SOCIOLOGY NOTES INTRODUCTION > defined as the systematic and obj human society and social interaction 2 the basic assumption that i made by sociologists is that al human behaviors are shaped bythe society and sadal crcumstances (i.e. families, organizations, communities, ethnic groups, sacetes and historical eras) ‘The focus of sociology is not onthe individual act, but rather on the social environment or circumstance in which the act takes place, jective study of 1, The Role and Scope of Sociology [A Nature of Sociology 1. “Sociology is the scientific study of social problems like ‘ce relations, crime, divorce, ete.” 2, Sociology contributes to the understanding of social Problems but it is a science, noi. a philosophy. A science is ‘a bady of tested knowledge, wihile a philosophy is a set of ideas about how men ought to behave and treat one another. A social scence studies how men behave without trying to say what they ought to do. B. The Task of Sociology as Science ‘The major task of sociology is to study human groups. . Sociology and Social Science 1, Sociology occupies a middle position between the disciplines which Seek to describe the past and those are Which devoted to analyzing the specific segment of human life which is of current concern. 2. The major task of sociologist is to study human groups, {and by so doing he helps the specialized sciences in their tasks and from them obtains more data which may be Used in the analysis of group conduct. TL. Elements of Sociological Analysis ‘A. Culture ~ shared products of a human eroner soety. May either be nonmaterial cuture (valves, | language, beliefs, traditions) material culture (physical bjects, machines, books, clothing, artifacts, money) 4-Subeutture and Counterculture when 2 group of : society has @ iving lice features of emai cle and abo eran Cultural elements not found in other groups, this is ‘own as subculture. When that subculture challenges the values, beliefs, ideals and other elements of the dominant culture, itis known as counterculture 2.Cultural Values and Norms — a value is 2n idea ‘Shared by the people in a society about what is 900d ‘and bad, right and wrong, desirable and undesirable, Some ae expectations of how peo re SPH fo think or feel in specific situations. 8. Folkways — norms that have little strength and may ‘within limits, be easity broken Eating. Ca bed Poyrdngs vdineg eget 120 b. Mores - strongly held norms that are considered ‘essential and which are stnctly enforced . Laws ~ norms that have been enacted by the state to regulate human conduct versit ie 3.Cultural Diversity ~ contrary to cultural universals, though societies share commonality in some aspects In culture, each culture carries a distinct and different element, 4.Cuttural Relativism — the principle holds that one Cannot truly understand or evaluate cultural, socal and psychological facts except in terms ofthe larger culture and society of which they are a part. 2. Ethnocentrism tendency to evaluate other cultures in terms of one’s own and to consider one’s ‘own culture as superior. b.Xenocentrism ~ belief that the views, styles or Products of other cultures are better than those of one's own cuiture, 5. Cultural Changes ~ results when there is cultural integration. Sources of Cultural Changes: a. Innovation — production of a new culture trait, (We. norm or value) '. Invention ~ creation of new cultural products ¢. Cultural Diffusion — process by which cultural traits are transmitted from one group or society to another 6. Cultural Integration — occurs when cultural traits are logically consistent with one another, but may be Icgically inconsistent or simply neutral in relation to one ‘another. B. Society and Social Structure 1. Social Status ~ socially defined position in a group or society ‘2,Master Status ~ status that dominates others and thereby determines a person‘s general socal position b.Achieved Status ~ status that can be gained by a Person's direct effort usually through competition ¢ Ascribed Status ~ a social postion to which a person is assigned according to standards that are beyond his ‘or her control 2.Social Roles ~ behavior expected of someone with a Given status in 3 group or society a. Role Set— whole st of roles associated witha single s b.Role Expectation ~ society's defini Re Expectation < s ition of the way a c Role Performance — the way a we d. Role Conflict ~ situation whereby opposing dem ‘are made on a person two or more roles "9 mee onsem Role Strain — personal stress caused by sich mo ‘opposing demands my fone te ' & person usually plays Pe tem ove te pe tol LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER‘ed 3. Types