URBAN GEOCHEMISTRY: INVESTIGATIONS IN THE BERLIN

METROPOLITAN AREA

MANFRED BIRKE and UWE RAUCH

Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Berlin, Germany,
(e-mail: manfred.birke@bgr.de; uwe.rauch@bgr.de)

Received 25 August 1999; accepted in revised form 30 June 2000

Abstract. The distribution of 41 trace and 11 major elements in 4000 samples of topsoils
(0–20 cm) from the Berlin Megacity is interpreted. The detailed comparative analysis of the element
distributions and the results of factor analysis showed that the distributions of the elements Al, K,
Na, Rb, Zr, Nb and Ti are mainly natural origin, i.e. related to the composition of the parent material.
Industrial and commercial areas often display considerably elevated values for Mo, Ni, As, Ag, Cr,
Sb, Fe, Mn, Mg, P, TOC and especially Pb, Hg and electrical conductivity relative to the geogenic
background of the area surrounding Berlin. Industrial areas tend to be characterised by contamination
of the subsoil with Cu, Cd, Zn, Hg, Pb and Sn. In the area around Berlin, extensive, strong anamalies
of Cd, Zn, Pb, Cu and Hg occur near iron and steel industries and construction materials industries,
as well as in the vicinity of sewage farms.

Key words: Berlin agglomeration, environment, environmental geochemistry, geochemical back-

ground, soil contamination, trace elements, urban geochemistry

1. Introduction

A third of the population of Germany lives in cities with greater than 100,000
people. Anthropogenic activities are the determining ecological factor in cities and
industrial regions. In the early stages of industrialisation and urbanisation, land
was used to obtain raw materials, for building houses, businesses and factories, as
well as for waste disposal. The need to have local services led to a high density of
building with few open areas, which in turn led to an increase in traffic density.
Besides the rehabilitation of polluted areas, the ‘Research for the Environment’
programme of the German federal government makes the development of a sci-
entific basis for the recognition and evaluation of polluted areas a priority project.
Metropolitan regions and industrial areas have a more complex and much higher
production of hazardous substances, reaching back to the beginning of the indus-
trial revolution in the last century. Before the introduction of filter systems, sources
of hazardous substances included coal- and oil-fired power plants, gasworks, me-
tallurgical, chemical and electronic plants, motor vehicles and landfills.
The soils in residential areas and industrial centres show a strong anthropo-
genic impact. Owing to the considerable compaction, the functions of the soils in

Environmental Geochemistry and Health 22: 233–248, 2000.

© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
234 MANFRED BIRKE AND UWE RAUCH

metropolitan areas are greatly reduced. Soils in these areas serve primarily as a
foundation for buildings and other construction.
In all of these key issues that are likely to have special environmental and socio-
economic impacts, geochemistry is a powerful tool for detecting and monitoring
economic and environmental systems and their development. Looking at the rel-
evance to the cities, human activities have the most deleterious influence on the
urban environment, for example, groundwater pollution, surface water pollution,
contaminated land and urban waste disposal.
Berlin is the first European megacity to be covered in its entirety (1993–1996)
by a geochemical survey of the topsoil, including large, more or less rural areas.
This extensive urban study is unique in Germany, although similar studies have
been undertaken in London (Thornton, 1991; Kelly et al., 1995), Warsaw (Lis,
1992), Minsk (Lukashev, 1994), Hong Kong (Li xiang-Dong, 1997), New Orleans
(Mielke, 1994; Viverette et al., 1996; Mielke et al., 1997; Mielke and Reagan,
1998), Vilnius, Šiauliai, Panevežys (Kadūnas, Budavičius, Gregorauskiene et al.,
1999) and Tallinn (Birke, Bityukova and Grunsky, 1998).
Our studies have been aimed at obtaining a differentiated picture of the complex
geochemistry of soils in urban areas with respect to their natural composition and
the secondary or anthropogenic contamination. The geochemical studies also aim
at developing a set of regulations and standards for documenting contamination
on a regional scale, as well as to combat hazards caused by contamination. These
investigations in Berlin can provide a basis upon which to draw up general reg-
ulations for nature conservation and soil protection, conducting an environmental
impact assessment, and estimating contamination of soils.

2. Material and methods

About 4000 soil samples (depth 0–0.2 m) were taken in suburban areas with little
or no contamination as well as industrial areas in and around Berlin. The < 2-mm
fraction was analysed for 11 major elements (Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P, S, Ctot,
TOC) and 41 trace elements (Ag, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Br, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu,
F, Ga, Ge, Hg, I, In, La, Mn, Mo, Nb, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sb, Se, Sn, Sr, Ta, Te, Th, Ti,
Tl, U, V, W, Y, Zn, Zr). TOC, pH and electrical conductivity were also determined
(Table I). Major and trace elements were analysed using energy-dispersive X-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy with polarised X-rays (EDXRF; Heckel et al., 1991),
atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), and inductively coupled plasma-
atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). All soil samples were dried at 25 ◦ C,
disaggregated and sieved. Organic pollutants, such as hydrocarbons, aromatics, and
volatile halogenated compounds were also analysed in topsoils from the central
part of Berlin and from locations currently or formerly occupied by chemical in-
dustries. Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF) were
analysed only in topsoils from central part of Berlin.
 URBAN GEOCHEMISTRY OF BERLIN 235
TABLE I
Analytical methods and detection limits of elements

Element Analytical Detection Element Analytical Detection

method limit mg kg−1 method limit mg kg−1

SiO2 XRF1 500.0 Hg EDXRF2 1.7

TiO2 XRF1 34.0 Hg flameless AAS 0.01
Al2 O3 XRF1 500.0 In EDXRF2 0.9
Fe2 O3 XRF1 90.0 I EDXRF2 2.5
MnO XRF1 8.0 La EDXRF2 5.0
MgO XRF1 500.0 Mo EDXRF2 1.5
CaO XRF1 90.0 Nb EDXRF2 1.0
Na2 O XRF1 500.0 Ni EDXRF2 1.5
K2 O XRF1 120.0 Pb EDXRF2 2.6
P 2 O5 XRF1 250.0 Rb EDXRF2 1.0
SO3 XRF1 250.0 Sb EDXRF2 1.0
Ag EDXRF2 0.7 Sb AAS-HG3 0.2
As EDXRF2 1.2 Se EDXRF2 0.9
As AAS-HG3 0.1 Sn EDXRF2 1.0
B AES-ICP 5.0 Sr EDXRF2 1.0
Ba EDXRF2 3.0 Ta EDXRF2 10.0
Be AES-ICP4 0.5 Te EDXRF2 1.2
Bi EDXRF2 1.5 Th EDXRF2 2.0
Br EDXRF2 0.9 Tl EDXRF2 1.5
Cd EDXRF2 0.5 U EDXRF2 2.0
Cd AAS-GF5 0.02 V EDXRF2 10.0
Ce EDXRF2 5.0 W EDXRF2 5.0
Co EDXRF2 5.0 Y EDXRF2 1.0
Cr EDXRF2 6.0 Zn EDXRF2 2.5
Cs EDXRF2 3.0 Zr EDXRF2 1.0
Cu EDXRF2 0.8 TOC Chemical analysis 1000.0
F Pyrolysis 200.0 TC Chemical analysis 1,000.0
Ga EDXRF2 1.5 pH Potentiometric –
Ge EDXRF2 0.9 EC6 Conductometric –
1 XRF – X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy.
2 EDXRF – energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy.
3 AAS-HG – hydride-generation atomic absorption spectrophotometry.
4 AES-ICP – inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry.
5 AAS-GF – graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry.
6 in µS cm−1 .
236 MANFRED BIRKE AND UWE RAUCH

Densely populated areas and industrial areas were sampled at a density of 40

samples per km2 . Field observations provided additional information: geographical
situation, geology, morphology, urbanisation, land use, vegetation, soil type and
horizon and potential sources of contamination. Survey strategy is nearly always
site specific, taking into account the previous history of land use, proximity to exist-
ing industrial activities, direction of prevailing winds, etc. and the proposed nature
of redevelopment or the kind of present-day land use. A flow sheet summarising
the different steps in a geochemical survey of an urban environment is given in
Table II.
To evaluate and interpret the geochemistry data, we used both single-element
and multi-element maps (cluster-Q analysis), maps of geochemical associations
(principal component analysis), and maps showing the geochemical load index for
various trace elements. These maps are of great importance for estimating envir-
onmental conditions and the degree of contamination. They provide a useful basis
for making ecological decisions, particularly in urban landuse planning, for which
environmental issues are important.

3. Results and discussion

On the basis of our geochemical survey of Berlin soils, it was possible to de-
termine the natural geochemical backgrounds of elements (Table III, IV) and the
anthropogenic load. The inner city and surrounding area of Berlin show enriched
concentrations, sometimes considerably, of Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn, Sr and
Zn with respect to the regional geochemical background (Figure 1). These studies
confirm the results of Brose and Brühl (1993) on the most abundant near-surface
sediments of West Berlin.
Element distributions are shown on coloured contour maps. A set of regularly
spaced data was obtained from the irregularly spaced sites using a geostatistical
gridding method (Kriging). The maps also indicate where the soil pH exceeds the
value at which the respective metal becomes soluble. The maps were drawn using
the Gauss-Krueger projection.
These maps are useful for locating anthropogenic geochemical halos, assess-
ing environmental conditions, and making well-based ecological decisions. The
mercury distribution in topsoils in urban Berlin is shown in Figure 2.
Certain types of industries are typically associated with mercury contamination
(> 0.35 mg Hg kg−1 soil). These include the metal-working industry, non-ferrous
smelters, sewage farms, the chemical industry, including manufacturers of paint,
and other coatings, chlorine, asphalt, photochemicals, and electrical components,
as well as the wood-processing industry. Anomalous concentrations of mercury
(Figure 2) also occur in association with landfills and areas where building rubble
has been dumped.
 URBAN GEOCHEMISTRY OF BERLIN 237
TABLE II
Scheme for a geochemical survey in an urban environment
238 MANFRED BIRKE AND UWE RAUCH

Figure 1. Ratios of mean concentration to regional background concentration of the Berlin environs
for selected elements determined for different types of land use.

Figure 2. Mercury distribution in topsoils of Berlin (in mg kg−1 ).

 URBAN GEOCHEMISTRY OF BERLIN 239
TABLE III
Regional geochemical background values for trace elements in soils of Berlin
and environs (in mg kg−1 )

Element Environs Inner city Element Environs Inner city

N = 1564 N = 2182 N = 1564 N = 2182

As 2.4 2.2 Ni 2.7 5.3

B 13 14.0 Pb 21.7 40.6
Ba 192 292 Rb 36.7 37.7
Be 1 1.2 Sb 2.1 2.2
Cd 0.08 0.5 Sc 3.0 3.0
Co 4.0 2.5 Sn 1.6 2.0
Cr 12.2 18.1 Sr 35.1 66.2
Cu 6.0 18.5 Th 3.4 3.9
F 200 300 V 10.1 14.6
Hg 0.04 0.06 Y 8.5 9.5
La 10.4 15.1 Zn 19.3 101
Nb 4.9 4.9 Zr 231 199

TABLE IV
Regional geochemical background values for the major elements in soils of Berlin and
environs (in g kg−1 )

Element Environs Inner city Element Environs Inner city

N = 1564 N = 2182 N = 1564 N = 2182

EC1 (in µS cm−1 ) 26.0 54.0 Fe 4.41 8.18

Mn 0.170 0.256
TOC 8.0 13.0 Mg 0.543 1.21
Si 417 401 Na 3.12 3.19
Ti 1.12 1.11 K 7.89 8.72
Al 21.9 24.9 P 0.175 0.393
1 Electrical conductivity.

In residential areas with different population densities, elevated concentrations

(maximum 4.4 mg Hg kg−1 soil) in city parks and private gardens, allotment gar-
dens as well as in urban woodlands show, that mercury is often bound to organic
matter. Mercury is also very strongly adsorbed by hydrolysis products (e.g., oxy-
hydrates of iron and aluminium, clay minerals). Anthropogenic contamination in
‘green belts’ and parklands is chiefly derived from composting facilities and/or
sewage farms, the products of which are commonly applied for soil improvement.
 240
TABLE V
Statistical parameter values for metal contents in soils in Berlin and environs (in mg kg−1 )

Parameter Entire area Areas Woodlands Agricultural Low-density High-density Allotment Sewage Industrial
within around areas residential residential areas farm areas
city limits Berlin areas areas areas
(N = 2182) (N = 1564) (N = 614) (N = 388) (N = 826) (N = 476) (N = 102) (N = 64) (N = 459)

As Median 3,9 2,9 2,8 2,9 3,4 4,3 3,7 2,9 4,1
Arithmetic 5,1 3,4 3,2 3,1 4,0 4,9 4,9 3,2 6,8

MANFRED BIRKE AND UWE RAUCH

mean
Maximum 126 58,6 33,0 15,1 58,6 42,3 18,7 7,6 126
B Median 15,0 13,0 11,0 14,0 14,0 15,0 15,5 13,0 15,0
Arithmetic 19,3 15,1 14,8 16,1 17,5 15,7 18,2 13,7 19,1
mean
Maximum 1.800 118 95,0 65,0 820 46,0 61,0 43,0 570
Be Median 1,2 1,0 0,90 1,1 1,1 1,3 1,2 1,0 1,2
Arithmetic 1,3 1,0 0,88 1,1 1,2 1,4 1,3 1,0 1,3
mean
Maximum 53,0 6,5 2,5 53,0 6,5 3,2 5,2 1,4 4,8
Cd Median 0,35 0,15 0,11 0,18 0,21 0,41 0,32 1,6 0,50
Arithmetic 0,92 0,29 0,20 0,32 0,41 0,68 0,53 3,1 1,6
mean
Maximum 131 10,8 6,95 6,7 6,7 20,3 2,5 22,1 131
Cr Median 25,1 17,4 12,4 22,3 21,6 26,9 23,3 38,3 27,1
Arithmetic 35,0 19,9 14,4 24,5 24,2 30,0 27,2 55,0 56,8
mean
Maximum 1.840 214 128 155 214 168 135 328 1.840
Cu Median 31,2 8,6 5,5 9,5 19,1 37,0 25,2 40,1 45,5
Arithmetic 79,5 16,3 10,8 14,9 34,5 54,3 65,0 74,7 159
mean
Maximum 12.300 986 410 323 1.340 3.230 1.280 542 6.470
 TABLE V (continued)

Parameter Entire area Areas Woodlands Agricultural Low-density High-density Allotment Sewage Industrial
within around areas residential residential areas farm areas
city limits Berlin areas areas areas
(N = 2182) (N = 1564) (N = 614) (N = 388) (N = 826) (N = 476) (N = 102) (N = 64) (N = 459)

Hg Median 0,19 0,05 0,04 0,06 0,10 0,34 0,17 0,70 0,21

URBAN GEOCHEMISTRY OF BERLIN

Arithmetic 0,42 0,12 0,06 0,13 0,19 0,48 0,32 1,1 0,66
mean
Maximum 71,2 4,4 4,4 3,8 5,0 3,5 5,0 6,3 71,2
Ni Median 7,7 3,4 1,5 4,2 5,8 9,0 6,1 10,3 8,7
Arithmetic 10,7 4,6 2,6 4,6 7,8 10,1 9,3 13,0 16,4
mean
Maximum 769 91,1 39,6 21,9 91,1 44,5 50,6 53,9 769
Pb Median 76,6 27,9 26,4 24,9 49,5 109 61,7 57,5 87,1
Arithmetic 119 39,4 34,1 30,4 72,7 133 98,1 87,1 177
mean
Maximum 4.710 469 269 307 2.070 1.490 722 309 4.710
Sn Median 6,0 2,0 1,70 1,9 3,4 8,6 4,9 6,9 7,4
Arithmetic 10,8 3,2 2,62 2,8 6,3 11,9 9,4 11,2 14,7
mean
Maximum 498 113 113,00 66,8 267 150 112 64,2 409
Zn Median 129 37,7 25,3 39,9 84,9 163 121 136 169
Arithmetic 243 58,2 40,0 50,3 129 223 217 203 460
mean
Maximum 25.210 827 604 272 3.160 6.040 3.160 957 25.210

241
 242
TABLE VI
Parameter values for topsoils in several European cities (in mg kg−1 )

Warsaw (Lis, 1992) Berlin (Birke & Rauch, 1994) Tallinn (Birke, Bitykova & Grunsky, 1998) Hamburg (Lux, 1993)
Para- N = 1713 (0 – 20 cm) N = 3746 (0 – 20 cm) N = 531 (0 – 20 cm) N = 1475 (0 – 5 cm)

MANFRED BIRKE AND UWE RAUCH

meter Arithmetic Geochemical xmax Arithmetic Geochemical xmax Arithmetic Geochemical xmax Arithmetic Geochemical xmax
mean background mean background mean Background mean background

As 5,0 2,0 2830 4,4 2,4 126 6,0 2,0 136 23,0 27,0 918
B – – – 17,6 13,0 1800 – – – – – –
Cd < 0.30 < 0.30 19,1 0,65 0,08 131 – – – 1,2 0,90 27,8
Co 1,9 1,0 10,0 1,9 4,0 192 2,2 <1 18,0 – – –
Cr – – – 28,7 12,2 1840 26,9 17,0 475 52,0 27,0 492
Cu 10,0 6,0 560 53,1 6,0 12300 25,9 11,0 604 81,0 103,0 3688
Hg 0,13 0,1 10,8 0,29 0,04 71,2 0,24 0,04 10,0 0,60 0,30 19,1
Ni 5,0 4,0 31,0 8,1 2,7 769 4,4 4,0 205 31,0 19,0 182
Pb 20,0 13,0 401 85,8 21,7 4710 45,5 17,0 468 168 118 3074
Sn – – – 7,6 1,6 498 3,3 2,0 71,0 – – –
Zn 54,0 34,0 1432 166 19,3 25210 115 18,0 1463 381 361 11850
pH 5,9 6,1 7,8 6,6 4,2 9,1 7,1 7,5 8,5 – – –
 URBAN GEOCHEMISTRY OF BERLIN 243

The area around Berlin is characterised by an unusually low mercury back-

ground of 0.04 mg Hg kg−1 . The geochemical background of sewage farm areas
(0.73 mg Hg kg−1 ) is six times higher than the geochemical background of the
urban area and about twenty times higher than the natural or geogene background.
Extensive, high-contrast Hg anomalies caused by sewage farms are observed in the
areas north and south of Berlin in traditional sewage farm areas.
The element distribution in the topsoil shows a clear dependence on the type of
urban land use and type of industry (Table V). The distributions of the elements
Al, K, Si, Na, Rb, Zr, Nb, Co, Sc and Ti are mainly of natural origin, i.e., related
to the composition of the parent material.
Industrial areas tend to be characterised by contamination of the subsoil with
Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb, Hg and Sn (Birke and Rauch, 1997). Industrial and commercial
areas (Table V) often display considerably elevated values for Mo, Ni, As, Ag,
Cr, Sb, Sr, TOC, Fe, Mn, Mg, P and especially Pb, Hg and electrical conductivity
relative to the geogenic background of the area surrounding Berlin. Wooded areas
do not show great enrichments except for Cd and Zn. The regional geochem-
ical background in Berlin soils is compared with other urban areas in Europe in
Table VI.
In agricultural areas, the mode value, which is used as the background value,
tends to show enrichment of Cd, F, Cr, Hg, Ni, Y, Zn and P caused by extensive use
of fertilisers and sewage sludge (Figure 1, Table V). Wooded areas show no great
enrichments except for Cd and Zn (ratio with respect to the mode for the regional
geochemical concentration ≥1.3).
In the area around Berlin, extensive, strong anomalies occur near iron and steel
industries and construction materials industries, as well as in the vicinity of sewage
farms. There are local heavy-metal pollutions (Hg, Cd, Zn) from the sewage farms
north and south of Berlin.
Studies of the Berlin area and other German cities have shown that heavy-metals
(e.g., Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn and As) are enriched 1.8–8.9 times the natural,
geogenic concentrations (Table III, IV).
Especially in the polluted soils of old industrial sites of Berlin, peak values of
2050 times the geogenic background were measured for copper, 1780 times for
mercury, and 1638 times for cadmium. This means that, taking a soil density of
1.2 g cm−3 and the median concentration values and Berlin as an example of a
large city, the topsoils (0–20 cm depth) of a large city contain about 833 t As, 74.0
t Cd, 5366 t Cr, 6660 t Cu, 40.6 t Hg, 1646 t Ni, 16377 t Pb and 27580 t Zn
(Table VII).
The Berlin topsoils contain natural, geogenic metals amounting to 620 t As,
21.8 t Cd, 3869 t Cr, 1753 t Cu, 8.6 t Hg, 641 t Ni, 5366 t Pb and 5152 t Zn. Thus,
the ratio of natural heavy-metal content to anthropogenic enrichment is 2.9 : 1 for
As, 2.6 : 1 for Cr, 1 : 3.7 for Hg and 1 : 4.4 for Zn (Table VII).
Even when the soil of the city is sealed by buildings and traffic areas, there is
a high accumulation of hazardous substances. They do not accumulate in the city
244 MANFRED BIRKE AND UWE RAUCH

TABLE VII
Approximate metal accumulation in the Berlin topsoils (in t)

Metal content in topsoils (in t)

Element Total Geogenic Anthropogenic

As 834 620 214

Cd 74.0 21.8 52.2
Cr 5366 3869 1497
Cu 6660 1753 4907
Hg 40.6 8.5 32.1
Ni 1646 577 1069
Pb 16377 5366 11011
Sn 1283 428 855
Zn 27580 5153 22427
Zr 43829 43188 641
Method of calculation.
Metal content (in t) = A × T × d × X × 10−2 .
A = Berlin area in km2 (890.85 km2 ).
T = depth in cm.
d = soil density in g cm−3 .
X = element concentration in mg kg−1 .

soil, however, but wind up in the sewage plants and consequently in the sewage
sludge or in the fields irrigated with the water from the sewage plants. When sewage
sludge is used for soil amelioration, for example, in parks, the hazardous substances
return to the city. Dioxins and furans are the only organic parameters that have been
measured in the soils throughout the central part of Berlin.
The average PCDD/F content increases with the intensity of anthropogenic
land use. Investigations in different urban and suburban areas show an increase
of PCDD/F in soil from wooded and agricultural areas to residential and industrial
areas.
To clarify the sources of PCDD/F contamination, the congener composition of
the samples and the sum of the PCDD/F and toxic-equivalent (TE) concentrations
are compared with the patterns of PCDD/F congeners that are typical of known
sources. This is followed by a cluster analysis. Another method for distinguishing
between the main causes of an element distribution is to include the PCDD/F values
in a factor analysis.
The city center (Figure 3) is characterized by a geochemical background of
0.98 ng ITE kg−1 (2.19 ng TE kg−1 as defined by the Federal Health Office 1984).
In industrial districts of Berlin, the geochemical background is about three times
higher than it is in the inner city. The maximum toxicity equivalents (Figure 3,
4) were determined in the Thälmann Park residential area (33.1 ng ITE kg−1 ) and
the former border area (28.5 ng ITE kg−1 ). They stem from sewage sludge (used as
 URBAN GEOCHEMISTRY OF BERLIN 245

Figure 3. Distribution of PCDD and PCDF concentrations in topsoils in the inner city of Berlin (in
ng ITE kg−1 .

fertiliser). The main sources of PCDD/F input were found to be fly ash (from waste
incineration plants, district heating plants). Mobility of PCDD/F is extremly low in
the soil water phase due to their low solubility and strong sorption in the organic
soil fraction.
For the last hundred years or more, toxic substances have been used in in-
dustrial processes by various companies within the urban area of Schöneweide,
Berlin. Industrial emission of these substances has led to a variable but locally
high accumulation of toxic materials in the soil of the area.
The distribution patterns of certain element associations in urban Berlin and
its surroundings were determined by principal component analysis and cluster-
Q analysis. They allow regional and local migration of the various elements in
industrial emissions to be studied in the exogenic geochemical field, as well as the
recognition of natural and anthropogenic element associations.
The methods of multivariate statistics permit the geochemical characterisation
of the geogenic and anthropogenic factors and their effect on the individual samples.
The complex linear correlations between the parameters measured in the topsoils
of the study area were determined by factor analysis. The factor values determined
by varimax rotation factor analysis are a measure of the influence of a factor on
an individual sample and can be plotted on maps. Factor analysis explained 90.2%
246 MANFRED BIRKE AND UWE RAUCH

