ALGEBRA

Factors and Zeros of Polynomials

Let px
an x n  an1x n1  . . .  a1x  a0 be a polynomial. If pa
0, then a is a zero of the
polynomial and a solution of the equation px
0. Furthermore, x  a is a factor of the polynomial.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

An nth degree polynomial has n (not necessarily distinct) zeros. Although all of these
zeros may be imaginary, a real polynomial of odd degree must have at least one real zero.

Quadratic Formula
If px
ax 2  bx  c, and 0 ≤ b2  4ac, then the real zeros of p are x
b ±
b2  4ac2a.

Special Factors
x 2  a 2
x  ax  a x 3  a 3
x  ax 2  ax  a 2
x 3  a3
x  ax 2  ax  a 2 x 4  a 4
x 2  a 2x 2  a 2

Binomial Theorem
x  y2
x 2  2xy  y 2 x  y2
x 2  2xy  y 2
x  y3
x 3  3x 2y  3xy 2  y 3 x  y3
x 3  3x 2y  3xy 2  y 3
x  y4
x 4  4x 3y  6x 2y 2  4xy3  y 4 x  y4
x 4  4x 3y  6x 2y 2  4xy 3  y 4
nn  1 n2 2 . . .
x  yn
x n  nx n1y  x y   nxy n1  y n
2!
nn  1 n2 2 . . .
x  yn
x n  nx n1y  x y  ± nxy n1  y n
2!

Rational Zero Theorem

If px
an x n  a n1x n1  . . .  a1x  a0 has integer coefficients, then every
rational zero of p is of the form x
rs, where r is a factor of a0 and s is a factor of an.

Factoring by Grouping
acx 3  adx 2  bcx  bd
ax 2cx  d  bcx  d
ax 2  bcx  d

Arithmetic Operations
a c ad  bc ab a b
ab  ac
ab  c 


b d bd c c c

ab a d ad a

  

b a a ac



d b c bc
c c bc

b
c
b

ab ba ab  ac
a 

b ab


bc
c c cd dc a

Exponents and Radicals

ax
a0
1, a0 ab x
a xb x a xa y
a xy
a
a12
a xy n a
a1n


ay

ab
ab


x ax 1 n a

n am
amn

ax


n
ab


n a

n b
axy
a xy n
bx ax

n b

© Houghton Mifflin Company, Inc.

 TRIGONOMETRY

Definition of the Six Trigonometric Functions

Right triangle definitions, where 0 <
< 
2. y
opp hyp
sin
 csc

s e
(− 12 , 23 ) π (0, 1) ( 12 , 23 )
Opposite
en u hyp opp
pot
Hy 90°
θ cos

adj
hyp
sec

hyp
adj
(− 22 , 22 ) 3π 23π 2 π3 π ( 22 , 22 )
120° 60°
Adjacent
tan

opp
cot

adj (− 23 , 12) 56π 4150°135° 45°
4 π
30°
6 ( 23 , 21)
adj opp
Circular function definitions, where
is any angle. 0° 0 x
(− 1, 0) π 180° 360° 2π (1, 0)
y y r
sin
 csc
 210° 330°
(x, y)
r = x2 + y2 r
x
y
r
(− 23 , − 12) 76π 5π 225°240° 300°315°7π 116π ( 23 , − 21)
cos
 sec

y
r
θ
x
r x (− 22 , − 22 ) 4 43π 270° 32π 53π 4 ( 22 , − 22 )
x y x
tan

x
cot

y (− 12 , − 23 ) (0, − 1) ( 2 , − 2 )
1 3

Reciprocal Identities Double -Angle Formulas

1 1 1 sin 2u  2 sin u cos u
sin x  sec x  tan x 
csc x cos x cot x cos 2u  cos2 u  sin2 u  2 cos2 u  1  1  2 sin2 u
1 1 1 2 tan u
csc x  cos x  cot x  tan 2u 
sin x sec x tan x 1  tan2 u
Tangent and Cotangent Identities Power-Reducing Formulas
sin x cos x 1  cos 2u
tan x  cot x  sin2 u 
cos x sin x 2
1  cos 2u
Pythagorean Identities cos u 
2
2
sin2 x  cos2 x  1 1  cos 2u
tan2 u 
1  tan2 x  sec2 x 1  cot2 x  csc2 x 1  cos 2u
Cofunction Identities Sum-to-Product Formulas
sin2  x  cos x cos 2  x  sin x sin u  sin v  2 sinu 2 v cosu 2 v
uv uv
sin u  sin v  2 cos
2   2 
 