of Societies ‘h. Mode of Subsistence i, Hunting and Gat Societies — oid oe soot Vp nomad way of fe on fami ere lee spacey 2IY Psa concer ang ii, Horticultural Societies — eat wild plants and animals permanent communities; objects; produce smalls arise ii, Pastoral Societies — Cultivate cereal grains and 5 Supplement; form Make tools and household urplus; inequalities start to rely on capturing, by and tang of animals 2 fond sean oa existence at the same time as horticuitural through are more of nomadic than stationary Wy. Agrarian - the plow which (Produced larger surplus and the end of the need to ‘move to new fields on a regular basis, Social changes ‘such as further stratification, establishment of bureaucracies, the rise of cities and the development of a money economy occurred. v. Industrial Societies ~ used machinery to do many forms of work and densely populated cities ‘developed. Large gov's, large bureaucracies and ever ‘more specialized social institutions and social roles developed. Vi. Post—Industrial Societies — offices replaced factories; computer took over from the machines and ‘metropolitan areas supplanted towns and cities; main economic enterprise is service. B. Social Structure |. Gemeinschaft — individual relationships are based ‘on common feelings, kinships or memberships in the * | community (communal) "Ts pub ii, Geselischaft — rational order, neutral involvement, ‘and obligations to institutions are dominant (2ssociational) "by inna, i, Mechanical Solidarity — members are held together because they perform similar roles and share the same values aes » lidarity ~ member are veouse te pron very specalized rales ord are therefore highly dependent on one another ¥. Communal Society ~ little division of labor; family ‘most important unit; socal relationships are personal {and long lasting; behavior is governed mainly by ‘custom and tradition Vi. Associational Society — there is division of labor and raes are nighy spedaized; family loses intence and many of its activities are replaced by other insatuons (Le. economic, religious and poltica ‘many seca relationships ae impersonal and shor ‘ved; behavior is governed by law rather custom. rich people: C. Soctattzation ~ is the process through whi acture personality and learn the ways Of 2 s2e) OY ); Socialization occurs jh iteract Se ees epoca m whch People ot ‘toward or respond to others in a mutual and Teagroca way 121 1.As product of: . Bological interplay b. parent-child interacton © social learning 4. The Seif and human nature 2. Take the forms of: @. Exchange Relationships — in which a person or ‘Sroup acts in a certain way toward another in order to Feceive a reward in return. b ion ~ interaction in which people or groups act together in order to achieve common interests or goals that might be dificult or impossible to realize alone. 1. Spontaneous Cooperation ~ mutual aid 2. Traditional Cooperation ~ spontaneous ‘Ooperation that becomes fixed in a society's customs 3. Directed Cooperation — directed by a third party in a postion of authority 4. Contractual Cooperation ~ formal agreement to cooperate on a certain way with the duties of each clearly spelled out ©. Conflict ~ struggle for a commonly prized object oF value; conflicts arise because the benefits and rewards of a society are limite. 4. Competition = a kind of conflict governed by rules that make the goal being sought more important than the defeat i any opponents. ©. Coercion — tendency for one person or group to force its will on another, D. Groups and Social Organization ‘Social Group can be defined as twa or more praple-who have a common identity and some feeling of unity and who share certain goals and expectations about each others behavior, hie ode a 1. Primary and Secondary Groups J a. Primary groups are small, personal and unspecialized, ‘hough relating to one anather in many diferent roles, swap: _ their members communicate openly and intmateh b, Secondary groups by contrast are larger, more Specalzed group n which members ntaract na imted, impersonal way. 2, Ingroups and Outgroups a. Ingroups ~ the groups to which people belong and fee loyal irc pony .Outgroups ~ the groups to which we do not belong and which ae regarded with suspicion and as ess wont Bona own meas pe hey 3. Group Processes ‘4. Basic Patterns of Social Organization @. Social bonds ©. conformity ‘b. Kinship f. rational coordination ¢. fealty G.staus Bernt WP WI ast the ay age fig pe se E, Social Disorgamzation, Deviance and Sociat "1.2%" Control 1. ‘Social Disorganization — refers to breakdown of social instutons, Rests when deviance f practees by large numbers of people over lng pereds of tes