f are unknown continuously differentiable functions that
represent the system uncertainties. The control goal remains to design the control input
2
cmd x so that the system 1st state component 1 x tracks any given bounded time-varying
command 
cmd x t 

f f 

cmd x f x x z z B x d x x z z 
d x x zz




 

ˆ
m
cmd m m m
DPI
xx
xBxfKxxKxxKv
s





v










DPID
Dxxzz
e
eKeKeKdKfv
s


T
x x x z z 

D P I
e
eKeKeKDxv
s

v



ˆ ˆ T
D D v D x x z z x x z z 









Dx

x N
N
D x 
ˆ ˆT 
D D D x x 

ˆ N
D 

N

Dx 
D 


T

DDD D x x x 



D D 



D x D 



ˆ ˆ
D


T
T
DDDDDDDD eDD







D P I D
e
eKeKeKe
s



D

e
ekekeke
s



 D
ke
ekeekeee
s








fkesk
eee
ss




f f f


D e e  e e 








f ref f ref
ff
ffD
eAeB
ee
e
e e








f f e e e 




fe t e t





fe k e e 

 


ktttktf
t

e t e e t e e d 
T f e t t t T t

 





 
kttTtkt
tT
kttTkttT
eteeted
eete
kk









e t

k




f e t 

e t














ktttktf
t
kttktttktff
tt
ktttktfff
t
eteeteed
eeteekeed
eetetetkeed
















T f e t t t T t

 




 
kttTtktf
tT
kttTfkttT
eteetTetTked
eetTetTe











f e t t


e t o 


Q


T
P A A P Q 
ref ref

ref A

P



   T T

fDffDDD V e e Pe 

D 

ˆ T T T
f f f ref D D D D V e Qe e P B e 


 ˆ  TTTT

f f f ref D D D f ref D D V e Qe e P B e P B 

V e


ˆ  ˆ  T

D D D D f ref e P B 



D 
T T
f f f ref D V e Qe e P B 




Assumption 1: 
cmd x 

 
T
mm x t x t z t z t 









TT
f f f ref D
f f ref D
V e Qe e P B
QeePB





QQ D x D x





t 



f e 



ref D
rf
PB
Ser
Q






T
b f f e Pe b r S 




T

P e e Pe P e 

ffff



b P r 


fe r 




T

e Pe P e P r b 

fff

r S b 


f e t

  R f S e R T

B f f e Pe B 

R S

b B r S R S




Figure 19: Representation of the Sets r b B R S S


 B P R 
T
f f e Pe B 





T

fffP e e Pe B P R 

fe R R S

V r S


f e b














cmd m I m Tˆ
DPDD
K
xBxfxKsKxxBx
s
















grav
q IC cmd
LQqL
qMMqMqMq







LM
q




bl m
cmd m q IC m
qq
qqMMqMqq
s 












T
cmd
grav IC cmd
grav q IC
xxqzQMxq
FLQBFMMqM
fLfMq












fm
m
sksLqq
ee
sss




 
T
T
ffm
fm
qq
eeeqq
s




D 


ˆ ˆ 

m
DDDDm
qq
qqP
s





T P P

ref A



ˆ
ad T 
cmd D D q t 



bl ad
q q q 
cmd cmd cmd








e
e
e
q
ZZ
VV
qq
MMM









q e

 
V  
qe  
Z Z Z  
q e M M M 

Z M

e q







TV q

c 






AB




q e 












j
j













0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 20: Baseline Closed-Loop Response to AOA Doublet without Uncertainties




cmd q
qqMq







T
pert K x 






cmd T
pert
q
qqKxDx






 
c
T
pert KDxDe

 



c

T
pert K x 

Mq M


















q

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6

AOA, deg
Figure 21: Total Matched Uncertainty vs. AOA at q=0








0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 22: Baseline Closed-Loop Response in Presence of Matched Uncertainties



ref A

D




D 







0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-2
-1
0
1


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 23: Baseline+Adaptive Closed-Loop Response in Presence of Uncertainties













0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Theta hat
Time, sec
Figure 24: Adaptive Parameter Norm vs. Time

















































cmd
xFxzBxfxz
xFxxzxfxxz




 

