The Science of Storytelling by Shaikh Abdulaziz (2020)

THE SCIENCE
OF
STORYTELLING
WHY STORIES MAKE HELP

US HUMAN AND HOW TO
TELL THEM BETTER
About the Author
Shaikh Abdulaziz is a currently

Student of V.E.S Polytechnic in
department Mechanical
Engineering (Chembur)
Mumbai. He did his Primary,
Secondary School in National
Sarvodaya High School. He was
Born on a Cold Winter Night,
when even time seemed to
stand still, in Allahabad village.
He does not remember much of early childhood but he
was very active, curious and communicative child
fortunately, my thirst for knowledge did not come to end
when he at school. He was passionate about Science and
Mathematics. This passion helped again profound
knowledge in their areas, and he was admitted to the
college of my dreams. Till date as a student of V.E.S
polytechnic and he says that he feel very happy about it.
He was certain that his Degree will become a ticket to a
better tomorrow. He studies hard and devote his free
time reading books and watching Interviews with
Recognized Specialists in the field. He understood that
Life is not just a bed of Roses, and challenges and
hardships are an Integral element of Life. At last Paying
off his Student loan has become an Important Challenge
for him.
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Description
The compelling, ground-breaking guide to creative

writing that reveals how the brain responds to
storytelling
Stories shape who we are. They drive us to act out our

dreams and ambitions and meld our beliefs. Storytelling
is an essential part of what makes us human. So, how do
master storytellers compel us? In the Science of
Storytelling, of creative writing Shaikh Abdulaziz to show
how we can write better stories, revealing, among other
things, how storytellers—and also our brains—create
worlds by being attuned to moments of unexpected
change.
Shaikh Abdulaziz superbly chosen examples range from

Harry Potter to Jane Austen to Alice Walker, Greek drama
to Russian novels to Native American folk tales, King Lear
to Breaking Bad to children’s stories. With sections such
as “The Dramatic Question, a€? “Creating a World, a€?
and “Plot, Endings, and Meaning, a€? as well as a
practical, step-by-step appendix dedicated to “The Sacred
Flaw Approach, a€? The Science of Storytelling reveals
just what makes stories work, placing it alongside such
creative writing classics as John Yoke’s into the Woods: A
Five-Act Journey into Story and Lajos Geri’s The Art of
Dramatic Writing. Enlightening and empowering.
PREFACE
Humans have been telling stories ever since we came

down from the trees. But do we really understand why?
And if we did, would we be able to tell them better?
We would be nothing without story. Story moulds who

we are, from our character to our cultural identity. Story
compels us to act out our dreams and ambitions, and
shapes our politics and beliefs. We use story to construct
our relationships, to keep order in our law courts and
governments, to make sense of the world in our
newspapers and social media. Even when we sleep, we
dream in story. Storytelling is an essential part of what
makes us human.
Stories shape who we are. They drive us to act out our

dreams and ambitions and meld our beliefs. Storytelling
is an essential part of what makes us human. revealing,
among other things, how storytellers—and also our
brains—create worlds by being attuned to moments of
unexpected change.
With good wishes to all of you!
MUMBAI,
Date: - 7, Oct 2020. Mr. Shaikh Abdulaziz

CONTENT
1}The Science of Storytelling
1.1 Abstract..................................................................001
1.1 Introduction / Why stories?...................................002
2} The Science of Storytelling
2.1 Event Postponed....................................................005
2.2 Five Day Workshop................................................006
2.3 One Day Intensive..................................................007
2.4 Before lockdown....................................................008
2.5 Current Situation In London...................................009
3.1 What Is Science......................................................010
3.2 Science Technology................................................012
3.3 Universe of Science................................................013
3.4 Scientific Method...................................................014
3.5 What Is Science (FLOWCHART) .............................015

4} On Scientific Knowledge
4.1 Abstract..................................................................016
4.2 Introduction...........................................................017
4.3 Foundational..........................................................018
4.4 Scientific Knowledge and its Circulation……………..021
4.5 Circulation Through Geographies & History..........023
5} The Science of Storytelling (LOCKDOWN TOPIC)
5.1 Job lost...................................................................026
5.2 Income loss for poor..............................................027
5.3 Hotel in Containment Zone are Closed Due to

Corona……………………………………………………………..……...028
5.4 Indian Divisions Renewable Close..........................029
5.5 Indian Railways losses............................................030
5.6 GDP........................................................................031
5.7 Death Due to Corona............................................032
5.8 Reneve Loss for Metro..........................................033

6.1 Why Telling Stories Most Powerful........................034
6.2 Way to Active your Brain.......................................034
6.3 Our Brain on Stories...............................................036
6.4 How Our the Brain More Active When We Get

Stories..........................................................................036
6.5 A story Can Put Your Whole Brain to Work And

Yet................................................................................037
6.6 Great Experiment...................................................039
6.7 quick last fact.........................................................042
7.1 The Science Behind The ‘ART' Of

Storytelling...................................................................043
7.2 The Science of Storytelling
(1 To 20 Topic)………………………………………………………….049
7.3 Why We Love Stories Everyone Love A Good

Stories………………………….………………………………...…….….084
8} Storytelling + Marketing
8.1 ABOUT....................................................................087
8.2 CASE STUDIES.........................................................088
8.3 AN OVERVIEW........................................................091
9.1 Understanding.......................................................091
9.2 Making Assumption...............................................095
10} Scientific Knowledge
10.1 Benefits of Science...............................................100
10.2 Benefits & Outcome ............................................101
10.3 New Application on Science

Knowledge……………………………………………………………....101
10.4 New technological advance may lead to new

scientific discoveries....................................................102
10.5 Potential application…………………………………………102
11} Publish & Perish?
11.1 What's In a Scientific Journal Article………………….105

11.2 Discovery: - The Spark of Science…………………....107
11.3 Every Day Science Questions...............................108
11.4 Think Science.......................................................109
12} What Science Has Done For You Lately
12.1 Power Drill Could Set ............................................115
12.2 Sticky Notes Come Easily .....................................115
12.3 Gum Is Chewy......................................................116
12.4 Office Buildings ...................................................116
12.5 A Lego Brick.........................................................116
12.6 Polishing Shoes ...................................................117
12.7 You Could Health.................................................117
12.8 Density Explain ....................................................117
12.9 Water Cleans .......................................................118
12.10 PVISE..................................................................118
12.11 BABIES ...............................................................119
12.12 Glass Break Easily ..............................................119

12.13 Calorie Count Are Calculated ...........................120
13} ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE
*1) ADVANTAGE
1.1 Industrialization.....................................................122
1.2 Surplus Food .........................................................122
1.3 Fast Travelling Communication.............................122
1.4 Innovation.............................................................123
1.5 Problem Solving Technique...................................123
*2) DISADVANTAGE
2.1 Unemployment ....................................................125
2.2 Materialist Approach ..........................................125
2.3 Pollution .............................................................125
2.4 Human Annihilation ............................................126
2.5 Uncertain Future .................................................126
*3) Advantage Of Technology Advance
3.1 Definition.............................................................129
3.2 Knowledge AND Understanding............................129
3.3 Science Today / Medicine......................................129
3.4 Communication / Electricity /
Transportation……………………………………………….…………130
3.5 Science of Simplify / Meaning Of
Science……………………………………………………………..………132
14} Scale of Universe
14.1 Branches Of Science / Natural

Science……………………………………………………………..………141
14.2 Social Science / Formal Science /

Logic………………………………………….……………………………..142
14.3 Mathematics / Statistics…………………………...………145
14.4 System & Decision Theory...................................146
14.5 Theoretical Science..............................................147
14.6 Natural Science ...................................................149
14.7 Physical & Chemistry...........................................150

14.8 Earth Science / Geology
Oceanography.............................................................152
14.9 Meteorology / Space Science.............................154
14.10 Astronomy.........................................................154
14.11 Life Science / Bio-Chemistry /
Microbiology...............................................................155
14.12 Zoology / Ecology..............................................157
14.13 Social Science /Applied Science........................159
15} A Scientific Approach to Life: - A Science Toolkit
15.1 Untangling Media Message And Public

Policies…………………………………………………………………..162
15.2 Who Dun nit: - Where Does the Information come

from………………………………………………………………….……165
16} Beware Of False Balance Are The Views Of The

View of The Scientific Community Accurately
Portrayed ?
6.1 And Then Ends Its With More

Uncertainty.................................................................170
16.2 Who's The Expert ?.............................................172

16.3 Too Tentative, Is The Scientific Community's
Confidence In the Ideas Accurately portrayed
…………………………………………………………………………………173
16.4 Heed The HYPE ...................................................176
17} What Is a Controversy Misre Presented Or Blown
Out Of Proportion?
17.1 Fundamental Scientific Controversy…………………178
17.2 Secondary Scientific Controversy…………………..…179
17.3 Conflict Over Ethicality Of Method………………..…180
17.4 Conflict Over Application....................................181
17.5 Conflict Between Scientific idea & Non- Scientific

View Point ..................................................................182
18} Counterfeiting Controversy
18.1 Getting To The Source Where Can I Get More

Information…………………………………………………………..…184
18.2 Finding Additional Source

Scientific…………………………………………………………….……186
18.3 Avoid Ulterior Motives ......................................186

18.4 Keep It Current ...................................................187
18.5 Check for Citation................................................187
19} When Evaluating A Scientific Idea Scientist Carefully

Consider The Relevant Evidence ................189
20} Summing Upto Science Toolkit.............................193
21} Getting Started :- Tips For The Teacher (K-1)
21.1 Science Flowchart For (K-2 ).................................197
22} Tips And Strategies For Teaching The Nature And

Process Of Science
22.1 MISCONCEPTION / CORRECTION.........................198
23} What has Science Done For You Lately ?
23.1 No Way to Use Electricity....................................215
23.2 No Plastic.............................................................216
23.3 No Modern Agriculture........................................216
23.4 No. Modern Medicine .........................................217
24} Fuelling Technology
24.1 Energy .................................................................220

24.2 Medicine..............................................................220
24.3 Defense................................................................221
25} Science and Technology On Fast-Forward

.....................................................................................222
26} The ‘NEXT BIG THING' In Science Ten Years from

Now .............................................................................230
27} The Benefits Of Science Out Weight Disadvantage
27.1 Informative Speech ideas And Topic....................237
27.2 How To Choose The Right Informative

Topic…………………………………………………………………….....237
27.3 SCIENCE TOPICS...................................................240
28} Poem On (CORONAVIRUS)...................................243
29} Passing Each Day Is Becoming Difficult Some OF Us

The Time
.....................................................................................246
30} NEWS NATIONAL
30.1 The Hindu Net Desk.............................................247
30.2 Here Are The Latest Update................................248

31} The Best Science - Themed Comics.......................295
32} Your Complete Guide (Solar Eclipse) ...................301
33} 2017: - A Year On Earth
33.1 Human Communication ......................................303
33.2 Sources.................................................................306
34} FAREWEELL, CASSINI ...........................................309
35} Greatest Science Book Of All Time .....................311
36} Science Comics & Cartoons..................................333
37} Science In Ancient Indian ....................................344

The Science of Storytelling |1
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING
ABSTRACT
Use of stories and storytelling in language education is

well attested. Schema theorists indicate the importance
of helping children to develop a “sense of. story” as a
prerequisite to comprehending and producing many
types of literature. However, stories may also be used
across the curriculum to teach content subjects. The
present paper examines the use of stories and
storytelling as a vehicle for the teaching of primary
science. It addresses the rationale for stories in science
lessons and illustrates the various ways in which stories
can be exploited in order to help young learners to
conceptualize and personalize scientific notions and
principles.
“The SCIENCE of storytelling is not only compatible,

they’re inseparable”
- SHAIKH ABDULAZIZ.
Introduction
When I was a child, my mother used to tell me scary

ghost stories that gave me goose bumps all over my
body. I still remember her story about a hungry ghost that
roamed around at night searching for young girls’ blood.
Until now, her story is still fresh in my mind and that is
why I never want to go out alone at night. There are many
stories that my mother and teachers have told me that I
can still remember now. Life itself is full of stories:stories
told to inform, entertain, appreciate, stories about
happiness, sadness and many more. This has inspired me
to become interested in using stories as a tool in teaching
and learning.
I believe stories can be a powerful tool if used effectively

across the curriculum and especially in science
education. I believe that stories can be used inteaching
science. In addressing the use of stories in science
education, a number of questions come to mind. What
are stories and why can
They be used as a tool in teaching and learning science?

In this paper, I will attempt to answer these questions by
drawing on the scenario of Bruneian primary science
classrooms and then to discuss the norms of scientific.
language that science teachers usually use in the
classroom. Then, this paper will discuss the definitions of
stories and the benefits of using them in teaching and

learning particularly in primary science and how
teachers could use stories and storytelling in their
science classrooms. Finally, this paper will delineate the
limitations of using stories in science teaching and
learning.
Why stories?
In the primary science classrooms, the conventional

style of teaching and learning in science is often the
delivery of facts for children to memorize in order to
understand science concepts (Zaitun, 1997). This is
prominent in Bruneian primary classrooms where the
teacher is the authoritative figure, dominating most of
the lesson in terms of delivering chunks of scientific facts.
Egan (1986) argues that mathematics and science suffer
most from being stripped of their affective associations
and teachers tend to teach 80 these subjects as inhuman
structures of knowledge, almost taking pride in their
logical and inhuman precision.
There is lack of creativity and children may gradually lose

interest in learning science because they believe that
science is boring and difficult to understand. This is where
stories could be used to capture their interest in doing
and learning science. This is not a suggestion that stories
are the only tool that can be used to engage them in
learning science, as there are many other activities that

can be used to capture these children interest in learning
science.
Mr. Shaikh Abdulaziz

THE SCIENCE OF STROYTELLING IN BUSINESS
EVENT POSTPONED
Learn the secrets of

business communication
with acclaimed tutor and
bestselling author of The
Science of Storytelling,
Shaikh Abdulaziz.The
Science of Storytelling for
Business is a unique and practical introduction to
storytelling as the ultimate form of human
communication.
It shows how story techniques can be used in a wide

variety of business contexts, including marketing, internal
communication, pitching, change management,
leadership and periods of crisis. A line manager is an
employee who directly manages other employees and
operations while reporting to a higher-ranking manager.
Related job titles are supervisor, section leader,
foreperson and team leader.
They are charged with meeting corporate objectives in a

specific functional area or line of business.
ᴛʜᴇ ꜱᴄɪᴇɴᴄᴇ ᴏꜰ ꜱᴛᴏʀʏᴛᴇʟʟɪɴɢ
FIVE DAY WORKSHOP
The Science of
Storytelling Five Day
Workshop
This is a unique
opportunity to join
acclaimed story tutor
and author of Sunday Times bestseller The Science of
Storytelling in an intimate five day workshop.
Whether you’ve been working on your project for years,

or you’re staring at an empty page, this course will offer
invaluable perspectives on character and plot, and how
the two must work together to create original, compelling
and moving stories.
Shaikh Abdulaziz will lecture for around two hours per

day. You will then have an extended lunch period in which
write before the group, of no more than two people,
gather again to discuss their works in progress.
Most of the people involved have also auditioned for

shows we’re working on and some have become
trustworthy readers for the company..
ONE DAY INTENSIVE
The Science of Storytelling: -
This is an opportunity to
join acclaimed story
tutor and author of
Sunday Times bestseller
The Science of
Storytelling in an
intensive one day
workshop.
Whether you’ve been working on your project for years,

or you’re staring at an empty page, this course will offer
you invaluable perspectives on character and plot, and
how the two must work together to create original,
compelling and moving stories.
Shaikh Abdulaziz will guide you through the essentials

and secres of creating succesful stories. A longtime sold-
out favourite at The Guardian Masterclasses, this unique
course is especially suitable for novelists, playwrites,
screenwriters and filmmakers.“Today's workshop was
one of the richest and most fun times I've ever had
BEFORE LOCKDOWN
As the end of the first

lockdown period
approached, state
governments and other
advisory committees
recommended
extending the lockdown.
The governments of
Odisha and Punjab extended the state lockdowns to 1
May.Maharashtra.
Karnataka, West Bengal and Telangana followed suit. On

14 April, Prime minister Narendra Modi extended the
nationwide lockdown until 3 May, with a conditional
relaxation after 20 April for the regions where the spread
had been contained or was minimal.
On 1 May, the Government of India extended the

nationwide lockdown further by two weeks until 17 May.
The Government divided all the districts into three zones
based on the spread of the virus—green, red and
orange—with relaxations applied accordingly. On 17
May, the lockdown was further extended till 31 May by
the National Disaster Management Authority.
CURRENT SITUATION IN LOCKDOWN
India reported over 1

lakh coronavirus
recoveries in a single-
day for the first time,
improving the recovery
rate to 80.86 per cent,
while fresh cases also
dropped below 76,000
after two weeks, according to the Health Ministry data
updated on Tuesday. India has reported more than
90,000 COVID-19 recoveries for the third day in
succession on Monday, with 93,356 patients having been
discharged in the last 24 hours, the Union Health Ministry
said, adding that 79% of the new recoveries are from 10
States/Union Territories.
You can track coronavirus cases, deaths and testing rates

at the national and State levels here. A list of State
Helpline numbers is available as well. The Punjab
government on Tuesday said three government medical
colleges of the state would participate in the phase 3
trials of the anti-COVID-19 vaccine ‘Covaxin’ being tested.
T h e S c i e n c e o f S t o r y t e l l i n g | 10
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Science is a
systematic enterprise
that builds and
organizes knowledge
in the form of
testable explanations
and predictions
about the universe.
The earliest roots of
science can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
in around 3500 to 3000 BCE
Science (from the Latin word Scientia, meaning

"knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and
organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations
and predictions about the universe.
The Universe represented as multiple disk-shaped slices

across time, which passes from left to right the earliest
roots of science can be traced to Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia in around 3500 to 3000 BCE. Their
contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine
entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical
antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to
provide explanations of events in the physical world

based on natural causes.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge

of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in
Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000
CE) of the Middle Ages but was preserved in the Muslim
world during the Islamic Golden Age. The recovery and
assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into
Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived
"natural philosophy", which was later transformed by the
Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th centuryas
new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek
conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon
played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not
until the 19th century that many of the institutional and
professional features of science began to take shape;
along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to
"natural science.
SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY
Modern science is typically divided into three major

branches that consist of the natural sciences (e.g.,
biology, chemistry, and physics), which study nature in
the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g., economics,
psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and
societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic,
mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which
study abstract concepts.
There is disagreement, however, on whether the formal

sciences actually constitute a science as they do not rely
on empirical evidence. Disciplines that use existing
scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as
engineering and medicine, are described as applied
sciences.Science is based on research, which is commonly
conducted in academic and research institutions as well
as in government agencies and companies. The practical

impact of scientific research has led to the emergence of
science policies that seek to influence the scientific
enterprise by prioritizing the development of commercial
products, armaments, health care, and environmental
protection.
The physical universe is defined as all of space and time

(collectively referred to as spacetime) and their contents.
Such contents comprise all of energy in its various forms,
including electromagnetic radiation and matter, and
therefore planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and the
contents.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method is

an empirical method of
acquiring knowledge
that has characterized
the development of
science since at least
the 17th century. It
involves careful
observation, applying
rigorous scepticism
about what is observed,
given that cognitive
assumptions can distort
how one interprets the
observation.
It involves formulating
hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations;
experimental and measurement-based testing of
deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement
(or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the
experimental findings. These are principles of the
scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series
of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.
Shaikh Abdulaziz (2020). On Scientific Knowledge and

its Circulation: Reception Aesthetics and Standpoint
Theory as Resources for a Historical Epistemology
Pulse: A Journal for History, Philosophy, & Sociology of

Science (2020)
On Scientific Knowledge and its Circulation:
Reception Aesthetics and Standpoint Theory as

Resources for a Historical
Epistemology
-SHAIKH ABDULAZIZ
Abstract
This short essay proposes a combined framework of

Reception Aesthetics and feminist Standpoint Theory as
an approach to the circulation of scientific knowledge and
to aHistorical Epistemology. The article argues that
Reception Aesthetics provides intellectual tools to
examine how ideas were appropriated at each
conjuncture and made productive. Standpoint Theory
focuses on how local agents can be scientific and
epistemically productive and relevant, and how scientific
labour is divided according to cultural, economic, and
geographical factors. Here it is argued that the
articulation of both outlooks can be fruitful for

elucidating how the production of scientific knowledge
with its normative criteria redistributed, how the
dynamics of contemporary circuits of scientific exchange
can be conceptualized, how the possibilities and limits to
making past knowledge productive can be discussed, and
how a normative stance can be built from the relationship
between epistemic values, non-epistemic values, and
historical conditions.
Introduction
In an well-known article, concluded that although

conceiving of the history of science as a form of
contextualization has been an advancement for the field
overall, it ended by equating “context” and “history”, and
confusing the approach itself, lf due to imprecisions in the
definition of objects and frameworks. He called for a new,
Although various reasons have been proposed to explain

the potential effectiveness of science stories to promote
learning, no explicit relationship of stories to learning
theory in science has been propounded. In this paper,
two structurally analogous models are developed and
compared: a structural model of stories and a temporal
conceptual change model of learning. On the basis of the
similarity ... [Show full abstract]View full-text They be
used as a tool in teaching and learning science? In this
paper, I will attempt to answer these questions by

drawing on the scenario of Bruneian primary science
classrooms and then to discuss the norms of scientific
language that science teachers usually use in the
classroom.
Then, this paper will discuss the definitions of stories and

the benefits of using them in teaching and learning
particularly in primary science and how teachers could
use stories and storytelling in their science classrooms.
Finally, this paper will delineate the limitations of using
stories in science teaching and learning.
-SHAIKH ABDULAZIZ
“foundational” way of understanding historicity in

science as “an act of communication, with receivers,
producers, and modes and conventions of transmission”,
oriented towards “eradicating the distinction between
the making and the communicating of knowledge
[…][and] thinking about statements as vectors with a
direction and a medium and the possibility of response.”
(p. 661). This implies not only the study of the circuits,
media and mechanisms of circulation of knowledge, a line
of analysis pointed out by transnational history
(Heilbron,Guihot & Jeanpierre, 2008; Turchetti, Herran &
Boudia, 2012) but also an investigation into who
produces knowledge and how it is modified in the
process. That is to say, a conception in which the role of

production of knowledge, and the role of appropriation
and reconfiguration of knowledge, are two modalities of
the same process.
The producer is already a receiver, and the receiver can

be considered a producer. What is at stake here is not
only a renewed way of thinking about history of science,
but also an epistemological statement: scientific theories,
methods, evidence, discussions and consensus are a
result of the circulation of knowledge. That is to say,
scientific production is not merely spread from one point
to another but inherently distributed through different
spaces and times. This description, which may seem
trivial, is still not often taken as a starting point to
conceive how scientists have been thinking and working
through different times and places.
Scientific knowledge’s situatedness is not thinkable

without taking into account its
mobility, through time and across geographies. In this

respect, both scientific outcomes and criteria for
theorizing and obtaining evidence demand that a
Historical Epistemology (HE)reconstructs and appraises
scientific evolution. This short essay aims to provide some
intellectual tools, derived from my own research on the
reception of Soviet and communist psychology in

Argentina (García, 2014a,
2014b, 2016a, 2016b), for a historical epistemology of the

sciences, in line with Secord’s call,
but with a different approach that highlights not just the

communication in science, but stresses how situated
agents appropriate and make circulating knowledge
productive. The idea that epistemology and philosophy of
science requires a historical basis is not new (e.g.Fleck,
1935/1979; Bachelard, 1938/2004; Metzger, 1987), but in
recent years that demand has gained new attention and
many versions of such a reconsideration have been
proposed(e.g. Daston, 1994; Renn, 1996; Galison, 2008;
Rehinberger, 2010). HE, as well as itscompanion,
Epistemological History, remains a very imprecise field,
however; agreementsare rare and there are many
terminological and conceptual juxtapositions that still
require elucidation (e.g. Sturm, 2011). Nevertheless, this
state of indeterminacy broadens the search for
intellectual and methodological tools. The approach to an
HE proposed here is not normative; it does not offer
criteria for deciding which knowledge is more accurate or
On Scientific Knowledge and its Circulation
consistent, and is not proposed as a closed or complete

model. Instead, it offers an outline of the ways one might
deepen an examination of where, when, how, by whom,
and for whom knowledges have been produced. This
allows for a consideration of science as an endeavour that
results from combined conjunctures, as an historical
outcome tout court.
This strong emphasis on historicity is still not

incompatible with analytical and normative approaches;
nevertheless, it obliges one to consider both
contemporary and past epistemological norms, their
situatedness and interaction. The aim, therefore, is to
search for a historical reflexivity that provides
information not only about specific knowledges and their
contexts, but also about the epistemological frameworks
used or presupposed by historical figures and
contemporary historians and scientists, in an informed
and productive recovery of the past. In order to do so, this
article offers an outline for the possibilities of a combined
framework of Reception Aesthetics (RA), proposed in the
German tradition of literary theory, and Standpoint
Theories (ST), formulated in the feminist philosophy of
science, as historiographical and epistemological
resources for the history of sciences. RA is considered to
have been a renovating outlook for the study of the
circulation and changes in cultural production (e.g.

