Received August 15, 2020, accepted September 2, 2020, date of publication September 8, 2020,

date of current version September 28, 2020.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3022738

The Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable

Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review
on Net-Metering
WAQAS UR REHMAN 1 , (Graduate Student Member, IEEE), ABDUL RAUF BHATTI 2 ,
AHMED BILAL AWAN 3 , INTISAR ALI SAJJAD 4 , (Member, IEEE),
ASAD ALI KHAN5 , (Graduate Student Member, IEEE), RUI BO1 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
SHAIKH SAAQIB HAROON4 , (Member, IEEE), SALMAN AMIN 4 , ISKANDER TLILI 6,7 ,
AND OROGHENE OBOREH-SNAPPS1 , (Graduate Student Member, IEEE)
1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409, USA
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Government College University Faisalabad (GCUF), Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
3 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering and Information Technology, Ajman University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates
4 Department of Electrical Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology Taxila, Taxila 47050, Pakistan
5 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
6 Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam
7 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam

Corresponding author: Iskander Tlili (iskandertlili@duytan.edu.vn)

ABSTRACT Conventional fossil-fuel energy resources are being drastically depleted; thus, the current shift
towards renewable energy (RE) resources has become imperative. However, there are many impediments
to the adoption of renewable power generation. These impediments can be overcome by enacting policies
to encourage the acceptance of sustainable energy resources. For instance, the net-metering policy can
provide the necessary incentives to promote the development of local distributed energy sources, primarily
solar photovoltaic and wind generators. While there has been significant advancement and development in
net-metering in Asia with the increased penetration of RE, at present there is a lack of systematic review in
this area. This paper aims to present an in-depth review on net-metering advances and challenges, current RE
shares, and future RE targets in the Asian region. Additionally, a case study is performed and an economic
analysis of net-metering regulations in an Asian country is carried out. In this study, the monetary benefits
of net-metering policies for residential consumers are proved. It is envisaged that the information gathered
in this paper will be a valuable one-stop source of information for Asian researchers working on this topic.

INDEX TERMS Renewable energy shares, renewable energy targets, net-metering policy, net-metering in
Asia.
I. INTRODUCTION are being depleted at an appalling rate [2]. Due to the
Energy production and consumption play a vital role in the increased usage of fossil-fuel resources, climate change has
development of nations. The amount of consumed energy per also become an alarming challenge to deal with. For instance,
capita is one of the indicators of the developmental pace of the emission of greenhouse gases from fossil-fuel produc-
a nation. The availability and accessibility of energy greatly tion processes has raised widespread concern over global
influences the lifestyle and the living standards of the people warming. The estimated global temperature change by human
of any country. On the contrary, the industrial and economic activities is 1◦ C [3]. These seminal drivers have led both
growth of a country may be paralyzed due to energy short- public and private sector decision-makers to believe that
ages [1], [2]. the transition towards renewable and sustainable energy is
With the growth of the economy, the energy demands of imperative. Consequently, in the past few years, renew-
modern societies increase and the fossil-fuel energy resources able energy (RE) resources have gained prodigious atten-
tion [4]–[14]. In 2014, the European Council issued the
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and Framework for Climate and Energy with a target of 27% share
approving it for publication was Zheng H. Zhu . of renewable energy consumption by the year 2030 [15], [16].