ctely it undermines belief in the vaiue of basic social institutions or when it produces conflict that cannot be ‘contained. LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWERTypes: a.aberrant behavior vs noncontormin, RE aly of Soil rules ut Be ea sare rsoral gain; nonconforming = hope te o attention to thelr rule-breaking behavior acs teat to cause the rule to be changed, ae b, socially approved deviance vs socially levian inability to conform vs failure to conform nent, eden ee ll {tp conform without punishment <.lndhvidual vs group deviance 2, Deviance ~ behavior that Vlates the socal noms Four types of “deviant adaptations” 2. Innovation — accepting goals but ac Ly SOS but rejecting society's b. Ritualism ~ accepting the means bi ‘S ut not the goals = Fejecting both the goals and the means 4d. Rebellion — rejecting the goals and the mea ‘substituting new ones, nsane 3. Social Control — means or ways to condition or limit ‘he actions of people in order to make them want to conform to social norms most of the time > Internal Social Control — “internalization” is one’s ‘acceptance of the norms of a group or society as part of one’s identity. It is the most effective means of Socially controlling deviant behavior. » External Social Control ~ involve the use of socia/ sanctions which may be applied informally (thru actions of people we are with on a daily basis); others ‘re applied formally (agents given that task by society, eg. Law enforcers, etc.) F. Social Inequalities Class Inequalities 1. Slavery ~ extreme system of stratified inequaity in hich freedom is denied to one group in a society. 2. Caste — system of stratified inequality in which status 'S largely determined at birth and people are locked into their parents’ social positions. 3. Estate - stratification associated with type of agrarian Society similar to feudalism. Class Systems - most common type of stratification; 2 ‘eatvely open system based on economic poston, |\Bourgedisie — upper classes; have access ae © production; own and contro! production at the labor of the lower classes. 2. Proletariat ~ lower classes; provide labor to production. Social Stratification ~ an enduring pattern based on te ranking of people in social positions according ‘202255 to desirables. ; 1. Three dimensions as classified by Max Weber: 7 Nemh Power PF the he — inequality is nat only required to increta Baas wo LEARNF: 122 .Confict — social inequatty isnot a necessary part of the eration of societies rather, the desirables of the Seciety are in limited supply and the powerful determine which groups of people will fil which jobs and who will ‘Set what rewards, Lensk’s theory ~ power, based on economics and Political leadership and some inequality are important in ‘he functioning of the society. Social Mobility ~ refers to the movement of a person from one status or social class to another. 1. Types a. Upward b. Downward —_¢. Horizontal 2. Varieties @.Intergenerational mobility ~ change in social position between generations b.Intragenerational mobility ~ occurs in the same ‘generation Ethnic and Racial Minorities 1.Minorty group ~ any group in a society that consists of eople whose particular biological or social traits cause them to become the object of prejudice or discrimination. 2. Ethnic group ~ a group that is socially distinguished from other groups, has developed its own subculture, and has a shared feeling of peoplehcod. 3.Race ~ group of people who others believe share certain physical traits and are genetically distinct. 4. Prejudice — judgment of people, objects or situations in terms of stereotypes or generalizations. 5. Discrimination - unfair or unequal treatment of individuals or groups. 6.Pattems of acceptance: 2. Assimilation ~ absorption of an incoming group into the dominant society b. Amalgamation — biological merging of an ethnic or racial group with the native population. ¢ Cultural pluralism — patter of partial assimilation by Which the dominant society allows minorities to achreve full participation, yet at the same time lets them keep ‘many of their cultural socal differences, 7,Pattems of rejection: 2. Annihilation ~ process by which a dominant group causes the deaths of large number of minority group ‘members. ». Expulsion ~ forcing people out of an area of a society, «. Partitioning political reorganization of a nation in ‘order to make political boundaries correspond more closely to ethnic or racial ones. 4. Segregation ~ involuntary separation of residential ‘areas, services of facilities on the basis of the ethnic or racal characteristics of the people using them, Gender 1.Gender role — social roe associated with being a male or female. 