Hohendahl, 1977; Dotti, Blanco, Plotkin, Vezzetti &
García, 2008). WhatRA provides is not a proper
historiographical framework, but a strategy for analyzing
historical sources without a previously defined goal.
This open-ended feature allows for diverse articulations

with several other historiographical tools and approaches
(e.g. Vezzetti,1996; Wieviorka, Burguière, Chartier, Farge
& Vigarello, 1998;
Woessner, 2010). Here an articulation with ST is offered;

this philosophical approach is proposed by their
advocates as a renewed starting point for scientific
thinking, and as such it is normatively driven. However,in
contrast to the mainstream philosophy of science, ST
considers that historical factors are constitutive of such
normativity, and allows for an exploration of how
scientific knowledge, and the scientists as agents, have
been historically determined, both in the past and in the
present. This brings many challenging conceptual and
methodological issues to the forefront, such as the
possibility of using the past to establish normative criteria
for the present, and vice-versa. While RA and ST are not
new approaches, they have not been systematically
articulated before; this brief essay proposes that a
combined framework can be a fruitful historiographical

strategy to highlight the entanglement of objects and
processes, impossible to attain by a single approach. In
particular, RA and ST have features that can be useful to
illuminate the production, circulation and embedding of
scientific knowledge. I propose here that the articulation
of both approaches is useful for an accurate historical
analysis of the Specificities of conditions of production
and circulation of scientific knowledge, as well as the
capabilities of scientists as local agents.
-SHAIKH ABDULAZIZ
Circulation through geographies and history: Some

features of Rezeptionsäesthetik
The main innovation of RA contrary to what the word

“reception” may suggest – was to locate the reader as a
productive agent of a literary work, differentiating him or
her from the reader presupposed by the author as an
intended public. The variation of readers over moments
of time and geography allowed for the introduction of the
historical-aesthetic problems of how an oeuvre can retain
its value across time, how a network of readers can
develop, and how each reader and context for reading
can have an impact on the consideration of that oeuvre.
According to H. R. Jauss (1970/2000), consecutive
readings are those that “concretize” and give historical
life to each work. The value of a text depends on this

evocative potentiality in different readers, derived from
the intersection between the “horizons of expectation”
created by a work and the expectations of the reader. The
reader is reinstated as an agent who due to his or her
historical placing, can make a reading effective and
enhances the text through successive readings. From this
stance, the reader as historical agent also has an
epistemic role: it is through the act of reading, in the
permanently updated historical relationship among
author, work, and reader that the productivity and
historicity of literary activity resides. Literary history is not
a mere sequence of events, but the recognition of
inherent change in any literary production due to the
updating of readings. The task of history is thus the
reconstruction of the mediations that allow the contact
of the past (of a work) with the present (of a reading).
This outlook opens the possibility of making historical

studies to characterize specific readers – those expected
by an author, those who read in practice, and the distance
between them – which results in a history of the activity
and skills of reading in itself and a history of the
dissemination, publishing process and marketing of
books. A solid tradition already exists in this area of
historical studies
On Scientific Knowledge and its Circulation
As RA is focused on the appropriation of circulating

knowledge, it is mostly dependent on published texts. Yet
correspondence, outlines, notebooks, unfinished
manuscripts and other “private” and never published
texts can be meaningful for reconstructing the genesis
and development of scientific ideas. The analysis of these
kinds of materials, as they may be helpful in establishing
the distance between the actual work of research and the
way the results were later communicated. However, as
they are accessible to only a few specialists, their value
for studying reception processes in different publics is
limited.
JOBS LOST
Jobs lost: Almost six

million white-collar
workers lost their
jobs between May
and August amid
the COVID-19
pandemic, the
CMIE said. These
include engineers, physicians, teachers, accountants, and
analysts, among others. CMIE CEO Mahesh Vyas said,
“Employment of these professionally qualified white-
collar workers fell steeply to 12.2 million during the wave
of May-August 2020. This is the lowest employment of
these professionals since 2016. All the gains made in their
employment over the past four years were washed away
during the lockdown."
Income loss for poor: An analysis done by Scroll in June

showed that “the incomes lost by vulnerable sections of
India’s workforce during the two months of the lockdown
would amount to as much as Rs 4 lakh crores, or nearly
2% of the country’s annual gross domestic product.” (AP
Photo/Shaikh Abdulaziz / Mehta Pratham).
INCOME LOSS FOR POOR
Income loss for

poor: An analysis
done by Scroll in
June showed that
“the incomes lost
by vulnerable
sections of India’s
workforce during
the two months
of the lockdown
would amount to as much as Rs 4 lakh crores, or nearly
2% of the country’s annual gross domestic product.”
(AP Photo/Shaikh Abdulaziz / Mehta Pratham).
The lockdown in India that began on March 25 to contain

the coronavirus pandemic has ravaged the country’s
economy and rendered millions of its workers without
any source of income. Our analysis shows that the
incomes lost by vulnerable sections of India’s workforce
during the two months of the lockdown would amount to
as much as Rs 4 lakh crores, or nearly 2% of the country’s
annual gross domestic product.
HOTEL IN CONTAINMENT ZONE ARE CLOSED DUE TO

CORONA
Hotel industry data

available: Till June
30, the hospitality
industry piled up
around Rs 1.25 lakh
crore losses. Many
hotels and
hospitality chains
have expressed
inability to continue operating partially or fully, Gurbaxish
Kohli, Vice-President of the Federation of Hotel &
Restaurant Associations of India, told IANS.
The lockdown to contain spread of COVID-19 in the

country has had disastrous impact on the hospitality
sector, especially for hotels, hoteliers said. "The impact is
disastrous. The hotels are businesses which are very
capital intensive and also have very high fixed costs,"
Lemon Tree Hotels Chairman and MD Patanjali G Keswani
told...
INDIAN DIVISIONS RENEWAL CLOSE
Indian aviation
revenue loss: The
revenue of Indian
carriers has reduced
from Rs 25,517 crore
during April-June
2019 to Rs 3,651
crore during April-
June 2020, civil
aviation minister Hardeep Singh Puri informed Rajya
Sabha. It is to be noted that the airlines are still not
functioning at full capacity. (Photo by Shaikh
Abdulaziz/Mehta Pratham)
Revenue loss for Metro: Delhi, Bangalore, Lucknow,

Chennai and Kochi Metro rail corporations reported a
combined loss of almost Rs 2,000 crore due to suspension
of services, Hardeep Puri informed Lok Sabha. While Delhi
Metro suffered a loss of Rs 1,609 crore, the Bangalore
Metro, Lucknow Metro, Chennai Metro and Kochi Metro
lost Rs 170 crore, Rs 90 crore, Rs 80 crore and Rs 34.18
crore respectively.
INDIAN RAILWAYS LOOSE
Indian Railways'
loss: The Indian
Railways is
expected to incur
a revenue loss of
up to Rs 35,000
crore from the
passenger train
services during
FY21 as the movement of trains continues to be
restricted.
Railway passenger traffic resumed on Tuesday with the

govt allowing 15 pairs of trains on certain designated
routes. Around 8,000 passengers travelled on 8 trains
that marked the resumption of limited passenger travel
by Indian Railways on Tuesday. Over 1.5 lakh passengers
have booked tickets. The 15 pairs of trains will run for
seven days.The public transporter also said that the
passengers would have to bring their own food and
blankets and bed sheets from home. The Railways also
“advised” passengers of these trains to download the
Aarogya Setu app.
GDP
WHAT IS GDP?
Gross domestic
product (GDP) is
a monetary
measure of the
market value of
all the final goods
and services
produced in a
specific time
period. GDP (nominal) per capita does not, however,
reflect differences in the cost of living and the inflation
rates of the countries; therefore, using a basis of GDP
per capita at purchasing.
power parity (PPP) is arguably more useful when

comparing living standards between nations, while
nominal GDP is more useful comparing national
economies on the international market. A map of world
economies by size of GDP (nominal) in USD, World Bank,
2014.
DEATH DUE TO CORONA
Coronavirus Death Toll
1,066,956 deaths
1,066,956 people have

died so far from the
coronavirus COVID-19
outbreak as of October
09, 2020, 06:22 GMT.
It is highly unlikely that people can contract COVID-19

from food or food packaging. COVID-19 is a respiratory
illness and the primary transmission route is through
person-to- person contact and through direct contact
with respiratory droplets generated when an infected
person coughs or sneezes.
There is no evidence to date of viruses that cause

respiratory illnesses being transmitted via food or food
packaging. Coronaviruses cannot multiply in food; they
need an animal or human host to multiply.
REVENUE LOSS FOR METRO
Metro systems earn

revenue from both
charging fares from
passengers and non-
fare box collections.
These include
advertising and leasing
of space at stations to
eateries and other
commercial activity. Metro operators – public and private
– across the country have accumulated a revenue loss of
up to Rs 700 crore, due to the lockdown.
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation, which operates the

country’s largest metro rail network, is set to lose over Rs
500 crore in revenues by May 17, the last day of the third
phase of nationwide lockdown.
Private operators — Reliance Infrastructure (RInfra) and

Larsen & Toubro — are estimated to lose Rs 90 lakh and
Rs 2.5 crore as revenue on a daily basis.
Metro systems earn revenue from both charging fares

from passengers and non-fare box collections.
The science of story telling:
Why telling of story is a most powerful
Way to activate our brain
- By Shaikh Abdulaziz
A good story can make or break a presentation, article, or

conversation. But why is that? When Buffer co-founder
Leo Widrich started to market his product through stories
instead of benefits and bullet points, sign-ups went
through the roof. Here he shares the science of why
storytelling is so uniquely powerful.
In 1748, the British politician and aristocrat John

Montagu, the 4th Earl of Sandwich, spent a lot of his free
time playing cards. He greatly enjoyed eating a snack
while still keeping one hand free for the cards. So he came
up with the idea to eat beef between slices of toast, which
would allow him to finally eat and play cards at the same
time.
Eating his newly invented "sandwich," the name for two

slices of bread with meat in between, became one of the
most popular meal inventions in the western world.
What's interesting about this is that you are very likely to

never forget the story of who invented the sandwich ever
again. Or at least, much less likely to do so, if it would
have been presented to us in bullet points or other purely
information-based form.
For over 27,000 years, since the first cave paintings were
discovered, telling stories has been one of our most
fundamental communication methods. Recently a good
friend of mine gave me an introduction to the power of
storytelling, and I wanted to learn more.
Here is the science around storytelling and how we can

use it to make better decisions every day:
Our brain on stories: How our brains become more

active when we tell stories
We all enjoy a good story, whether it's a novel, a movie,

or simply something one of our friends is explaining to us.
But why do we feel so much more engaged when we hear
a narrative about events?
It's in fact quite simple. If we listen to a PowerPoint

presentation with boring bullet points, a certain part in
the brain gets activated. Scientists call this Broca's area
and Wernicke's area. Overall, it hits our language
processing parts in the brain, where we decode words
into meaning. And that's it, nothing else happens.
When we are being told a story, things change

dramatically. Not only are the language processing parts
in our brain activated, but any other area in our brain that
we would use when experiencing the events of the story
are too.
If someone tells us about how delicious certain foods

were, our sensory cortex lights up. If it's about motion,
our motor cortex gets active:
"Metaphors like "The singer had a velvet voice" and "He

had leathery hands" roused the sensory cortex. […] Then,
the brains of participants were scanned as they read
sentences like "John grasped the object" and "Pablo
kicked the ball." The scans revealed activity in the motor

cortex, which coordinates the body's movements."
A story can put your whole brain to work And yet ,it's
gets better
When we tell stories to others that have really helped us

shape our thinking and way of life, we can have the same
effect on them too. The brains of the person telling a story
and listening to it can synchronize, says Uri Hasson from
Princeton:
"When the woman spoke English, the volunteers

understood her story, and their brains synchronized.
When she had activity in her insula, an emotional brain
region, the listeners did too. When her frontal cortex lit
up, so did theirs.
By simply telling a story, the woman could plant ideas,

thoughts and emotions into the listeners'
brains."Anything you've experienced, you can get others
to experience the same. Or at least, get their brain areas
that you've activated that way, active too:
Now all this is interesting. We know that we can activate

our brains better if we listen to stories. The still
unanswered question is: Why is that? Why does the
format of a story, where events unfold one after the
other, have such a profound impact on our learning?
The simple answer is this: We are wired that way. A story,

if broken down into the simplest form, is a connection of
cause and effect. And that is exactly how we think. We
think in narratives all day long, no matter if it is about
buying groceries, whether we think about work or our
spouse at home. We make up (short) stories in our heads
for every action and conversation. In fact, Jeremy Hsu
found [that] "personal stories and gossip make up 65% of
our conversations."
Now, whenever we hear a story, we want to relate it to

one of our existing experiences. That's why metaphors
work so well with us. While we are busy searching for a
similar experience in our brains, we activate a part called

insula, which helps us relate to that same experience of
pain, joy, or disgust.
The following graphic probably describes it best:
In a great experiment, John Bargh at Yale found the

following:
"Volunteers would meet one of the experimenters,

believing that they would be starting the experiment
shortly. In reality, the experiment began when the
experimenter, seemingly struggling with an armful of
folders, asks the volunteer to briefly hold their coffee. As
the key experimental manipulation, the coffee was either
hot or iced. Subjects then read a description of some
individual, and those who had held the warmer cup
tended to rate the individual as having a warmer
personality, with no change in ratings of other

attributes."
We link up metaphors and literal happenings

automatically. Everything in our brain is looking for the
cause and effect relationship of something we've
previously experienced.
Let's dig into some hands-on tips to make use of it:
Exchange giving suggestions for telling stories
Do you know the feeling when a good friend tells you a

story and then two weeks later, you mention the same
story to him, as if it was your idea? This is totally normal
and at the same time, one of the most powerful ways to
get people on board with your ideas and thoughts.
According to Uri Hasson from Princeton, a story is the
only way to activate parts in the brain so that a listener
turns the story into their own idea and experience.
The next time you struggle with getting people on board

with your projects and ideas, simply tell them a story,
where the outcome is that doing what you had in mind is
the best thing to do. According to Princeton researcher
Hasson, storytelling is the only way to plant ideas into
other people's minds.
Write more persuasively—bring in stories from yourself

or an expert
This is something that took me a long time to understand.

If you start out writing, it's only natural to think "I don't
have a lot of experience with this, how can I make my post
believable if I use personal
stories?" The best way to get around this is by simply

exchanging stories with those of experts. When this blog
used to be a social media blog, I would ask for quotes
from the top folks in the industry or simply find great
passages they had written online. It's a great way to add
credibility and at the same time, tell a story.
The simple story is more successful than the

complicated one
When we think of stories, it is often easy to convince

ourselves that they have to be complex and detailed to
be interesting. The truth is however, that the simpler a
story, the more likely it will stick. Using simple language
as well as low complexity is the best way to activate the
brain regions that make us truly relate to the happenings
of a story. This is a similar reason why multitasking is so
hard for us. Try for example to reduce the number of
adjectives or complicated nouns in a presentation or
article and exchange them with simpler, yet heartfelt

language.
Quick last fact: Our brain learns to ignore certain

overused words and phrases that used to make stories
awesome. Scientists, in the midst of researching the topic
of storytelling have also discovered, that certain words
and phrases have lost all storytelling power:
"Some scientists have contended that figures of speech

like "a rough day" are so familiar that they are treated
simply as words and no more."
This means, that the frontal cortex—the area of your

brain responsible to experience emotions—can't be
activated with these phrases. It's something that might be
worth remembering when crafting your next story.
What storytelling does to our brains |
Shaikh Abdulaziz is the Student of V.E.S POLYTECHNIC, a

smarter way to share on Twitter and Facebook. Shaikh
Abdulaziz writes more posts on efficiency and customer
happiness over on the wirelessmind. Hit him up on
Twitter @mr_wirelessmind anytime; he is a super nice
guy.
THE SCIENCE BEHIND THE ART OF STORYTELLING
by Shaikh Abdulaziz | October 15, 2020
More From Shaikh Abdulaziz
This is the first by Shaikh Abdulaziz, Video Solutions at

Harvard Business Publishing Corporate Learning.
Storytelling has the power to engage, influence, teach

and inspire listeners. That’s why we argue for
organizations to build a storytelling culture and place
storytelling at the heart of their learning programs.
There’s an art to telling a good story, and we all know a
good story when we hear one. But there’s also a science
behind the art of storytelling.
Here’s how it works, starting with the science of the non-

story:
We’ve all listened to (and suffered through) long

PowerPoint presentations made up of bullet points –
bullet points that may be meaningful to the presenter,
but lack the same punch for the audience. Even if the
presenter is animated, when we hear information being
ticked off like this, the language processing parts in our
brain, known as Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area, get to
work, translating those bullet points into story form
where we can find our own meaning. The problem with
this, however, is that the story we come up with in our
mind may not be the same one the speaker is intending
to convey through data.
When a speaker delivers those same facts within a story,

however, something else happens in the brain. In his
essay “The Science of Storytelling: What Listening to a
Story Does to Our Brains”, entrepreneur and storyteller
Leo Widrich noted that there’s research to suggest that
when we hear a story, “not only are the language
processing parts in our brain activated, but any other area
in our brain that we would use when experiencing the
events of the story are, too.” For example, sensory details
like the client was as excited as if he had won the lottery
engage a listener’s sensory cortex. Action words like drive
this project home engage the motor cortex, all leading to
a more connected and richer experiencing of the
message. In short, the more a speaker conveys
information in story form, the closer the listener’s
experience and understanding will be to what the

speaker actually intended.
Neuroscientists are still debating these findings, but we

know from experience that when we’re listening to a
good story — rich in detail, full of metaphor, expressive
of character — we tend to imagine ourselves in the same
situation. Just think about all those scary stories told
around the campfire. Your heart rate increases, you get
goosebumps, the hair on the back of your neck stands on
end. The stories told in a business setting might not be
quite as dramatic (or hair-raising), but nevertheless can
be more impactful than data alone.
Shaikh Abdulaziz, in Wired for Story, speaks to additional

benefits of sharing stories in business settings, “Stories
allow us to simulate intense experience without having to
actually live through them. Stories allow us to experience
the world before we actually have to experience it.” Leo
Widrich, citing Princeton neuroscientist Uri Hasson,
writes that “a story is the only way to activate parts in the
brain so that a listener turns the story into their own idea
and experience.” The potential value here for managers
to use story to mentor and coach is clear. Through stories,
we can utilize vicarious experience, mentally rehearsing
how we might handle a situation before we have to face
it. Internal data banks, so full of what if’s and how to’s,
are refreshed with new options, without our having to
live through an experience and all the risk that might

entail.
There are additional scientific elements at play. Scientists

are discovering that chemicals like cortisol, dopamine and
oxytocin are released in the brain when we’re told a story.
Why does that matter? If we are trying to make a point
stick, cortisol assists with our formulating memories.
Dopamine, which helps regulate our emotional
responses, keeps us engaged.
When it comes to creating deeper connections with

others, oxytocin is associated with empathy, an
important element in building, deepening or maintaining
good relationships.
Perhaps most importantly, storytelling is central to

meaning-making and sense-making. It is through story
that our minds form and examine our own truths and
beliefs, as well as discern how they correlate with the
truths and beliefs of others. Through story listening, we
gain new perspectives and a better understanding of the
world around us. We challenge and expand our own
understanding by exploring how others see and
understand the world through their lens.
By sharing and listening to each other’s stories, we all get

a little bit closer to what’s true.
Ultimately, storytelling is about the exchange of ideas,

about growth – and that’s learning. That’s why we believe
that it’s important that we embed storytelling in our
organizational cultures and in our learning programs.
Storytelling is essential. If you’re trying to engage,
influence, teach, or inspire others, you should be telling
or listening to a story, and encouraging others to tell a
story with you. You’ll have plenty of science to back you
up.
Shaikh Abdulaziz, Storyteller and executive coach who

specializes in the use of story as a powerful medium for
personal growth, connection and change. Drawing on her
broad experience with individuals, teams and
organizations in the profit and non-profit worlds, Lani
brings a unique combination of personal stories,
knowledge of the theory behind stories, and deep
experience helping people use stories to transform their.
Understanding of themselves and others. Lani’s

professional training includes a doctorate in psychology
from William James University, a master’s in counselling
psychology from Lesley University, and bachelor’s degree
in literature from Smith College. She is a member of the
National Speakers Association, the National Storytelling
Network, and serves on the Executive Committee of the
Healing Story Alliance, which she recently chaired for five
years.
The Science of Storytelling Perspectives from Cognitive

Science, Neuroscience, and the Humanities Frederick Luis
AldamaAbstract: This article at once celebrates and puts
at cautionary arm’s length the tremendous advances
made in the cognitive and neurosciences as re-search
that can deepen our understanding of creating and
consuming of lit-erature, fi lms, comic books. After
providing an overview of recent insights by scholars with
one foot in the humanities and the other in the cognitive
and neurosciences, the article refl ects on some key
precepts that might be useful in our continued shaping of
a humanities and cognitive based research pro-gram. For
instance, the article explores the way authors, fi lm
directors, and artists generally not only construct artifacts
that elicit positive emotions but also negative emotions.
It also proposes a model for understanding how the
“aesthetic” is a relation and not a property nor an essence
of the object (a fi lm) nor something to be found in the
subject (us viewing the fi lm). Keywords: aesthetics,
cognitive science, creativity, emotion, imagination, neu-
radiology, mental mechanisms, mind/body problem,
structures of fictionIt is easy to get swept into all the brain
hype. News articles splash headlines about how brain
images show that reading Jane Austen makes you
smarter. How playing brain games at sites like Luminosity
will hold at bay Alzheimer’s. How we have a moral
module.
How tweaking a neurotransmitter might cure cancer.

Publishers are lining up to sell books about the moral
brain, the mommy brain, the daddy brain, the doggy
brain—your brain on comic books, even. The 1990s were
pronounced the “Decade of the Brain,” followed by
hundreds of millions of dollars being funnelled into
research programs on the brain that seek to map, to
computer simulate, and to develop new brain tech-
nology. I refer here not only to Europe’s The Human Brain
Project but also the United States’s Brain Initiative that
aims to discover and develop state-of-the-art brain tools
(optogenetics, for instance) that aim to control and repair
neu-rons for healthy functioning brains. Don’t get me
wrong. I’m as excited as the next person. We are living in
an exciting time where advances in the research taking
place the neurosciences
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 1 We are living in an

exciting time where advances in the research taking place
the neurosciences has deepened signicantly our
understanding not just of other related areas of inquiry
such as the cognitive sciences, but also the humanities
writ large. Has deepened significantly our understanding
not just of other related areas of inquiry such as the
cognitive sciences, but also the humanities writ large.
Scholars like myself and others who have a foot in the
cognitive sciences and the other in the humanities are
reaping great rewards. The research enriches our
scholarship as well as our teaching of all sorts, including

literature, fi lm, and comic books. Indeed, to share this
exciting interface of knowledge growing from the
cognitive and neurosciences, led my colleague Zhong-Lin
Lu and me to establish the Humanities & Cognitive Sci-
ences High School Summer Institute. During this week-
long series of lectures and activities a racially and
socioeconomically diverse range of rising ninth to twelfth
graders join world renown professors to develop research
skills and deepen their understanding of their everyday
activities—from playing video games like Call of Duty to
reading Kafka’s The Metamorphosis to catching the latest
Marvel fi lm blockbuster recreation.Questions I like to
explore in my teaching and my work on fi lm (and com-
ics, short stories, video games, and art generally) include:
What is the role of imagination in human cognition? Why
do we create stories and how does this ability develop in
childhood? Why are we attracted to some stories and not
others? How do our causal, counterfactual, and
probabilistic learning mechanisms inform the way we
create and consume stories? How does our theory of
mind (and its related emotion and empathy dimensions),
theory of recursion, theory of relevance along with
mental mechanisms and operation such as event and
spatial perception, gap filling, and memory operate when
we create and consume fi lm, comics, short stories, video
games, and art generally? Particularly useful in helping
me fi nd answers to such questions has been the exciting

insights found in the work of scholars such as Alison
Gopnik, Su-zanne Keen, Anjan Chatterjee, Keith Oatley, G.
Gabrielle Starr, Jean-Pierre Chan-geux, Stanislas
Dehaene, Irving Massey, Paul B. Armstrong, Noel Carroll
and John Gibson, Raymond Mar, Lisa Zunshine, Joshua
Landy, Sue Kim, Semir Zeki, V.S. Ramachandran, Tamar
Gendler, Herbert Lindenberger, and Patrick Colm Hogan
(coeditor with me on the Cognitive Approaches to Culture
book series), to name a few. I fi rst share some recent
insights by a handful of these scholars. I then refl ect on
some key precepts that might be useful in our continued
(col-lective) shaping of a humanities & cognitive based
research program. A Map of a Contemporary Terrain The
essays that make up Noël Carroll and John Gibson’s
edited collection, Narrative, Emotion, and Insight (2011)
offer a primer of sorts on the main philosophical debates
and explorations concerning story—in its most expansive
What is the role of imagination in human cognition?
2 / PROJECTIONS sense as narrative. The essays variously

answer and give shape to the request (by Carroll and
Gibson) to consider not just how it is that “we emote over
or learn from objects we know do not exist?” but how it
is that we can do the same regarding narratives in general
(fi ctional and sometimes nonfi ctional). Gravitating
around various explorations of fi lm, poetry, music, and
art generally, these philosophically minded scholars use
insights from cognitive and affect theory to enrich our

understanding of what cognitive benefit does one gain in
our emotional responses to narratives of all sorts: from fi
lm to literature to art. For instance, in Berys Gaut and
Noël Carroll’s respective essays on the narrative of fi lm
we learn how the fi lm experience can lead to insights into
mental and perceptual functions. They also provide us
with emotive and thought experiment forums that can
lead to critical self-reflection and metaphysical insight.
Taken as a whole, the essays aim to open up “new
possibilities for addressing fundamental issues
concerning the emotional, ethical, educative, and
cognitive value of art” (Carroll and Gibson 2011: 2). They
seek to uncover just how narrative in its many sartorial
forms can enhance our ability to exist more meaningfully.
In Patrick Colm Hogan’s 2011 published Affective
Narratology we land more firmly and squarely in the area
of affective literary study. Hogan seeks to further sharpen
our understanding of how the emotion system grows
universal narrative structures (romantic, heroic, tragic,
sacrificial). Building on his earlier deep excavation of the
central role played by the mind and its stories (the title of
one of his seminal books in this area of investigation) here
Hogan develops a formulation of how the emotion
system operates in relation to elements of stories,
especially narrative events and incidents. To do so, he
carefully maps out the way our emotion system works in
everyday life: from situations that activate emotions and

lead to expressive outcomes and actional responses to
how our empathic social mappings guide how we should
fear and what should make us happy. He also lucidly
explains how emotion contagion and emotional
memories operate generally in life and specifically in
fiction. With Keith Oatley’s 2012 published The
Passionate Muse we step even more deeply into this
space where emotion and fiction intersect. Building on
then complicating the premise that fiction is like
childhood play (and grows out of this play) in that it is
done for its own sake and is centrally about emotions and
relations with others, Oatley focuses on the later
position, focusing on how our reading of fiction (or
watching of fi lms, etc.) centrally involves the constant
consideration of mental and physical actions of others—
and that this has consequences for our emotion system.
Oatley carefully outlines how our emotion system
operates in our engagement with fiction, including a long
short story of his included in the book. Like Hogan,
however, he is careful not to conflate our emotion
responses directly with those of the characters we read
about. Rather, when we read about a character “we feel
something that is perhaps similar to those emotions, but
they are not the characters. They
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 3 is our own. That’s

how empathy and identification work in fiction” (Oatley
2012: 29). For Oately, when we read or view a fictional

narrative we know it is not real, yet we still experience it
as if it were real. This stimulatory approach is what allows
Oatley to determine that fiction provides a place to
experience emotions within a safe space. This can and
does have an ameliorative effect: it helps us “improve our
mental models of others and ourselves” (Oatley 2012:
19). We watch a fi lm (he gives the example of
Casablanca) or read a story such as Oatley’s and we
experience fleeting emotions and insights that leave resi-
dues that can over time change “our selfhood. “In Arthur
Shimamura’s Experiencing Art: In the Brain of the
Beholder (2013), the scholarly focus turns to the visual
arts. Extending and expanding on the work of other so-
called neurasthenic scholars (Massey, Zeki, Chatterjee,
and Ramachandran), Shimamura uses research in the
neurosciences to put to test several of the main
theoretical threads that have attempted to describe our
experience of art. They include: the mimetic where the
“beholder interprets an artwork as a window to the
world”; the expressionist where the “beholder seeks an
emotional experience, such as beauty or the sublime”;
the formalist where one attunes to formal features that
give shape to the artwork, includ-ing “colors, lines, and
abstract shapes”; and the conceptual that attends to the
“thought or story behind an artwork” (Shimamura 2013:
14). Because the men-tal mechanisms used in our
everyday activities are “co-opted” (his words) in the

creation and apprehension of art, the more we know
about how perception, cognition, and emotion work, the
more enriched will be our encounter with art objects.
While the same cognitive and emotive mechanism might
be involved, Shimamura is careful to remind us that the
artist intends to create an object with the purpose of
stirring “our feelings, thoughts” and every day natural
phenomena does not have this same wilful intent. For
Shimamura, this intentionality in art to stir specifically
directed emotions and thoughts does not mean going to
biographies of artists for insights into our experience of
the art. Rather, the artist entity is an integral part of the
work itself. Shi-mamura importantly reminds us that the
experience of art is a “whole brain phenomenon.” While
we might study particular areas of the brain (perception,
memory, emotion and so on) in our encounters with art,
in the end there “is no art center in the brain” (2013: 257,
258). Several other recently published titles need
mention here. In How Literature Plays with the Brain
(2013) Paul B. Armstrong’s purpose is twofold: He wants
to see what neuroscience can tell us about how “art
changes human experience as it reorders our perceptions
and engages our emotions” (28). And he wants to see
how work in the humanities can guide research in the
neu-rosciences. This guidance consists of: 1) informing
neuroscience what to look for to more fully understand
the aesthetic experience; 2) helping neuroscience make

sense of the aesthetic experience in the terms of
neurobiology itself.
4 / PROJECTIONS for Armstrong, art does not merely

represent reality; it distorts, enhances, and transcends
reality—and this with the use of techniques that might
lead to the triggering of neural mechanisms that lead to
harmonious or disjunctive emo-tive responses. In the
sense that Armstrong is interested in understanding art
that discomforts and art that comforts, he proposes the
bringing together a phenomenological approach (Husserl,
Heidegger, and Merleau-Ponty mostly) with insights from
the neurosciences. Among the many avenues he chooses
to explore, he introduces the hard problem of how
consciousness and lived experience (the qualia) emerge
from chemical and electrical processes at the cellular
level in the apprehension of art. We also see a turn to the
neurosciences to explore different states of emotion in
the artful encounter in G. Gabrielle Starr’s Feeling Beauty
(2013). Starr is less interested in identifying the qualities
of an object that create the aesthetic experience, and
more in mapping the architecture of the brain’s re-
sponses to these objects. She does so by identifying the
perceptual mecha-nisms and neural networks at work in
the aesthetic responses to art that’s experienced as dull
and to art that moves her human subjects emotionally.
She formulates an aesthetic theory built on the research
conducted with neu-scientists Edward Vessel and Nava

Rubin that sought to measure intense aesthetic
responses to works of art that trigger our “default mode
network.” The default mode network is suppressed in
activities when we attend to ex-ternal stimuli and active
in within the mind/brain during interoceptive states such
as during daydreaming and wakeful rest states, for
instance. While Starr considers the importance of the
artist, she considers their efforts more of a trial-and-error
strategy (and not willfully intended) to design and create
ob-jects that create perceptual, emotional, and aesthetic
effects in the respective audience. It is this aesthetic in
readers, listeners, and audiences of literature, music, and
art that impacts our sense of self and reveals why the arts
are so important to human beings. A Necessary Pause for
Critical Reflection Given my own scholarly proclivities, I
can say that these scholars are moving in the right
direction and that they have much to teach us. While one
might not agree with certain particulars of their
respective positions and formulations, at least we know
what we are disagreeing with. They all write in a
wonderfully lucid style and present crystalclear
arguments and positions. Here I want to offer a few of my
own reflections on our growing of a re-search program in
the humanities that invites to the table the insights from
the cognitive and neurosciences.1) Emotion is a defi ning
ingredient in narrative fi ction. If we don’t experience
emotion, we are less involved in the story; we attend less

to the story, or reject
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 5 So while emotion is

centrally involved in the making and consuming of plot
structures in fictions there are many instances when
these seek to create either negative emotions or even
absent entirely our emotion responses.it altogether. That
is, authors and artists build into the design and execution
of the artifacts—elements that trigger all the subsystems
that make up our emotion system. Continued research in
this area is paramount, especially focused on how it
works in a particularly willful way when designing then
creating narrative fictions—and in our consuming of
these narrative fictions. This said, it is not always true that
the seeking and experiencing of emo-tions—and
knowledge of emotions—in our encounter with literature
is a goal that is systematically sought. We often see
novels, films, comic books and the like created in ways
that seek to diminish our emotional reactions. So while
emotion is centrally involved in the making and
consuming of plot structures in fictions there are many
instances when these seek to create either neg-ative
emotions or even absent entirely our emotion responses.
I think of the distancing or estrangement effect sought by
Bertolt Brecht in his “epic theatre” or of certain novels in
the “behavioristic” mode, such as Albert Camus’s The
Stranger or Alain Robbe-Grillet’s La Jalousie as well as of
Nathalie Sarraute’s Portrait of a Man Unknown and other

works in the tradition of the so-called nouveau ro-man. In
this respect, we can also include several fi lms by Lars Von
Trier and Jean-Luc Godard rejecting Hollywood realism. In
quite a few of Godard’s films, for instance, actors talk
straight to the camera and thus break the rhythm of the
narration at the same time that they call attention to its
artificiality. This distancing effect and deliberate rupture
of the “fictional pact” is sometimes underlined by Godard
when he does not allow the soundtrack to operate in
unison with the image. These and other procedures
undercut the emotions that the narrative could have
generated. The possibility of the elicitation of emotions
and of their absence has to be seen also in the light of
their positive or negative valence. Often, emotions are
contextual. In a certain context an emotion may have a
positive valence and in another a negative one. Also,
there can be an affect system corresponding to
characters and another one corresponding to audiences
or readers. So, for ex-ample, in the affect system
corresponding to a character an emotion may have a
positive valence and in the one corresponding to the
audience or reader that same emotion may have a
negative valence. Thus, we see many fi lms where a
character derives great pleasure from being sadistic,
cruel, and perverse and yet where this is a source of deep
distress and repulsion for audiences. Recall, too, how
Buster Keaton’s trademark as an actor was his impassive

face and perfunctory behaviour. Throughout his films he
would make no manifestation of emotion, feeling or
concern. The contrast between Keaton’s apparent lack of
emotions and the chaos surrounding him is what
triggered belly aches of laughter in the audience.
6 / PROJECTIONS think of Denis Diderot’s position: that

characters need not and should not experience any of the
emotions assigned by playwrights to their characters.
Acting should be considered literally as performance and
objective presentation: not a true embodiment and true
subjective experience of emotions by actors but
representational adscription of real-life affects to
fictional char-acters. I think of this in contrast with the
Konstantin Stanislavski’s approach developed in the
Soviet Union and with some later variations introduced
by the method acting technique created by Lee Strasberg
and others in the United States. According to this
approach, the actor must immerse herself in the affective
universe of the portrayed character and identify as
completely as possible with the character’s emotions, to
the point of actually living them. The rationale of this
procedure is that being true to the character’s emotions
brings truth in performance and thus believability in the
eyes of the audience. The Diderot approach and the
Buster Keaton or Luc Godard fi lms may re-mind
audiences that they are experiencing a fiction and that in
the process they are using their frontal cortex to reflect

on the fi lm’s content and form as fiction. In such cases
the epistemic or cognitive system overrides the limbic
system. Characters may elicit or not elicit emotions. The
same applies to actors playing the characters. And of
course, to the audience watching the play or the film. We
can have the Brechtian distancing effect or its opposite,
the Stan-islavkian immersion. The Diderotian or
Brechtian ideal viewer would then be the one who agrees
to minimize the use of his/her emotion system and to give
a much larger place to the use of the rational system. This
means that the audience experiences a duality, together
with characters as created fictions, and actors as vehicles
or representations of those characters: they are either
more emotionally involved or more rationally involved,
according to the greater or smaller distance they
establish with the limbic system and the rational or
cognitive system. That is, there exists a duality within the
character, within the actor and within the audience, but
not necessarily a coincidence among the dual oppo-sites.
Keaton can keep his expressionless face from beginning
to end, main-taining a kind of patent Diderotian or
Brechtian distance throughout the fi lm, yet the audience
can be emoting and experiencing all variety of affects. As
this example shows, no relations is necessary between
emotions felt and expressed by characters as embodied
by actors and the emotional reactions of audiences. This
is the beauty (and a result) of the relational nature of art.

Buster Keaton’s characters are an invention, an artistic
creation, and they gen-erate many responses audiences
precisely because they exploit this lack of a one to one
correspondence between the fi ctional character emotion
system and the real-life audience emotion system.
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 7 We might also

consider learning more from research on negative emo-
tions, as well as from readers that are not interested in fi
ctions for their emo-tion ingredients, but rather for their
puzzle solving elements such as evinced in certain
detective novels and fi lms. Autism and fi ction is a fi eld
also to be further explored. The absence of certain
emotions in humans, as observed in the behaviour of
sociopaths (characterized among other things by greatly
diminished empathy and remorse), may teach us many
lessons in aesthetic production and aesthetic reception.
Of course, while we separate the emotion system from
the cognitive system to understand better the former’s
role in our making and consuming of narrative fiction, we
know that in actual practice, both systems are
inseparable. It is an established fact that all or most
cognitive activity is usually accompanied by emotional
activity. Emotions propel, guide, and focus our cognitive
systems in our goal seeking activities—among many
others. Without our emotion sys-tem in full operation,
our cognitive system becomes paralyzed entirely or to a
large extent. One interesting condition—that of

catalepsy—has been largely exploited in literature by
authors such as Poe and Dickens, and could perhaps shed
some light on this issue. The same can be said of the
particular state of stupor known as catatonia. Many
medical conditions could be relevant to the study of the
interrelations between the emotion system and the
cognitive system, and therefore may give us precious
information to develop our own understanding of
narrative fiction, and all art more generally. This much we
know: the executive brain cannot fulfill its functions
properly unless it is propelled by emotions. Without
emotions, the executive brain can become paralyzed.
Emotions and cognition cannot be separated when we
study how human transformation of the natural
environment transforms culture. The education of the
executive brain—the learning of mathematics, the
learning of the days of the week, the learning of a new
language—follows a series of formal steps. This is the
characteristic way of functioning of the so-called
executive brain, which is to be systematic and, in a loose
sense of the term, to be algorithmic. At the same time
that we educate the brain to perform certain algorithmic
functions, we have to educate the brain to suc-cessfully
apply the emotion system driving the executive brain. The
ways one educates the executive brain will vary according
to the changes produced in culture, which of course are
man-made. Hence the loop between emotion and

cognition, and between education and culture.Creativity
is the product of the simultaneous action or use of the
cognitive system of the brain and the affective/emotion
system of the brain, in ways that allow the brain as a
whole to link disparate phenomena. It stands to rea-son
not only as a deduction but as an empirical observation
that constantly in our lives we are having the experience
of obtaining results—of working and of
8 / PROJECTIONS The “aesthetic” is a relation, not a

property or an essence. It is to be found in the relation
between the object and the subject, and the other way
around. Feeling good about our work; this combination of
knowledge, work and feeling good leads to a very
constant (frequent) state of creativity. The ancient Greeks
called this poiesis: deliberately bringing into the world
something new by giving new shape to existing
ingredients of the universe, and by establishing new
relations between ideas or concepts, thus creating new
hypothesis, new theories, and new metaphors, for
instance.2) Narrative is a huge territory that encompasses
numerous phenomena. There is narrative in that iPhone-
shot fi lm of the young Palestinian boys murdered on the
beach by a bomb dropped by a drone. There’s narrative
in all the newspaper and Internet testimonies telling of
what’s going on in Gaza today. There are narratives in
scientifi c books that tell us about emotion responses to
objects. However, by talking about narrative in this large,

all-encompassing way we gloss over the difference
between narratives that are made with a will to style, that
is, that are given shape with artistic aims—and that
therefore ask that we take into consideration the
deliberateness and goal seeking activities involved in the
creation of art—and those that simply seek to convey
information with a minimum of aesthetic intent.3) Art, if
it is to be art, has to be a goal directed activity. The fi rst
of our ances-tors who chipped away at a rock to create an
arrowhead wanted to obtain a re-sult: a tool for killing
animals. However, at a certain point this ancestor began
to observe this object as something that could produce a
certain amount of joy—pride in succeeding in creating
the arrowhead. This ancestor could now see beyond the
tool’s practical application, could ascribe to it a value
much later conceptualized as beauty, and could rejoice
differently both in his work and in his skill. Thus grows an
aesthetic attitude toward the work accom-plished—one
that could be shared by linguistic means and a contagious
pride. The arrowhead has not changed, nor the specific
work involved in producing it. What changes is the
relation of the producer to the product. The arrowhead is
still a practical object, but it is also a source of joy and
pride as a work well done. These emotions are shared by
others. The arrowhead elicits an incipient aesthetic
experience. But we must be clear about the nature of this
experience. The emotion system of the human brain

works in tandem with the cognitive or reasoning system
to produce an object that has a specific use as an
arrowhead. Now, as I have posited, at a certain moment
these two systems become involved not in the pro-cess
of production but in the process of perception or
observation of the produced object while attaching to it
a value distanced from utility and proximate to delighted
contemplation, eliciting intense pleasure and deep
satisfaction. This specific kind of enjoyment is what is
termed “the aesthetic experience.” As this example
shows,
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 9While stories are

finite, the way they are given shape is imaginably infi
nite.the “aesthetic” is not contained in the object, and it
is not a property of the subject. The “aesthetic” is a
relation, not a property or an essence. It is to be found in
the relation between the object and the subject, and the
other way around. Imagining, planning, and realizing are
the executive cortex functions pro-pelled by the limbic
system that lead to the production of the arrowhead. In
this confluence of cognitive know-how and emotions the
resulting product gives rise to specific affects caused by
the specific awareness of the specific success in the
making of the specific arrowhead. Producer and
contemplating neighbours acknowledge that knowledge
and skill have been properly applied. The arrowhead
preserves its utility, which is now accompanied by “the

aes-thetic experience.” The more this experience repeats
itself and expands, the more it detaches itself completely
from “utility” and the more it becomes a special form of
relation between certain objects (products) and certain
sub-jects (audiences, readers, and the like). Thus the
aesthetic experience ends up becoming a purely
relational phenomenon, and arrowheads become poems
become music become painting become novels become
comic books become fi lms.4) Just as creating the
arrowhead requires the hitting of a rock at a certain angle
with a certain strength to obtain a specific shape, so too
do we apply our cognitive faculties in a certain way to give
all our other creations shape. When my eight-year-old
dances in a certain way, she’s giving her body move-ment
a particular shape. In narrative fi ction, authors use
different devices and tools to give particular shape to
their works. Elsewhere I have called this the generative
operator of the discourse. (See Aldama’s and Hogan’s
Conversations on Cognitive Cultural Studies.) While
stories are fi nite, the way they are given shape is
imaginably infi nite. I also identify what I call the will to
style to identify the teleological will of a given author,
director, comic book creator. It is the teleological activity
and attitude involved in giving shape to new objects that
can and do transform the world—one supplied
continually with an abun-dance of freshly created
aesthetic relations.If analysis and interpretation are

based on a difference that makes a dif-ference, the
element that singly makes the difference in my study of
narrative fi ction phenomena is shape; the shape giving
activity of human beings and shape as the goal and result
of that activity.5) While we separate the brain into areas
of study, in the end we need to think of it and us as a
whole. Not only the brain as a whole, but the nervous
system as a whole and all that comes with the body,
including centrally our sense of sight, taste, sound, touch,
balance, for instance. For only thus can we begin to set
the foundations of a scientifi c, relational aesthetics.
10 / PROJECTIONS Present advances in neurobiology are

based on an ever more accurate knowledge of the
anatomy and physiology of the brain and have empirically
dissolved the so-called mind/body problem in favour of a
monist (or materialist) approach. Curiously enough, the
pervasive view on humans has been the dualist one
typical of Western religions. They posit a dualism of body
and soul, or mind and matter. Then, they give different
explanations on how these two different substances or
entities hang together until the person’s death, while the
immaterial one survives and goes on to inhabit a
supernatural world. But this religious view and similar
ones set forth in the work of many philosophers now
meet the powerful challenge of empirical facts and
findings amassed in the last 15 years or so by cognitive
science and neurobiology. Bertrand Russell used to say

that philosophy and science begin when someone asks a
general question, and that both philosophy and science
as we know them, are Greek inventions. But for many
centuries’ knowledge was accumulated mainly by
philosophy. So as each branch of philosophy gained
ground in terms of em-pirical findings and methods, it
grew into a separate, independent science (physics,
chemistry, astronomy, biology, psychology, human
anatomy, physiology, and so on). In what can seem a
boutade, but clearly isn’t, Russell defi ned science as that
which we know, and philosophy as that which we ignore.
That is why there is a constant movement of themes and
subjects from philosophy to science, as knowledge
develops and becomes more solid. Philosophy is
important because, among other things, it’s a kind of
speculative exploration of the unknown. In his book
Wisdom of the West Russell shows how “the various fi
elds of science all started as philosophical exploration in
this sense. Once a science becomes solidly grounded, it
proceeds more or less independently, except for
borderline problems and questions of method.” The
exploratory process as such, began in the sphere of
philosophy, “goes on and finds new employment” in the
domain of science (Russell 1959: 6).Psychology ceased
being a branch of philosophy toward the end of the
nineteenth century, and a short time later neurology was
established as a science thanks to the work, among

others, of the Spanish histologist and neuroscientist
Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Present advances in
neurobiology are based on an ever more accurate
knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the brain
and have empirically dissolved the so-called mind/body
problem in favour of a monist (or materialist) approach.
The brain is a very specialized organ of the body that
reacts to stimuli from the body itself (internal stimuli) and
from the outside world (external stimuli), and this
material reaction, according to its specific origin and
outcome, is termed emotion, thought, intention,
planning, etc. The dualist position is losing ground day by
day because the more we know about the physiology and
anatomy of the brain the more we can establish with
certainty that all brain processes and their effects (in-
cluding qualia) are of a chemical or electrical nature
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING /11What neurobiology

confirms is that the aesthetic experience does not reside
in the subject nor is it inherent in the object, but lies in
the relation between one and the other.(and a
combination of the two). This is why fMRI and CAT scans,
for instance, allow us to explore what is going on in the
brain. Take the case of language. Some scholars consider
that it is one of the most pure and intangible
manifestations of culture. But we know this is not so. We
know language is an admixture of neurobiology and
culture, where neurobiology is the essential material

basis. We know which parts of the brain are involved in
the existence of the language faculty. As Noam Chomsky
has remarked, our language faculty is a biological faculty,
an “organ” functioning within the brain. (See my
discussion of Chomsky in Conversations on Cognitive
Cultural Studies [Aldama and Hogan 2014].) When
exposed to certain stimuli, it generates the knowledge of
what we call French or English or Spanish or Chinese, for
instance. That is, our knowledge of one or several specifi
c languages results from the existence and operation of
the human universal language faculty. When the
individual is in an environment where French, English,
Spanish or Chinese are spoken, the corresponding stimuli
trigger the acquisition (or “growth”) of the corresponding
language(s). This is to say that while French, Spanish, or
English are not physical objects—we can’t touch them the
way I can touch my car—yet they are so physical that we
can study in a very precise, detailed and material way
their logical form, their syntax and their acoustic
physicality. More and more the monist or materialist view
of the so-called mind/body problem has been vindicated
by contemporary scientific discoveries, particularly those
made in the past 15 or 20 years.6) By considering the
human being as a whole, neuroscience can tell us a lot
about how the material (organic, chemical and electrical)
activity of this whole can lead to the inventing of new
iPhone Apps or to the making of a painting à la Jackson

Pollock or the creating of a shaping device like that of the
interior monologue used in Ulysses. Knowledge of the
universal aspects of creativity or inventiveness can tell us
interesting things about the aesthetic experience. What
neurobiology confirms is that the aesthetic experience
does not reside in the subject nor is it inherent in the
object, but lies in the relation between one and the other.
The aesthetic object results from the conjoint activity of
the affective and cognitive systems. Feedbacks and loops
with these two compo-nents and with our capacity for
recursion (the ability to embed our thoughts within other
thoughts) allow us furnish the universe with entirely new
enti-ties. And these entities are deemed aesthetic to the
extent that we establish this special relation with them
we call the aesthetic relation. Our creative faculties bring
about new objects and new relations. Poiesis is thus a
relational activity between subject and object.
12 / PROJECTIONS That narrative fiction adds to reality,

and is patently different from reality in that it distils and
organizes and recreates it.7) We can make advances in
our understanding of narrative fiction if we keep clear
important distinctions. That narrative fiction adds to
reality, and is pa-tently different from reality in that it
distills and organizes and recreates it. Reality in narrative
fi ction (as in all art forms) is shaped reality. That
neurobiology as a science deals with the general and the
universal and as such can only begin dealing with the

particular and the indi-vidual through applications in
technology. That is, neurobiology will never be able to tell
us how to read more effectively Ulysses nor how to
understand this novel or any other text. But
neurobiology, con-cerned with that which is general in
the human species knows and learns and teaches us
many things about us as a biological entity. It can thus tell
us much about creativity and how we transform reality
through our work (poiesis) and how the process of
transformation and the products of transformation can
acquire the quality of being an aesthetic experience.8)
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that is being explored
increasingly by science, in particular psychology and
neurobiology. This means that aesthetics can no longer
limit itself to hypotheses and conjectures about the
individual and the particular, since science deals with the
general and the universal. The task at hand then is to
build bridges between the scientific (neurobiological)
domain and the study of aesthetic experience—bridges
possible to build be-cause both domains concern the
human being as a whole and as a species. Through such
an approach, one could eventually explain on a scientific
basis why the aesthetic experience may extend over a
territory as wide as the en-counters with an Italian tea
pot, a MacBook Air computer, a Jaguar XK-E, a view of the
Amalfi coast near Naples, watching a sunset in the San
Francisco area, listening to Beethoven’s String Quartets,

or reading Kafka’s The Metamorphosis. We can explain
what it is that joins all these very different kinds of aes-
thetic experience and why in order to have an accurate
view of this aesthetic experience we should not limit our
studies to just the plastic arts or music or literature—or
certain kinds of literature.9) We all have the same biology
in the sense that we all belong to the human race. Young
and old, ill and healthy, tall and short, brown and white,
male and female, whatever our differences, we all share
the same genetic material of the species, the same
genome. Whatever the myriad of variations, we all be-
long to one species, the human species. With this
centrally in mind, we can consider how a central feature
of our common biology is our creativity. All culture, as defi
ned in anthropology, is the outcome of creativity, and two
of its most general provinces are science and art. Within
science all human creativity is focused on obtaining the
most ac-curate possible knowledge of reality and on the
creation of the most efficient
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 13 tools based on this

knowledge. We apply our creative ability also to the pro-
duction of ontologically new entities that are added to
reality, added to the world. Here human creativity does
not discover but invents and gives shape. Its products are
art in all its forms and manifestations. The theory
concern-ing this specifi c kind of creativity is scientifi c
aesthetics or what could also be called the unified theory

of aesthetics.
Arts & Humanities Distinguished Professor of English and

University Distinguished Scholar at the Ohio State
University where he is founder and codirector of the
Humanities and Cognitive Sciences High School Summer
Institute. He is the author and editor of over 20 books. He
edits and coedits several book series, including Cognitive
Approaches to Literature and Culture and World Comics
and Graphic Nonfiction, both with the University of Texas
Press.
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 14:- Describes the

social and cultural activity of sharing stories, sometimes
with improvisation, theatrics or embellishment. Every
culture has its own stories or narratives, which are shared
as a means of entertainment, education, cultural
preservation or instilling moral values.[1] Crucial
elements of stories and storytelling include plot,
characters and narrative point of view. The Boyhood of
Raleigh by Sir John Everett Millais, oil on canvas, 1870.
A seafarer tells the young Sir Walter Raleigh and his

brother the story of what happened out at sea
The term "storytelling" can refer in a narrow sense

specifically to oral storytelling and also in a looser sense
to techniques used in other media to unfold or disclose
the narrative of a story.
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING /15 :- History