ˆ
m
cmd m m m
DPI
xx
xBxfKxxKxxKv
s





v




D P I
e
eKeKeKDxv
s

v



ˆ ˆ T
D D v D x x z z x x z z 





D P I D
e
eKeKeKe
s












Dxx
Pxxx
Ix
Kxxk
Kxxkx
Kxk



















f f ref
ref
ff
ffD
xxx
eeBA
ee
e
e x x x e



ref A x

D e





Case 1: x x x 



ref A


Case 2: x x x




 

ref A





ref A






Case 3: x x x x 









V tE e e
gt


T V t E e R t e 







RtRtt
gt






g t




   T T

fDffDDD V e e R t e 


Rt


ˆ T T
V K e e R t B e 
f f ref D D D D

K


f K e 





   ˆ   TTT

f f ref D D D f ref D D V K e e R t B e R t B 

V f e 


ˆ  ˆ  T

e R t B 
D D D D f ref


T
V K e e R t B 
f f ref D




Assumption 1: 
cmd x 

 
T
mm x t x t z t z t 










T
f f ref D
ref f f ref D
VKteeRtB
KtBeeRtB






K ef 


K t Rt

the “worst” case from a Lyapunov stability analysis



 ref f f ref D V K B e e R B 

K t Rt

f t g t




t 



f e 



ref D
rf
ref
RB
Ser
KB




T
b f f e R t e b r S 




T
R e e R t e R e 
ffff




b R r 


fe r 




T
e R t e R e R r b 
fff

r S b

f e t   Rf S e R 
 T

Bff e R t e B R S 



b B r S R S



 B R R 
T
f f e R t e B 




T
fffR e e R t e B R R 
fe R R S

V r S

f e b

















grav
q IC cmd
LQqL
qMMqMqMq







LM q






bl m
cmd m q IC x x m x
qq
qqMMqMxxqqx
s 











T
cmd
grav IC cmd
grav q IC
xxqzQMxq
FLQBFMMqM
fLfMq












fm
m
sksLqq
ee
sss





 
T
T
ffm
fm
qq
eeeqq
s




D 






ˆ ˆ 

m
DDDDm
qq
qqRt
s






T
R t R t 

ad Tˆ 
q t 
cmd D D




bl ad
q q q 
cmd cmd cmd








e
e
e
q
ZZ
VV
qq
MMM










q e

 
V  
qe  
Z Z Z  
q e M M M 

Z M

e q






AB




q e 














0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10
, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 25: Baseline Closed-Loop Response to AOA Doublet without Uncertainties








0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.5
0
0.5

e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-20
-10
0
10
20


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 26: Closed-Loop Response to AOA Doublet: No Uncertainties, with Limiter






01234567
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd
limit area

ref

01234567
0
0.5
1

()
01234567
0.5
1
1.5


x
01234567
2
2.5


x
time, sec
Figure 27: AOA Doublet Response: No Uncertainties, with Limiter (Zoom)











Mq M











Rt 
P

D




D 





0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-2
-1
0
1


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-20
-10
0
10
20


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 28: AOA Doublet Response: Uncertainties with Adaptive+Limiter












01234567
0
5

, deg.

cmd
limit area

ref

01234567
0
0.5
1

()
01234567
0.5
1
1.5


x
01234567
2
2.5


x
time, sec
Figure 29: AOA Doublet Response: Uncertainties with Adaptive+Limiter (Zoom)








0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
Theta hat
Time, sec
Figure 30: Adaptive Parameter Norm vs. Time












































that may exist in the system control channels, also called “matched”
uncertaint































p
TT
ppppmmuuddp
sdx
x A x B I s u x 




np x m u 
 T

d x x 
pddp

N
m
d
 
N
d p x N

p x

T
uu s s 


Nu m
u

Nu m
u s 

u N m










u s 
u u s s 
u s













T
u
T
ppppmmuup
TT
pppmmuuup
TTT
pppmmummmmuuup
s
xAxBIsudx
AxBIsudx
AxBIIIsudx


















T
mmu I n m
p B 
n n
p A mm 









s e u 











m m U t I s u t 









0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4

Time, sec
Input
u
u
delay
u
1st order Pade
u
4th order Pade
Figure 31: Time Response of Pure Time-Delay and Padé Approximations


10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1

Magnitude (dB)
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-600
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0

Phase (deg)
Frequency, rad/sec
u
delay
u
1st order Pade
u
4th order Pade
Figure 32: Frequency of Pure Time-Delay and Padé Approximations














s
s









I 
s
s 






u 
m
ppy C x 



 A 
pdu


y e t y t r t 

yI y e e y r 


 mmpc x Ax B I s u d x B r 
T T n
yI p x e x 





pp
mmpmmmm
c
nmppnm
CI
ABB
AB







 y C x C x 
pmp

A



n n
k A 

d K 
T
A A BK 
kd



 T
TTT
kddudpc
u
x
xAxBuKxBr
s u













T T
ddpdI x K s



T
u K x 
bl x















ref
T
kxc
A
x A BK x B r 



















ˆ ˆ ˆ 
ˆ
bl
ad
TT
bl ad x x p
uu
T
bl
uuuKxKxdxsu
u



ˆ n m
x K 

d K ˆ m s


ˆ m
p d x 

p d x
ˆ s
Nu m
u s 

ˆ Nu m
u
 
ˆ ˆ T 
u u s s 

u s

u N m





ˆ 
p d x N m
p x N 

ˆ N m
d
 
ˆ ˆ T 
p d d p d x x 



T


TT
ref ad x c x A x B u I K x B r 









 T

x A x Bu B r 

ref ad c


 T

x x s u 

dpu



T


x
T
TT
dx
K
K I K 






ad u 

ˆ  T

ref c xAxBBr





ref e x x 


T
refe A e B



ˆ T e P B 




ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
d
u
T
xx
T
ddp
T
uu
KxePB
xePB
suePB






 
 
x d u 

P


T
P A A P Q 
ref ref

Q


































 ˆ ˆ ˆ  
T T T

kxxpcx A x BK x K x d x s u B r 



B 








ˆ 
ˆˆ
ˆˆ
TTT
xdx
TT
pddpddp
TT
uuuu
KKIK
dxxx
sss









existence




– 


ˆ
x K ˆ s
ˆ 
p d x 


 Y u 
T




TTTT
K 
ddu


 TTTT

du x s u 



 T

kcx A x Bu B r 



B 
T
kcB x A x B r u 
B



Gs







f x G s x 

 T
fkfcfff
Y
B x A x B r u 
f x



ˆˆ ˆT 
f f Y u 



ˆ
ˆˆ
T
f
TT
ffu









ˆ
s
YY
m



s m f f u

s m 

T T

s f f f f m u u 

T
T




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d
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
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
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



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


ˆ ˆ
bl
 ˆˆ
ad
TTTTT
bl ad x d x d d p u u
u
u
u u u K x K I K x x s u 
u

u s

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
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




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


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
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
q e

 
V  
qe  
Z Z Z  
q e M M M 
Z M

e q







AB




q e 






C
y
q











Q R 

T
xK 











j
j
















0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-1
0
1
2


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 33: Baseline Closed-Loop Response to AOA Doublet without Uncertainties






ee
pert
T
d
ee
k
yI yI
qT
xe
u
K
q
xx
AB
A
ee
ZZZZ
Kd
VVVV
qq
MMMM













c
cmd
B










T
pert K x 






 
c
pert
T
xp Kdxde

 



c


pert
T
x K 
Mq M


























0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-4
-2
0
2
4


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-2
-1
0
1
2


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 34: Baseline Closed-Loop Response in Presence of Matched Uncertainties



ref A 

ref Q 
d



u s 




x d u 











0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-2
0
2
4


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 35: Baseline+MRAC Closed-Loop Response in Presence of Uncertainties






0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
1
2
3
4
5
K
x
hat
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5

d
hat
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2

u
hat
Time, sec
Figure 36: MRAC Adaptive Parameter Norms vs. Time




d d u 



d 

u 






0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-5
0
5
10


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-1000
-500
0
500

e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 37: Baseline+MRAC Closed-Loop Response with High Adaptive Gains







d x


d 

u 













Gs
s



















0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-2
0
2
4


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-4
-2
0
2
4


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 38: Baseline+B-SPM Normalized Response in Presence of Uncertainties










0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
1
2
K
d
hat
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
1
2

d
hat
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
0.2
0.4

u
hat
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.5
1
1.5
hat
Time, sec
Figure 39: Baseline+B-SPM Adaptive Parameter Norms vs. Time







0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-2
0
2
4


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec

cmd
MRAC
Alt
Figure 40: Comparison of Adaptive Closed-Loop Responses: with Uncertainties








0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
Frequency, Hz
Elev. Pos.(deg2/Hz dB)
MRAC
Alternative
Figure 41: Comparison of Control Input Power Spectral Densities





















act act 











0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.
Time-Delay = 0.935

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-2
-1
0
1
2


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-4
-2
0
2
4


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 42: Baseline Response: Input Time-Delay of 935ms




















0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-10
-5
0
5
10

, deg.
Time-Delay = 0.935

cmd

ref

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-2
-1
0
1
2


e
, deg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-4
-2
0
2
4


e
dot,
dps
Time, sec
Figure 43: Baseline + B-SPM Normalized Response: Input Time-Delay of 935ms




Control Scheme
Time-Delay Margin
(msec)
Corresponding
Phase Margin
(deg)
Baseline LQR 933 66.29
LQR + MRAC 30 2.13
LQR + B-SPM 933 66.29






























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



















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
































T

DDD D x x x 









 TT

ppppmmuuddpx A x B I s u x 







 T

ppppmmddp x A x B I s u x 
sT
d d p x 




 T

ppppmmddp x A x B I s u x t 

t 






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
Wise, K. A., Lavretsky, E., Hovakimyan, N., “Adaptive
CApplications, and Open Problems,” Proceedings of American
Control Conference
nd Lavretsky, E., “An Adaptive Approach to
Nonaffine Control Design for Aircraft Applications,” Guidance, Navigation, and Control
Conference
Lavretsky, E., and Wise, K. A., “Adaptive Flight Control for Manned /
UMilitary Aircraft,” Proceedings of the American Control
Conference
Aircraft Control and
Simulation
Dydek, Z. T., Annaswamy, A. M., and Lavretsky, E.,
“Ad3 Flight Revisited,” IEEE Control Systems
Magazine
Stable Adaptive
Systems
Robust Adaptive
Control
Nonlinear Systems
Karason, S. P., and Annaswamy, A. M., “Adaptive Control in the Presence of Input
Constraints,” IEEE Transactions on Automatic
Control
“Theoret
ically Verifiable Stability Margins for an Adaptive Controller,” Guidance, Navigation, and
Control Conference
Jang, J., Annaswamy, A. M., and Lavretsky, E., “Towards Verifiable Adaptive Flight
Control in the Presence of Actuator Anomalies,” Proc. Conference on Decision and
Control
Adaptive Control Design and
Analysis
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Nonlinear and Adaptive
Control Design
Ioannou, P. A., and Tsakalis, K., “A Robust Direct Adaptive Controller,” IEEE
Transactions on Automatic Control
Adaptive Control: Stability, Convergence, and
Robustness
Stability of Adaptive
Controllers
彎闣Adaptive
Control
Brinker, J., and Wise, K., “Flight Testing of Reconfigurable Control Law on the
Xaft,” Journal of Guidance, Control, and
Dynamics
Sharma, M., Lavretsky, E., and Wise, K., “Application and Flight Testing of an
ecision Guided Munitions,” Guidance, Navigation, and
Control Conference
Lavretsky, E., and Gadient, R., “Robust Adaptive Design for Aerial Vehicles with State
Limiting Constraints,” Journal of Guidance, Control, and
Dynamics
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J. E., “Gaussian Networks for Direct Adaptive Control,”
IEEE Transactions on Neural
Networks
Lim, Y. S., and Kazda, L. F., “A Study of Second Order Nonlinear Systems,” Journal of
Mathematical Analysis and Applications
Regan, C. D., “Inircraft,”
Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference
Risch, T., Cosentino, G., Regan, C. D., Kisska, M., and Princen, N.,
“XTest Progress Overview,” Aerospace Sciences Meeting, AIAA Paper
2009
Goldthorpe, S. H., Rossitto, K. F., Hyde, D. C., and Krothapalli, K. R.,
“X


Attack Command Tracking,” Atmospheric Flight Mechanics
Conference
Hyde, D. C., Gadient, R., and Lavretsky, E., “Flight Testing the
XAttack and Sideslip Limiting System,” Guidance, Navigation, and
Control Conference
.,
“
,”

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Adaptive Control
Tutorial

Park, J. and Sandberg, I., “Universal Approximation Using
RadialNetworks,” Neural
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