2. Gender Identity ~ conception of ourselves as either male (female. ‘Age and Health in Society 1.age status ~ status based on a person’s age AST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER.2.AgenOFMS = Stand3-ds Of behavior that are propriate Age res ~ expectations about tigers og seme ® behavior of people gies ea. ok sens ‘lates the age norms of logy ~ study of a semen 7 ‘9919 and the special problems 6. Gefates = study ofthe medical aspects medical practice that em, ve aging ang Phasizes aging and i pabents seal MLSOCIALINSTITUTIONS “77?! nutes The Family 1. Kaship soil network of people who are rated by Common ancestry oF origin oF by manage are ‘adoption aa 2, Nicer = family group which consis their children usually living apart from other relate 3. Etended - group which consists of one or more ‘nuclear families plus other relatives, 4. Patfarchal Family ~ family structure in which the ‘authority is held by the eldest male . Matriarchal Family ~ authority is held by the eldest female, Of a couple ang >. Egalitarian Family ~ family structure in which the hhusband and wife are equal in authority and privileges 7, Patilocal Residence ~ married couple living in the household or community of the husband's parents 8, Matrilocal Residence ~ married couple lving in the household or community of the wife's parents 9. Neolocal Residence - married couple living apart from ether spouse's parents or other relatives, 10.Patrlineal Descent ~ father’s side of the family is efined as kin 11. Matrineal Descent - mother’s side ofthe family is efined as kin 12. Bilateral Descent ~ children’s kinship is tied to both ‘ides of the family 413, Endogamy ~ marriage within one's own group 14, Exagamy ~ marriage outside one’s own group 15, Homogamy ~ marriage with the same socal, racial, ethnic and religious background 16, Monogamy ~ marriage between one man and one woman 17. Polygamy ~ marriage involving more than one husband or wife 18, Polygyny — one man with several wives Religion — system ich a jon — of beliefs and practices by wi ‘Group of people interprets and responds to what they feel 'S supematural and sacred Types Eadesia - religious organization that claim 25 its ; trash te ene population of @ soley; coun’ 2.Gurch Sable, insitutonelzes rgrizabon of u Soman ‘= several religious organizations ‘considered socialy acceptable by 2 society 123 4. Sect ~ less formally organized than a church; usually Composed of people occupying the lower occupational ‘and educatonal status S.Cults ~ reject some aspects of established religions; devise new symbols, rituals and teachings. Forms 1. Monotheism - belief in one God 2.Polythetsm — belief in more than one God 3. Transcendental Idealism — centers on a set of ethical, ‘oral or philosophical principles 4.Totemism — worship and veneration of an animal; Practiced by pretiterate people and preindustrial societies 5. Simple supematuralism ~ type of religion that does not ecognize specific gods or spits but that does believe in ‘Supematural forces that influence humanity 6.Animism — religion that recognizes active/animate spirits ‘operating in the word, Education Perspectives: 1, Functionalist ~ five main functions of education: €. Socialization . Social controt . Selection and allocation 4. Assimilation and subculture maintenance €. Innovation and change 2. Confict - education as a too! used by the ruling classes, {to perpetuate social inequality both by controlling access to education and by training docile, disciplined workers Economy and Work Economic Onder — consists of those organizations and Processes through which goods and services are produced and distributed Five General Factors that Respond to Economic System: 1.Resources and Technology: In a preindustral economy, the primary sector (agriculture) dominates and the ‘economy is labor intensive, relying heavily on human, labor. In an industrial economy, the secondary sector (good producing) dominates and the economy is capital intensive, relying the machine production. In post- industrial economy, the tertiary sector (Service) dominates, 2. Decentralized Economy ~ decision- large number of individuals, 5, cooperatives or firms; in a central the power isin the hands of @ small number of individuals or firms, 3.Ina marke Consumers are the key decision makers; the economy responds to consumer preferences. In 8 pian the ultimate ecision-makers are the planners. 