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
170364 VOLUME 8, 2020
W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
Similarly, in 2015, to prevent the global mean temperature
change from exceeding 2◦ C, more than 30 nations contributed
to the Paris climate change agreement that will take effect
in 2020 [17]. According to the Global Status Report on
Renewables 2019 (REN21 GSR-2019), renewable energy
has a share of more than 33% of the global power gener-
ation installed capacity. Solar photovoltaics (PV) accounts
for 55%, wind 28% and hydro-electric 11% of the renewable
power generating capacity world-wide [18]. The International
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) predicts that the global
RE share will reach 85% of the total energy supply by
2050 [19].
Significant increase in the utilization of RE resources could
save considerable cost and greatly help to cope with the
challenge of global warming [20], [21]. The emergence of
RE technologies has evolved the concept of smart grid in the
electrical power system. The ‘‘Smart grid’’ or the ‘‘intelli-
gent grid’’ is an advancement to the traditional power grid.
A traditional electrical power grid is an electromechanical,
unidirectional grid that carries power from centralized and
sometimes remote generation systems to a vast number of
consumers who are spread out in the system. As opposed
to a traditional grid, a smart grid is a digital, bidirectional
network of distributed generators, which has various sensors
and has capabilities of self-monitoring, self-healing, remote
check/test, and pervasive control [22], [23]. A smart grid
can offer unconventional benefits to consumers. For instance,
consumers can meet their energy demands by taking energy
from the grid, and at the same time they can be energy pro-
ducers by injecting excessive energy into the grid and receiv-
ing economic benefits in return. This mechanism requires
net-metering as part of the supporting infrastructure [24].
Thus, net-metering is a policy incentive for RE owners that
can encourage the deployment of RE technologies for gener-
ating clean and sustainable energy.
A comparative overview of various RE regulatory schemes
for the restructured power sector is presented in [25] with a
view of overcoming the hurdles in the advancement of renew-
able energy technologies. The regulatory policies discussed
in this paper include the Renewable Portfolio Standard,
Net-metering Policy, Renewable Energy Certificate, Electric-
ity Feed-in Law, Public Benefit Funds, Investment Support,
Competitively Bid Renewable Resource Obligations, Cost
Reduction Policies, Market Infrastructure Policies, Trans-
port Bio-fuels Policies, Emissions Trading Policies, and the
Renewable Energy Targets.
Although a lot of research on net-metering has been car-
ried out, there is an absence of a comprehensive review of
net-metering in Asia. To bridge the gap, this paper aims
to present an in-depth review of net-metering advances and
challenges, current RE shares, and future RE targets in the
Asian region. Additionally, a case study is performed and an
economic analysis of net-metering regulations in an Asian
country is carried out. It is envisaged that this contribution
will serve as one-stop source of information for researchers
working in this topic. More so, this work will provide the
VOLUME 8, 2020
guidance to Asian researchers about net-metering policies,
rules, and regulations and promote the application of green
energy in this region.
This paper is organized as follows: Section II deals with
the essential background of the net-metering mechanism,
and Section III provides the international experience of
net-metering policy. A detailed review of the advancements
in net-metering mechanism and the research work available
on the net-metering policy frameworks for Asian countries
is presented in Section IV; the current RE penetrations and
future targets are also given in detail in this section. Section V
offers a brief discussion and insights on identified challenges
to net-metering policy in some Asian countries. Section VI
demonstrates a case study in which the economic evaluation
of the current net-metering policy in Pakistan is carried out.
Section VII concludes the paper.
II. NET-METERING – ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND
Net-metering is a billing agreement between electricity util-
ity provider and consumers that mandates the consumers to
possess, operate and benefit from a distributed generation
system (Solar PV or other generation system) meeting some
or all of their energy consumption needs and getting finan-
cial paybacks for any surplus energy injected into the main
grid [26]. The local generation consumed (Gconsi,j,k ), excess
energy (Exci,j,k ), and the net consumption (Cnet i,j,k ) can be
expressed as follows [27]:
Gconsi,j,k = Geni,j,k for Cbasei,j,k ≥ Geni,j,k (1)
Gconsi,j,k = Cbasei,j,k for Cbasei,j,k < Geni,j,k (2)
Exci,j,k = Geni,j,k − Cbasei,j,k for Cbasei,j,k ≤ Geni,j,k
(3)
Exci,j,k = 0 for Cbasei,j,k > Geni,j,k (4)
Cnet i,j,k = Cbasei,j,k − Geni,j,k for Cbasei,j,k ≥ Geni,j,k
(5)
Cnet i,j,k = 0 for Geni,j,k > Cbasei,j,k (6)
where
Cbase = Energy consumption
Gen = Total generated energy
Gcons = Generation which is consumed locally
Exc = Excess energy injected into the grid (when local
consumption is lower than generation)
Cnet = Net consumption by the occupants (when local
consumption is higher than generation)
And ‘‘i’’ represents each day ranging from 1 to 365 days,
and ‘‘j’’ represents the day-moment. For example, for a
15-minute interval ‘‘j’’ ranges from 1 to 96 and the interval
‘‘k’’ can be 1 minute, 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour, or 1 day.
The expressions (7 and 8) present the annual economic
benefits of the net-metering and net-billing mechanisms. Net-
billing is a variation in the net-metering mechanism where the
energy consumed is kept in a different record than the excess
energy injected into the grid; total energy consumed and
excess energy injection to the network are valued separately
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 W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
FIGURE 1. Number of countries with net-metering/net-billing policy.
and at different prices.
mk
n X
X Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries), Western Asia,
IncNM k = (Gconsi,j,k + Exci,j,k ) × RT 1
i j
mk
n X
X
= (Geni,j,k ) × RT 1 ∀k
i j
mk
n X
X
IncNBk = (Gconsi,j,k × RT 1+Exci,j,k ×RT 2) ∀k
i j
where RT1 is the retail tariff for billing the total local gener-
ation in case of net-metering. In the net-billing mechanism,
RT1 is used to bill the total generation consumed and RT2 is
used for the surplus energy injected into the grid [24].
III. NET-METERING – INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE
The net-metering concept is being used widely in various
countries to exploit green energy resources with the view
of overcoming global warming challenges and ensuring a
sustainable and clean energy provision to consumers. The
successful implementation of the net-metering policy, in var-
ious forms, has been carried out in the United States of
America (USA), Canada, Australia, Italy, Belgium, Cyprus,
Denmark, the Netherlands, Greece, and Japan [28]–[32].
In the USA, as of 2018, 47 states and Washington DC
have net-metering policies in place for the promotion of RE
technologies [33]. According to the Global Status Report
on Renewables 2019 (REN21 GSR-2019), as of year-
end 2017, net-metering/net-billing policy frameworks have
been announced/implemented for at least 66 countries on
a national/sub-national level [18]. The advancement in net-
metering/net-billing policy is shown in Fig. 1.
IV. NET METERING IN ASIA
Over the years, the net-metering policy has proved to be an
essential motivation for the promotion of grid-tied distributed
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FIGURE 2. The regional division of the Asian continent [34].
generation resources. Currently, there is hardly any survey
on the advancements of this policy incentive in Asia. In this
research, the Asian region is divided into five sub-regions:
Southern Asia (also known as South Asian Association for
Central Asia, Eastern Asia, and Southeast Asia, as shown
in Fig. 2 [34].
(7)
A. SOUTH ASIAN REGION
This segment underscores the advancements in the net-
metering mechanism and the research work published on
net-metering policies for the promotion of RE technologies
(8) in South Asian countries and their future RE targets. South
Asia consists of Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh,
Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and Maldives [35].
Presently, the energy supply-demand gap in Pakistan lies
between 3000-5200 MW with a constant annual rise of more
than 9%; however, the increase in annual power generation
capacity is nearly 5% [36]–[39]. Various efforts have been
made by national and international organizations (including
the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank) to over-
come the energy shortfall in the country. However, the efforts
presently made to tackle the challenges of energy deficit,
climate change, and transition towards sustainable RE tech-
nologies are inadequate. In 2010, the share of RE was found to
be less than 1% of the total energy generation in the country.
The government of Pakistan has set a target of achieving 20%
and 30% of generation capacity by alternative and renewable
energy technologies by 2025 and 2030, respectively. Previ-
ously the RE target was set to be 5% share in total generation
by 2030 [38], [40]–[43]. To reach this target, the government
of Pakistan has announced different incentive programs for
the promotion campaign of renewable energy technologies.
In October 2014, the National Electric Power Regulatory
Authority (NEPRA) drafted a net-metering policy for encour-
aging the green energy generation (1-1000 kWp) in Pakistan
to bridge the electric power supply-demand gap by exploiting
RE technologies, especially solar PV. The government of
Pakistan approved the net-metering regulatory laws at the
start of 2015. In the first week of September 2015, NEPRA
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W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
announced the net-metering regulations. As per announced
regulations, the three-phase consumers who own solar or
wind generators can sell their excess energy to the distribution
companies (DISCOs) after getting licensed under current
NEPRA regulations [44], [45]. In 2017, Pakistan expanded
net-metering from a few cities to the entire country. As
of year-end 2019, a total of ∼1150 net-metered distributed
generation systems of the net gross capacity of 19.55 MW,
including 1 MW solar installation in Parliament House and
178.08 kW each in PEC and Planning Commission buildings,
have been installed. Pakistan aims to achieve 1 GW and
4.5 GW of net-metered installed capacity by 2020-21 and
2025, respectively [18], [37], [38], [46], [47].
In Ref. [48], a case study of the solar irradiance and the
prospect of a grid-tied solar power generation system with
a net-metering mechanism in Pakistan was presented. This
paper investigates the solar irradiance in Pakistan and the
necessity of grid-tied solar generated power systems to under-
mine the ongoing energy crises in developing nations like
Pakistan. The potential obstacles in the path of implemen-
tation of the net-metered on-grid solar generation systems
are also discussed, along with the proposed solutions. The
discussed barriers include discouragement by electric util-
ity companies, lack of local production of equipment and
technical capability at different organizational levels of the
DISCOs, lack of awareness, inadequate access to tailored
finance options, and reliable indigenous suppliers [49].
Energy security, energy shortfalls, energy access, and cli-
mate change are the fundamental drivers for the advancement
and implementation of new and renewable energy resources
in India. Between the years 2014-2015, energy shortfall was
found to be 2.4%. Numerous efforts were made to bridge
the energy supply-demand gap in the country. India has an
estimated RE potential of approximately 900 GW by utiliz-
ing commercially exploitable resources, especially 750 GW
by solar means. India has increased its targets to utilize
renewable resources, and the government has set a target
of achieving 175 GW by exploiting the RE resources by
2022 with 100 GW by solar energy only. The 100 GW target
was set under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
(JNNSM) and it would comprise of 40 GW by Rooftop
Solar PV (RTPV) and 60 GW by large and medium scale
grid-tied solar systems. The Indian government has also set
a target of achieving 40% share of its total electricity gen-
eration by RE means by 2030 as per Global Status Report
2019 on Renewables. It is important to note that India does
not classify hydropower generation greater than 25 MW as
Renewables, so the hydropower installations greater than
25 MW are not included in the share and future RE targets for
India. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)
and the announcement of the 2010 National Solar Mis-
sion emphasized the implementation of net-metering along-
side the Feed-in Tariffs (FiT) policy [18], [47], [50], [51].
With the advent of net-metering incentive policies in India,
the dream of achieving the goals of solar-based clean energy
seems to be realistic. According to the available statistics of
VOLUME 8, 2020
MNRE, as of 2016 the Indian government has formulated the
net-metering regulations on a sub-national level for 26 of its
states and all union territories out of 29 states and 7 union
territories [18], [47], [52].
Net-metering regulations were implemented in 2015 in
some of the major Indian states including Rajasthan, Punjab,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. The
maximum allowable capacity cap in these states is up-to
1 MWp, except Madhya Pradesh where it is up-to 2 MWp.
In Andhra Pradesh, only three phase consumers are eligible
for net-metering, whereas in Rajasthan, all the consumers are
eligible to take advantage of the net-metering policy. In Delhi,
Haryana, and Tamil Nadu, net-metering regulations came out
in 2014. Delhi, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal imposed no
limit on maximum allowable capacity, but in Haryana this
limit is up-to 1 MWp. In Haryana, Delhi, and Tamil Nadu, all
the consumers are eligible, but in West Bengal, only institu-
tional consumers like hospitals, colleges, government depart-
ments are eligible for net-metering. Moreover, there is no
capacity cap for eligible RE sources; however, the lower limit
is 5 kWp is imposed. Gujarat and Karnataka implemented the
net-metering policy in 2016 with a maximum capacity limit of
up-to 1 MWp. Karnataka considers all the consumers in their
net-metering regulations. In Gujarat, government, residential,
commercial, and industrial institutions are considered eligible
for implemented policy [53]–[57].
Thakur and Chakraborty [58] investigated seven different
novel net-metering billing arrangements for RE resources
with a view of their appropriateness for different kinds
of consumers in the Indian scenario. For a vast seg-
ment of the Indian population, the per capita energy con-
sumption is quite low (i.e., 917 kWh) and the individual
net-metering mechanism is impractical; hence, it is vital to
introduce alternative and more feasible net-metering policies
for the success of grid-connected RE sources. The discussed
net-metering systems are community net-metering, aggre-
gate net-metering, virtual net-metering, multi-site aggrega-
tion, utility-sponsored model, special purpose entity, and the
nonprofit model. This paper also suggests improvements in
the current net-metering policy and standards for the Indian
market. In [59], Thakur et al. presented a more practical
and efficient model of a net-metering billing mechanism for
solar PV generation in India. In this paper, the data collected
from three different types of consumers is simulated and the
proposed model is found to be more scalable and financially
viable than the plain net-metering scheme; more customers
are anticipated to participate in new the net-metering arrange-
ment as it presents fewer risks and more benefits in terms of
finance and optimal location.
Table 1 summarizes the development of net-metering pol-
icy, range of tariff rate at which excess energy is injected
into the grid, capital investment cost of RE sources, and
future targets and current shares of power generation from
RE sources in South Asian countries. It is found out that on
average the capital investment cost for solar PV is in the range
of $850-1000 per kWp.
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TABLE 1. Net-metering development in South Asia.