Storytelling predates writing. The earliest forms of
storytelling were usually oral combined with gestures and
expressions. In addition to being part of religious rituals,
some archaeologists believe rock art may have served as
a form of storytelling for many ancient cultures.
The Australian aboriginal people painted symbols from

stories on cave walls as a means of helping the storyteller
remember the story. The story was then told using a
combination of oral narrative, music, rock art and dance,
which bring understanding and meaning of human
existence through remembrance and enactment of
stories.[3] People have used the carved trunks of living
trees and ephemeral media (such as sand and leaves) to
record stories in pictures or with writing. Complex forms
of tattooing may also represent stories, with information
about genealogy, affiliation and social status.[4]
With the advent of writing and the use of stable, portable

media, stories were recorded, transcribed and shared
over wide regions of the world. Stories have been carved,
scratched, painted, printed or inked onto wood or
bamboo, ivory and other bones, pottery, clay tablets,

stone, palm-leaf books, skins (parchment), bark cloth,
paper, silk, canvas and other textiles, recorded on film
and stored electronically in digital form. Oral stories
continue to be created, improvisational by impromptu
storytellers, as well as committed to memory and passed
from generation to generation, despite the increasing
popularity of written and televised media in much of the
world.
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 15:- Contemporary

storytelling Modern storytelling has a broad purview. In
addition to its traditional forms (fairytales, folktales,
mythology, legends, fables etc.), it has extended itself to
representing history, personal narrative, political
commentary and evolving cultural norms. Contemporary
storytelling is also widely used to address educational
objectives. New forms of media are creating new ways for
people to record, express and consume stories. Tools for
asynchronous group communication can provide an
environment for individuals to reframe or recast
individual stories into group stories. Games and other
digital platforms, such as those used in interactive fiction
or interactive storytelling, may be used to position the
user as a character within a bigger world. Documentaries,
including interactive web documentaries, employ
storytelling narrative techniques to communicate
information about their topic. Self-revelatory stories,
created for their cathartic and therapeutic effect, are

growing in their use and application, as in Psychodrama,
Drama Therapy and Playback Theatre. Storytelling is also
used as a means by which to precipitate psychological
and social change in the practice of transformative arts
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 16 :- Oral traditions
Oral traditions of storytelling are found in several

civilisations; they predate the printed and online press.
Storytelling was used to explain natural phenomena,
bards told stories of creation and developed a pantheon
of gods and myths. Oral stories passed from one
generation to the next and storytellers were regarded as
healers, leaders, spiritual guides, teachers, cultural
secrets keepers and entertainers. Oral storytelling came
in various forms including songs, poetry, chants and
dance.Albert Bates Lord examined oral narratives from
field transcripts of Yugoslav oral bards collected by
Milman Parry in the 1930s, and the texts of epics such as
the Odyssey. Lord found that a large part of the stories
consisted of text which was improvised during the telling
process.
Lord identified two types of story vocabulary. The first he

called "formulas": "Rosy-fingered Dawn", "the wine-dark
sea" and other specific set phrases had long been known
of in Homer and other oral epics. Lord, however,
discovered that across many story traditions, fully 90% of

an oral epic is assembled from lines which are repeated
verbatim or which use one-for-one-word substitutions. In
other words, oral stories are built out of set phrases
which have been stockpiled from a lifetime of hearing and
telling stories.
The other type of story vocabulary is theme, a set

sequence of story actions that structure a tale. Just as the
teller of tales proceeds line-by-line using formulas, so he
proceeds from event-to-event using themes. One near-
universal theme is repetition, as evidenced in Western
folklore with the "rule of three": Three brothers set out,
three attempts are made, three riddles are asked. A
theme can be as simple as a specific set sequence
describing the arming of a hero, starting with shirt and
trousers and ending with headdress and weapons. A
theme can be large enough to be a plot component. For
example: a hero proposes a journey to a dangerous place
/ he disguises himself / his disguise fools everybody /
except for a common person of little account (a crone, a
tavern maid or a woodcutter) / who immediately
recognizes him / the commoner becomes the hero's ally,
showing unexpected resources of skill or initiative. A
theme does not belong to a specific story, but may be
found with minor variation in many different stories.
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 17 :- The story was

described by Shaikh Abdulaziz, when he wrote. A need to
tell and hear stories is essential to the species Homo
sapiens – second in necessity apparently after
nourishment and before love and shelter. Millions survive
without love or home, almost none in silence; the
opposite of silence leads quickly to narrative, and the
sound of story is the dominant sound of our lives, from
the small accounts of our day's events to the vast
incommunicable constructs of psychopaths.
In contemporary life, people will seek to fill "story

vacuums" with oral and written stories. "In the absence
of a narrative, especially in an ambiguous and/or urgent
situation, people will seek out and consume plausible
stories like water in the desert. It is our innate nature to
connect the dots. Once an explanatory narrative is
adopted, it's extremely hard to undo," whether or not it
is true
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING /18 :- Story as art

form....
The art of narrative is, by definition, an aesthetic

enterprise, and there are a number of artistic elements
that typically interact in well-developed stories. Such
elements include the essential idea of narrative structure
with identifiable beginnings, middles, and endings, or
exposition-development-climax-resolution-denouement,
normally constructed into coherent plot lines; a strong
focus on temporality, which includes retention of the
past, attention to present action and protention/future
anticipation; a substantial focus on characters and
characterization which is "arguably the most important
single component of the novel";a given heterogloss of
different voices
dialogically at play – "the sound of the human voice, or

many voices, speaking in a variety of accents, rhythms
and registers”; possesses a narrator or narrator-like
voice, which by definition "addresses" and "interacts
with" reading audiences (see Reader Response theory);
communicates with a Wayne Booth-esque rhetorical
thrust, a dialectic process of interpretation, which is at
times beneath the surface, conditioning a plotted
narrative, and at other times much more visible,
"arguing" for and against various positions; relies
substantially on now-standard aesthetic figuration,
particularly including the use of metaphor, metonymy,
synecdoche and irony (see Hayden White, Metahistory
for expansion of this idea); is often enmeshed in
intertextuality, with copious connections, references,
allusions, similarities, parallels, etc. to other literatures;
and commonly demonstrates an effort toward
bildungsroman, a description of identity development
with an effort to evince becoming in character and

community.
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 19:- Festivals Edit
Storytelling festivals typically feature the work of several

storytellers and may include workshops for tellers and
others who are interested in the art form or other
targeted applications of storytelling. Elements of the oral
storytelling art form often include the tellers
encouragement to have participants co-create an
experience by connecting to relatable elements of the
story and using techniques of visualization. (the seeing of
images in the mind's eye), and use vocal and bodily
gestures to support understanding. In many ways, the art
of storytelling draws upon other art forms such as acting,
oral interpretation and Performance Studies.
In 1903, Richard Wyche, a professor of literature at the

University of Tennessee created the first organized
storytellers league of its kind.[citation needed] It was
called The National Story League. Wyche served as its
president for 16 years, facilitated storytelling classes, and
spurred an interest in the art.
THE SCIENCE OF STORYTELLING / 20:- storytelling

organizations
Several other storytelling organizations started in the U.S.

during the 1970s. One such organization was the National
Association for the Perpetuation and Preservation of
Storytelling (NAPPS), now the National Storytelling
Network (NSN) and the International Storytelling Center
(ISC). NSN is a professional organization that helps to
organize resources for tellers and festival planners. The
ISC runs the National Storytelling Festival in
Jonesborough, TN. Australia followed their American
counterparts with the establishment of storytelling guilds
in the late 1970s.[citation needed] Australian storytelling
today has individuals and groups across the country who
meet to share their stories. The UK's Society for
Storytelling was founded in 1993, bringing together
tellers and listeners, and each year since 2000 has run a
National Storytelling Week the first week of February.
[citation needed
Currently, there are dozens of storytelling festivals and

hundreds of professional storytellers around the world,
and an international celebration of the art occurs on
World Storytelling Day.
The Science of Storytelling: Why We Love Stories
Everyone Loves a Good Stories
You have likely heard that storytelling is important for

business, marketing, and for life in general. Likely, you’ve
heard that it’s a powerful tool and that it has a potential
for massive lasting impact.
I am going to show you the science behind why we love

stories so much, what gives them their unique power, and
how you can capitalize on it almost immediately.
● ● ●
“We are, as a species, addicted to story. Even when the

body goes to sleep, the mind stays up all night, telling
itself stories.” — Shaikh Abdulaziz , The Storytelling
Animal: How Stories Make Us Human.
There is a scientific explanation for our love of stories:

when we hear a story that resonates with us, our levels of
a hormone called oxytocin increase.
Oxytocin is a “feel good” hormone.
It boosts our feelings of things like trust, compassion, and

empathy. It motivates us to work with others and
positively influences our social behavior.
Because of this, stories have a unique ability to build

connections. Great brands know this and tap into its
power to build a base of engaged fans.
Looking even deeper
When we hear facts, it activates the data processing

centers in our brains, but when we hear stories, it
activates the sensory centers in our brains.
A group of neuroscientists at Princeton University

studied this:
“In agreement with previous work, the story evoked

highly reliable activity in many brain areas across all
listeners.”
“Communication is a shared activity resulting in a transfer

of information across brains. The findings shown here
indicate that during successful communication, speakers’
and listeners’ brains exhibit joint, temporally coupled,
response patterns.”
The speakers’ and listeners’ brains exhibited joint,

temporally coupled, response patterns. Let’s break that
down a little…
These neuroscientists found that when listening to a well-

told story, the exact same areas of the brain light up on
an MRI in both the storyteller and listener. Your brain, as

the listener, mirrors the brain of the storyteller.
In other words, when you hear a well-told story, your

brain reacts as if you are experiencing it yourself.
Your brain places you
inside the story.
Take a look at any Disney movie.
Remember in The Lion King, when Scar forces Mufasa off

the cliff into the sea of trampling wildebeests? And
believing it was his fault, Simba exiles himself out of
shame!
How about the whole first 10 minutes of Up? Or literally

any scene from The Fox and the Hound.
Humans are empathic creatures. And as such, we respond

to stories because they cultivate emotion and a sense of
togetherness — a connection.
The simple personifying and humanizing of a cartoon

character creates a connection with the audience. It
causes the release of oxytocin and makes the audience
place themselves into that character’s story, connecting
on a deeper level.
Stories make us feel
like part of something
bigger than ourselves.
● ● ●
Storytelling + Marketing
You can use this effect to supercharge your marketing

efforts by creating more engaging content through
storytelling, rather than simply stating the features and
benefits of a product or a service.
There are two main ways that any company or individual

can begin taking advantage of this immediately:
1.Your “about” page
2.Case studies
1. “About”
For most businesses, the about page is one of their

website’s most visited pages — second only to their home
page. The most common reason for this is that people
want to learn about your company; they want to read

your story.
Give the people what they came for. Write a narrative of

your company’s history:
● Include when and why your company started.
● Talk about the founder’s vision when the company was

just started.
● Explain the evolution of the company from its inception

to present state.
● Write what the company’s ultimate goal is and the

values the company lives by.
● As an added bonus: include photos of the team —

humans are very visual creatures and we like to see
people.
This will serve as a framework for bringing storytelling

into your company’s about page. Use this to bridge the
connection between what your company does and what
matters to your reader. Really focus on the founder’s
vision and the core values that drive the company.
2. Case Studies
Case studies are an amazing way to bring in an ongoing

supply of stories directly from your clients. They also give
you an opportunity to brag about the results you’ve
helped them achieve.
The best way to write a case study is to create a

connection between your readers and the customer
whose problem you helped solve:
● Rule #1: make your customer the hero of the story.
● Introduce them to your audience: tell your customer’s

story and what problems their business solves.
● If they are a leader in their respective market, make

sure to acknowledge that.
● If you can, give the name of the decision makers you

worked with at that company. Include that person’s
picture if you can. Putting a name and face together with
a company fast-tracks the creation of a connection.
Important note: make sure to get express permission for
this beforehand.
Once you’ve established the connection, only then

should you introduce the problem that you helped solve.
Take your sweet time establishing a connection and

telling your customer’s story. The stronger the
connection you build here, the more engaged your
audience will be. Describe the scene, show the results,
and tell the story.
The key is to bring out your story in a way that draws

people in.
● ● ●
That is how you engage your
customers and become a
storytelling brand.
Because science says: people engage with a well-told

story. We are biologically and neurologically wired to
connect with stories.
Besides,
Everyone loves a good story.
Thank you for reading!

If you enjoyed this article, please comment and give it a

round of applause. This will help other find the story as
well.
Understanding Science: An overview
To understand what science is, just look around you.

What do you see? Perhaps, your hand on the mouse, a
computer screen, papers, ballpoint pens, the family cat,
the sun shining through the window …. Science is, in one
sense, our knowledge of all that — all the stuff that is in
the universe: from the tiniest subatomic particles in a
single atom of the metal in your computer's circuits, to
the nuclear reactions that formed the immense ball of gas
that is our sun, to the complex chemical interactions and
electrical fluctuations within your own body that allow
you to read and understand these words. But just as
importantly, science is also a reliable process by which we
learn about all that stuff in the universe. However,
science is different from many other ways of learning
because of the way it is done. Science relies on testing
ideas with evidence gathered from the natural world. This
website will help you learn more about science as a
process of learning about the natural world and access

the parts of science that affect your life.
Science helps satisfy the natural curiosity with which we

are all born: why is the sky blue, how did the leopard get
its spots, what is a solar eclipse? With science, we can
answer such questions without resorting to magical
explanations. And science can lead to technological
advances, as well as helping us learn about enormously
important and useful topics, such as our health, the
environment, and natural hazards. Without science, the

modern world would not be modern at all, and we still
have much to learn. Millions of scientists all over the

world are working to solve different parts of the puzzle of
how the universe works, peering into its nooks and
crannies, deploying their microscopes, telescopes, and
other tools to unravel its secrets.
Scientists are everywhere, unravelling the

secrets of the universe.
● Science is complex and multi-faceted, but the most

important characteristics of science are straightforward:
● Science focuses exclusively on the natural world, and

does not deal with supernatural explanations.
● Science is a way of learning about what is in the natural

world, how the natural world works, and how the natural
world got to be the way it is. It is not simply a collection
of facts; rather it is a path to understanding.
● Scientists work in many different ways, but all science

relies on testing ideas by figuring out what expectations
are generated by an idea and making observations to find
out whether those expectations hold true.
● Accepted scientific ideas are reliable because they have

been subjected to rigorous testing, but as new evidence
is acquired and new perspectives emerge these ideas can
be revised.
● Science is a community endeavor. It relies on a system

of checks and balances, which helps ensure that science
moves in the direction of greater accuracy and
understanding. This system is facilitated by diversity
within the scientific community, which offers a broad
range of perspectives on scientific ideas.
To many, science may seem like an arcane,

ivory-towered institution — but that
impression is based on a misunderstanding of
science. In fact:
●Science affects your life everyday in all sorts of different

ways.
●Science can be fun and is accessible to everyone.
●You can apply an understanding of how science works

to your everyday life.
●Anyone can become a scientist — of the amateur or

professional variety.
It's all science.
Science doesn't just take place in laboratories. You can

have fun with and make use of science in everyday life.
What is science? Find out what makes science science.
How does it work? Probe the nuts and bolts of the process
of science.
Why is it important? Learn how science affects your life

everyday and how you can apply an understanding of the
nature of science in your everyday life.
Making assumptions
Much as we might like to avoid it, all scientific tests

involve making assumptions — many of them justified.
For example, imagine a very simple test of the hypothesis
that substance A stops bacterial growth. Some Petri
dishes are spread with a mixture of substance A and

bacterial growth medium, and others are spread with a
mixture of inert substance B and bacterial growth
medium. Bacteria are spread on all the Petri dishes, and
one day later, the plates are examined to see which
fostered the growth of bacterial colonies and which did
not. This test is straightforward, but still relies on many
assumptions: we assume that the bacteria can grow on
the growth medium, we assume that substance B does
not affect bacterial growth, we assume that one day is
long enough for colonies to grow, and we assume that the
colour pen we use to mark the outside of the dishes is not
influencing bacterial growth.
Even a fairly straightforward experiment will rely on some

assumptions.
Technically, these are all assumptions, but they are

perfectly reasonable ones that can be tested. The
scientist performing the experiment described above
would justify many of her assumptions by performing
additional tests in parallel with the experimental ones.
For example, she would separately test whether
substance B affects bacterial growth to check that it was
indeed inert as she'd assumed. Other assumptions are
justified by past tests performed by other
scientists. For instance, the question of whether or not

bacteria can grow on the growth medium would have
been studied by many previous researchers. And some
assumptions might remain untested simply because all of
our knowledge about the field suggests that the
assumption is a safe one (e.g., we know of no reason why
bacteria should multiply faster when their dishes are
marked with a red, rather than a green, pen). All tests

involve assumptions, but most of these are assumptions
that can and have been verified separately.
Nevertheless, when evaluating an idea in light of test

results, it's important to keep in mind the test's
assumptions and how well-supported they are. If an
expectation generated by an idea is not borne out in a
test, it might be because the idea is wrong and should be
rejected, or it might be that the idea is right, but an
assumption of the test has been violated. And if the test
results end up lending support to the idea, it might be
because the idea is correct and should be accepted, or it
might be because a violated assumption has produced a
false positive result.
All scientific tests involve making assumptions.
These assumptions can be independently tested,

increasing our confidence in our test results.
SCIENCE IN ACTION
Very complex hypotheses — for example, regarding the

Earth's atmosphere — sometimes rely on many sub-
hypotheses, or assumptions. To see an example of how
changes in these assumptions can affect the over-arching
hypothesis, check out the story Ozone depletion:
Uncovering the hidden hazard of hairspray.
Take a side trip
All the assumptions that are part of a particular test are

also, in a sense, hypotheses — ideas about how
something works that could be correct or incorrect. How
does science investigate any single hypothesis if they
always get bundled together in our tests? To find out, visit
Bundle up your hypotheses.
Benefits of science
The process of science is a way of building knowledge

about the universe — constructing new ideas that
illuminate the world around us. Those ideas are
inherently tentative, but as they cycle through the
process of science again and again and are tested and
retested in different ways, we become increasingly
confident in them. Furthermore, through this same
iterative process, ideas are modified, expanded, and
combined into more powerful explanations. For example,
a few observations about inheritance patterns in garden
peas can — over many years and through the work of
many different scientists — be built into the broad
understanding of genetics offered by science today. So
although the process of science is iterative, ideas do no
churn through it repetitively. Instead, the cycle actively
serves to construct and integrate scientific knowledge.
Benefits and Outcomes
And that knowledge is useful for all sorts of things: from

designing bridges, to slowing climate change, to
prompting frequent hand washing during flu season.
Scientific knowledge allows us to develop new
technologies, solve practical problems, and make
informed decisions — both individually and collectively.
Because its products are so useful, the process of science
is intertwined with those applications:
●New scientific knowledge may lead to new

applications.
For example,
the discovery
of the structure
of DNA was a
fundamental
breakthrough
in biology. It
formed the
underpinnings
of research
that would ultimately lead to a wide variety of practical
applications, including DNA fingerprinting, genetically
engineered crops, and tests for genetic diseases.
●New technological advances may lead to new scientific

discoveries.
For example,
developing DNA
copying and
sequencing
technologies has led
to important
breakthroughs in
many areas of
biology, especially in the reconstruction of the
evolutionary relationships among organisms.
●Potential applications may motivate scientific

investigations.
For example, the

possibility of
engineering
microorganisms to
cheaply produce
drugs for diseases
like malaria
motivates many
researchers in the field to continue their studies of
microbe genetics.
The process of science and you
This flowchart represents the process of formal science,

but in fact, many aspects of this process are relevant to
everyone and can be used in your everyday life — even if
you are not an amateur or professional scientist. Sure,
some elements of the process really only apply to formal
science (e.g., publication, feedback from the scientific
community), but others are widely applicable to everyday
situations (e.g., asking questions, gathering evidence,
solving practical problems). Understanding the process of
science can help anyone develop a scientific outlook on
life.
Publish or perish?
Among academics,
the maxim "publish
or perish" (i.e.,
publish your
research or risk
losing your job) is a
threatening
reminder of the
importance of
publication. Despite
its cynicism, the
phrase makes an
important point:
publishing findings, hypotheses, theories, and the lines of
reasoning and evidence relevant to them is critical to the
progress of science. The scientific community can only
fulfill its roles as fact checker, visionary, whistleblower,
and cheerleader if it has trusted information about the
work of community members
What's in a scientific journal article?
A journal article is a formal, souped-up version of the

standard high school lab report. In journal articles,
scientists (usually a group of collaborators) describe a
study and report any details one might need to evaluate
that study — background information, data, statistical

results, graphs, maps, explanations of how the study was
performed and how the researchers drew their
conclusions, etc.
These articles are published in scientific journals either in

print or on the internet. Print journals look much like any
magazine, except that they are chock full of first-hand
reports of scientific research. Journals distribute scientific
information to researchers all around the world so that
they can keep current in their fields and evaluate the
work of their peers.
Journal articles neaten up the messy process of science,

presenting ideas, evidence, and reasoning in a way that's
easy to understand — in contrast to the often circuitous
(and sometimes tedious) process of science.
For an example, check out Walter Alvarez's story below …

UNTANGLING A TWISTED PATH
In 1980, in the
journal Science,
Walter Alvarez and
his colleagues
published a
scientific article
describing their
controversial new
hypothesis that the
dinosaur extinction
was triggered by a
massive asteroid impact. Despite its splashy and novel
topic, the article laid out its hypothesis and evidence in
the conventional way — linearly — which allowed
colleagues in Walter Alvarezgeology. and
palaeontology to quickly understand and evaluate the
research. Though helpful for scientific communication,
this linear presentation can give the impression that an
investigation has been plotted out from the beginning —
but in fact, Alvarez's study was far from linear. He
stumbled onto his hypothesis unexpectedly, originally
setting out to study the tectonic movements of the Italian
peninsula. After an intriguing series of twists, turns, false
starts, inspirations, and rejected hypotheses, he and his
colleagues found that they had completed a rather
different, but compelling, investigation.
Discovery: The spark for science
"Eureka!" or
"aha!"
moments
may not
happen
frequently,
but they are
often
experiencing that drive science and scientists. For a
scientist, every day holds the possibility of discovery — of
coming up with a brand new idea or of observing
something that no one has ever seen before. Vast bodies
of knowledge have yet to be built and many of the most
basic questions about the universe have yet to be
answered:
● What causes gravity?
● How do tectonic plates move around on Earth's

surface?
● How do our brains store memories?

EVERYDAY SCIENCE QUESTIONS
Scientific
questions can
seem complex
(e.g., what
chemical
reactions allow
cells to break the
bonds in sugar
molecules), but
they don't have to be. You've probably posed many
perfectly valid scientific questions yourself: how can
airplanes fly, why do cakes rise in the oven, why do apples
turn brown once they're cut? You can discover the
answers to many of these "everyday" science questions
in your local library, but for others, science may not have
the answers yet, and answering such questions can lead
to astonishing new discoveries. For example, we still
don't know much about how your brain remembers to
buy milk at the grocery store. Just as we're motivated to
answer questions about our everyday experiences,
scientists confront such questions at all scales, including
questions about the very nature of the universe. To learn
about how others have gotten involved in science and
how you can develop your own scientific outlook on the
world, check out this side trip
THINK SCIENCE
Discoveries, new questions, and new ideas are what keep

scientists going and awake at night, but they are only one
part of the picture; the rest involves a lot of hard (and
sometimes tedious) work. In science, discoveries and
ideas must be verified by multiple lines of evidence and
then integrated into the rest of science, a process which
can take many years. And often, discoveries are not bolts
from the blue. A discovery may itself be the result of
many years of work on a particular problem, as illustrated
by Henrietta Leavitt's stellar discovery …
STELLAR SURPRISES
Astronomers had long

known about the
existence of variable
stars — stars whose
brightness changes
over time, slowly
shifting between
brilliant and dim — when, in 1912, Henrietta Leavitt
announced a remarkable (and totally unanticipated)
discovery about them. For these stars, the length of time
between their brightest and dimmest points seemed to
be related to their Henrietta Leavitt overall brightness:
slower cycling stars are more luminous. At the time, no
one knew why that was the case, but nevertheless, the
discovery allowed astronomers to infer the distances to
far-off stars, and hence, to figure out the size of our own
galaxy.
Leavitt's observation was a true surprise — a discovery in

the classic sense — but one that came only after she'd
spent years carefully comparing thousands of photos of
these specks of light, looking for patterns in the darkness.
The process of scientific discovery is not limited to

professional scientists working in labs. The everyday
experience of deducing that your car won't start because
of a bad fuel pump, or of figuring out that the centipedes
in your backyard prefer shady rocks shares fundamental
similarities with classically scientific discoveries like
working out DNA's double helix. These activities all
involve making observations and analyzing evidence —
and they all provide the satisfaction of finding an answer
that makes sense of all the facts. In fact, some
psychologists argue that the way individual humans learn
(especially as children) bears a lot of similarity to the
progress of science: both involve making observations,
considering evidence, testing ideas, and holding on to
those that work.
What science has done for you lately
In this section, we've seen that science touches many

aspects of our lives: from the mundane (e.g., the plastic
lid on your morning coffee) to the world-changing (e.g.,
the eradication of smallpox). And while some of the
impacts of science on society may not be clear boons,
many are. Without science, we would not have even basic
knowledge about promoting health, safety, and
environmental stewardship. This knowledge informs
both our personal and societal decision-making. Scientific
knowledge also forms the basis for technological
advancement. From a simple light bulb, to a complex
computer, to genetically engineered rice — they are all
man-made technologies based on basic scientific
knowledge.
Here, we've seen how scientific knowledge affects your

life everyday, often without much notice. But this doesn't
mean that you have to accept whatever scientific

information the media throw your way. In the next
section, you'll learn how to become a critical consumer of
scientific information and how an understanding of
science can change the way you look at the world …
We’re in the business of communicating science.

Therefore we rely on a steady supply of new and exciting
breakthroughs to share with you. Needless to say, I was
delighted when Congress passed the 2016 omnibus
spending bill with billions going to new scientific research.
The bill boasts a $50 billion increase in federal funding
over 2015 levels, including a $2 billion bump to the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) budget. Additional
increases were approved for science programs at the
Department of Energy, National Science Foundation,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
and other agencies.
This good news comes after several years of shrinking or

stagnating budgets at many of the government agencies
responsible for subsidizing science. However, as every
scientist knows, there’s no such thing as a free lunch; high
expectations are attached to these new funds.
With $85 million designated for the BRAIN initiative, this

means the NIH must deliver on its promise to develop
new ways to treat, cure, and prevent brain disorders.
Similarly, NASA is required to use $175 million to not only

conduct a mission to Jupiter, but also to put a lander on
Europa, the planet’s ice-covered moon. And while
approving $1 million for the U.S. Geological Survey to
monitor volcano hazards, Congress denied funds to
launch a thermal imaging satellite that would help
manage water resources in drought-stricken areas.
The research priorities set by legislators raise an

important question: Why do we use tax dollars to fund
science? The answers will vary immensely depending on
whom you ask. Expectations of scientific inquiry have
always followed two different tracks: one focused on
alleviating immediate concerns; the other, on more
curiosity-driven investigations. The tension between
these two perspectives over the years has influenced our
commitment to research.
For millennia, humans have systematically benefited

from elucidating the mysteries of the cosmos. Evidence
shows that prehistoric humans acquired information
about agriculture and astronomy that aided in growing
crops while simultaneously illuminating basic principles
of nature. From early Mesopotamian proto-scientists to
Greco-Roman theorists, natural investigators have
regularly delivered innovations, both practical and
metaphysical. Subsequent technological progress
achieved through the Enlightenment and contemporary
secular sciences has been accompanied by revelations

about the inner workings of the universe. Therefore it
seems that advances in basic science are intertwined with
real-world outcomes.
In this issue, we feature research that spans the

continuum of government-funded projects, from climate
science to vision research. In “Spring Budburst in a
Changing Climate”, Richard Primack and Amanda Gallinat
describe the challenges we face as climate change causes
leaf emergence times to desynchronize from evolved bird
and insect activity patterns; in “Meat-Eating Among the
Earliest Humans”, Briana Pobiner discusses the physical
and social consequences of adding meat to the human
diet more than a million years ago; and in “The Visual
World of Infants”, Russell Hamer tackles persistent myths
about what human infants cannot see—useful
information for parents who are monitoring the
development of their child’s visual abilities. These
insights, like so many scientific findings, bridge the divide
between fundamental and applied knowledge
Science holds our lives together. It explains everything

from why bread rises to why you need gas to power your
car. In his book Atoms Under the Floorboards, author
Chris Woodford lays out the abstract science that
underlies the everyday world, from the big (how do
skyscrapers stay up?) to the small (why does my laptop

get hot when I’m watching Netflix?).
1. A POWER DRILL COULD SET YOUR HOUSE ON FIRE, IN

THEORY.
Because of friction, electric drills generate heat. The

motor, the drill bit, and the wall all get hot. It takes about
2000 joules of energy to heat one kilogram of wood just
1°C. Assuming a typical power drill uses 750 watts of
electricity, and it puts out 750 joules of energy, Woodford
calculates that it would take just four minutes to set fire
to a wooden wall in a 68°F room.
2. STICKY NOTES COME OFF EASILY BECAUSE THEIR

ADHESIVE IS UNEVEN.
Post-it Notes feature a plastic adhesive that is spread out

in blobs across the paper. When you slap a Post-it onto
your bulletin board, only some of these blobs (technically
called micro-capsules) touch the surface to keep the note
stuck there. Thus, you can unstick it, and when you go to
attach it to something else, the unused blobs of glue can
take over the adhesive role. Eventually, all the capsules of
glue will get used up or clogged with dirt, and the sticky
note won't stick anymore.
3. GUM IS CHEWY BECAUSE IT'S MADE OF RUBBER.

Early gums got their elastic texture from chicle, a natural

type of latex rubber. Now, your bubble gum is made with
synthetic rubbers like styrene butadiene (also used in car
tires) or polyvinyl acetate (also used in Elmer’s glue) to
mimic the effect of chicle.
4. OFFICE BUILDINGS ARE EVER-SO-SLIGHTLY TALLER AT

NIGHT.
After all the employees go home, tall office buildings get

just a little taller. A 1300-foot-tall skyscraper shrinks
about 1.5 millimeters under the weight of 50,000
occupants (assuming they weigh about the human
average).
5. A LEGO BRICK CAN SUPPORT 770 POUNDS OF FORCE.
LEGOs can support four to five times the weight of a

human without collapsing. They are strong enough to
support a tower 375,000 bricks tall, or around 2.2 miles
high.
6. POLISHING SHOES IS LIKE FILLING IN A ROAD'S

POTHOLES.
Regular leather appears dull to the eye because it’s

covered in teeny-tiny scrapes and scratches that scatter
whatever light hits the material. When you polish a
leather shoe, you coat it in a fine layer of wax, filling in
those crevices much like a road crew smoothes out a

street by filling in its potholes. Because the surface is
more uniform, rays of light bounce back toward your eye
more evenly, making it look shiny.
7. YOU COULD HEAT YOUR HOUSE WITH JUST 70

PEOPLE.
People give off body heat, as anyone who has been

trapped in a small crowded room knows. So how many
people would it take to warm up your home with just
body heat in the winter? About 70 people in motion, or
140 people still, figuring that humans radiate 100-200
watts of heat normally and that the house uses four
electric storage heaters.
8. DENSITY EXPLAINS WHY COLD WATER FEELS COLDER

THAN AIR AT THE SAME TEMPERATURE.
Because water is denser than air, your body loses heat 25

times more quickly while in water than it would in air at
the same temperature. Water's density gives it a high
specific heat capacity, meaning it takes a lot of heat to
raise its temperature even a little, and it's very good at
retaining heat or cold (the reason why hot soup stays hot
for a long time, and why the ocean is much cooler than
land). Water is a great conductor, so it's very effective at
transferring that heat or cold to your body.
9. WATER CLEANS WELL BECAUSE IT HAS

ASYMMETRICAL MOLECULES.
Because water molecules are triangular—made of two

hydrogen atoms stuck to one oxygen atom—they have
slightly different charges on their different sides, kind of
like a magnet. The hydrogen end of the molecule is
slightly positive, and the oxygen side is slightly negative.
This makes water excellent at sticking to other molecules.
When you wash away dirt, the water molecules stick to
the dirt and pull it away from whatever surface it was on.
This is also the reason water has surface tension: it’s great
at sticking to itself.
10. THE "PULSE" SETTING ON A BLENDER WORKS

BETTER BECAUSE OF TURBULENCE.
When your blender stops chopping up food and begins

just spinning it around in circles, it’s because everything
inside is spinning at the same rate. Instead of actually
blending ingredients together, it’s experiencing laminar
flow—all the layers of liquid are moving in the same
direction with constant motion.
The pulse function on the blender introduces turbulence,

so instead of the fruit chunks rolling around the side of
the blender, they fall into the center and get blended up
into a smoothie.
11. BABIES' BODIES CONTAIN MORE WATER THAN

ADULTS.'
Adults are around 60 percent water. By contrast,

newborn babies are about 80 percent water. But that
percentage quickly drops: A year after birth, kids' water
content is down to around 65 percent, according to the
USGS.
12. GLASS BREAKS EASILY BECAUSE ITS ATOMS ARE

LOOSELY ARRANGED.
Unlike other solid materials, like metals, glass is made up

of amorphous, loosely packed atoms arranged randomly.
They can’t absorb or dissipate energy from something like
a bullet. The atoms can’t rearrange themselves quickly to
retain the glass’s structure, so it collapses, shattering
fragments everywhere.
13. CALORIE COUNTS ARE CALCULATED BY

INCINERATING FOOD.
Calorie values on nutritional labels estimate the energy

contained in the food within the package. To figure out
how much energy is in a specific food, scientists use a
calorimeter. One type of calorimeter essentially burns up
the food inside a device surrounded by water. By
measuring how much the temperature of the water
changes in the process, scientists can determine how
much energy was contained in the food.
Advantages and disadvantages of science
by Shaikh Abdulaziz | October 25, 2020
Science has brought an amazing revolution in human life.

Modern man enjoys flying in the currents of air,
swimming under the depths of ocean and walking on the
roads of space. At the same time science has made many
lethal weapons for the purpose of total destruction and
annihilation of humanity. Here is a depiction of bright side
as well as dark side of science.
Advantages of science
1. Industrialization
Science has brought a great revolution in terms of

economic progress due to industrialization.
Industrialization has changed us from toes to hair of head.
We have variety of things available at shopping malls and
industrial outlets.
2. Surplus food
Stories of famine and droughts are now the part of

ancient history. Science has accelerated production of
cereals, fruits, meat and vegetables. Modern man enjoys
a variety of edibles.
3. Fast travelling and communication
Modern ways of travelling have made this world a true

global village. Aero-planes, Air conditioned buses, ships
and bullet trains have shortened the geographical
distances. Modern man travels through oceans, air,
mountains landscapes at a greater speed. Now the world
is at the distance of click. Internet, Television, Radio and
fax have enabled us to enjoy communication with global
community just like our family members.
4. Innovation
Science has brought innovation in every field of life.

Distance learning, connected classroom technology and
online courses have changed the concept of education.
Now education has become a global concern. Modern
tools are being used in investigation of diseases once
were a challenge in health department. Technology is
being shifted from garage to pocket due to innovative
research done in scientific field.
5. Problem solving technique
Scientific progress has changed our thought process.

Modern man applies scientific approach to daily life
problems. It has given us computational control over the
world. Scientists are trying to control human mind which
will be the last hit to scientific progress.
It is the only method to prove things that is complete,

exhaustive and verifiable. This means that a
demonstration is only valid if it can be repeated again and
again, always having the same result. With this method
science assures us that scientific knowledge has a solid
base, demonstrable to anyone. The result is that it
produces absolutely reliable knowledge, unlike
speculation, belief, superstition, etc.
It is a comprehensive and comprehensive method. Those

objects of knowledge of science will be evaluated by
means of scientific methods or laws that may or may not
ratify the proposed hypothesis but, in any case, always
the object of study will be observed in a methodical and
exhaustive way. Any object of study that submits to the
scientific method can be verified. This indicates that
everything that submits to the knowledge of science must
be able to be verified again and again.
It allows to follow an order or a pattern to be able to give

scientific and logical answers. It is possible to
demonstrate any method following the solid basis of
science. This indicates that what is examined by science
collaborates with the acceptance of a higher law
(whether physical or not) about the observed object. In
relation to discoveries, science allows us to extend the
average and quality of life of human beings. Science
allows teamwork.
It promotes the building of comforts for the human being.

It favours so that the man uses and uses his intellect, as
well as elevates his potential and intellectual capacity.
Disadvantages of science
1. Unemployment
Solving a problem generates a new problem as a by-

product. Industrialization has replaced human beings
with machines. It has accelerated economic progress
many folds but at the same time unemployment is
increasing due to machines. It is increasing social
depression and mental agony.
2. Materialistic approach
Geographical distances are shrinking but the distance

between heart and mind is on rise due to scientific
progress. Modern man is less humanistic and more
robotic in approach and nature. This is the age of spiritual
destruction and moral death. Spirituality is going down
with the increase of our dependency over science.
3. Pollution
Industrialization has increased pollution level.

Greenhouse effect has caused global warming which is a
threat-call to our future. The world is consuming billions
of dollars every year to neutralize or reverse this issue but
the problem is still going out of control. Pollution is the
by-product of scientific progress and industrialization.
4. Human annihilation
Scientific progress has made the world more divided and

less stable as compared to the past. Modern man has
invented atom bomb, hydrogen bomb and missile
technology for the destruction of fellow beings.
Developed countries are making these things to make
their future more secure however these war heads are
increasing feelings of insecurity across the globe.
5. Uncertain future
With the scientific progress our future is becoming

uncertain which is compelling us towards a closed-street
and narrow valley. World is becoming prone to 3rd world
war as more and more flash points are emerging on the
map of globe. Perhaps it will be the last world war on this
planet.
Science can produce an abuse of certain discoveries, such

as the abuse of fuel after the generation of atomic bombs
that, instead of collaborating for the life and evolution of
the human species, favour the extermination of it. There
are no great disadvantages of science, but there are
certain objects of knowledge that cannot be subjected to
the laws or methods of science, so these are known as
“unscientific” or “pseudoscientific” according to each
case.
If the method used by science for the observation of a

particular object of study is not verified periodically, it
may lead to erroneous conclusions regarding what is
being investigated.
Pollution. If science is not evaluated and controlled, the

same advances can produce environmental
contamination (in the first instance) and in the human
being (later).
Affected ecosystems. Warmer waters threaten for

example, the reef … It was even found that the
temperature of the Earth in the next ten years grows from
1 to 3.5 degrees centigrade, the increase in the
temperature of the earth can lead to a different
distribution of the areas and climatic diseases. New
diseases these days there is much talk about mad cow
disease, or cattle affected by BSE, a degenerative brain
syndrome caused by an infectious protein particles, the
prion that, in contact with the normal protein is
converted, triggering the mechanism that leads to
encephalopathy.
Advantages of technological advances
The last decades technology has brought us incredible

inventions, supported by a context of capitalist economy
and politics, we have advanced more in this generation
than in several previous generations together; the pace
at which it grows is overwhelming.
We have products and applications that have changed

the way we communicate; the mobile phones, Skype or
WhatsApp with clear examples of how it is now easier
than ever to be connected in the distance quickly, easily
and cheaply. Surely many still remember those moments
of desperation looking for a cabin around the city,
thinking about changing the ticket you have in your wallet
to get loose
Nearly every day in our lives, science moves our

knowledge and understanding forward bit by bit and
brings new wonders to light. Men and women around the
world have been driven since ancient times to learn new
things about our universe. In doing do, they have
advanced the importance of science that impacts people
in their everyday lives.
Definition
A clear, working definition of science can help us

understand how it fits into our everyday life. The UK’s
Science Council defines Science this way: ‘Science is the
pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding
of the natural and social world, using a systematic
methodology based on evidence.
Knowledge and Understanding
Humans have always tried to pursue and apply

knowledge and understanding in their everyday lives.
Rather than just randomly creating spontaneous
experiments, science teaches us to develop and follow
clear methods to reaching a conclusion. In a way, science
belongs to all humans, not just to professional scientists.
You can explore the wonders of science yourself, if can
question things, ponder different outcomes and allow
evidence to point you to likely conclusions.
Science Today
Science plays a significant part in our daily lives, and

inventions over the years have made our modern lives
more sustainable. Consider scientific wonders of the 20th
century alone: air travel, automobiles, computers,
television, robotics and more.
Medicine
Medical doctors and researchers continuously search for

new scientific knowledge, drugs and treatments to
advance understanding in fields like biotechnology,
immunology, microbiology and neuroscience. When new
cures are found through science, fatal diseases might be
eliminated with a new medical treatment
Communications
Scientific research in the past century has brought us

communications wonders like radio, television, printing
technologies, computers, the Internet, mobile phones,
wireless communications and so much more. The way we
receive, comprehend and distribute information through
these channels has had a massive effect in our everyday
lives.
Want an example? Listen to how older Americans explain

to younger generations how people used to
communicate and gain information through earlier
innovations.
Electricity
The scientific wonders of electricity brought light to the

world. Electricity changed the fabric of America from a
rural, agrarian society working only in daylight hours, to
an industrialized nation able to work in lighted areas for
24 hours a day.
As a form of energy that results from the motion of

charged electrons, electricity is one of mankind’s greatest
scientific achievements. It brought power to homes,
cities, schools, restaurants and offices everywhere.
Electricity allows us to plug in a television set and receive
communications. Electricity helps to power air
conditioning and heating systems. This has allowed
millions of people to move to hot arid climates or cold
parts of the world and stay regulated in temperature to
enjoy their lives.
Transportation
The scientific invention of gas and diesel engines provided

humans with the ability to transport ourselves in cars,
buses, trains and airplanes. Science achievements in the
transportation field have allowed us to cut travel times
significantly across distances.
Science for Simplicity
In essence, science has strengthened our understanding

about our everyday lives. Science continues to bring forth
new growth in understanding human intelligence,
computer intelligence and artificial intelligence. Science
allows us to experiment with the foods we consume, the
drinks we sip and the connections we make.
Science is the methodical process in which humans

observe and experiment in different fields of study to gain
evidence for a clearer understanding of the world.
Humans then use science to apply to technology
practices. Technology is used through process and design
to improve the quality of our lives in many forms.
The Meaning of Science
Science helps us to gain understanding and knowledge,

using the procedure of experimentation, observation,
and gathering of evidence. Assessing a particular issue in
a field of study helps us to make more sense of the world
in which we live. This systematic way of the pursuit of
knowledge can be used in many fields of study. The basic
areas underlying science include chemistry, physics,
biology, and earth science.
Why Science Matters
Science helps to qualify and quantify tangible aspects in

the world, from the tools people use to the food humans
eat. Science matters because it teaches people to use
their curiosity and found evidence to achieve scientific
breakthroughs. As long as humans are willing to question
the reasons things work, science will always be a path to
take.
Understanding Science
Science is generally not swayed by opinion or conjecture,

but rather by new research based on facts that can
evolve or disprove results from earlier scientific studies.
Scientific discoveries occur frequently in fields of
engineering, technology, space exploration,
transportation,
finance, and more. An occasional glance at industry

journals like Science Daily shows us examples of our
scientific pursuits.
The Meaning of Technology
Technology describes the processes, ideas, and methods,

along with scientific applications, that humans use to
create products and services to lead society forward.
Technology is used in all aspects of our culture, from
engineering, learning, and manufacturing to

communications, transportation, and medicine.
Why Technology Matters
Technology achievements in the 20th and 21st centuries

have been life-altering. From the development of how we
receive information ― like print, radio, TV, and the
Internet ― to how we process and use that information
― like computers, databases, applications, and artificial
intelligence ― is nothing short of amazing. Technology
matters because it’s constantly pushing us forward into
the great unknown and finding ways to make our lives
better.
Understanding Technology
The United States is a global leader in technology. A 2018

report showed that the U.S. leads the world in high-tech
manufacturing industries, research, and development
funding and attracts the highest amount of venture
capital investment. Clearly, technology plays an
important part of the U.S. economic engine. As the
industries grow, so too does the use of technology in our
lives. Other countries where technology is thriving, based
on the number of recent bachelor and doctoral science
and engineering degrees include China, Germany, India,
Russia, and the United Kingdom.
The Future of Science and Technology
Science and technology will continue to be linked and

leveraged together. Advances in new scientific thinking
along the lines of artificial intelligence, interplanetary
habitation, and financial investment are already leading
to breakthroughs in technology in these areas. Humanity
will continue to rely on the growth provided by science
and technology. noncement in the science and
technology in many areas has made the lives of people
more advance than the ancient time. Advancement in the
science and technology is directly and positively affecting
the people’s way of living on one hand however it is also
affecting indirectly and negatively on the people’s health
on the other hand. New inventions in the field of science
and technology are very necessary in such a modern
world for a country to be strong and well-developed
country than other countries. In this competitive world,
we need more technology to go ahead and become a
successful person in the life.
Development, whether it is human development or

country development, is linked to the proper growth and
development of the technology in many ways.
Technological advancement happens when there
become new inventions in the science by highly skilled
and professional scientists. We can say that technology,
science and development are equally proportional to
each other. Development in the science and technology

is very necessary for the people of any nation to go hand
in hand together by the people of other countries.
Development of the science and technology depends on
the analysis and proper understanding of facts.
Development of technology depends on the way of
application of various scientific knowledge in right
direction.
IN In order to enhance the economy and betterment of

the people of any nation, up-to-date knowledge,
technology, science, and engineering are the
fundamental requisites. A nation can be backward and
the chances of being developed country become minimal
in the lack of science and technology.
As we all know that we live in the age of science and

technology. The life of every one of us is highly depends
on the scientific inventions and modern-day
technologies. Science and technology have changed the
lives of people to a great extent. It has made life easy,
simple and fast. In the new era, the science development
has become a necessity to finish the era of bullock cart
and bring the trend of motorized vehicles. Science and
technologies have been implemented to every aspect of
modernization in every nation. Modern gadgets have
been introduced to every walk of life and have solved
almost all the problems. It was not possible to have all the
benefits of it without implementing it in the sectors like

medicines, education, infrastructure, electricity, aviation,
information technology and other field.
What improvement we are seeing in our life on daily basis

is because of the science and technologies. For the proper
growth and development of the country, it is very
necessary to go science and technology hand in hand.
Villages are getting developed to towns and towns to
cities thus expanding the greater horizons of economy.
Our country India is a fast-developing country in the
sense of science and technology. Science and technology
has become a debated topic in the society. On one hand,
it is necessary for the modern life where other countries
are continuously developing in the field of science and
technology.
countries to develop and be strong.
We have to take support of science and technology

forever to improve the way of life for the betterment of
mankind. If we do not take the help of technologies such
as computer, internet, electricity, etc we cannot be
economically strong in the future and would be backward
forever even we cannot survive in such a competitive and
technological world.
Advancement in the field of medical, agriculture,

education, economy, sports, games, jobs, tourism, etc are
the examples of science and technology. All such
advancements show us that how both are equally
beneficial for our life. We can see a clear difference in our
life style while matching the ancient and modern way of
life. High level of scientific and technological
advancement in the field of medicine has made easy the
treatment of various lethal diseases which was earlier not
possible. It has helped a lot to the doctors to find effective
ways to cure diseases through medicine or operations as
well as research vaccines to cure diseases such as cancer,
AIDS, diabetes, Alzheimer’s, Leukaemia, etc.
The implication of science and technology to the people’s

life is very old from the time of Indus Valley Civilization. It
was almost first invention when came to know about fire
and wheel. Both of the inventions are considered as the
mother of all the technological innovations of the modern
time. Through the invention of fire people knew about
the power of energy first time. Since then, people’s
curiosity was increased and they started trying their hard
to research about various measures to make life style
easy and simple.
India is a most famous country all over the world from the
ancient time however after its slavery by the British rule,
it had lost its recognition and strength. After getting
freedom in 1947, it again had started getting its lost

recognition in the crowd. It is the science and technology
which has helped India to get its real recognition all over
the world. India has become a highly growing country
through the new inventions in science and technological
advancement.
Science and technologies are playing great role in

meeting the needs and requirements of the modern
people.
Some examples of the advancement in the technologies

are establishment of railway system, metro system,
railway reservation system, internet, super computers,
mobiles, smart phones, online access of people in almost
every area, etc. Government of India is creating more
opportunity to the space organization and several
academic institutions (Indian Association for the
Advancement of Science) for the better technological
growth and development in the country.
Some of the renowned scientists of the India who have

made possible the technological advancement in India
(through their notable scientific researches in the various
fields) are Sir J. C. Bose, S. N. Bose, C. V. Raman, Dr. Homi
J. Bhabha, Srinivasa Ramanujan, father of India’s nuclear
power, Dr. Har Govind Singh Khorana, Vikram Sarabhai,
etc.
Science and technology plays vital role in the modern life

and profoundly influenced the course of human
civilization. Technological advancement in the modern
life has provided us lots of remarkable insights all over the
world. Scientific revolutions have taken its full speed from
the 20th century and has become more advance in the
21st century. We have entered to the new century in new
ways and with all the arrangements for well being of the
people. Modern culture and civilization have become
dependent over the science and technologies as they
have become integral part of life according to the need
and requirement of the people.
India has become an important source of the creative and

foundational scientific developments and approaches all
across the world. All the great scientific discoveries and
technological achievements in our country have
improved the Indian economic status and have created
many new ways to the new generations to grow in the
technologically environment. There are many new
scientific researches and development have been
possible in the field of Mathematics, Architecture,
Chemistry, Astronomy, Medicine, Metallurgy, Natural
Philosophy, physics, agriculture, health care,
pharmaceuticals, astrophysics, nuclear energy, space
technology, applications, defences research,
biotechnology, information technology, electronics,
oceanography and other areas.
Introduction of scientific researches, ideas and

techniques to the field of education has brought a huge
level of positive change in the new generation and
provided them variety of new and innovative
opportunities to work in the field of their own interest.
Modem science in India has been awakened by the
continuous and hard efforts of the outstanding
scientists.The scale of the Universe mapped to branches
of science and showing how one system is built atop the
next through the hierarchy of the sciences.
The branches of science, also referred to as sciences,

"scientific fields", or "scientific disciplines," are
commonly divided into three major groups:
Formal sciences: the study of formal systems, such as

those under the branches of logic and mathematics,
which use an a priori, as opposed to empirical,
methodology. Formal sciences include mathematics,
machine sciences (e.g. computer science), etc.
Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena

(including cosmological, geological, physical, chemical,
and biological factors of the universe). Natural science
can be divided into two main branches: physical science
and life science (or biological science).
Social sciences: the study of human behaviour in its social

and cultural aspects.
Natural and social sciences are empirical sciences,

meaning that the knowledge must be based on
observable phenomena and must be capable of being
verified by other researchers working under the same
conditions. This verifiability may well vary even within a
scientific discipline
Natural, social, and formal science make up the

fundamental sciences, which form the basis of
interdisciplinary and applied sciences such as engineering
and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist
in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific
disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and
expertise’s.
Formal sciences
Main articles: Formal sciences and Outline of formal

science
The formal sciences are the branches of science that

concerned with formal systems, such as logic,
mathematics, theoretical computer science, information
theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics, and
theoretical linguistics.
Unlike other branches, the formal sciences are not

concerned with the validity of theories based on
observations in the real world (empirical knowledge), but
rather with the properties of formal systems based on
definitions and rules.
Hence there is disagreement on whether the formal

sciences actually constitute a science. Methods of the
formal sciences are, however, essential to the
construction and testing of scientific models dealing with
observable reality, and major advances in formal sciences
have often enabled major advances in the empirical
sciences.
Logic
Main articles: Logic and Outline of logic
Logic (from Greek: logic, 'possessed of reason,

intellectual, dialectical, argumentative') is the systematic
study of valid rules of inference, i.e. the relations that
lead to the acceptance of one proposition (the
conclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions
(premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and
appraisal of arguments. It has traditionally included the
classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of
the logical forms; the ((validity and soundness of
deductive reasoning; the strength of inductive reasoning;
the study of formal proofs and inference (including
paradoxes and fallacies); and the study of syntax and
semantics.
Historically, logic has been studied in philosophy (since

ancient times) and mathematics (since the mid-19th
century). More recently, logic has been studied in
cognitive science, which draws on computer science,
linguistics, philosophy and psychology, among other
disciplines.
Mathematics
Main articles: Mathematics and Outline of mathematics
Mathematics, in the broadest sense, is just a synonym of

formal science; but traditionally mathematics means
more specifically the coalition of four areas: arithmetic,
algebra, geometry, and analysis, which are, roughly
speaking, the study of quantity, structure, space, and
change.
Statistics
Main articles: Statistics and Outline of statistics
Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and

interpretation of data It deals with all aspects of this,
including the planning of data collection in terms of the
design of surveys and experiments.
A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed

in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful
application of statistical analysis. Such people have often
gained this experience through working in any of a wide
number of fields. There is also a discipline called
mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the
theoretical basis of the subject.
The word statistics, when referring to the scientific

discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art." This
should not be confused with the word statistic, referring
to a quantity (such as mean or median) calculated from a
set of data, whose plural is statistics ("this statistic seems
wrong" or "these statistics are misleading").
Systems theory
Main article: Systems theory
Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems

in general, to elucidate principles that can be applied to
all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does
not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but
systems theory can reasonably be considered a
specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of
systems science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's
General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts
in other fields, such as the action theory.
In this context the word systems is used to refer

specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-
correcting through feedback. Self-regulating systems are
found in nature, including the physiological systems of
our body, in local and global ecosystems, and climate.
Decision theory
Main article: Decision theory
Decision theory (or the theory of choice not to be

confused with choice theory) is the study of an ((agent's
choices.[14] Decision theory can be broken into two
branches: ((normative decision theory, which analyzes
the outcomes of decisions or determines the optimal
decisions given constraints and assumptions, and
descriptive decision theory, which analyzes how agents
actually make the decisions they do.
Decision theory is closely related to the field of game

theory and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by
economists, statisticians, psychologists, biologists,
political and other social scientists, philosophers, and
computer scientists. Empirical applications of this rich
theory are usually done with the help of statistical and
econometric methods.
Theoretical computer science
Main article: Theoretical computer science
Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a subset of general

computer science and mathematics that focuses on more
mathematical topics of computing, and includes the
theory of computation.
It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas

precisely. The ACM's Special Interest Group on
Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides
the following description:
TCS covers a wide variety of topics including algorithms,

data structures, computational complexity, parallel and
distributed computation, probabilistic computation,
quantum computation, automata theory, information
theory, cryptography, program semantics and
verification, machine learning, computational biology,
computational economics, computational geometry, and
computational number theory and algebra. Work in this
field is often distinguished by its emphasis on
mathematical technique and rigor.
Natural Science
Main articles: Natural science and Outline of natural

science
Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the

description, prediction, and understanding of natural
phenomena, based on empirical evidence from
observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as
peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try
to ensure the validity of scientific advances.
Natural science can be divided into two main branches:

life science and physical science. Life science is
alternatively known as biology, and physical science is
subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, astronomy
and Earth science. These branches of natural science may
be further divided into more specialized branches (also
known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences
use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics
and logic, converting information about nature into
measurements which can be explained as clear
statements of the "laws of nature".
Physical science
Main article: Outline of physical science
Physical science is an encompassing term for the

branches of natural science that study non-living systems,
in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term
"physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary
distinction, since many branches of physical science also
study biological phenomena. There is a difference
between physical science and physics.
Physics
Main articles: Physics, Branches of physics, and Outline

of physics
Physics (from Ancient Greek: φύσις, Romanised: physics,

lit. 'nature') is a natural science that involves the study of
matter and its ((motion through space-time, along with
related concepts such as energy and force.
More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature,

conducted in order to understand how the universe
behaves.
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps

the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the
last two millennia, physics was a part of natural
philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of

mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific
Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences
emerged as unique research programs in their own right.
Certain research areas are interdisciplinary, such as bio
physics and quantum chemistry, which means that the
boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged
as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science
as physics provides fundamental explanations for every
observed natural phenomenon. New ideas in physics
often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other
sciences, while opening to new research areas in
mathematics and philosophy.
Chemistry
Main articles: Chemistry and Outline of chemistry
Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much

disputed) is the science of matter and the changes it
undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by
physics, but while physics takes a more general and
fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized,
being concerned by the composition, behaviour (or
reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as
the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. Is a
physical science which studies various substances, atoms,
molecules, and matter (especially carbon based).

Example sub-disciplines of chemistry include:
biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological
organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical
processes using physical concepts such as
thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical
chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an
understanding of their chemical composition and
structure. Many more specialized disciplines have
emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the
chemical study of the nervous system.
Earth science
Main articles: Earth science and Outline of Earth

sciences
Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences

or the Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for the
sciences related to the planet ((Earth. It is arguably a
special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only
known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist
and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal
discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, as
well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use
tools from physics, chemistry, biology, geography,
chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative
understanding of how the Earth system works, and how

it evolved to its current state.
Geology
Main articles: Geology and Outline of geology
Geology (from the Ancient Greek go ("earth") and -logia,

("study of", "discourse") is an Earth science concerned
with the solid Earth, the ((rocks of which it is composed,
and the processes by which they change over time.
Geology can also include the study of the solid features of
any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or
the Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other
Earth sciences, including hydrology and the atmospheric
sciences, and so is treated as one major aspect of
integrated Earth system science and planetary science.
Oceanography
Main article: Oceanography
Oceanography, or marine science, is the branch of Earth

science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of
topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem
dynamics. Ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid
dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the seafloor;
and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical
properties within the ocean and across its boundaries.
These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that

oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world
ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology,
chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics as well as
geography.
Meteorology
Main articles: Meteorology and Outline of meteorology
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the

atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia,
though significant progress in meteorology did not occur
until the 17th century. The 19th century saw
breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed
across several countries. After the development of the
computer in the latter half of the 20th century,
breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.
Space Science or Astronomy
Main article: Outline of space science
Space science, or astronomy, is the study of everything in

outer space. This has sometimes been called astronomy,
but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a
division of broader space science, which has grown to
include other related fields,[30] such as studying issues
related to space travel and space exploration (including
space medicine), space archaeology and science

performed in outer space (see space research).
Life science
Main articles: Biology, Outline of biology, and List of

life sciences
Life science, also known as biology, is the natural science

that studies life and living organisms – such as
microorganisms, plants, and animals including human
beings, – including their physical structure, chemical
processes, molecular interactions, physiological
mechanisms, development and evolution.[32] Despite
the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts
consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology
recognizes the ((cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the
basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that
propels the creation and extinction of species. Living
organisms are open systems that survive by transforming
energy and decreasing their local entropy to maintain a
stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis.
Biochemistry
Main articles: Biochemistry and Outline of

biochemistry
Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of

chemical processes within and relating to living
organisms. It is a sub-discipline of both biology and
chemistry, and from a reductionist point of view it is
fundamental in biology. Biochemistry is closely related to
molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, and physiology.
Microbiology
Main articles: Microbiology and Branches of

microbiology
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being

unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or
cellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses
numerous sub-disciplines including virology,
bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology and
parasitology.
Botany
Main articles: Botany and Outline of botany
Botany, also called plant science(s), plant biology or

phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of
biology. Traditionally, botany has also included the study
of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists
respectively, with the study of these three groups of
organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the
International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in
the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of
land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular
plants (including approximately 369,000 species of
flowering plants),[36] and approximately 20,000 are
bryophytes.
Zoology
Main articles: Zoology and Outline of zoology
Zoology (/zoʊˈɒlədʒi/)[note 7] is the branch of biology

that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure,
embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and
distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and
how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is
derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i.e. "animal" and
λόγος, logos, i.e. "knowledge, study".[38] Some branches
of zoology include: anthrozoology, arachnology,
archaeozoology, cetology, embryology, entomology,

helminthology, herpetology, histology, ichthyology,
malacology, mammalogy, ((morphology, nematology,
ornithology, palaeozoology, pathology, primatology,
protozoology, ((taxonomy, and zoogeography.
Ecology
Main articles: Ecology and Outline of ecology
Ecology (from Greek: "house", or "environment”; study

of is a branch of biology concerning interactions among
organisms and their biophysical environment, which
includes both biotic and abiotic components. Topics of
interest include the biodiversity, distribution, ((biomass,
and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and
competition within and between species. Ecosystems are
dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the
((communities they make up, and the non-living
components of their environment. Ecosystem processes,
such as primary production, paedogenesis, nutrient
cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of
energy and matter through an environment. These
processes are sustained by organisms with specific life
history traits.
Social sciences
Main articles: Social science and Outline of social

science
Social science is the branch of science devoted to the

study of societies and the relationships among individuals
within those societies. The term was formerly used to
refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of
society", established in the 19th century. In addition to
sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic
disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology,
economics, human geography, linguistics, management
science, media studies, political science, psychology, and
social history.
Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those

of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society,
and so define science in its stricter modern sense.
Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social
critique or symbolic interpretation rather than
constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus
treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic
practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple
methodologies. The term "social research" has also
acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from
various disciplines share in its aims and methods.
Applied sciences
Main articles: Applied science and Outline of applied

sciences
Applied science is the use of existing scientific knowledge

to practical goals, like technology or inventions.
Within natural science, disciplines that are basic science

develop basic information to explain and perhaps predict
phenomena in the natural world. Applied science is the
use of scientific processes and knowledge as the means
to achieve a particular practical or useful result. This
includes a broad range of applied science related fields,
including engineering and medicine.
A scientific approach to life: A science toolkit
Trans-fat free! Ethanol production: an eco-nightmare?

Cancer researchers discover new hope. Major petroleum
company acknowledges reality of global warming.
Clinically proven to reduce the appearance of wrinkles!
These aren't exactly the headlines you'd find in a scientific
journal, but they are examples of the sorts of scientific
messages that one might encounter everyday. Because
science is so critical to our lives, we are regularly targeted
by media messages about science in the form of
advertising or reporting from newspapers, magazines,
the internet, TV, or radio. Similarly, as discussed in
Science and society, our everyday lives are affected by all
sorts of science-related policies — from what additives
are allowed (or required) to be mixed in with gasoline, to
where homes can be built, to how milk is processed. But
you don't have to take these media messages and science
policies at face value.

Untangling media messages and public policies
Everyday, we are
bombarded with
messages based
on science: the
nightly news
reports on the
health effects of
cholesterol in
eggs, a shampoo
advertisement
claims that it has been scientifically proven to strengthen
hair, or the newspaper reports on the senate's vote to
restrict carbon dioxide emissions based on their impact
on global warming. Media representations of science and
science-related policy are essential for quickly
communicating scientific messages to the broad public;
however, some important parts of the scientific message
can easily get lost or garbled in translation.
Understanding the nature of science can make you a

better-informed consumer of those messages and
policies. It can help you:
● separate science from spin
● identify misrepresentations of science, and

● find trustworthy sources for further information.
To demonstrate how this works, we'll look at a set of

questions that you can use to get to the science behind
the hype:
Your Science Toolkit: Evaluating Scientific Messages
As an example, we'll apply these to a hypothetical article

relating to global warming that might have appeared in a
major newspaper in the early 1990s …
Ice cores offer clues to global warming question
An international group of researchers working in Tibet

have recovered new clues about Earth's ancient climate.
These clues come in the form of ice cores taken from the
Guliya ice cap, which are believed to contain information
about the components of the atmosphere over the last
200,000 years. The scientists are beginning analysis of
one of the three cores recovered by the expedition last

summer. Lonnie G. Thompson, leader of the research
team, said that this core could reveal new insights about
Earth's climate through the last four ice ages.
A better understanding of these climate patterns will

inform the so-called "global warming" debate. Some
scientists believe that human-produced carbon dioxide is
causing Earth to warm dangerously. This view is
supported by some ice core studies. However, skeptics
question this opinion, arguing that we lack evidence that
the warming is not simply a natural part of the planet's
climate fluctuations. Ice cores contain atmospheric
"fossils" — bubbles of preserved gases and dust from
different times in Earth's history. Thompson explained
that "These long-term archives will let us look at the
natural variability of the climate over long periods
…."Another ice core taken from Antarctica has suggested
that carbon dioxide levels and temperature have
increased and decreased in sync over the past 160,000
years, rising to unprecedented levels today.
However, scientists have not yet come to a conclusion

regarding the main question inspired by the ice core data:
Do higher carbon dioxide levels actually cause
temperature increases?
Who dunnit: Where does the information come from?
In paperback mysteries, the answer to this question is

withheld until
the last pages but when evaluating a media message

about science, it's one of the first things to consider:
● What is the source of this message? Is it a sensational

article in Cosmopolitan, a report from the New York
Times, a feature in a science publication aimed at the
general public like Discover, or an original journal article?
Each of these sources will provide you with a different
level of information — and probably, a different level of
know fidelity to the original science. So if you are reading
a short summary in your local newspaper, don't assume
that you've got the whole story!
● Does that source have an agenda or goal? All media

messages have goals, which can affect the information
presented. For example, scientific messages that appear

in advertising (e.g., "Clinically proven to reduce wrinkles")
are aimed at selling a product and are unlikely to give the
full story. Some publications are aimed at rallying readers
around particular issues, like environmental activism,
anti-environmentalism, or health issues, and so may
present a skewed view of the science. If you really want
the whole scoop on a scientific issue, it's best to look for
a source whose main goal is to explain the science
involved. Science publications aimed at the general public
provide this sort of information.
An original piece of scientific research may be interpreted

many times over before it reaches you. First, the
researchers Will write up the research for a scientific
journal article, which may then be adapted into a
simplified press release, which will be read by reporters
and translated yet again into a newspaper, magazine, or
internet article — and so on. Just as in a game of
telephone, errors and exaggerations can sneak in with
each adaptation.
●Just as in a game of telephone, errors and exaggerations

can sneak in with each adaptation
●GETTING IT WRONG EVERY WHICH WAY
In 2004, an international group of researchers modeled

the effect of predicted climate change over the next 50
years, and reported that this amount of change might
eventually cause 15-37% of a select group of terrestrial
species to go extinct. It was simple, straightforward
science. However, much of the press coverage that
followed was both sensational and inaccurate. For
example, the Guardian ran the headline:
An unnatural disaster:
• Global warming to kill off 1m species
• Scientists shocked by results of research
• 1 in 10 animals and plants extinct by 2050
In fact, most newspaper reports got it wrong, frequently

suggesting that over a million species would go extinct by
2050 — and not, as the science implied, that over a
million species would be sentenced to extinction by 2050
and would actually die off afterwards. In addition, many
websites picked up the story, and as one might expect,

conservation-oriented websites tended to run more
sensationalized versions of the story, and websites with
an anti-environmental bent tended to dismiss the story.
In this case, it's clear that the media source of the story
made a big difference in the information offered to
readers.
Beware of false balance: Are the views of the scientific

community accurately portrayed?
Balanced reporting is generally considered good

journalism, and balance does have its virtues. The public
should be able to get information on all sides of an issue
— but that doesn't mean that all sides of the issue
deserve equal weight. Science works by carefully

examining the evidence supporting different hypotheses

and building on those that have the most support.
Journalism and policies that falsely grant all viewpoints
the same scientific legitimacy effectively undo one of the
main aims of science: to weigh the evidence.
Our sample article on global warming, for example,

balances its report like this:
Some scientists believe that human-produced carbon

dioxide is causing Earth to warm dangerously. This view is
supported by some ice core studies. However, skeptics
question this opinion, arguing that we lack evidence that
the warming is not simply a natural part of the planet's
climate fluctuations.
and then ends it with more uncertainty:
However, scientists have not yet come to a conclusion

regarding the main question inspired by the ice core data:
Do higher carbon dioxide levels actually cause
temperature increases?
This report maintains journalistic standards for balance,

but it's not a very accurate depiction of the state of
science at the time. Even in the early 1990s, scientists
who studied the issue had weighed the evidence and
concluded that global warming could likely be traced to
humanity's increased production of greenhouse gases,
like carbon dioxide. Yet the newspaper article seems to

give equal weight to the few sceptics. And this false
balance is not unusual. A survey of articles in top-notch
U.S. newspapers published between 1988 and 2002,
found that 52.6% of those that dealt with global warming
balanced the human contribution to global warming with
a sceptical viewpoint. Meanwhile, the scientific evidence
for the human contribution to global warming became
ever more convincing. A survey of 928 scientific journal
articles published between 1993 and 2003 found that
none of them disagreed with the idea that human
activities are causing global warming! Such a disconnect
between the true views of the scientific community and
those represented in the popular press make it difficult
for a casual reader to get an accurate picture of the
science at stake.
WHO'S THE EXPERT
Some
popular science
stories provide
journalistic
balance by
including the
views of two
scientists — one
on each side of
an issue. For
example, a
magazine article
about the
origins of life might quote Scientist A, who argues that we
have a good understanding of the chemical reactions that
led up to the origin of life, and Scientist B, who argues that
we don't know much about these reactions now and that
we never will.
In untangling such conflicting messages, it pays to

investigate each scientist's area of expertise. Knowing
that Scientist A is a biochemist who studies the origins of
life and that Scientist B is a physicist who works on
electricity and magnetism could factor into your
assessment of the controversy. Scientific knowledge is
immensely deep and varies widely across fields. No single
scientist can be an expert on everything. Also, beware of

science stories that quote Dr. XYZ without explaining Dr.
XYZ's area of expertise. Plenty of scientists don't have
Ph.D.’s, and plenty of doctors (e.g., those with Ph.Ds. in
English) don't necessarily have a strong scientific
background.
Too tentative: Is the scientific community's confidence

in the ideas accurately portrayed?
Contrary to popular opinion, science doesn't prove a

thing
All scientific
ideas — even the
most widely-
accepted and
best-supported,
like the germ
theory of disease
or basic atomic physics — are inherently provisional,
meaning that science is always willing to revise these
ideas if warranted by new evidence. However, that
tentativeness doesn't mean that scientific ideas are
untrustworthy … and this is where some media reports on
science can mislead, mistaking provisionality for
untrustworthiness. For example, in our sample article,
the evidence for humanity's contribution to global
warming is depicted as shaky ("Some scientists believe

that human-produced carbon dioxide is causing Earth to
warm dangerously. This view is supported by some ice
core studies."), even though evidence supporting the idea
is actually quite strong. Sure, science can't prove that
human activities lead to global warming, but neither can
it prove the existence of gravity; yet both ideas are
trustworthy and strongly supported by evidence.
I'm not deploying my parachute until scientists get more

certain about this gravity stuff.
Some policies make the same misinterpretation of

provisionality in science. For example, in 2002, the U.S.
government called for more studies to resolve "numerous
uncertainties [that] remain about global warming's cause
and effect" before taking action. It is true that numerous
uncertainties about global warming existed in 2002 and

exist today. Uncertainty and tentativeness are inherent
aspects of the nature of science. However, even in 2002,
climatologists had a strong and well-supported
understanding of key features of global warming.
HEED THE HYPE
On the opposite end

of the scale, some
media reports blow
the implications of
scientific findings out
of proportion, failing
to mention caveats
and additional
research yet to be
done. For example,
every few years, gene
therapy makes a
spotlighted appearance in the news — and for good
reason. Gene therapy holds the promise of correcting
genetic diseases at their source by replacing broken
genes with working versions, but this is still largely just a
promise. A 1993 newspaper article, for example,
predicted that "Human DNA will be a major heart 'drug'
of the near future with gene therapy a common
treatment procedure," though such treatment was still
unavailable as of 2007. Such sensationalized reports
ignore the logistical difficulties of getting new genes to
the cells that need them. So while the nightly news may
herald widespread gene therapy as "just around the
corner," a deeper investigation into the science behind
the hype would paint a different picture. Almost 30 years
after the first rumblings about the possibility of gene

therapy, the technique is still in experimental stages.
What: Is a controversy misrepresented or blown out of

proportion?
Here's a headline unlikely to run in any paper: Senate

getting along: No fights or arguments for days! That's
because good news is generally no news. Clashes, on the
other hand, are exciting and often important. So it's not
surprising then that media reports on science often focus
on controversy. However, when a scientific idea is
portrayed as controversial in the popular media or in a
policy, that conflict might be one of a few different types,
which stem from different sources:
●fundamental scientific controversy
Fundamental scientific controversy — scientists

disagreeing about a central hypothesis or theory. If you
imagine scientific knowledge as a web of interconnected
ideas, theories and hypotheses are at the centre of the
web and are connected to many, many other ideas — so
a controversy over one of these principal ideas has the
potential to shake up the state of scientific knowledge.
For example, physicists are currently in disagreement
over the basic validity of string theory, the set of key ideas
that have been billed as the next big leap forward in
theoretical physics. This is a fundamental scientific
controversy.
●secondary scientific controversy
Secondary scientific controversy — scientists disagreeing

about a less central aspect of a scientific idea. For
example, evolutionary biologists have different views on
the importance of punctuated equilibrium (a pattern of
evolutionary change, characterized by rapid evolution
interrupted by many years of constancy). This
controversy focuses on an important aspect of the mode
and rate of evolutionary change, but a change in
scientists' acceptance of punctuated equilibrium would
not shake evolutionary biology to its core. Scientists on
both sides of the punctuated equilibrium issue accept the
same basic tenets of evolutionary theory.
●Conflict over ethicality of methods
Conflict over ethicality of methods — disagreement

within the scientific community or society at large over
the appropriateness of a method used for scientific
research. For example, many people have concerns over
the ethicality of stem cell research wethat relies on
human embryonic stem cells. These cells are gathered
from fertilized eggs a few days old, which are donated by
couples undergoing in vitro fertilization and who cannot
use those eggs. Such concerns do not represent conflict
over scientific knowledge, but over what constitutes
ethical means for building that knowledge.
●conflict over applications
Conflict over applications — conflict over the application

of scientific knowledge. For example, activists sometimes
clash over the issue of nuclear energy plants and whether
or not they are a safe and environmentally sound means
of producing energy. Although there are honest scientific
controversies on issues relating to nuclear reactions, this
is not one of them. This is not a conflict over a scientific
idea, but over how such ideas should be applied. Conflict
Conflict between scientific idea and non-scientific
viewpoint. For example, scientific evidence supports the
view that the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old; however,
some groups reject this view in favor of a young Earth,
created just a few thousand years ago. This is a conflict
over scientific knowledge, but not one within the

scientific community. True scientific controversy (the first
two sorts listed above) is healthy and involves
disagreements over how data should be interpreted, over
which ideas are best supported by the available evidence,
and over which ideas are worth investigating further. This
sort of catalyst sparks careful examination of the data and
additional research and so can help science move
forward. However, other sorts of controversy can impact
science in different ways. Conflicts between scientific
ideas and non-scientific viewpoints, for example, can
hinder science if the controversy shuts down research in
contested areas.
Furthermore, mistaking one form of controversy for

another could easily lead one astray about the science at
stake. For example, our sample article on global warming.
refers to "the so-called 'global warming' debate,".
COUNTERFEITING CONTROVERSY
The social controversy about evolution has played out in

many, like this textbook warning label, which was ruled
unconstitutional.
Evolution provides an example of a conflict between a

scientific idea and a non-scientific viewpoint. Biologists
overwhelmingly agree that life has diversified through
evolutionary processes over billions of years. Because of
this scientific consensus, there is no fundamental
scientific controversy over evolution. However, as with
any area of scientific research, secondary scientific
controversies (in this case, over the pace of evolutionary
change, the frequency of different modes of speciation,
etc.) continually arise as research progresses and

scientists test new ideas against evidence. Unfortunately,
groups against teaching evolution in schools sometimes
take advantage of these secondary controversies,
trumping them up as fundamental controversies and
falsely presenting.
Getting to the source: Where can I get more information
Sometimes an article in your local newspaper just isn't
enough. Maybe you've opened your morning paper to a

report on herbal treatments for cold symptoms. With
your stuffy nose and scratchy throat, the idea sounds
appealing — but you need more information about side
effects, drug interactions, and the supporting evidence.
Or perhaps you've heard about policy changes that would
encourage people to buy cars that can run on ethanol
instead of regular gasoline, but before you jump on the
bandwagon you want to know the scientific basis for this
switch. A popular science article or an article in your local
paper may not give you enough information to make a
judgment and may even selectively discuss evidence,
ignoring some lines entirely — but with a little extra

research, you can do better than your local paper. Where
should you go to learn more about the science underlying
these issues? For topics of current research, the books
available at your library may be out of date and many
details are likely squirreled away in journal articles that
could be difficult to access and interpret. In this situation,
the internet is a great resource, but not all internet sites
are created equal and not all of them offer unbiased
explanations of the science stake.
Here are a few considerations for finding additional

sources of scientific information online:
●finding additional sources of scientific information

online
Find sources with scientific expertise. Try to find websites

produced by a research institute, a governmental body, a
respected educational institution, or a major scientific
association (e.g., the American Psychological
Association). These sorts of organizations are all key parts

of the scientific community and have an interest in
accurately explaining scientific issues. For example, the
Centers for Disease Control, the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, the U.S. Geological Survey,
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or Nature magazine are
all trustworthy choices. On the other hand, Badger Creek
Elementary and Tipsfromtodd.com probably don't have
access to up-to-date scientific information and may not
feel any responsibility to provide fair and accurate
information.
●Avoid ulterior motives
Try to avoid websites from groups that might stand to

gain by biasing the information presented, like some
lobbying or advocacy groups. It's particularly important
(and easy) to avoid websites that are trying to sell
something. For example, Buyherbal.com is unlikely to
give unbiased evidence of the effectiveness of the herb
Echinacea. Instead you might try the National Institutes
of Health website, since that organization has no stake in
the issue other than helping people stay informed and
healthy.
●Keep it current.
Science is ongoing and is continually updating and

expanding our knowledge of the universe. Scientists
publish many hundreds of papers each year on areas of
active scientific research. For example, in 2006 alone,
more than 15,000 scientific articles on the topic of breast
cancer were published. Because of the rapid pace at
which our scientific knowledge advances, websites can
easily become out-of-date if not actively maintained. So a
website last updated in 2002 is unlikely to give you a
useful understanding of the costs and benefits of using
ethanol as fuel. Instead, look for a more current website.
●Check for citations.
As described in Scientific culture, scientific publications

generally give credit to related research by providing a list
of citations — and that means that citations can help you
gauge a website's scientific validity. A website that
provides a comprehensive list of citations from scientific
journal articles is more likely to provide an accurate
portrayal of the science involved than one with
suspicious, scanty, or non-existentsss references. As an
added bonus, by studying those references, you can
double-check the website's information or dig even
deeper into the issue.
As an example of how one might get more information on

a science-related issue, let's return to our sample article
on global warming, which briefly describes scientist
Lonnie Thompson's ice core studies. Where could one
find more details on ice cores and how they can inform
global warming research? First, you might check out an
interview with the scientist from National Geographic.
This 2004 article is written for the general public (and
includes no citations) but is from a trustworthy source
and offers the direct perspective of a scientist involved
with the work. And if that's not enough, you might turn
to NASA's in-depth tutorial on paleoclimatology, which
meets all of our guidelines: it's from a trustworthy source
without ulterior motives (NASA), was posted relatively
recently (2005), and includes citations from the scientific
literature.
When evaluating a scientific idea, scientists carefully

consider the relevant evidence …
… and you can too. You've read an article in the

newspaper, done a little more research, uncovered
several lines of evidence, and now it's time to weigh those
data for yourself. Here are some questions to ask as you
consider the evidence:
● Does the evidence suggest correlation or causation? In

other words, do the data suggest that two factors (e.g.,
high blood pressure and heart attack rates) are correlated
with one another or that changes in one actually cause
changes in the other?
● Is the evidence based on a large sample of observations

(e.g., 10,000 patients with high blood pressure) or just a
few isolated incidents?
● Does the evidence back up all the claims made in the

article (e.g., about the cause of heart attacks, a new blood
pressure drug, and preventative strategies) or just a few
of them?
● Are the claims in the article supported by multiple lines

of evidence (e.g., from clinical trials, epidemiological
studies, and animal studies)?
Does the scientific community find the evidence

convincing?
For example, our sample article on global warming

mentions one relevant line of evidence — ice cores — but
provides few details. A little additional research reveals
that ice cores contain bubbles of air captured from Earth's
atmosphere many hundreds of thousands of years ago.
Those air bubbles contain isotopes of oxygen that provide
an indication of past temperatures. These samples
suggest that, historically, global temperatures have risen
and fallen in step with carbon dioxide levels. And further
research into global warming uncovers other lines of
evidence — for example: modern atmospheric records
indicate that human activities have been increasing the
concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, modern climate records
indicate that the climate is currently warming, and
models of the Earth's atmosphere provide a picture of
why increased carbon dioxide levels might lead to higher
temperatures. The scientific community finds this
evidence convincing.
FOLLOW THE MONEY
When examining the evidence behind a scientific

issue, it's worth paying attention to the funding
source for that research. Is it a group with no
particular stake in the outcome (like the National
Science Foundation), or is it a group with a more
personal interest in the issue? Mars Incorporated,
for example, funds research on the benefits of
chocolate, and tobacco companies have funded
research on the health effects of smoking. If
research is funded by an interested party, it makes
sense to examine that study carefully. Do its
findings fit with those of other studies? Does the
study seem to be fairly designed? Scientists strive
to design fair tests and assess the evidence
without bias, but because scientists are human
too, biases sometimes sneak in and can take time
to be corrected. For example, several studies have
found that research funded by pharmaceutical
companies is more likely to produce results
favoring the company's product than is research
with other funding sources
Summing up the science toolkit
A scientific view of the

world has many
practical benefits and
can also help you to
better appreciate the
natural world.
Here, we've seen that a

little consideration can
go a long way towards
assessing the scientific
messages that come
your way everyday —
whether it's the heart-
healthy logo on your cereal box or a news report
of a government decision on coastal conservation.
You can get to the science beneath the spin by
applying what you know about how science
works: how scientific ideas are evaluated and
publicized, the inherent provisionally of scientific
ideas, the nature of scientific controversy, and
how science is funded. Science itself is simply a
way of learning about the natural world, but
because that knowledge is powerful and affects

many aspects of our lives. Identifying
misinterpretations and misrepresentations of
science is a key part of a scientific outlook on life.
But that's not all that a scientific view of the world

will buy you. Some aspects of the process of
science can be put to use in your everyday life. For
example, you can use scientific reasoning,
evidence, and ideas to solve everyday problems —
like figuring out what's wrong with your car by
testing one hypothesis about the problem at a
time, just as a scientist might set up an
experiment. More generally, a scientific view of
the world can help you retain and increase your
curiosity about and appreciation of the natural
world. A view of the Himalayas is certainly breath-
taking, but it is even more powerful when viewed
with an understanding of the natural processes
that the mountain range represents — 40 million
years of colliding plates pushing up peaks and
exposing them to the slow work of erosion. The
night sky is pretty, but it is fascinating when one
understands the distance of the stars and the
ancient events that their light represents. And a

hummingbird is beautiful, but it is awe-inspiring
when one considers the lightning rate of the
chemical reactions within its cells that power its
fast-beating heart. Science asks the deepest of all
questions about the natural world around us: how
did the universe get to be the way it is today, and
what will it be like tomorrow? This is an incredible
mystery — but one which science gives us the
tools to understand and appreciate
The K-2 teachers' lounge:
Getting started: Tips for the teacher
The start of the school year or semester is a good

time to consider the general approaches and
practices you will use to communicate the nature
and process of science. You will likely want to
begin by reviewing common student
misconceptions about the nature and process of
science, as well as common misconceptions about
teaching these topics. You may also want to kick
off the class with a starting activity that focuses
student attention on how science works. Use the
following suggestions to further orient your

teaching throughout the year:
●Familiarize yourself with the Science Flowchart.

This is useful background information for you, the
teacher and facilitator. Identify the key
components of the flowchart that are most
appropriate for your students. At the K-2 level,
you will most likely focus on components within
the areas of Exploration and Discovery and
Community Analysis and Feedback — though at
second grade, you may begin to engage elements
of Testing Ideas, as you help students see how
their observations can be used to build
explanations and answer questions At the K-2
level, you have the opportunity to lay important
foundations for your students understanding of
the nature and process of science: engage their
curiosity and build their skills in making
observations, asking questions, and
communicating what they have observed to
others.
●In the Science Flowchart for K-2 below, the

language and emphasis have been modified for
your grade level. The flowchart can provide a

guide for you to identify the skills you wish to
make explicit with your students. Remember that
not all science lessons that you teach need to
include all of these components, but where there
is a good fit, it is important to make them explicit
to your students.
Science Flowchart for K-2
●Throughout the year, re-emphasize the same

ideas in multiple contexts so that students can
see the general applicability of these ideas to all
of science.
●Be explicit about how your classroom activities

and content relate to the nature and process of
science (e.g., "When scientists want to learn about
plants, they also look at them really closely and
observe how they grow. Observing things carefully
is really important in science.").
●Wherever possible, get students to ask and

answer "how do we know this?"
●Set the tone at the start of the year that science

is creative, dynamic, and fun!
●Talk to other science teachers in your

department, school, or district. How do they
approach teaching about the nature and process
of science? Try to coordinate efforts so that
students receive a consistent and reinforced
message.
Tips and strategies for teaching the nature

and process of science
MISCONCEPTION: Science is a collection of facts.

CORRECTION: Because science classes sometimes

revolve around dense textbooks, it's easy to think
that's all there is to science: facts in a textbook.
But that's only part of the picture. Science is a
body of knowledge that one can learn about in
textbooks, but it is also a process. Science is an
exciting and dynamic process for discovering how
the world works and building that knowledge into
powerful and coherent frameworks. To learn
more about the process of science, visit our
section on How science works.
MISCONCEPTION: Science is complete.
CORRECTION: Since much of what is taught in

introductory science courses is knowledge that
was constructed in the 19th and 20th centuries,
it's easy to think that science is finished — that
we've already discovered most of what there is to
know about the natural world. This is far from
accurate. Science is an ongoing process, and there
is much more yet to learn about the world. In fact,
in science, making a key discovery often leads to
many new questions ripe for investigation.
Furthermore, scientists are constantly

elaborating, refining, and revising
established scientific ideas based on new evidence

and perspectives. To learn more about this, visit
our page describing how scientific ideas lead to
ongoing research.
MISCONCEPTION: There is a single Scientific

Method that all scientists follow.
CORRECTION: "The Scientific Method" is often

taught in science courses as a simple way to
understand the basics of scientific testing. In fact,
the Scientific Method represents how scientists
usually write up the results of their studies (and
how a few investigations are actually done), but it
is a grossly oversimplified representation of how
scientists generally build knowledge. The process
of science is exciting, complex, and unpredictable.
It involves many different people, engaged in
many different activities, in many different orders.
To review a more accurate representation of the
process of science, explore our flowchart.
MISCONCEPTION: The process of science is

purely analytic and does not involve creativity.
CORRECTION: Perhaps because the Scientific

Method presents a linear and rigid representation
of the process of science, many people think that
doing science involves closely following a series of
steps, with no room for creativity and inspiration.
In
fact, many scientists recognize that creative

thinking is one of the most important skills they
have — whether that creativity is used to come up
with an alternative hypothesis, to devise a new
way of testing an idea, or to look at old data in a
new light. Creativity is critical to science!
MISCONCEPTION: When scientists analyse a

problem, they must use either inductive or
deductive reasoning.
CORRECTION: Scientists use all sorts of different

reasoning modes at different times — and
sometimes at the same time — when analysing a
problem. They also use their creativity to come up
with new ideas, explanations, and tests. This isn't

an either/or choice between induction and
deduction. Scientific analysis often involves
jumping back and forth among different modes of
reasoning and creative brainstorming! What's
important about scientific reasoning is not what
all the different modes of reasoning are called, but
the fact that the process relies on careful, logical
consideration of how evidence supports or does
not support an idea, of how different scientific
ideas are related to one another, and of what sorts
of things we can expect to observe if a particular
idea is true. If you are interested in learning about
the difference between induction and deduction,
visit our FAQ on the topic.
MISCONCEPTION: Experiments are a necessary

part of the scientific process. Without an
experiment, a study is not rigorous or scientific.
CORRECTION: Perhaps because the Scientific

Method and popular portrayals of science
emphasize experiments, many people think that
science can't be done without an experiment. In
fact, there are many ways to test almost any
scientific idea; experimentation is only one

approach. Some ideas are best tested by setting
up a controlled experiment in a lab, some by
making detailed observations of the natural world,
and some with a combination of strategies. To
study detailed examples of how scientific ideas
can be tested fairly, with and without
experiments, check out our side trip Fair tests: A
do-it-yourself guide.
MISCONCEPTION: "Hard" sciences are more

rigorous and scientific than "soft" sciences.
CORRECTION: Some scientists and philosophers

have tried to draw a line between "hard" sciences
(e.g., chemistry and physics) and "soft" ones (e.g.,
psychology and sociology). The thinking was that
hard science used more rigorous, quantitative
methods than soft science did and so were more
trustworthy. In fact, the rigor of a scientific study
has much more to do with the investigator's
approach than with the discipline. Many
psychology studies, for example, are carefully
controlled, rely
on large sample sizes, and are highly quantitative.

To learn more about how rigorous and fair tests
are designed, regardless of discipline, check out
our side trip Fair tests: A do-it-yourself guide.
MISCONCEPTION: Scientific ideas are absolute

and unchanging.
CORRECTION: Because science textbooks change

very little from year to year, it's easy to imagine
that scientific ideas don't change at all. It's true
that some scientific ideas are so well established
and supported by so many lines of evidence, they
are unlikely to be completely overturned.
However, even these established ideas are subject
to modification based on new evidence and
perspectives. Furthermore, at the cutting edge of
scientific research — areas of knowledge that are
difficult to represent in introductory textbooks —
scientific ideas may change rapidly as scientists
test out many different possible explanations
trying to figure out which are the most accurate.
To learn more about this, visit our page describing
how science aims to build knowledge.
MISCONCEPTION: Because scientific ideas are

tentative and subject to change, they can't be
trusted.
CORRECTION: Especially when it comes to

scientific findings about health and medicine, it
can sometimes seem as though scientists are
always changing their minds. One month the
newspaper warns you away from chocolate's
saturated fat and sugar; the next month,
chocolate companies are bragging about
chocolate's antioxidants and lack of trans-fats.
There are several reasons for such apparent
reversals. First, press coverage tends to draw
particular attention to disagreements or ideas that
conflict with past views. Second, ideas at the
cutting edge of research (e.g., regarding new
medical studies) may change rapidly as scientists
test out many different possible explanations
trying to figure out which are the most accurate.
This is a normal and healthy part of the process of
science. While it's true that all scientific ideas are
subject to change if warranted by the evidence,
many scientific ideas (e.g., evolutionary theory,
foundational ideas in chemistry) are supported by

many lines of evidence, are extremely reliable,
and are unlikely to change. To learn more about
provisionally in science and its portrayal by the
media, visit a section from our Science Toolkit.
MISCONCEPTION: Scientists' observations directly

tell them how things work (i.e., knowledge is "read
off" nature, not built).
CORRECTION: Because science relies on

observation and because the process of science is
unfamiliar to many, it may seem as though
scientists build knowledge directly through
observation. Observation is critical in science, but
scientists often make inferences about what those
observations mean. Observations are part of a
complex process that involves coming up with
ideas about how the natural world works and
seeing if observations back those explanations up.
Learning about the inner workings of the natural
world is less like reading a book and more like
writing a non-fiction book — trying out different
ideas, rephrasing, running drafts by other people,
and modifying text in order to present the clearest
and most accurate explanations for what we

observe in the natural world. To learn more about
how scientific knowledge is built, visit our section
How science works.
MISCONCEPTION: Science proves ideas.
CORRECTION: Journalists often write about

"scientific proof" and some scientists talk about it,
but in fact, the concept of proof — real, absolute
proof — is not particularly scientific. Science is
based on the principle that any idea, no matter
how widely accepted today, could be overturned
tomorrow if the evidence warranted it. Science
accepts or rejects ideas based on the evidence; it
does not prove or disprove them. To learn more
about this, visit our page describing how science
aims to build knowledge.
MISCONCEPTION: Science can only disprove

ideas.
CORRECTION: This misconception is based on the

idea of falsification, philosopher Karl Popper's
influential account of scientific justification, which
suggests that all science can do is reject, or falsify,

hypotheses — that science cannot find evidence
that supports one idea over others. Falsification
was a popular philosophical doctrine — especially
with scientists — but it was soon recognized that
falsification wasn't a very complete or accurate
picture of how scientific knowledge is built. In
science, ideas can never be completely proved or
completely disproved. Instead, science accepts or
rejects ideas based on supporting and refuting
evidence, and may revise those conclusions if
warranted by new evidence or perspectives.
MISCONCEPTION: If evidence supports a

hypothesis, it is upgraded to a theory. If the theory
then garners even more support, it may be
upgraded to a law.
CORRECTION: This misconception may be

reinforced by introductory science courses that
treat hypotheses as "things we're not sure about
yet" and that only explore established and
accepted theories. In fact, hypotheses, theories,
and laws are rather like apples, oranges, and
kumquats: one cannot grow into another, no
matter how much fertilizer and water are offered.

Hypotheses, theories, and laws are all scientific
explanations that differ in breadth — not in level
of support. Hypotheses are explanations that are
limited in scope, applying to fairly narrow range of
phenomena. The term law is sometimes used to
refer to an idea about how observable
phenomena are related — but the term is also
used in other ways within science. Theories are
deep explanations that apply to a broad range of
phenomena and that may integrate many
hypotheses and laws. To learn more about this,
visit our page on the different levels of
explanation in science.
MISCONCEPTION: Scientific ideas are judged

democratically based on popularity.
CORRECTION: When newspapers make

statements like, "most scientists agree that
human activity is the culprit behind global
warming," it's easy to imagine that scientists hold
an annual caucus and vote for their favourite
hypotheses. But of course, that's not quite how it
works. Scientific ideas are judged not by
their popularity, but on the basis of the evidence

supporting or contradicting them. A hypothesis or
theory comes to be accepted by many scientists
(usually over the course of several years — or
decades!) once it has garnered many lines of
supporting evidence and has stood up to the
scrutiny of the scientific community. A hypothesis
accepted by "most scientists," may not be "liked"
or have positive repercussions, but it is one that
science has judged likely to be accurate based on
the evidence. To learn more about how science
judges’ ideas, visit our series of pages on the topic
in our section on how science works.
MISCONCEPTION: The job of a scientist is to find

support for his or her hypotheses.
CORRECTION: This misconception likely stems

from introductory science labs, with their
emphasis on getting the "right" answer and with
congratulations handed out for having the
"correct" hypothesis all along. In fact, science
gains as much from figuring out which hypotheses
are likely to be wrong as it does from figuring out
which are supported by the evidence. Scientists
may have personal favourite hypotheses, but they

strive to consider multiple hypotheses and be
unbiased when evaluating them against the
evidence. A scientist who finds evidence
contradicting a favourite hypothesis may be
surprised and probably disappointed, but can rest
easy knowing that he or she has made a valuable
contribution to science.
MISCONCEPTION: Scientists are judged on the

basis of how many correct hypotheses they
propose (i.e., good scientists are the ones who are
"right" most often).
CORRECTION: The scientific community does

value individuals who have good intuition and
think up creative explanations that turn out to be
correct — but it also values scientists who are able
to think up creative ways to test a new idea (even
if the test ends up contradicting the idea) and who
spot the fatal flaw in a particular argument or test.
In science, gathering evidence to determine the
accuracy of an explanation is just as important as
coming up with the explanation that winds up
being supported by the evidence.
MISCONCEPTION: Investigations that don't reach

a firm conclusion are useless and unpublishable.
CORRECTION: Perhaps because the last step of

the Scientific Method is usually "draw a
conclusion," it's easy to imagine that studies that
don't reach a clear conclusion must not be
scientific or important. In fact, most scientific
studies don't reach "firm" conclusions. Scientific
articles usually end with a discussion of the
limitations of the tests performed and the
alternative hypotheses that might account for the
phenomenon. That's the nature of scientific
knowledge — it's inherently tentative and could
be overturned if new evidence, new
interpretations, or a better explanation come
along. In science, studies that carefully analyse the
strengths and weaknesses of
the test performed and of the different alternative

explanations are particularly valuable since they
encourage others to more thoroughly scrutinize
the ideas and evidence and to develop new ways
to test the ideas. To learn more about publishing
and scrutiny in science, visit our discussion of peer

review.
MISCONCEPTION: Scientists are completely

objective in their evaluation of scientific ideas and
evidence.
CORRECTION: Scientists do strive to be unbiased

as they consider different scientific ideas, but
scientists are people too. They have different
personal beliefs and goals — and may favour
different hypotheses for different reasons.
Individual scientists may not be completely
objective, but science can overcome this hurdle
through the action of the scientific community,
which scrutinizes scientific work and helps balance
biases.
MISCONCEPTION: Science is pure. Scientists work

without considering the applications of their
ideas.
CORRECTION: It's true that some scientific

research is performed without any attention to its
applications, but this is certainly not true of all
science. Many scientists choose specific areas of

research (e.g., malaria genetics) because of the
practical ramifications new knowledge in these
areas might have. And often, basic research that is
performed without any aim toward potential
applications later winds up being extremely
useful. To learn about some of the many
applications of scientific knowledge
What has science done for you lately?
Plenty. If you think science doesn't matter much

to you, think again. Science affects us all, every day
of the year, from the moment we wake up, all day
long, and through the night. Your digital alarm
clock, the weather report, the asphalt you drive
on, the bus you ride in, your decision to eat a
baked potato instead of fries, your cell phone, the
antibiotics that treat your sore throat, the clean
water that comes from your faucet, and the light
that you turn off at the end of the day have all
been brought to you courtesy of science. The

modern world would not be modern at all without
the understandings and technology enabled by
science. To make it clear how deeply science is
interwoven with
our lives, just try
imagining a day
without scientific
progress. Just for
starters, without
modern science,
there would be: powerlines.
● no way to
use electricity.
From Ben
Franklin's studies
of static and
lightning in the
1700s, to Alessandro Volta's first battery, to the
key discovery of the relationship between
electricity and magnetism, science has steadily
built up our understanding of electricity, which
today carries our voices over telephone lines,
brings entertainment to our televisions, and keeps

the lights on.
●no plastic. The

first completely
synthetic plastic
was made by a
chemist in the
early 1900s, and
since then,
chemistry has
developed a wide variety of plastics suited for all
sorts of jobs, from blocking bullets to making
slicker dental floss.
● no modern
agriculture.
Science has
transformed the
way we eat today.
In the 1940s,
biologists began
developing high-yield varieties of corn, wheat, and
rice, which, when paired with new fertilizers and
pesticides developed by chemists, dramatically

increased the amount of food that could be
harvested from a single field, ushering in the
Green Revolution. These science-based
technologies triggered striking changes in
agriculture, massively increasing the amount of
food available to feed the world and
simultaneously transforming the economic
structure of agricultural practices.
●no modern
medicine. In the
late 1700s, Edward
Jenner first
convincingly
showed that
vaccination worked.
In the 1800s,
scientists and
doctors established the theory that many diseases
are caused by germs. And in the 1920s, a biologist
discovered the first antibiotic. From the
eradication of smallpox, to the prevention of
nutritional deficiencies, to successful treatments
for once deadly infections, the impact of modern

medicine on global health has been powerful. In
fact, without science, many people alive today
would have instead died of diseases that are now
easily treated.
Scientific knowledge can improve the quality of

life at many different levels — from the routine
workings of our everyday lives to global issues.
Science informs public policy and personal
decisions on energy, conservation, agriculture,
health, transportation, communication, defense,
economics, leisure, and exploration. It's almost
impossible to overstate how many aspects of
modern life are impacted by scientific knowledge.
Here we'll discuss just a few of these examples.
You can investigate.
Fuelling technology
Basic science fuels advances in technology, and