4 Property Ownership; in a system of private ownership, the rights to transfer tite of ownership to others, the right to use the property as the owner sees fit and the right to full use of the products, services or surpluses the Property generates belong to individuals oF groups Of individuals. In a system of these Tights belong to the state and in a system of ‘making is held by a RNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER LEAIcooperative ownership these nghts are hy SAIS a ven ea 3 cation Created for the mutual bene of tg members. Incentives: A rew im Or Incentive system is a system of matvating people to act, to buy ata 9p produce and consume and to use ther resource tminloy npatculr ways and means Manag ‘nce Pnreesed 2085, areater profits, xuses a ee cane ceNarGs. Moral incentives areey to Peoples’ Sense of responsiblity to the eon ee saciety oF region. Economic Systems 1.captaism ~ an economic system based on ownership of wealth, The elements of captain Indude:prvate property; profit; competition; lassez Sire. 2,Socialism means of production and distribution are ther than privately, The state is ‘Owner, but in some forms of socialism, the owner might be a ‘small community or ‘someone who works for a particular enterprise. 3. Market Socialism — represents an effort to join features ‘of sodalism, public ownership and a relatively exual distribution of income, with emphasis on market forces and decentralized decision-making characteristic of ‘@apitalst economies, Politics and Government Paltcs - process by which some people and groups acquire power and exercise it over others Power ~ capacity of people or groups to control or Influence the actions of others, whether those others wish to cooperate or not 1, Legitimate — generally recognized and socially right and Necessary 2. Mlegitimate ~ without support of social approval Authority — legitimate power that is institutional in nature ‘ea st et ‘accepted practice 2 CGrarsmatchutorky ~ generated by the personality or ‘exceptional personal appeal of an individual 3-Legahrational Authority — rests on rationally established "ules (Le. rules that reflect a systematic attempt to Adjust means to ends, to make institutions to what they ‘are supposed to do) Forms of Government 1. Democracy — "rule of the people” 2. Totalitarianism - form of government run by a single Party in which there is a governmental surveillance and Soatvol over all aspects of ife 3. Authoritarianism — form of government in which cae lee Ultimate authonity is vested in a single person; ay be ether a monarch, a hereditary ruler oF @ Gctator 124 TV. SOCIAL CHANGE AND CURRENT TRENDS Population and Ecology ~ Ecology is the study of the ‘elationships between organisms and their environment Elements of Population Change 1. Ferity "2. Mortality. 3. Migration Zero Population Growth ~ the point at which there is 0 natural increase in the population Relative Deprivation - concition in which what people think they deserve is not what they actually have. Social Facilitation - augmentaton in behavior due to the presence of other individuals. Social Loafing — decrease in motivation to exert effort because of presence of others. Collective Behavior and Social Movements- Collective behavior is behavior that occurs in some Fesponse to a common influence or stimulus in relatively Spontaneous, unstructured, and unstable situations. Forms of Collective Behavior: 1.Crond~ a temporary grouping of people, physically ose together with a common focus or interest Types of Crowd 2. Casual Crowd ~ passive crowd involving a minimum femotional engagement and action by the participants (9: people looking into a department store window) . Conventional Crowd ~ follows conventional norms, but interaction is minimal (eg: passengers on an airplane) «: Expressive Crowds ~ provide opportunities for emotional expression and release (eg: Times Square (on New Year's Eve) 4. Slidarstic Crowds ~ contain many mutually supportive ‘elatonships and give a sense of social solidarity or tunity (eg: charismatic and religious groupe) ¢.Acting Crowds ~ group action that is focused on some goal or object. They are typically angry and hostile and their actvites violate conventional norms. (eg: mabe, riots) f. Public ~ scattered grouping of people who have a ‘common interest, concer or focus of opinion Theories on Crowding 2, Contagion Theory ~ Gustave Le Bon suggested that the {rowed was a single organism with one collective mind. He sald thatthe crowe!'s abilty to “hypnotize” individuals wes based on three factors: a feeting of invincibility, the grest power that comes from sheer numbers; contagion, the tapid spread of new ways of thinking; and suogestbity, a state of fascination in which people are not conscious vf their acts. LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEWER2. Mass BeREWOF — CO. 2 Fehavior m atuse social groupings “e a, Panic ~ form of mass behavior