Figure 4. Histogram of PCDD/F concentrations in topsoils in the inner city of Berlin.

of the total variance of the analysed parameters in Schoeneweide. Correlation of

the element parameters with polyelement factors considerably reduces the number
of parameters to be compared. The elements belonging to a factor are defined by
the varimax rotation factor matrix. The geochemical parameters that are highly
correlated are combined in factors.
Factor analysis gives a decisive increase of knowledge of the migration of ele-
ments in the exogene geochemical field. Due to the principle effective causes, the
polyelement factors can be subdivided into three groups:
1. Factors of the anthropogenic contamination (building metallic wastes and build-
ing materials – Sr-F-La-Y-Ca, industrial wastes – Cr-Mg-Ni-Mn-Co, old loads
- As-Hg, anthropogenic influence, in general – electrical conductivity and Hg-
As-TOC, green spaces with compost materials – Ag-Cd-P;
2. Environmental features with partly anthropogenic influence, indicating an ele-
ment accumulation at geochemical barriers (V-Be-Co-Al-Ba-Ti-TOC-Mo Pb,
Fetotal-Mo-Co-TOC, pH-value-Ca);
3. Naturally caused factors (geogene, pedogene) with partly anthropogene influ-
ence, given informations of the quantity of the alkaline metaIs (Na-K-Rb-Al)
as weIl as on the composition of the substratum (glaciofluviatile sands, till) of
the soils (Zr-Ti, Nb).
Cluster analysis (Q mode) classifies data on the basis of geochemical properties.
These classes represent the regional and local background as well as the geo-
chemical anomalies (contamination). The element associations of the geochemical
anomalies determined the amount of enrichment above the regional geochemical
multielement background. If an element has an enrichment coefficient of > 3, it is
considered anomalous.
 URBAN GEOCHEMISTRY OF BERLIN 247

The most important types of anomalies in the urban area Berlin-Schoeneweide

Ag-Hg-Sb-As ± Zn, Sn; Cu-Sn-EC; Cu-Sn-Cd; Cu-Sn-Sb-Zn-Cr-Pb-Ni-Cd; Cr-
Ni-Mg-Mn characterise the anthropogenic input as a result of the processing of
raw materials in high temperature processes as wel as the accumulations of old
loads in the investigated area. Most of the anomalies have complex anthropogenic
causes. At the same time, anomalies of TOC±Cu, Cd, Ag, Ni are distributed, which
point to a partly organic bond of the heavy metals.

4. Summary and conclusions

The various geochemical studies in metropolitan regions can provide general con-
clusions for nature conservation and soil protection, for environmental impact state-
ments, and estimates of pollution. Only by considering the situation of the entire
region with the multitude of superimposed influences from various sources can
methods be derived for estimating the hazards of the complex mixture of sub-
stances and to determine the sensitivity of landscapes to land uses. The geochem-
ical characterisation of vertical migration of substances and determination of the
element bonding in areas with different degrees of contamination, together with
a geochemical inventory, provides a scientific database for the evaluation of soils
for different land uses. Reliable evaluations are possible only on the basis of a
sufficiently large, uniformly determined data base. Since soils are naturally very
heterogeneous and contamination can have many causes, it is important to develop
strategies for investigating and evaluating soil contamination.
The resulting geochemistry database can be integrated into any of several in-
formation systems and thus forms a basis for further interdisciplinary evaluations
(e.g., for emissions covering several countries, planning regional strategies for the
environment, for geomedicine, agriculture, forestry, water management, regional
planning, ecology research).
For the first time, a comprehensive geochemical data base is available for the
urban Berlin environment that permits differentiation between the natural geo-
chemical background and local anthropogenic contamination.
Multivariate statistical methods allow long-range and local migration of pollut-
ants to be traced and natural and anthropogenic element associations to be distin-
guished.
The regional or local geochemical situation in an urban area can be described
only by comparison with the non-industrial surroundings.
The studies have shown that heavy-metal concentrations in the topsoil vary con-
siderably in an urban environment. These concentrations primarily reflect land use
and the type and volume of industrial production in the areas under consideration.
A geochemical survey of the urban environment also provides a reliable data
base for setting concentration limits for urban and other soils.
248 MANFRED BIRKE AND UWE RAUCH

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