csc  x  sec x tan  x  cot x sin
2 2
uv uv
cos u  cos v  2 cos
2 
cos
2 
 
sec  x  csc x cot  x  tan x
2 2
uv uv
cos u  cos v  2 sin
2   2 
Reduction Formulas sin
sinx  sin x cosx  cos x Product-to-Sum Formulas
cscx  csc x tanx  tan x 1
secx  sec x cotx  cot x sin u sin v  cosu  v  cosu  v
2
Sum and Difference Formulas 1
cos u cos v  cosu  v  cosu  v
sinu ± v  sin u cos v ± cos u sin v 2
1
cosu ± v  cos u cos v  sin u sin v sin u cos v  sinu  v  sinu  v
2
tan u ± tan v
tanu ± v  1
1  tan u tan v cos u sin v  sinu  v  sinu  v
2

© Houghton Mifflin Company, Inc.

Universidad Rafael Landívar 
Licda. Evelyn Vásquez de Castillo 

Gráfica de funciones 

    f ( x) = x             f ( x) = x 2  

y y 15
4

10
2

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 5
x
-2

-4 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
          x  
 
    f ( x) = x3             f ( x) = x  
y 4 y4
2 3

2
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
x 1
-2

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x
            
1
               f ( x) = x           f ( x) =  
x
y
y5 2

4
1
3

2 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x
1 -1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -2
x
   

    f ( x) = log a x         f ( x) = a x  
y y 40
1.5

1.0 30
0.5
20
0.0
1 2 3 4 5
-0.5 x 10

-1.0
-2 -1 1 2 3
-1.5 x
                    
 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS

Basic Differentiation Rules

d d d
1.
cu  cu 2.
u ± v  u ± v 3.
uv  uv  vu
dx dx dx
vu
uv

d u d d n
4.  5.
c  0 6.
u   nu n
1u
dx v v2 dx dx
d d u d u
7.
dx

x  1 8.
dx 

u
u
u , u  0 9.
dx

ln u 
u
d u d u d u
10.
e   eu u 11.
loga u  12.
a   ln aau u
dx dx ln au dx
d d d
13.
sin u  cos uu 14.
cos u 
sin uu 15.
tan u  sec2 uu
dx dx dx
d d d
16.
cot u 
csc2 uu 17.
sec u  sec u tan uu 18.
csc u 
csc u cot uu
dx dx dx
d u d
u d u
19.
arcsin u  20.
arccos u  21.
arctan u 
dx 1
u2 dx 1
u2 dx 1  u2
d
u d u d
u
22.
arccot u  23.
arcsec u  24.
arccsc u 
dx 1  u2 dx  u u2
1 dx 
u u2
1
d d d
25.
sinh u  cosh uu 26.
cosh u  sinh uu 27.
tanh u  sech2 uu
dx dx dx
d d d
28.
coth u 
csch2 uu 29.
sech u 
sech u tanh uu 30.
csch u 
csch u coth uu
dx dx dx
d u d u d u
31.
sinh
1 u  32.
cosh
1 u  33.
tanh
1 u 
dx u2  1 dx u2
1 dx 1
u2
d u d
u d
u
34.
coth
1 u  35.
sech
1 u  36.
csch
1 u 
dx 1
u2 dx u1
u2 dx 
u 1  u2

Basic Integration Formulas

1.
kf u du  k f u du 2.

f u ± gu du  f u du ±
gu du

3. du  u  C 4.
au du 
ln1aa u C

5. eu du  eu  C 6.
sin u du 
cos u  C

7. cos u du  sin u  C 8. 
tan u du 
ln cos u  C 
9. 
cot u du  ln sin u  C 10. 
sec u du  ln sec u  tan u  C 
11.  
csc u du 
ln csc u  cot u  C 12.
sec2 u du  tan u  C

13. csc2 u du 
cot u  C 14.

sec u tan u du  sec u  C

15. csc u cot u du 
csc u  C 16. du

a2
u2
u
 arcsin
a
C

17. a2
du
u 2
1
a
u
 arctan  C
a
18. du
uu
a
2 2
1
 arcsec
a
u
a
C 

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