in which with a threat, react in a seem manner. .Mass Hysteria ~ rare form of col occurs when people find them: threatening situations « Disaster Behavior — follows natural or oth dead tat provcke a “ass coms taee oe People, faced Ng irational and fearful lective behavior that selves in ambiguous, 4.Fad — oF crazeis a temporary activity that numbers of people enthusiastsly Pures «Fashion ~ currenty acceptable style of dress or behavior 3.Sodal Movements ~ socialized trough collective action Types of Social Movements a. Reform Movement ~ seeks to improve society 3s a whole by changing certain aspects ofthe socal struchire ,Revalutionary Movements ~ seek more radical change in socety. Their goal is to overthrow the existing social structure and replace it with new one Resistance Movements ~ aim to prevent change, or reverse a change that has already been achieved 4. Expressive Movements ~ are attempts to provide their members with some type of personal transformation, which may include emotional satisfaction, a riew identity ora different ideology. effort to change society ‘Stages Leading to Eventual ‘Acceptance by Society 2, Preliminary Stage ~ marked by restlessness in the society, conflict between various groups, and inefficient and insufficient efforts at dealing with social problems .Popular Stage — the discontented become aware that thers share their views and see that united action, through a social movement, is possible. &.Formal Organization Stage ~exctement ofthe masses 's formalized. Ideologies are developed that help to alve the movement direction and unity. Values and goals become dear, and the movement develops an organizational structure with a hierarchy of leaders, 4. Insthutional Stage — movement becomes an accepted 2nd instuionalzed part of soc. lective a. Gop wk a te personal ort als Of others ®, Rumor —an untrue or unverified report thats itfomaty communicated from person to Pers ot as it bject a5 5 the Opn tans abot an sve ta oe et ee of ideas ina 4. Propaganda - calculated manipulavon way tet appease people's emaions and Prejude Cties mmmunity Change Ura est of pee om lute areas LEARNFAST Ri 125 Over urbanization ~ a dispanty between the number of People flooding into the cities and the actual opportunities ‘and services available to them Urbanism — pattems of culture and social structure that ‘are characteristic of cities and how they differ from the Culture of rural communities V. Social Change and Future Trends Factors of Social Change 1.Physical environment and population 2.Tech 3.Nonmaterial culture 4. Cultural Diffusion — process by which culture traits ‘Spread from one group or society to another. 5. Modernization ~ refers to the major internal social ‘changes that occur when a traditional preindustrial society develops economically and becomes Industrialized and urbanized ‘Theories of Social Change 1.Sociocultural Evolution Theory ~ the change and evelopment of societies over time in either unilinear or ‘multilinear fashion 2.Cyclical Theory = cultures and societies go through Continual cycles of growth and decay, challenge and response 3.Functionalist Theory ~ analyzes function of change in preserving social order as a whole 4.Confict Theory — real societies are not as stable as the functionalsts imply and that the theory is unable to ‘account for many kinds of changes. FW r Important Figures in the Deveiopment of Sociology: ‘+ Auguste Comte ~ coined the term "sociology." He was a French philosopher who believed that the social and: natural worlds obeyed the same rules. ‘+ Karl Marx ~ saw in society continuous conftct and change. Mark believed that societies follow historical laws determined by economic forces. + Emile Durkheim — he argued that the main concem of sociology should be what he called "socal facts” (e.g. laws, customs and institutions), which are external to ‘people but which exert control over them. He developed ‘an analysis of suicide based on group connections, He Egoistic Suicide ~ the individual does not fee! connected to the larger society; the person is not affected by social constraints against suicide: > Altruistic Suicide ~ the individual places the group’s ‘welfare above his or her own life: > Fatalistic Suicide — the individual commits suicide because of feelings of powerlessness to regulate his or her lie; » Anomic Suicide — the individual commits suicide when society lacks social order ‘+ Max Weber — best known for his studies of bureaucracy and capitalism. Much of Weber's thought contrasts strongly with that of Marx. He believed that social scientists can find objective solutions to problems VIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEWER