FROM ATOMS TO IONS

When elements react, the atoms involved must collide. This collision causes the outermost
electrons in interact. Atoms involved in a reaction try to get the same electron configuration as the
nearest noble gas.

For most elements this means they try to get 8 electrons in their outermost shell or energy level.
This is referred to as a stable octet.

The diagrams below illustrate how atoms of aluminium and oxygen can get a full outer shell or
energy level.
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ELECTRON DOT DIAGRAMS

An electron dot diagram is a simple way of showing the valence electrons of an atom. Electrons
are represented by a dot. A maximum number of 8 electrons in the outermost shell or energy level
is possible.

Electrons are placed in four regions (orbitals) around the symbol for the element; a maximum of 2
electrons occur in each orbital.

The electron dot diagrams of magnesium, carbon and oxygen are shown below.

IONISATION ENERGY

Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the most loosely held electron from an atom in
the gaseous phase. This energy helps overcome the electrostatic attraction between the protons in
the nucleus and the electron. This is illustrated in the diagram below.

Ionisation energy depends on two main factors; the nuclear charge and the distance that the
valence electron is from the nucleus.

Nuclear charge: The greater the nuclear charge, that is the number of protons in the nucleus, the
greater the ionisation energy. For example, the first ionisation energy of chlorine (1251 kJ/mol) is
much greater than that for sodium (496 kJ/mol) even though both elements are from the third
period. The greater number of protons in the nucleus of the chlorine atom means that its valence
electrons are more tightly held. This greater attraction is reduced to some degree by the shielding
effect of the extra electrons in a chlorine atom.
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Distance from the nucleus: The further the electron is from the nucleus the lower is the ionisation
energy required. Electrostatic attraction decreases markedly with distance which means that the
valence electrons of the larger atoms are not strongly held. The shielding effect of the inner-shell
electrons also reduces this attraction. The first ionisation energy of potassium (419 kJ/mol) for
example is less than for sodium (496 kJ/mol) even though potassium has a greater nuclear charge.

In relation to the periodic table this means that generally:

 Metals have low ionisation energies as ionisation energy decreases as we go down a

group.
 Non-metals have high ionisation energies since ionisation energy increases as we go
across a period (left to right).

This is best illustrated by a diagram as shown below:

REMOVAL OF SUCCESSIVE ELECTRONS FROM ATOMS

The first ionisation energy refers to the energy required to remove only the first electron from a
gaseous atom. More electrons can be removed, but it becomes increasingly difficult since the
electron is now being removed from a positively charged ion. If an electron is being removed from
a lower energy level the energy required will be much greater.

The successive ionisation energies for carbon are illustrated in the table below.
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TRENDS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Elements in the periodic table are listed in order of increasing atomic number but in such a manner
as to create vertical groups with similar chemical properties. As we have seen the position of an
element on the periodic table is also related to its electron configuration.

As we examine the physical and chemical properties of the elements of a group, we find many
similarities but also marked differences. These differences appear to change in a regular pattern or
trend as we go down the group. Similarly, trends in the properties of the elements can also be
observed as we go across a period of the periodic table.

TRENDS DOWN A GROUP

(a) ATOMIC SIZE INCREASES: As we go down a group there is an extra shell of electrons and the
atomic radii become larger.

(b) IONISATION ENERGY DECREASES: As the atom gets larger the outer electrons are further
away from the nucleus and less energy is required to remove the most loosely bound electron from
the atom. Electronegativity (the electron attracting ability of atoms) also decreases.

(c) METALLIC NATURE INCREASES: Metals typically give up their electrons easily. Hence as we
go down a group, elements become more metallic. This can be pronounced. Group 14 for
example, has the non-metal carbon at the top and the metal lead at the bottom.

TRENDS ACROSS A PERIOD

(a) ATOMIC SIZE DECREASES: As we go across a period there are a greater number of protons
attracting the electrons. Hence the electrons move closer to the nucleus. This means that an atom
of argon, for example, is smaller than an atom of sodium even though the argon atom has a much
greater mass.

(b) IONISATION ENERGY INCREASES: As we go across a period there are a greater number of
protons in the nucleus (greater nuclear charge or core charge) and the electrons are more strongly
held. Hence more energy is required to remove an electron from the atom. Ionisation energy and
electronegativity both increase as we go across a period. Note that inert gases are not considered
to be electronegative.

(c) METALLIC NATURE DECREASES: Electrons are more strongly held to the atom as we go
across a period. Hence elements become less metallic in nature. Magnesium for example is less
metallic than sodium and chlorine is a non-metal.
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QUESTIONS

1. Four elements and their electronic configurations are as follows:

Ca: 2, 8, 8, 2 S: 2, 8, 6 F: 2, 7 Ar: 2, 8, 8

In a chemical reaction which element is most likely to:

(a) Gain 2 e –?

Sulfur

(b) Lose 2 e – 1?

Calcium

(c) Not react?

Argon

2. Draw the electron dot diagrams (on a sheet of paper) for each of the following elements:

(a) Ar

(b) Cl

(c) B

(d) N

3. Which of the following atoms would need to gain the greatest number of electrons to achieve a
noble gas configuration?

(a) Fluorine

(b) Sulfur

(c) Nitrogen

(d) Oxygen

Nitrogen

4. Using their position on the periodic table, arrange the following elements in order of increasing
first ionisation energy.

(a) C, N, Si

Si, C, N
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(b) Na, Mg, K

K, Na, Mg

5. (a) Referring to the table on successive ionisation energies for carbon, which ionisation energy
represents a large difference compare to the previous one? Why?

5th ionisation energy. Electron is being removed from a lower energy level

(b) How many electrons is this element likely to lose when forming an ion?

4 electrons

6. The successive ionisation energies of an element X (in kJ/mol) are 738, 1451, 7733, 10540,
13630.

(a) How many valence electrons has element X?

(b) Indicate the valency of its ion.

+2

(c) By comparing data with the table showing the successive ionisations of carbon, do you suppose
X is a metal or non-metal? Why?

It is a metal because it only has 2 valence electrons and it has relatively low 1 st and 2nd isolation
energies.

7. Explain the following trend in successive ionisation energies for any individual element:

1st ionisation energy < 2nd ionisation energy < 3rd ionisation energy, etc.

As each electron is removed the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron
decreases and so electrostatic attraction increases. Also, electrons are being removed from an
increasingly positive ion rather than a neutral atom

8. Which element has the lowest first ionisation energy of all elements in the third period?

Sodium
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9. The atomic radius of sodium is significantly greater than that of the much heavier chlorine atom.
Explain the reason for this.

An atom of chlorine has a much greater number of protons than an atom of sodium this means that
the electrons of the chlorine atom are much more strongly attracted by the nucleus and a smaller
radius for the chlorine atom results

10. Which element is likely to be more electronegative, sulfur or oxygen? Explain why.

Oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur since electronegativity decreases as we go down it

group of the periodic table. This can also be explained by the fact that the outer level of sulfur atom
is further out than that for oxygen and the attraction for electros would be weaker.

11. Which element of each of the following pairs would you expect to have the greater metallic
character?

(a) Ca or Zn: Calcium

(b) K or Na: Potassium

(c) Sr or Cs: Caesium

(d) Al or Ca: Calcium

12. Metals such as magnesium and calcium typically give up their electrons more easily than non-
metals. Referring to their position on the periodic table and periodic table trends, explain which of
these two metals is more metallic.

Calcium is more metallic than magnesium since it is lower in group 1 of the periodic table and
hence has a lower ionisation energy, this indicates that electrons are more easily removed from
calcium and a more metallic character results

13. Three elements from the third group of the periodic table are aluminium (Al), silicon (Si), and
phosphorous (P). Arrange these elements in order of increasing:

(a) Atomic size – P, Si, Al

(b) Ionisation energy – Al, Si, P

(c) Metallic nature – P, Si, Al

(d) Electronegativity – Al, Si, P

14. Why do elements belonging to group 2 tend to form ions with a valency of +2?

They have too loosely held electrons in their outermost energy level
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15. Complete the following table by predicting the valency and the group number of each of the
elements listed:

NUMBER OF IONSATIONS AND IONISATION ENERGY IN kJ GROUP VALENCY

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th NUMBER
X 578 1817 2745 11577 14842 13 +3
Y 590 1145 4912 6490 8153 2 +2
Z 1086 2256 4620 6223 37831 14 +4 or -4

16. If you were told that elements X, Y and Z (from question 15) belonged to different periods,
which do you think belongs to:

(a) Period 2 – Z

(b) Period 3 – Y

(c) Period 4 – X

Justify your answers.

As you go down the periods, the 1st ionisation energy required is less due to the valence electron
being more further away from the nucleus which requires less energy to ionise it due to its weaker
hold

16. Define the term ionisation energy.

Ionisation energy is the energy to remove the most loosely bound electrons of an element

17. The electron configuration of a chemical species is 2, 8, 6. Which of the following statements
might be true (T) and which is false (F) about this species?

(a) It belongs to group 14 in the 3rd period: F

(b) It is a non-metal with a valency of +2: F

(c) It can gain two electrons to become more stable: T

(d) Ar 2 – would possess this electron configuration (if it existed): F

(e) S 2 – would possess this electron configuration (if it existed): T

18. How many valence electrons are there in an atom of each of the elements described below?

(a) An alkali metal form the 5th period: 1

(b) The element from group 2 in period 3: 2

(c) A noble gas from period 4: 8

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(d) The element from period 4 that belongs to group 17: 7

(e) The element from the third period that belongs to group 16: 6

19. (a) What is true about the electron configuration of all elements belonging to the same group
on the periodic table?

(b) Apart from helium, what outer energy level electron configuration do all noble gases have?

(c) What is (chemically) important about this electron configuration?

(d) When atoms become ions, what general rule appears to be followed?

20. Fluorine has a ground state electron configuration of 2, 7

In a similar manner write the ground state electron configuration for the following neutral elements.

He:

Al:

Na:

Mg:

Ca:
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