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W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
In Puducherry, a pilot project has been implemented under
a simple net-metered mechanism to assess and compre-
hend the performance of solar-based green energy gener-
ation. A comprehensive comparison of net-metering and
gross metering is presented in [60] by analyzing the col-
lected data from three different kinds of customers from
the project at Puducherry. The study emphasized devising a
feasible and acceptable RE policy framework for India that
could accommodate both the aggregate and the community
net-metering policy instruments. In [85], Ghosh et al. pre-
sented a techno-economic review of industrial, residential,
and off-grid solar rooftop PV generation systems in Ban-
galore, Karnataka India. This paper aims at assessing the
financial feasibility of RTPV-based systems in Bangalore.
As shown by the research, the RTPV potential in Banga-
lore alone is approximately 560 MW. To attain this poten-
tial, the ‘‘Karnataka Electricity Regulatory Commission’’
and the ‘‘Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Lim-
ited’’ designed a net-metering policy framework. The techno-
economic analysis suggests that the proposed net-metered
rates are feasible for the consumers; however, a limit of 75%
on the installing capacity of RTPV systems, based on rated
load, is frustrating the momentum of the net-metering scheme
in Karnataka. However, due to this restriction imposed by
BESCOM (Bangalore Electric Supply Company), the energy
generated cannot exceed the monthly consumption of energy.
The author inferred that the current net-metering incentives
could result in a payback period of 6 years if the limit of 75%
is removed.
In [86], Dutta et al. proposed a model for estimating saved
revenue and payback periods in the net-metering environ-
ment, depending upon the maximum solar panel generating
limit. The suggested model takes the consumer’s everyday
demand curve and estimates the renewable energy generation
as input. The proposed modeling analysis is performed with
the help of Simulink MATLAB. The obtained results con-
clude that the economic benefits of the net-metering scheme
are beyond any doubt; the results indicate that the pay-
back period decreases initially with the maximum generating
capacity of solar panels up to 4 kW and then increases after
that. Therefore, at the time of selecting the solar panel’s
maximum ratings, the consumers should also consider the
maximum limit set by the government as well as the trend
indicated by the results of the analysis presented in this
study. Shivalkar et al. [87] performed a feasibility analysis
for the net-metering implementation with rooftop solar PV
generation for the commercial customers of Reliance Energy
in Mumbai, India. In this study, the yearly savings of elec-
tricity and the economic feasibility of 15 kWp solar PV
are analyzed. The analysis shows that energy consumption
of 36500 kWh per month results in an annual saving of Indian
Rs. 259,200, a payback period of 4.63 years, and a decrease
of approximately 21.6 tons of CO2 per year.
In [88], Reddy and Yohan proposed a novel approach
to design a residential grid-connected solar PV system
by using a relay controlling technique under the Indian
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net-metering mechanism. This paper investigates the impact
of net-metering on the economic benefits of grid-tied solar
PV generation to the consumers by considering the different
net-metering policies in Indian states. The proposed design
and controlling mechanism not only increase the efficiency of
the solar PV system, but it also enables an individual customer
to act as a green energy supplier to the utility grid. Further-
more, individual consumers would be able to use electricity at
any time without disruption. Suresh Mer et al. [89] presented
a review of the future trends in Distributed Generation (DG)
systems. Some of the common distributed energy systems
subsume rooftop solar PV, small wind generation, fuel cells,
microturbines, energy storage devices, and combined heat
and power (CHP) systems. In this paper, three different tariffs
are discussed, namely, Power Purchase Agreement (PPA),
Feed-in Tariff (FiT), and Net Energy Metering (NEM). The
advantages and disadvantages of FiT and NEM are also pre-
sented in this paper. In the conclusion, the author underscored
the barriers to implementing DG systems such as lack of per-
tinent knowledge and awareness regarding renewable energy
technologies as well as the billing policies.
Sahanaa Sree et al. [90] examined the viability of the
net-metering billing scheme for residential solar PV genera-
tion across Tamil Nadu, India. In this paper, the analysis is
carried out based on altering the consumption pattern into
low, moderate, and high consumption. The annual savings
and the payback periods are analyzed, and it is inferred that
higher consumption results in more annual savings and con-
sequently, a shorter payback period. Moreover, it is observed
that the savings and payback periods could be improved fur-
ther by availing the state subsidy provided for the rooftop PV
systems and the generation-based incentives. Daisy Das [51]
discussed the suitability of the net-metering incentive for the
promotion of rooftop solar PV generation in India. The author
inferred that the net-metering incentive is best feasible in an
energy deficient country like India. He further claimed that
the rooftop PV generation in India is still in its rudimentary
stages; therefore, only after fulfilling their self-energy con-
sumption could the consumers think of selling any surplus
energy to the grid. Only after that would they be able to
focus on the FiT tariffs for the contract-based injection of
green energy in the national grid. Table 2 summarizes the
development of the net-metering/net-billing policy in India.
In 2010, the government of Bangladesh identified the sig-
nificance of RE sources and established its RE strategy policy
for the promotion of the green energy campaign; it set a
target of producing 10% and 100% of its electricity needs by
2020 and 2050 respectively by utilizing RE technologies [18].
The RE share in Bangladesh was found to be 3.5% by the
year-end 2015 [91]. Mojumdar et al. presented the design
and analysis of the optimized grid-connected solar PV system
under the net-metering framework for the city of Dhaka,
Bangladesh. In this study, the author proposed the designing
of control systems of inverter, converter, and anti-islanding
for the optimized grid-tied solar system. At the end of the
study, the scope of the proposed system with respect to
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TABLE 2. Net-metering development in West Asian region.

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W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
TABLE 2. (Continued.) Net-metering development in West Asian region.
the domestic residents of Dhaka is investigated [92]. GSR-
2019 on Renewables states that Bangladesh has not adopted
any regulatory policy except tendering [18].
Wijayatunga [66] discussed the policies for the promotion
of energy generated by renewable technologies for the Sri
Lankan scenario. The energy policies and strategies of the
Sri Lankan government for the growth of non-conventional
renewable energy sources (NCRE) are analyzed in this
paper. The energy policy recognized biogas, small hydro,
and wind-based energy generation as the prominent NCRE
sources to be adopted in Sri Lanka. It set renewable power
generation targets of 20%, 50% and 100% by 2020, 2030 and
2050, respectively [18]. The author also discussed the imple-
mentation of the net-metering policy in Sri Lanka. on the
advice of Sustainable Energy Authority (SEA), the Ceylon
Electricity Board (CEB) and the government agreed to prac-
tice the net-metering regulations for the connection of NCRE
to the national grid by 2009. The author further maintained
that if properly designed, the net-metered based systems
could make the dream of carbon-free energy a reality. This
paper infers that Sri Lanka has been successful thus far in
implementing various RE policy frameworks, and it has set a
precedent for similar nations to make their dreams of green
energy generation come true [47], [63].
Nepal announced net-metering regulations in 2018, at the
national level, for distributed generation systems no more
than 1 MWp. Nepal has set the target of achieving
100% share of electricity generation with RE resources by
2050 [18], [72], [75]. In Nepal, the majority of the population
VOLUME 8, 2020
has no access to electricity, and the planned load shedding
duration is as lengthy as 20 hours in dry season [93], [94].
In Nepal, independent power producers (IPPs) has applied the
concept of net-metering to get more monetary benefits [72].
In [94], the impact of the small-scale distributed grid-tied
solar generation systems on load shedding in Nepal is dis-
cussed. The five 1.11 kWp grid-tied solar PV systems were
installed at three different locations within the Khathmandu
valley and their performance was monitored for a year with
a view of analyzing their impact on the reduction of load
shedding of the electric power.
Bhutan, Maldives, and Afghanistan have set the tar-
gets of achieving 100% share of electricity genera-
tion by RE resources by 2050 [18]. The Maldives
Energy Authority (MEA) inaugurated the net-metering
regulations in December 2015 [70]. However, as per
REN21 GSR-2019, there are no net-metering regulations
announced for Afghanistan thus far. Fig. 3 shows the targets
to generate electric power from RE sources for South Asian
countries.
B. WEST ASIAN REGION
This section highlights the progress in net-metering and the
research work available on net-metering policies for the pro-
motion of RE technologies in the West Asian region. Addi-
tionally, it presents the future Renewable Energy goals of
the countries in this region. West Asian countries considered
in this study include United Arab Emirates (UAE), Jordan,
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FIGURE 3. RE targets set by South Asian countries.
Turkey, Israel, Kuwait, Iran, Qatar, Bahrain, The Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq, Lebanon, Oman, Azerbaijan,
Palestine, and Syria.
UAE does not have any national level RE target. Abu Dhabi
has set a goal of achieving 7% of its energy generation (about
460 MW) by exploiting the RE resources (especially the solar
based clean energy) by 2020. Dubai has also stepped forward
to adopt the RE-based green energy generation; in 2011,
it launched its ‘‘Integrated Energy Strategy 2030’’ and set the
targets of achieving 1% and 5% of its energy needs by RE
technologies by 2020 and 2030, respectively. Later in 2015,
it increased the targets to 7% and 15% respectively; thus,
by 2030, Dubai is expected to produce 3 GW of its energy
demands by RE means especially by utilizing the solar-based
technologies. Dubai also aims to achieve 75% of its electricity
generation from RE sources by 2050 [47], [95]–[97]. Griffiths
and Mills [98] comprehensively discussed the potential of
RTPV in the advancement of the energy system of the United
Arab Emirates. In the Middle East region, Lebanon, Jordan,
and recently UAE have established net-metering regulatory
frameworks for the promotion of green energy generation.
Abu Dhabi has not introduced any incentive program yet;
however, it has mandated its private owners to generate solar-
based energy. On the other hand, Dubai designed a net-
metered based incentive program in 2014 for connecting the
solar generating unit to the grid, known as Shams Dubai,
which places no limitation on the number of RTPV based
systems that may take part in the scheme. The generation
capacity limit was set to be equivalent to the total per-
mitted load of each participant. Despite the restriction on
generation capacity, consumers were mandated to generate
more energy than they consume and to receive the mone-
tary benefits in monthly bills by injecting the excess energy
into the grid. The comparison of the net-metered incentive
frameworks for the implementation of solar PV units in
UAE is also presented in this paper. As of 2014, 12 MW
net-metered projects have been implemented in UAE (Shams
Dubai) [95].
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Table 2 summarizes the development of net-metering pol-
icy, range of tariff rate at which excess energy is injected
into the grid, capital investment cost of RE sources, and
future targets and current shares of power generation from
RE sources in West Asian countries. It is found out that on
average the capital investment cost for solar PV is around
$1150 per kWp.
Al Zou’bi [99] discussed the potential of using various RE
technologies for the Jordanian scenario. The author investi-
gated the agreement between power consumption variation
and the power generated by RE resources, especially wind
and solar-based generation. He further maintains that new
sites for wind projects were assessed and the pre-installation
phase was kicked off. Jordan devised a package of regula-
tions for the development of RE sources and set a goal of
generating 10% of its energy demands by RE sources by
2020. However, it failed to accomplish its previous target of
generating 7% of its energy by renewable means by 2015;
it has achieved only 2% of its energy generation by RE
means. Marei recommended that in order to reach its target
of generating 10% energy from RE technologies by 2020,
Jordan should revise its RE policy instruments and diagnose
potential loopholes in the existing regulations [128], [129].
Tousand Abdelhafith [100] performed a feasibility anal-
ysis of the residential grid-tied solar PV system under the
net-metering regulations of Jordan, which has a potential
of producing energy from renewable resources, especially
from solar means, since it has a daily average of 5.8 peak
hours of sun. In this study, the feasibility analysis of 3 kWp
solar power system for low, medium, and high consumption
scenarios is presented and the payback periods for these
scenarios are compared. It is observed that the payback period
for a high consumption scenario is quite a bit shorter. Had-
jipanayi et al. [102] discussed the prospects of solar PV
energy generation for the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern
regions. He states that the landscape of RE regulations is
in its investigative stage in the MENA (Middle Eastern &
North African) region and is developing speedily, thereby
enabling the PV projects to become the backbone for this
region. He further states that net-metering billing legislation
is in place in Jordan since before 2012.
In [4], Tükenmez and Demireli noted long-lasting benefits
of RE technologies including job security, CO2 reduction,
energy security, business opportunities, and job creation.
This study presents the outlook of RE regulatory policy
frameworks for promoting the green energy campaign in
Turkey. Turkey has set a target of generating 30% of its
energy needs by utilizing RE means by 2023. Authors recom-
mend that Turkey should develop more efforts to surmount
challenges like lack of awareness, information and train-
ing, administrative barriers, and impediments to grid access,
so that it can thrive in the carbon-free green energy arena.
According to GSR-2019 on Renewables [18], Turkey has not
yet announced a net-metering policy; however, it embraced
Feed-in Tariffs (FiT) for the promotion of RE technolo-
gies. In Israel, Public Utilities Authority – Electricity (PUA)
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implemented the net-metering regulations on a national level
in 2013, with an established installation cap of 400 MW till
2014.
These policy frameworks were introduced to encourage the
RE-based small scale producers to collect financial advan-
tages for the excess energy injected into the grid [102], [119].
Global Status Report 2018 on Renewables states that the
Israeli government previously set a target of attaining 10%
RE shares by 2020; recently in 2015, it revised its goal to
achieve 17% RE shares by 2030 [18], [47].
According to the Global Status Report on Renewables
2019 [18], [47], Kuwait aims to achieve 6.6 GW installed
capacity and/or generation of power from solar and wind
sources by 2030. It also set a target of producing a total
of 5% and 10% electricity by RE resources by 2020 and 2030,
respectively. Qatar, on the other hand, has vowed to attain 2%
and 20% RE shares of its electricity generation by 2020 and
2030, respectively [130]. Iran has pledged to achieve 5 GW
installed capacity and/or generation of power from solar and
wind sources, and it also announced the Feed-in Tariffs, on a
national level, for the promotion of clean energy [18].
In Ref. [131], the authors state that Iran aims to achieve
15% of its total power generation by utilizing renewable
means by 2030, and The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA)
pledges to generate 30% of its total electric power with RE
sources by 2030 [110]. Also, Saudi Arabia aims to achieve
54 GW installed capacity and/or generation of electricity
from RE sources (with 16 GW solar only) by 2040 which
is roughly more than 90% of its current installed capacity
(∼58 GW). In 2017, the Saudi Arabian government approved
a net-metering scheme for solar PV generation up to 2 MW.
Recently, the KSA pledged to embrace ‘‘the Saudi Vision
2030’’ to make a transition from its traditional state into a
sustainable and green state [132]. The targets for electricity
generation from RE means for Yemen and Iraq are set to 15%
and 10% by 2025 and 2030, respectively. Yemen also has a
target for achieving 100% power generation from RE means
by 2050. Lebanon pledged to achieve the RE shares of 12%
and 100% of total electricity generation respectively by 2020
and 2050, respectively [18], [47], [95]. The government of
Iraq has not announced any net-metering policy thus far; how-
ever, the Ministry of Electricity is considering the revision of
electricity tariffs to introduce a net-metering incentive policy
for the advancement of RE sources [126].
The net-metering/net-billing regulations are already in
place on a national level in Lebanon. The net-metering regu-
lations were formulated and adopted by the ‘‘Electricité du
Liban (EDL)’’ board in 2011. The EDL board’s decision
was approved by the Ministry of Energy and Water and
the Ministry of Finance, and the net-metering policy was
enacted for the integration of distributed generators (solar,
wind biomass, and small hydro generators) with the national
grid. As of 2014, 2 MW net-metered projects have been
implemented in Lebanon [126], [133].
Azerbaijan plans to attain 20% of its electricity genera-
tion from renewable resources by 2020 as per GSR-2019 on
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FIGURE 4. RE targets set by West Asian countries.
Renewables [18]. The state of Palestine pledged to gen-
erate 10% and 100% of its total electricity by RE means
by 2020 and 2050, respectively; to achieve this goal, its
cabinet approved net-metering regulations in 2012. As of
2014, 4 MW net-metered projects have been implemented
in the State of Palestine. Syria also announced net-metering
regulatory frameworks in 2010 on a national level for the
proliferation of clean and sustainable energy technologies,
but the advancement in the promotion of net-metering policy
has significantly staggered, mainly due to the difficult politi-
cal situation in Syria. It also vowed to achieve 1.1 GW and
1.5 GW installed capacity and/or generation, respectively,
from solar and wind sources by 2025. The Syrian government
also set a target of meeting 4.3% of its primary energy needs
from renewable sources by 2030 [18], [47], [95], [122], [126].
As per GSR-2018, Bahrain is one of the six countries
which announced their net-metering policy in 2017; further-
more, it pledged to achieve 5% renewable power target by
2030 [18], [47]. As of year-end 2017, Oman’s RE share of
the installed capacity was only 0.11%, and it pledged to
achieve 10% RE share by 2020 [95]. Fig. 4 shows the future
targets to generate electricity from RE sources for West Asian
countries.
C. CENTRAL AND EAST ASIAN REGION
Central Asia includes Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. East Asian countries are Japan,
China, Hong Kong, Macao, South Korea (the Republic of
Korea), North Korea, and Mongolia [134], [135].
The small-scale hydro-power target set by Tajikistan is to
achieve the installed capacity and/or generation of 100 MW
by 2020. Kazakhstan aims to attain 3% and 50% of electric-
ity generation from renewables by 2020 and 2050, respec-
tively. The FiT policy frameworks exist on a national level in
Kazakhstan; however, no net-metering legislation has been
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TABLE 3. Net-metering development in Central and East Asian Countries.
announced yet. As of 2017, the renewable energy share of
Uzbekistan was 12.6%. Moreover, it aims to achieve 19.7% of
its total electricity generation by RE resources by 2025 [18].
However, no data on future RE targets and net-metering reg-
ulations have been found for Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan.
Table 3 summarizes the development of net-metering pol-
icy, range of tariff rate at which excess energy is injected
into the grid, capital investment cost of RE sources, and
future targets and current shares of power generation from
RE sources in Central and East Asian countries. It is found
out that on average the capital investment cost for solar PV is
around $1400 per kWp.
As of 2014, the RE share of electricity in Japan was
12.2%. Japan previously set the targets to achieve 13.5% and
20% RE shares by 2020 and 2030 respectively; however,
it recently increased its RE targets to 22-24% by 2030. Japan
also pledged to tap ocean power (wave and tidal means) by
setting the goal of attaining 1.5 GW installed capacity and/or
power generation by 2030. Japan is the leading country in
Asia to introduce the net-metering policy for the exploitation
of distributed generation systems in the country; it adopted
net-metering in 1990 and set the precedent for other countries
to promote the sustainable and green energy technologies
by embracing net-metering policy [18], [47], [49], [136].
As of 2014, 94% of the photovoltaic systems installed in
Japan are residentially grid-tied systems under net-metering
policy frameworks [143]. Table 4 summarizes the develop-
ment of net-metering/net-billing policy in the East Asian
region.
China previously vowed to enhance its solar power
installed capacity and/or generation to 100 GW by 2020,
and in 2015, it revised its target of realizing 150 GW with
solar generation by 2020. As of 2015, the installed solar PV
capacity and/or generation was 17.8 GW and it is expected to
be increased to 70 GW by 2017. In 2015, the government of
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China also increased its wind power targets from 200 GW to
250 GW by 2020. As of 2016, the total national consumption
of renewable electricity was 25.3% of the total electricity
consumption with yearly growth of 0.9%. Previously, the
overall renewable energy target set by China was 27% by
2020. Recently, China set a target of generating 35% of power
from RE means by 2030; however, it has not yet adopted the
net-metering policy [18], [47], [144].
As of 2014, RE share of electricity generation for Mongolia
was found to be 4%. Previously, Mongolia has set a target
to generate 20-25% of its electricity from alternative sources
by 2020. In 2015, it revised its RE goals and pledged to
produce 20%, 30%, and 100% of total electricity demand
from clean resources by 2020, 2030, and 2050 respectively;
nonetheless, no net-metering policy has been announced by
the government of Mongolia. The Republic of Korea plans to
realize future targets of meeting 5%, 6%, 7%, and 20% of its
total electricity generation by exploiting the renewable tech-
nologies by 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2030, respectively [18].
Net-metering regulations have already been enacted on a
national scale in South Korea for integrating locally dis-
tributed generation systems with the national grid [47], [136].
Fig. 5 shows the targets to generate electricity from RE
sources for Central and East Asian countries.
D. SOUTHEAST ASIAN REGION
This section underlines the developments in net-metering
and the research work available on net-metering policies for
the promotion of RE technologies in Southeast Asian coun-
tries and their future Renewable Energy targets. Southeast
Asia includes Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, Singapore,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Brunei, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and
Timor-Leste [145].
In Thailand as of 2014, the share of RE sources for elec-
tricity generation was found to be 5% and the government
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TABLE 4. Net-metering development in Southeast Asian Countries.

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FIGURE 5. RE targets set by Central and East Asian countries.
planned to achieve 20% by 2036. In 2015, the RE goals
were revised and the government pledged to generate 20%
of the total electricity by utilizing renewable sources by
2036. It is important to note that Thailand does not clas-
sify hydropower generation greater than 6 MW as renew-
able, so the hydropower installations greater than 6 MW are
not included in the share and future RE targets for Thai-
land [18], [47]. Thailand is also one of the pioneers in the
Asian region to introduce the net-metering regulations for the
promotion of green energy in the country. The government
of Thailand first passed its net-metering legislation in 2002.
Greacen et al. [28] discussed the introduction of net-metering
policy in Thailand, future financial opportunities for rural-
based small-scale green energy producers, and potential chal-
lenges to net-metering in Thailand. The author also discussed
the solutions to surmount the barriers in the promotion of net-
metering policy. In Thailand, the allowed power production
from grid-connected resources, such as solar, biogas, wind,
and micro-hydro generators, is up to 1MW per installation.
The producers are paid at a rate that is 80% of the retail
rate if the injected net energy to the grid is more than the
net consumption in a monthly period [29]. As of 2006, 95
very small renewable energy power producers (VSREPP)
projects were completed, and 67 of those were solar PV
based projects. VSREPP are the energy producers that sell
less than 1MW to the utility company and capitalize the
renewable energy means, such as agricultural and facto-
ries wastes, residuum or by-product steam, for electricity
production [146].
In [147], Tongsopit et al. discussed the business mod-
els and economic options for the fast expansion of rooftop
solar generation in Thailand. The author investigated the
drivers for the advent of business models, challenges to their
development, and hazards from the business owners’ and
customers’ point of view. He also emphasized that the com-
prehensive regulations on tariffs, rolling credit timeframes,
and capacity caps should be devised judiciously to ensure
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evenhandedness between net-metered and non-net-metered
consumers. He further maintained that presently there is
no agreement on the definition and details of net-metering.
The author inferred that the government should play a part
in assisting the involvement of stakeholders at the time of
outlining net-metering legislation. The stakeholders should
comprehend the influence of various net-metering policies
on the economics of solar system acceptance among dif-
ferent consumer factions and the price and recompenses of
net-metering to the utility company. Such an understand-
ing would be a helping hand in designing a net-metering
scheme which would assist the expansion of solar PV
production as well as make the utility companies pre-
pared for potential adjustments of business models in the
future.
As of 2014, the share of RE sources for electricity gener-
ation in the Philippines was found to be 29%, and it aims to
achieve 40% and 100% RE shares by 2020 and 2050, respec-
tively. The government of the Philippines officially approved
net-metering regulations on a national scale in July 2013 and
mandated the RE owners to connect their distributed genera-
tion systems (up to 100 kWp) with the national grid and get
paid for the excess energy injection [18], [47], [148], [149].
Dellosa, in [150], presented the analysis of economic payback
of solar PV based systems and the potential influence of
net-metering regulations in Butuan City, Philippines. The
Philippines is enhancing its RE based generation, particularly
grid-tied residential solar PV generation; however, the net-
metering is in its nascent stages. The net-metering policy
in the Philippines mandates the residents and the business
owners to interconnect their solar PV based systems of ratings
no more than 100 kW power with the distribution utility
network. This study reveals that majority of the residential
and commercial consumers of ‘‘Agusan del Norte Electric
Cooperative, Inc. (ANECO)’’ are well-aware of the benefits
of the solar PV systems, but a vast majority of consumers are
unaware of the net-metering incentives. The financial feasi-
bility of the 1.5 kW and 5 kW power systems is investigated
and the investment on solar PV based installations is found
out to be worthwhile. It is inferred that the government must
accelerate the awareness campaign to educate its denizens
about the monetary incentives of net-metering policy so that
the investment in this sector could flourish.
Table 4 summarizes the development of net-metering pol-
icy, range of tariff rate at which excess energy is injected
into the grid, capital investment cost of RE sources, and
future targets and current shares of power generation from
RE sources in Southeast Asian countries. It is found out that
on average the capital investment cost for solar PV is around
$1640-1865 per kWp, which is highest among all studied
Asian sub-regions.
In 2000, Singapore had the installed solar PV capacity
of 10 kWp, and it remarkably improved the capacity to
2000 kWp in 2009. However, there are various impedi-
ments in the development of Solar PV technology in Singa-
pore: one of the potential challenges to solar PV is that the
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government is resolutely committed to meet its energy
demands by consuming fossil fuels. Secondly, the installed
capacity of power plants in Singapore is far more than its
current energy demands; roughly 43% of the installed power
plant capacity is being utilized to meet its energy needs. This
poses a hurdle in the promotion of alternate energy resources
in Singapore. Lastly, the government of Singapore is gener-
ally wary of incentive schemes and subsidies. On the whole,
in the presence of such challenges, the future of solar PV in
Singapore is undecided [151]. The net-metering regulations
were announced in 2011-2012 in Singapore, on a national
level, for the integration of distributed RE sources within the
national grid. The solar power installed capacity and/or gen-
eration goal set by the government was 350 MW by 2020. An
overall goal to achieve 8% RE shares of the total electricity
generation was set in 2015, but no deadline was set for reach-
ing this target [18]. Indonesia set its medium-term renewable
energy target to 26% by 2025 and its long-term renewable
energy target to 31% by 2050 [18], [179]. In December
2013, net-metering regulations (PLN No. 0733.K/DIR/2013)
were introduced by ‘‘Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN)’’ in
Indonesia for the integration of distributed generators within
the grid [180], [181].
The government of Vietnam vowed to generate 7%, 10%,
and 100% of its total electricity from renewable sources
by 2020, 2030, and 2050, respectively [18]. Feed-in Tariff
regulations were enacted on a national level in the country.
Malaysia has also set future goals for producing 9%, 11%,
and 15% of its total electric power by exploiting clean energy
sources by 2020, 2030, and 2050, respectively. Malaysia
announced net-metering policy for rooftop solar generation
in 2015 and revised in 2018. Eligible sectors include residen-
tial, commercial, industrial, and agriculture. Vietnam intro-
duced net-metering regulations in 2017 for residential con-
sumers and recently revised in 2019. Myanmar has also set
a target of 27% power generation from RE sources by 2030.
Cambodia set its RE goals to 25% and 100% by 2035 and
2050 respectively [18], [47]. However, no data is found for
future renewable targets and net-metering policy regulations
in Brunei, Laos, and Timor-Leste. Fig. 6 shows the targets
to generate electricity from RE sources for Southeast Asian
countries.
V. CHALLENGES TO NET-METERING GROWTH
This section presents some of the major barriers in the devel-
opment of net-metering policy in Asian countries. Some
of the identified barriers include absence of net- metering
regulations, resistance by distribution companies (DISCOs),
capacity cap for net-metered RE installation, country-wide
(or state-wide) net-metering capacity cap, lack of aware-
ness in authorities about the implementation process, lack of
appropriate technical staff training for net-metering system
installation, procedural barriers, lack of awareness in con-
sumers, high investment cost, inconsistent regulations among
different states, lack of coordination between government
policies and state regulators, and unattractive net-metering
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FIGURE 6. RE targets set by Southeast Asian countries.
compensation practices, and additional charges for intercon-
nection with the grid.
One of the major barriers to net metered renewable
generation in Asia is the absence of regulatory frame-
works. This study identifies that net-metering has not
been announced/implemented in following countries yet:
Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Bhutan, Turkey, Kuwait, Iran,
Qatar, Yemen, Iraq, Oman, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, China,
Hong Kong, Macao, North Korea, Mongolia, Myanmar,
Brunei, Laos, Cambodia, and Timor-Leste. Some countries
have not announced net-metering on national level, for
example India has implemented net-metering regulations on
sub-national level in 26 of its 29 states [47], [52], [182].
Similarly, UAE has implemented the net-metering policy in
only 2 of its 7 emirates [98], [183].
Second chief hindrance to net-metering growth is the pas-
sive opposition from DISCOs; they express concern about
loss of usage-based revenues. Some utilities maintain that
paying the excess energy injection from net-metered DGs
at retail tariff rate is tantamount to giving subsidy to DG
owners since retail tariffs include the cost of energy gen-
eration, cost of transmission and distribution infrastruc-
ture and its maintenance, administrative cost, and utilities’
profit. Some utilities believe that net-metering policy causes
safety concerns and loss of true information about customers
load [48], [54], [184].
Currently, net-metering regulations in most Asian coun-
tries impose a maximum capacity limit of 1 MWp on eligible
RE installations. In majority cases, this capacity limit is same
for all the eligible sectors participating in net-metering, which
poses a major hurdle for industrial and commercial RE instal-
lations. This bottleneck can be overcome by allowing the grid
integration of eligible RE installations having the maximum
capacity equal to their sanctioned load [54]. Another related
hurdle to net-metering is the country-wide (or state-wide)
capacity cap: for example, Israel have a country-wide cap
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of 400 MWp. Consequently, this limit will impact the total
number of net-metered RE installations in future [118].
Grid interconnection requirements also pose a bottleneck
to widespread adoption of the net-metering policy. For exam-
ple, net-metering regulations in Pakistan do not allow single-
phase consumers to sell the excess generation back to utilities,
which hinders the vast majority of population from installing
the grid-connected net-metered systems [185].
In some cases, there is a lack of awareness in
authorities responsible for the implementation of net-metering
systems, which may result in misinterpretation of the pro-
cess/regulations and may cause undesirable delays and dis-
couragement to potential new installations. Moreover, lack
of appropriate technical staff also causes unwanted delays
in the process of installation and maintenance of the net-
metered systems. Authorities and technical staff should be
equipped with appropriate trainings and courses related to
net-metering regulations and implementation process. Fur-
thermore, the complicated implementation procedure and
lengthy approval processes may also hinder the growth of net-
metered installations and discourage the potential applicants;
hence, it should be made as simple as possible. [48], [54].
It is observed that consumers are unaware of the eco-
nomic and ecological benefits of the net-metering policy. For
example in [48], Qamar et al. pointed out that in Pakistan,
there is a lack of awareness in policy makers and consumers
about the net-metering and its monetary and environmental
benefits. Furthermore, there is a lack of economic assessment
studies of net-metering, its feasibility, and payback periods
of the net-metered RE installations. In this regard, this paper
provides a case study which assesses the economic benefits of
the current net-metering regulations and provides the payback
period of the solar PV investment for a residential building
in Islamabad, Pakistan. Moreover, awareness campaign for
public should be launched and economic, environmental,
and societal benefits including, but not limited to, improved
resilience and reliability of the power network and air quality
benefits of the net-metering scheme should be spread. In addi-
tion, general apprehension about reliability and sustainability
of the RE technologies should be addressed.
Another key hindrance to net-metering growth is high
investment cost of the net-metering system, which mainly
consists of grid-tied inverter (GTI), and one two-way meter
or two one-way meters [39], [48]. In addition, as mentioned
in Table 1, 2, 3, and 4, the capital investment cost of the RE
technologies is also high for some countries which also poses
a hurdle in widespread installation of the net-metered RE sys-
tem. It is observed that local production of the net-metering
system is not prevalent in Pakistan and other developing
countries in Asia. Therefore, in the short run, governments
need to subsidize the import of net-metering related equip-
ment to boost the development of net-metering policies; in
the long run, local development of net-metering system could
serve as viable solution to lower the investment cost.
In [54], Dhankhar et al. identified inconsistence net-
metering regulatory frameworks across Indian states. For
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example, some states only allow institutional consumers to
participate in net-metering policy [57]. The RE capacity cap
is also found to be different across states. Moreover, in some
states net-metering is not allowed to rooftop solar generation
owned by third-party. It is also observed that there is a lack
of coordination between government policies and state regu-
lators. For example, Delhi government approved the concept
of aggregate net-metering and virtual net-metering; however,
the regulators have not made related frameworks for both,
thus implementation is still awaited. Similar instances can be
found for other Indian states [54].
Net-metering policy is found to be unattractive for pro-
sumers of some countries because of prevalent net-metering
compensation practices. For example, net-metering policy
in Indonesia ‘‘Perusahaan Listrik Negara’’ is not 1:1 basis:
excess generated energy is compensated at 65% of the appli-
cable tariff rate. Moreover, prosumers pay additional monthly
charges for interconnecting their net-metered RE installation
with the grid. It is also observed that net-metering policies in
Indonesia and Pakistan do not remunerate the excess energy
injection beyond prosumers’ annual consumption. Such com-
pensation practices make the net-metering policies less attrac-
tive for potential prosumers [45], [159], [172].
In conclusion, it is recommended that net-metering regula-
tory frameworks should be designed in such a way that they
receive welcoming response equally from both utilities and
consumers.
VI. A CASE STUDY: ANALYSIS OF NET-METERING
REGLATIONS FOR RESIDENTIAL CONSUMERS IN
PAKISTAN
This section presents a case study in which the economic
evaluation of current net-metering regulations (for one of
the Asian countries) is carried out. Additionally, the mone-
tary benefits to individual residential consumers dwelling in
apartment buildings are assessed in the presence of building
integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) generation. This case study
is presented for Islamabad, Pakistan. The electricity tariffs
for Islamabad Electric Supply Company (IESCO) consumers,
presented in Table 5, are used for the calculation of economic
benefits of net-metering to residential prosumers (all tariffs
are presented in local currency i.e., PKR) [62]. In addition,
full-netted net-metering policy is considered for this case
study.
A. NET-METERING STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS IN
PKAISTAN
‘‘National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA),
Distributed Generation (Alternative & Renewable Energy)
and Net-metering Regulations, 2015’’ permit the residential
consumers, who own building integrated distributed gener-
ation (wind or solar DG), to offset their energy demands
and get monetary benefits for the excess energy. The excess
energy is injected into the national grid. The allowed dis-
tributed generation capacity is between 1 kWp and 1 MWp
for getting a license from the concerned utility [44], [45].
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W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
TABLE 5. Electricity tariffs (PKR/kWh) for IESCO consumers.
In this study, two types of electric tariffs [62] are used:
• General Residential Supply tariff: this type of tariff is
used for billing the energy consumption of individual
residential consumers.
• Single-point Bulk Supply tariff: this type of tariff is
used for billing the aggregate energy consumption of the
whole building.
As per net-metering regulations in Pakistan, the excess
energy injected in the distribution network is credited at off-
peak rate. The peak demand period begins at 0500 pm and
lasts till 0900 pm. To compute the monthly energy expen-
diture for each individual apartment, all fixed charges are
considered, including general sales taxes (GST), monthly
Pakistan Television (PTV) fees, monthly connection charges,
and electricity duty. However, fuel price adjustment (FPA)
and other variable surcharges are not considered in this work.
This assumption is valid since inclusion of variable rate
of FPA and other variable surcharges can manipulate the
net-metering benefits. Monthly individual apartment energy
expenditure can be computed by using expression (9) [45]:
Energy expenditure = Cost elect + Cost Taxes + Cost UQA
+ Cost PTV + Cost ED + Cost CC
+ Cost FPA + Cost OVS (9)
where
Coselect : monthly electricity cost [PKR /kWh]
Cost Taxes : General Sales Tax (GST – percentage of elec-
tricity cost)
Cost UQA : Applicable Uniform Quarterly Adjustment cost
[PKR/kWh]
VOLUME 8, 2020
TABLE 6. The composition of the residential building.
Cost PTV : Pakistan Television fee [PKR/connection]
Cost ED : electricity duty cost (percentage of monthly elec-
tricity cost)
Cost CC : connection cost [PKR/connection]
Cost FPA : Fuel Price Adjustment (FPA) surcharge (variable)
Cost OVS : other variable surcharges (variable)
B. AGGREGATION OF THE RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
DEMAND
The residential building considered in this study consists
of 10 floors, three sets of elevators and stairs, and 100 res-
idential apartments. The composition of the building under
study is shown in Table 6. The aggregated demand of the
residential building consists of the energy demand of all
types of residential apartments and the lighting and elevator
demand of the common area services inside the building.
1) APARTMENT ENERGY DEMAND
The energy demand of individual apartments is computed by
modeling the domestic appliances’ daily energy consumption
patterns based on their operational characteristics, frequency
of use, ownership rate, probability of use, and probability
of time of use. The energy consumption of an apartment
is contingent upon the number of apartment residents and
their living standards, types and number of appliances owned,
and seasonal variations in the area [32], [45], [186]–[188].
Potential household appliances’ load consumption data is
taken from [32], [189], [190] for modeling the daily energy
consumption of different types of apartments in a residential
building. Monte Carlo Simulations and Gaussian Probability
Distribution is used to obtain the aggregate energy consump-
tion of all apartments in the building. A comparison of energy
consumption of different types of apartments for typical
working day and non-working day is shown in Fig. 7 and 8,
respectively.
2) COMMON AREA SERVICES ENERGY DEMAND
Energy demand for common area services include building’s
lighting demands and the elevator energy demand. Lighting
demand makes up the major portion of the energy demand
for common area services. In this work, lighting demand for
stairs-elevator and general lighting demand for the building
is considered. For simplicity, approximate lighting demand
of 300 Watt/floor (for stair-elevator and general lighting
demand for building) is considered.
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 W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering

FIGURE 7. Comparison of energy consumption of different types of

apartments for a typical working day. FIGURE 9. Common area services energy demand for typical working day
and non-working day.

Eq. (10) and (11) are used to calculate the annual elevator
energy consumption.
1
E = ESB + ((2 × γ × λ × EOOC × (1−β) × n)) (10)
1000
where,
 
n
ESB = 0.001 × PSB × 8760 − λ × h × (11)
3600 × s
ESB : energy consumption in standby operation (Wh)
EOOC : elevator’s one operating cycle energy (Wh)
γ : average motor load factor
β: balancing factor
λ: average travel distance factor
h: elevator’s rise height (m)
n: number of annual trips
PSB : standby power (W)
FIGURE 8. Comparison of energy consumption of different types of s: speed of elevator (m/s)
apartments for a typical non-working day. Fig. 9 presents the common area services energy demand
TABLE 7. Parameters for computation of elevator energy consumption.
for a typical working day and non-working day.

3) BUILDING AGGREGATE ENERGY DEMAND

Building aggregate energy demand is the sum of residen-
tial apartments’ energy consumption and common area ser-
vices energy consumption. Fig. 10 presents the aggregated
energy demand of the building for typical working day and
non-working day.

C. ESTIMATION OF PV SYSTEM POWER GENERATION

To compute the elevator energy demand, geared trac-
tion technology is considered and data is taken from [191].
Elevator energy consumption depends on the motor power,
speed, load of the elevator, and the rise height. The proce-
dure of computing elevator’s energy consumption is adopted
from [191], [192]. Table 7 presents the parameters used for
computing the elevator energy consumption.
PROFILES
The estimation of PV system generation profiles has been
carried out by using the method presented in [31], [32] with
the help of mean global irradiance level and the temperature
of the selected location in Islamabad, Pakistan. An online
software tool PVGIS was used for obtaining the mean global
irradiance level [193]. Another PV related software called

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W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
FIGURE 10. Building’s aggregated energy demand for typical working day
and non-working day.
TABLE 8. Parameters for estimating the solar power generation.
PV.MY is commercially available, but it is not used in this
work due to its location dependency [194]. Table 8 presents
the parameters used for estimating the solar power genera-
tion.
Eq. (12) is used to calculate the AC solar power generation.
PPV = 0.92 × Pinst × IG ×ηDC−AC ×10−3 ×(1−ϕ ×1TC )
(12)
FIGURE 11. Solar generation (100 kWp) for typical day of each month.
D. CASE STUDY SCENARIOS
Net-metering is one of the potential incentives that is used
to promote the local distributed/ renewable energy resources.
For calculating the monetary benefits to residential con-
sumers, the following case study scenarios are considered in
this study:
Case 1: Net-metering is not applied (base case scenario)
Case 2: Application of net-metering with building inte-
grated solar PV generation
a) Only common area services’ demand is net-metered,
and the apartments are individually billed
b) Only common area services’ demand is net-metered,
and the apartments are billed based on aggregated
energy demand of the building
c) Aggregate demand of the whole building is net-
metered, and the apartments are billed based on aggre-
gated energy demand of the building
For Case 1 and 2a, General Residential Supply tariff is
  used, and the excess energy injection in the grid is credited
1
1TC = 25 − (TADT + × (TNOC − 20) × IG )

(13)
800
where
PPV = AC solar power generation (W)
Pinst = Solar power generation installed capacity
(1-150 kWp)
IG = Global irradiance on fixed plane (W/m2 )
TADT = Average temperature (daytime, ◦ C)
ηDC−AC = DC-AC efficiency of the inverter (95%)
ϕ = Power temperature coefficient (0.007)
TNOC = Normal operating cell temperature (45◦ C)
In this work, the effect of partial shading on PV generation
is not considered; full sunlight exposure on PV arrays is
expected by considering installation in an open space where
buildings, objects, and tree shadows do not affect the out-
put power of the PV system. Fig. 11 shows the PV system
(100 kWp) profiles for a typical day.
VOLUME 8, 2020
at off-peak prices of the said tariff. For Case 2b and 2c,
Single-point Bulk Supply tariff is considered, and the surplus
energy injection into the grid is credited at off-peak prices of
the said tariff.
E. CASE STUDY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig. 12 and 13 respectively illustrate the results of net monthly
energy cost of the building and the per apartment average
annual savings with increasing installed solar capacity. Work-
ing day and non-working day energy expenditure and savings
for each individual apartment are considered to obtain the
presented results.
From Fig. 12, the energy expenditure of the building is
noticeably high when the building (aggregate) demand is
billed at the Single-point Bulk Supply Tariff. Moreover,
the cost curves of Case 2a and 2b do not exhibit a signifi-
cant reduction in the energy cost with increasing values of
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 W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
FIGURE 12. Net monthly energy expenditure of the building with
different installed capacity of the solar PV system.
installed PV capacity. Nonetheless, a noticeable reduction
in the energy cost curve of Case 2c can be observed with
the increasing values of the PV installed capacity, due to
the increased injection of solar generation into the grid. It is
obvious from Fig. 13 that no positive savings are observed for
Case 2b at any value of installed PV capacity, which makes
it a completely unviable net-metering scheme for residential
DG owners. On the other hand, for Case 2a, the increas-
ing trend of positive annual savings (per apartment) can be
observed up to 50 kWp PV installed capacity, and after that
per apartment annual savings remain constant for all the
higher values of PV installed capacity because of the imposed
restriction on the annual surplus energy injection into the grid:
according to the ‘‘NEPRA net-metering regulations 2015’’,
the yearly surplus energy injection cannot surpass the yearly
energy expenditure. On the contrary, the per apartment annual
savings for Case 2c exhibit the increasing trend for all values
of the PV installed capacity, and the positive savings are
realized above the installed PV capacity 110 kWp. It is impor-
tant to note that the energy expenditure, which is computed
based on Single-Point Bulk Supply tariff, is comparatively
high compared to the energy expenditure that is computed
based on the General Residential Supply Tariff. This makes
the Case 2c net-metering scheme uneconomical for a PV
installed capacity of less than 110 kWp.
F. NET PRESENT VALUE ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDY
SCENARIOS
Net present value (NPV) is a measure of the profit that is
determined by deducting the present value of cash outflows
(including the capital investment cost of PV system) from
present value of the cash inflows for a period ‘t’ [195], [196],
as represented by Eq. 14.
t=N
X Ft
NPV = − FC
(1 + ψ)t
t=1
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FIGURE 13. Comparison of per apartment average annual savings with
different installed capacity of the solar PV system.
TABLE 9. Parameters to carry out the NPV and payback periods.
where
Ft : net cash inflows during period ‘t’
FC : capital investment cost of PV system
ψ: discount rate
t: time in years
Table 9 presents the parameters and values used to carry out
the economic analysis of the case study scenarios. Fig. 14 and
15 presents the results of the present values of the cash flows
and net present values, respectively, for the considered case
study scenarios for the period of 25 years. Capital investment
cost of the Case 2c is highest because of its larger installed
capacity as compared to rest of the scenarios, which is also
evident by large negative NPV and cash inflow at the start of
the project life. The results show that the cash inflows of the
Case 2c are highest among all the studied scenarios followed
by Case 2a. The profit for Case 2a and 2c is ∼2.77 and
∼12.2 million PKR, respectively; however, it is negative
for Case 2b, rendering it to be an infeasible net-metering
option.
From Fig. 15, the payback period for Case 2a and 2c
is found to be 7.5 and 8.1 years, respectively. Based on
the considered PV system lifetime, the payback periods for
(14)
Case 2a and 2c seem very attractive. In conclusion, high NPV
VOLUME 8, 2020
W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
FIGURE 14. Present values of the cash flows for considered case study
scenarios.
FIGURE 15. Net present values for considered case study scenarios.
makes Case 2c the most appealing net-metering scheme for
the considered residential building demand.
VII. CONCLUSION
The transition towards sustainable and clean energy technolo-
gies has become inevitable due to growing concerns over
the depletion of conventional energy resources and climate
change. Renewable Energy technologies are facing numer-
ous challenges; however, the related policies aim to lower
these hurdles. Net-metering is one of the potential incentives
that is introduced to promote the local distributed generation
resources, primarily solar PV, and wind generators. This work
encompassed the up-to-date status of net-metering policies
along with the RE penetrations and future goals of Asian
countries. A comprehensive review of the published research
on net-metering policy in Asia is also presented to provide
guidance for the future research in this field. Moreover, bar-
riers to net-metering development in Asian countries and
recommendations to overcome them are briefly discussed.
In the conclusion, a case study is also demonstrated in which
VOLUME 8, 2020
the economic valuation of the existing net-metering policy for
residential consumers in Pakistan is presented. It is noted that
net-metering at the aggregate demand level becomes benefi-
cial to residential consumers after a certain threshold of the
installed PV capacity is reached. Furthermore, the net present
value analysis of the considered case study scenarios suggests
that the Case 2a and 2c are found to be feasible net-metering
options with payback periods of 7.5 and 8.1 years,
respectively.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Ms. E. Seals and
Ms. H. Coffman (Office of Graduate Studies, Missouri Uni-
versity of Science and Technology, USA) for their assistance
with technical editing that significantly improved quality of
the manuscript.
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 W. Ur Rehman et al.: Penetration of Renewable and Sustainable Energy in Asia: A State-of-the-Art Review on Net-Metering
WAQAS UR REHMAN (Graduate Student Mem-
ber, IEEE) received the B.Sc. degree in electrical
engineering from the University of Engineering
and Technology (UET) Taxila, Pakistan, in 2012,
the M.Sc. degree in nuclear engineering, with
emphasis in nuclear power engineering, from the
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sci-
ences (PIEAS), in 2015, and the second M.Sc.
degree in electrical engineering, specialization in
power systems engineering, from UET Taxila,
Pakistan, in 2017. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree with the
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Missouri University of
Science and Technology, USA. He served Pakistan Atomic Energy Com-
mission (PAEC), as a Sr. Engineer (Electrical), for four years. His current
research interests include energy management and control of extreme fast
charging (XFC) station for EVs, impact analysis of XFC station on AC grid’s
power quality, energy storage system optimization and control, and machine
learning applications in power systems.
ABDUL RAUF BHATTI received the B.Sc. and
M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering from
the University of Engineering and Technology,
Lahore, Pakistan, in 2004 and 2008, respectively,
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor
Bahru, Malaysia, in 2017. He is with Govern-
ment College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan,
as an Associate Professor and the Chairman of the
Electrical Engineering Department. He is lifetime
member of the Pakistan Engineering Council (PEC). His research interests
include electrical energy management, electric vehicle charging, artificial
intelligence, and renewable energy resources.
AHMED BILAL AWAN received the B.Sc.
degree in electrical engineering from the Uni-
versity of Engineering and Technology, Lahore,
Pakistan, in 2004, the master’s degree from
L’École Supérieure d’Electricité (SUPELEC),
Paris, France, in 2007, and the Ph.D. degree
from the University de Lorraine, Nancy, France,
in 2011. He is currently working as an Assistant
Professor with the Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, College of Engineering
and Information Technology, Ajman University, Ajman, United Arab Emi-
rates. His main research interests include renewable energy, solar energy,
distributed power generation, stability investigation of distributed power
systems, energy optimization in buildings, net zero energy buildings, and
economic dispatch in renewable integrated power systems.
INTISAR ALI SAJJAD (Member, IEEE) received
the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy, in 2015. He is
currently an Assistant Professor with the Electrical
Engineering Department, University of Engineer-
ing and Technology, Taxila, Pakistan. His current
research interests include smart buildings, power
system analysis, and load management.
ASAD ALI KHAN (Graduate Student Member,
IEEE) received the bachelor’s degree in electrical
engineering from the University of Engineering
and Technology Taxila, Pakistan, in August 2012,
and the master’s degree in systems engineering
from the Pakistan Institute of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, in November 2014. He is cur-
rently pursuing the Ph.D. degree with the Electri-
cal Engineering Department. University of Texas
170388
at San Antonio, USA. His areas of research are smart grids, integration of
renewable energy into conventional power systems, fault identification, and
cyber security in distributed generation systems using artificial intelligence
algorithms.
RUI BO (Senior Member, IEEE) received
the B.S.E.E. and M.S.E.E. degrees in electric
power engineering from Southeast University,
China, in 2000 and 2003, respectively, and the
Ph.D. degree from the University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, UTK, in 2009. He is currently an
Assistant Professor of the Electrical and Computer
Engineering Department, Missouri University of
Science and Technology, (formerly University of
Missouri-Rolla). He worked as a Principal Engi-
neer and Project Manager at Mid-continent Independent System Operator
(MISO), from 2009 to 2017. His research interests include computation,
optimization and economics in power system operation and planning;
high performance computing; electricity market simulation, evaluation, and
design.
SHAIKH SAAQIB HAROON (Member, IEEE)
received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
from the University of Engineering and Technol-
ogy, Taxila, Pakistan. He is currently working as an
Associate Professor with the Electrical Engineer-
ing Department, University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan. His research inter-
ests include power system analysis, power system
operation and control.
SALMAN AMIN received the Ph.D. degree in
electrical engineering from the University of Engi-
neering and Technology, Taxila, Pakistan, in 2013.
He is currently working as an Associate Profes-
sor with the Electrical Engineering Department,
University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila,
Pakistan. His research interests include dielectrics
and electrical insulation materials, and composite
materials
ISKANDER TLILI Associate Professor, completed
the M.Sc. and Ph.D degrees in Thermal Energy
at the Laboratory Studies of Thermal and Energy
Systems LESTE, National Engineering School of
Monastir, Tunisia. He has more than 18 years of
teaching and research experience in Thermo-fluid,
Thermal Power, Renewable Energy and Desalina-
tion. He participated in the implementation of sev-
eral Energy Audits. He has published many papers
in highly reputed journals. He has been conferred
with internal and external grants from different international sponsors and
led several units and committees at both national and international level.
OROGHENE OBOREH-SNAPPS (Graduate Stu-
dent Member, IEEE) received the bachelor’s
degree in electrical engineering from Madonna
University, Nigeria, in 2016, and the master’s
degree from the Electrical Engineering Depart-
ment, Missouri University of Science and Technol-
ogy, Rolla, Missouri, USA, in 2019, where he is
currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree. His research
background is in power system control and sta-
bility along with electric vehicle integration with
power grid and energy storage optimization.
VOLUME 8, 2020