technological innovations affect our lives in many
ways every day. Because of science, we have
complex devices like cars, X-ray machines,
computers, and phones. But the technologies that
science has inspired include more than just hi-tech

machines. The notion of technology includes any
sort of designed innovation. Whether a fluvaccine,
the technique and tools to perform open heart

surgery, or a new system of crop rotation, it's all
technology. Even simple things that one might
easily take for granted are, in fact, science-based
technologies: the plastic that makes up a sandwich
bag, the genetically-modified canola oil in which
your fries were cooked, the ink in your ballpoint
pen, a tablet of ibuprofen — it's all here because
of science.
Though the impact of technology on our lives is

often clearly positive (e.g., it's hard to argue with
the benefits of being able to effectively mend a

broken bone), in some cases the payoffs are less
clear-cut. It's important to remember that science
builds knowledge about the world, but that
people decide how that knowledge should be
used. For example, science helped us understand
that much of an atom's mass is in its dense
nucleus, which stores enormous amounts of
energy that can be released by breaking up the
nucleus. That knowledge itself is neutral, but
people have chosen to apply it in many different
ways:
●Energy. Our understanding of this basic atomic

structure has been used as the basis of nuclear
power plants, which themselves have many
societal benefits (e.g., nuclear power does not rely
on non-renewable, polluting fossil fuels) and costs
(e.g., nuclear power produces radioactive waste,
which must be carefully stored for long periods of
time).
●Medicine. That understanding has also been

used in many modern medical applications (e.g.,
in radiation therapy for cancer and in medical
imaging, which can trace the damage caused by a

heart attack or Alzheimer's disease).
●Defense. During World War II, that knowledge

also clued scientists and politicians in to the fact
that atomic energy could be used to make
weapons. Once a political decision was made to
pursue atomic weapons, scientists worked to
develop other scientific knowledge that would
enable this technology to be built.
Knowledge of the atomic nucleus has been

applied in many different ways.
So scientific knowledge allows new technologies

to be built, and those technologies, in turn, impact
society at many levels. For example, the advent of
atomic weapons has influenced the way that
World War II ended, its aftermath, and the power

plays between nations right up until today.
Science contributes to many different sorts of new

technologies.
Science builds knowledge about the world, but

people decide how that knowledge should be
used.
Science and technology on fast forward
Science and technology feed off of one another,

propelling both forward. Scientific knowledge
allows us to build new technologies, which often
allow us to make new observations about the
world, which, in turn, allow us to build even more
scientific knowledge, which then inspires another
technology … and so on. As an example, we'll start
with a single scientific idea and trace its
applications and impact through several different
fields of science and technology, from the
discovery of electrons in the 1800s to modern
forensics and DNA fingerprinting …
From cathodes to crystallography
We pick up our story in the late 1800s with a bit of

technology that no one much understood at the
time, but which was poised to change the face of
science: the cathode ray tube (node A in the
diagram below). This was a sealed glass tube
emptied of almost all air — but when an electric
current was passed through the tube, it no longer
seemed empty. Rays of eerie light shot across the
tube. In 1897, physicists would discover that these
cathode rays were actually streams of electrons
(B).
The discovery of the

electron would, in turn, lead
to the discovery of the atomic
nucleus in 1910 (C). On the
technological front, the
cathode ray tube would
slowly evolve into the
television (which is
constructed from a cathode
ray tube with the electron
beam deflected in ways that
produce an image on a
screen) and, eventually, into
many sorts of image monitors
(D and E). But that's not all …
In 1895, the German

physicist Wilhelm Roentgen
noticed that his cathode ray
tube seemed to be producing
some other sort of ray in
addition to the lights inside
the tube. These new rays
were invisible but caused a
screen in his laboratory to light up. He tried to

block the rays, but they passed right through
paper, copper, and aluminium, but not lead. And
not bone. Roentgen noticed that the rays revealed
the faint shadow of the bones in his hand!
Roentgen had discovered X-rays, a form of
electromagnetic radiation (F). This discovery
would, of course, shortly lead to the invention of
the X-ray machine (G), which would in turn, evolve
into the CT scan machine (H) — both of which
would become essential to non-invasive medical
diagnoses. And the CT scanner itself would soon
be adopted by other branches of science — for
neurological research, archaeology, and
palaeontology, in which CT scans are used to study
the interiors of fossils (I). Additionally, the
discovery of X-rays would eventually lead to the
development of X-ray telescopes to detect
radiation emitted by objects in deep space (J). And
these telescopes would, in turn, shed light on
black holes, supernovas, and the origins of the
universe (K). But that's not all …
The discovery of X-rays also pointed William and

William Bragg (a father-son team) in 1913 and
1914 to the idea that X-rays could be used to
figure out the arrangements of atoms in a crystal
(L). This works a bit like trying to figure out the size
and shape of a building based on the shadow it
casts: you can work backwards from the shape of
the shadow to make a guess at the building's
dimensions. When X-rays are passed through a
crystal, some of the X-rays are bent or spread out
(i.e., diffracted) by the atoms in the crystal. You
can then extrapolate backwards from the
locations of the deflected X-rays to figure out the
relative locations of the crystal atoms. This
technique is known as X-ray crystallography, and
it has profoundly influenced the course of science
by providing snapshots of molecular structures.
Perhaps most notably, Rosalind Franklin used X-

ray crystallography to help uncover the structure
of the key molecule of life: DNA. In 1952, Franklin,
like James Watson and Francis Crick, was working
on the structure of DNA — but

from a different angle. Franklin
was painstakingly producing
diffracted images of DNA, while
Watson and Crick were trying
out different structures using
tinker-toy models of the
component molecules. In fact,
Franklin had already proposed a
double helical form for the
molecule when, in 1953, a
colleague showed Franklin's
most telling image to Watson.
That picture convinced Watson
and Crick that the molecule was
a double helix and pointed to
the arrangement of atoms
within that helix. Over the next
few weeks, the famous pair
would use their models to
correctly work out the chemical
details of DNA (M).
The impact of the discovery of DNA's structure on

scientific research, medicine, agriculture,
conservation, and other social issues has been
wide-ranging — so much so, that it is difficult to
pick out which threads of influence to follow. To
choose just one, understanding the structure of
DNA (along with many other inputs) eventually
allowed biologists to develop a quick and easy
method for copying very small amounts of DNA,
known as PCR — the polymerase chain reaction
(N). This technique (developed in the 1980s), in
turn, allowed the development of DNA
fingerprinting technologies, which have become
an important part of modern criminal
investigations (O).
As shown by the flowchart above, scientific

knowledge (like the discovery of X-rays) and
technologies (like the invention of PCR) are deeply
interwoven and feed off one another. In this case,
tracing the influence of a single technology, the
cathode ray tube, over the course of a century has
taken us on a journey spanning ancient fossils,
supernovas, the invention of television, the
atomic nucleus, and DNA fingerprinting. And even

this complex network is incomplete.
Understanding DNA's structure, for example, led
to many more advances besides just the
development of PCR. And similarly, the invention
of the CT scanner relied on much more scientific
knowledge than just an understanding of how X-
ray machines work. Scientific knowledge and
technology form a maze of connections in which
every idea is connected to every other idea
through a winding path.
Advances in science often drive technological

innovations, which may, in turn, contribute to new
scientific discoveries. Through many intervening
steps, the cathode ray tube is connected to
modern advances in DNA. For a focus on the steps
leading up to the discovery of the arrangement of
atoms in DNA, visit The Structure of DNA:
Cooperation and competition.
The ‘Next Big Things’ in Science Ten Years from

Now
So, what's the future going to look like ten years

from now? What's the next big thing? Genomics,
big data, nanotech, a Martian colony and nuclear
fusion, to name a few.
-by Shaikh Abdulaziz
September 23, 2020
ZME Science reports the latest trends and

advances in science on a daily basis. We believe
this kind of reporting helps people keep up with
an ever-changing world, while also fuelling
inspiration to do better.
But it can also get frustrating when you read about

44% efficiency solar panels and you, as a
consumer, can’t have them. Of course, there is a
momentary time lapse as the wave of innovation
travels from early adopters to mainstream
consumers. The first fully functional digital
computer, the ENIAC, was invented in 1946, but it
wasn’t until 1975 that Ed Roberts introduced the
first personal computer, the Altair 8800. Think

touch screen tech is a new thing? The first touch
screen was invented by E.A. Johnson at the Royal
Radar Establishment, Malvern, UK, between 1965
– 1967. In the 80s and 90s, some companies like
Hewlett-Packard or Microsoft introduced several
touch screen products with modest commercial
success. It wasn’t until 2007 when Apple released
the first iPhone that touch screen really became
popular and accessible. And the list goes on.
The-next-big-thing-
The point I’m trying to make is that all the exciting

stuff we’re seeing coming out of cutting-edge labs
around the world will take time to mature and
become truly integrated into society. It’s in the
bubble stage, and for some the bubble will pop
and the tech won’t survive. Other inventions and
research might resurface many decades from
now.
So, what’s the future going to look like in ten years

from now? What’s the next big thing? It’s my
personal opinion that, given the current pace of
technological advancement, these sorts of

estimates are very difficult, if not impossible, to
make. As such, here are just a few of my guesses
as to what technology — some new, other
improved versions of what’s already mainstream
today — will become an integral part of society in
the future.
THE BENEFITS OF SCIENCE OUTWEIGH

DISADVANTAGES
Shaikh Abdulaziz Nov 17, 2020
Science is the accumulation of intellectual and

practical knowledge in a systematic method to
create general truths on the operation of the
universe, the physical world and its phenomena. It
allows researchers to learn about new ideas with
practical applications in human life, and the ability
to create new machines that increase productivity
and save lives.
Science often provides the knowledge needed to

create new pieces of technology; technology helps
enable scientific advances. Despite all of this,
some communities around the world strongly
believe that science is a threat to humanity.
According to the International Business Times,
even Stephen Hawking thinks science is one of the
biggest threats to humanity.
According to Psychology Today, science and

technology have moulded new communications
that have dissolved traditional families and led
people to the creation of harmful new
relationships. Others argue that science has
created new means for the state to control the
lives of its citizens and that science leads to the
damaging of the environment.
The negative points against science are limited

only by our imaginations, but I argue science is the
wonderful discovery and use of knowledge to
make our lives better. It is how we became the
dominant species on earth—using tools and
techniques to improve our living standards and
take control of our environment. Technological
advances have enabled humans to become

removed from the basic toil needed to survive and
to consider other pursuits.
Science has created modern communication

systems which allow individuals to communicate
across the globe with friends and relatives.
According to Margaret Lynch, in a recent research

paper titled, “Ethical Issues in Systems of
Electronic Communication,” communications also
allow humanity to deal with wider problems
collectively where this was previously impossible.
One example is how technology has allowed

collective action to deal with natural disasters
such as flooding or tsunamis. Humans should
admire that science has allowed much greater
medical care for the sick and disabled in society.
According to the Medical Encyclopaedia, scientific
progress has led to increased lifespans and the
treatment of previously terrible diseases, such as
cholera. In addition, increased crop yields from
scientific-intensive farming are providing enough
food for the world. Science has also enabled those
who were born with disabilities to live better lives,

as society is able to adapt and accommodate
them.
Science is not a threat to mankind; it is misuse of

science by selfish or misguided people that is the
real issue. Knowledge of the functioning of the
universe is at base ethically neutral. Science is a
tool to improve the well-being of humanity and
increase life choices. Like any tool it can be
misused—thus, it should be regulated and used
carefully. There must be checks from the
government to make sure science does not go
further and faster than the people feel is good for
them. It is only through regulation, checks and
inspections that we can make sure science is used
for good rather than ill and ensure that the
research is performed in a moral way.
Informative Speech Ideas and Topics
Informative speech This page has hundreds of

topics for informative speeches and essays, and
we are continually updating our list. If you’re
stumped for ideas, use this list of informative
topics as a starting point to find a subject that
interests you enough to speak or write about.
With this guide, you can more quickly make a
decision and get to writing your informational
essay or speech. You may also check out our list of
argumentative, controversial, and persuasive
topics for more informative topic ideas.
How to Choose the Right Informative Topic
Half the battle of presenting a speech or writing an

essay is choosing the right topic. Choosing a good
informative speech topic or informative essay
topic can keep your audience entertained, your
reader interested, and your own work process
more enjoyable. Here are a few tips to help you
choose a topic:
Know your audience or reader: Your informative

presentation – whether through speech or essay –
should cover a subject not already well known to
your audience, but still relevant to them. If you do
choose a topic they’re familiar with, then present
new and exciting information. Consider the age,
knowledge level, and interests of your audience
when preparing your informational speech or
essay.
Consider your own interests: Think of your own

passions and areas of expertise that you think
people could benefit from learning more about.
Choosing a topic, you care about will help your
speech or essay be better received. Your passion
will keep them engaged and curious to learn more.
Consider length requirements: How much time

are you allotted for your informative speech?
What is the page requirement for your
informative essay? You should be able to
thoroughly cover the topic in the amount of time
you are given. If you don’t think you have enough
knowledge or personal interest to talk about
illegal drug use among teens, saving money as a
college student, or another informative topic for

20 minutes, you may need to consider a different
subject.
The good news is that there are countless options

available. Below are lists of informative topics for
speeches and essays. Remember that, in order to
choose the best informative topic for you, you
need to consider your audience, your interests,
and your time and length requirements. Then,
customize the central idea to suit your situation.
SCIENCE TOPICS
Science-topics Welcome to the science
topics section
Here you will many science topics to Increase

your Science knowledge.
All the topics are entertaining and informative

with a lot of pictures to help you understand the
science. Enjoy reading about Animals, Chemistry,
Earth Science, Electricity, Inventions,
Light,Physics, Planets, Plants and Renewable
Energy.
Start learning now from the topics given below.

Animals-for-kids
Animal Astonomy
Chemistry Biology
EarthScience Electricity
Inventions Physics
Plants Inventors
Poem on Coronavirus
UPDATED: 2 November 2020.
Coronavirus, the worst disease,

Hide in your homes, if you please.
A disease killing lives,
And spreading negative vibes,
Symptoms like fever making us weak,
Doctor’s help, we need to seek.
Started in China, now, the world if sick,
Let us unite and find a cure, quick.
You will have fever as I told,
You will get headache and a cold.
Following up, then comes cough,
Getting rid of, is now quite tough.

You will get problems of respiration,
Now, we all need prevention.
Muscle pain can come too.
Let us build immunity, me and you.
Wash your hands with some soap,
We’ll fight the virus, that’s the hope.
Sneeze and cough into a tissue,
Let’s take some steps to tackle this issue.
Don’t go to crowded places,
Don’t be one of those thousand cases,
Visit a doctor if you need care,
Now, just make others, all aware.
-Mr. Shaikh Abdulaziz

If you want to write a novel or a script, read this

book Sunday Times The best book on the craft of
storytelling I’ve ever read Matt Haig Rarely has a
book engrossed me more, and forced me to
question everything I’ve ever read, seen or
written. A masterpiece Adam Rutherford Who
would we be without stories Stories mould who
we are, from our character to our cultural identity.
They drive us to act out our dreams and ambitions,
and shape our politics and beliefs. We use them to
construct our relationships, to keep order in our
law courts, to interpret events in our newspapers
and social media. Storytelling is an essential part
of what makes us human. There have been many
attempts to understand what makes a good story
from Joseph Campbells well-worn theories about
myth and archetype to recent attempts to crack
the Bestseller Code. But few have used a scientific
approach. This is curious, for if we are to truly
understand storytelling in its grandest sense, we
must first come to understand the ultimate
storyteller the human brain. In this scalpel-sharp,
thought-provoking book.
Passing each day is becoming difficult for some of

us at times.
During the current lockdown situation. Cooped up

inside our homes, not going out for fresh air or to
meet friends and see new places, does affect us
after a certain point of time. But there is one thing
which has time and again come to our rescue in
the past, and can do so again in the current
scenario- poetry. Soothing lines in poems have
been able to calm many a nerve through their
wisdom. We’ve chosen a few poems for you which
you can go through whenever feeling down, for
the rest of the time, of course you can see Netflix,
talk on the phone and catch up on sleep (though
guess you’ve been doing enough of that
already).Insha’Allah by Danusha Laméris
(2014)We must always remember that the power
of prayer is very important and can get us through
the most difficult of times. I don’t know when it
slipped into my speech that soft word meaning, “if
God wills it.”
NEWS NATIONAL
NATIONAL Coronavirus India lockdown Day 163

updates | September 4, 2020
Kochi Metro trains getting ready to resume

operations from September 6 while adhering to
social distancing norms, in keeping with Unlock 4
guidelines.
The Hindu Net Desk
UPDATED: 05 SEPTEMBER 2020
More than half of COVID-19 cases reported in

India are in the 18-44 years age group, according
to data from the Union Health Ministry.
Emphasising that while life is important, livelihood

is equally vital, the Union Health Ministry on
Thursday said India is undertaking the unlocking
process, despite rise in COVID-19 cases, with
adequate precautions, preparedness and
awareness.
Health Secretary Rajesh Bhushan said that five

States — Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Maharashtra — currently account for
70% of total COVID deaths in the country. But only
two States — Karnataka and Delhi — show an
increase in daily deaths.
You can track coronavirus cases, deaths and

testing rates at the national and State levels here.
A list of State Helpline numbers is available as well.
Here are the latest updates:

10.40 P.M. | TAMIL NADU
Tamil Nadu Chief Secretary asks district Collectors

to step up vigil
With industrial units, commercial establishments,

public transport and temples among others
resuming activities in Tamil Nadu in Unlock 4, the
State government on Friday asked the district
collectors to step up vigil.
The Collectors should also increase information,

education and communication (IEC) campaign, as
coronavirus cases are expected to spike in

October, Chief Secretary K. Shanmugam said.
Calling upon the district administration to mount

IEC campaign to create public awareness and
educate public on the self-imposed discipline and
accountability in COVID-19 control, Mr.
Shanmugam said COVID-19 cases are expected to
spike next
month “if no proper discipline is enforced or

observed by public in using face mask, maintaining
social-distancing in public places or failing to
observe personal hygiene.”
In a letter to the Collectors following his video-

conference interaction with the bureaucrats
earlier in the day, the Chief Secretary
complimented them and heads of Health, Police,
Revenue and Local Administration and other
frontline Departments for their role in controlling
the pandemic.
10.30 PM | PUDUCHERRY
Puducherry MLA contracts COVID-19, hospitalised

in Chennai
AIADMK legislator in Puducherry, A Baskar, tested

positive for COVID-19 on Friday. Examination of
swabs of the legislator representing Mudaliarpet
indicated he was infected, Director of Health and
Family Welfare S. Mohan Kumar told PTI.
10.20 P.M. | NEW DELHI
Scientists develop portable sterilisation unit to

decontaminate PPEs
Scientists have developed a portable sterilisation

unit using a new technology called the hybrid
sterilisation system that can decontaminate
personal protective equipment (PPE) necessary
for combating COVID-19, allowing them to be
used multiple times, a statement said on Friday.
It can be used by health professionals and other

corona warriors for whom PPEs are essential and
can prevent generation of hazardous solid waste
from the protective gear, it added.
The Portable Optical Cavity Sterilisation Unit

(POSCU) to provide efficient and rapid
decontamination of personal protective
equipment (PPE) and other household items has
been developed by the Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT) Tirupati and the Indian Institute
of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati.
A working point-of-use sterilisation unit has been

developed with the support of the Science and
Engineering Research Board (SERB), a body under
the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
“UV radiation is a proven method for sterilization.

However, the lower penetration depth of UV-C
and faster divergence from the source can result
in nonuniform treatment,” the statement said.
9.50 P.M. | GUJARAT
1,320 new coronavirus cases in Gujarat, 14 deaths
With 1,320 new cases, the second-highest spike so

far, Gujarat’s tally of coronavirus cases rose to
1,01,695 on Friday, said a release by the State
Health Department. On Thursday, the State had

recorded its highest one-day spike of 1,325.
While 14 patients succumbed to the infection in

Gujarat since Thursday evening, 1,218 patients
recovered and were discharged, taking the total
number of recoveries to 82,398, said the release.
With 14 new deaths, the death toll has reached
3,078 in the State.
Of the total 14 persons who succumbed to the

infection during the last 24 hours, four died in
Ahmedabad city, followed by three in Surat, two
in Rajkot and one each in Gandhinagar, Gir
Somnath, Junagadh, Patan and Vadodara. Out of
the total 1,320 new cases, 271 cases were from
Surat district and 171 in Ahmedabad.
Other districts where significant number of cases

have emerged include Rajkot (162), Vadodara
(125), and Jamnagar (111). 339 patients, the
highest in Gujarat, recovered in Surat district on
Friday, followed by 186 in Vadodara and 116 in
Jamnagar. With 75,453 tests conducted in one

day, the per million average has now gone up to
1,160.81 tests, the release said.
Gujarat has conducted over 26.35 lakh tests so far.

There are 16,219 active cases, of which 92 are on
ventilator. Gujarat COVID-19 figures are as
follows: Positive cases 1,01,695; new cases 1,320;
deaths 3,078; discharged 82,398; active cases
16,219; and people tested so far 26,35,369.
9.30 PM | INDIA
India records over 4 million COVID-19 cases
India’s COVID-19 tally crossed the 4 million mark

on September 4, according to data from the State
governments.
As of 9.30 p.m. on Friday, the total number of

positive cases stood at 40,11,460, while the
number of deaths was at 69,605.
There are 8,45,495 active cases in the country

now. So far, a total of 30,96,415 patients have
recovered.
India is now the third country after the U.S. and

Brazil to register more than 4 million cases. The
U.S. has so far registered 6.253 million cases while
Brazil has 4.047 million cases, according to the
Johns Hopkins University world tracker.
9.20 PM | MAHARASHTRA
Maharashtra reports a new single-day high of

19,218 cases
Maharashtra climbed a new high in single-day

case surges yet again, reporting a staggering
19,218 fresh Covid-19 cases on Friday to take the
total case tally to 8,63,062 of whom 2,10,978
cases are active.
A high fatality spike of 378 new deaths pushed the

total death toll to 25,964. As many as 13,289
patients were discharged today to take the total
recoveries till date to 6,25,773. Pune reported a
huge surge of more than 3,500 cases to take its
total case tally to 1,89,722.
The district reported 95 deaths to take its total

death toll to 4,333. Mumbai reported 1,929 cases
to take its total case tally to 1,52,024 of whom

22,222 are active. 35 fatalities saw the city's death
toll rise to 7,799.
9.10 PM | ASSAM
Assam govt. lifts weakened lockdown and night

curfew
The Assam government has lifted weekend

lockdown and night curfew though coronavirus-
related restrictions will remain in force in the
containment zones till September 30, Chief
Secretary Kumar Sanjay Krishna said on Friday.
Night curfew and weekend lockdown have been

operational across the state and inter-district
movements were prohibited since June 28
following a spike in COVID-19 cases.
“Weekend lockdown and night curfew have been

lifted.
However, please adhere to all the COVID-19

protocols to keep yourself and others around you
safe”, the Chief Secretary said in a tweet. An order
was also issued during the day listing various
activities which are allowed outside the
containment zones along with the restrictions
which will remain in force till further order.
8.50 P.M. | PUNJAB
AAP silent on rumours about COVID; furthering

political interests: Punjab CM
Punjab Chief Minister Amarinder Singh on Friday

accused the Aam Aadmi Party of furthering its
political agenda instead of condemning the
coronavirus disinformation campaign being run in
the State’s villages.
The chief minister also trashed the AAP’s claim of

successful coronavirus management by the Arvind
Kejriwal government in Delhi.
Attacking state AAP leaders, the chief minister

said they seemed “more focused on launching a
personal attack” against him rather than
“condemning the COVID disinformation

campaign” being run by anti-social elements in the
state’s villages.
This showed the extent to which AAP is ready to

stoop to further their political agenda in the state,
where they have completely lost the confidence of
people, the CM said in a statement.
8.45 P.M. | MAHARASHTRA
Maharashtra House Speaker tests positive two

days before Session starts
Maharashtra Assembly Speaker Nana Patole on

Friday said he has tested COVID-19 positive, two
days before the monsoon session of State
Legislature begins.
Mr. Patole said he developed symptoms while

touring his constituency in Vidarbha region to
monitor flood relief work. “I got myself tested and
the results were positive,” he tweeted. He asked
those who came in his contact recently to get
themselves tested.NCP MLA Narhari Zhirwal, who
is the Assembly Deputy Speaker, will chair the
proceedings in Mr. Patole’s absence, a Vidhan

Bhawan official said.
For the two-day session, officials have put in place

a slew of measures to ensure members do not
contract the infection and House proceedings go
on without any hindrance.
Compulsory antigen tests for legislators,

distribution of COVID-19 kits and a new seating
arrangement to ensure physical distancing among
members are some of the measures undertaken
for the session beginning on September 7, the
official said.
The session was postponed twice - it was originally

scheduled from June 22 and was later shifted to
the last week of August. The Budget session in
March was curtailed by a week after the first
coronavirus case in Maharashtra was detected.
HRAWI urges Maharashtra govt. to allow re-

opening of restaurants
Welcoming the Maharashtra government’s move

to fully reopen hotels, the Hotel and Restaurant
Association of Western India’s (HRAWI) on Friday
urged the government to allow restaurants to re-
open with dine-in services as well.
The association had written to the State

government seeking relaxations for the hospitality
industry, including the re-opening of restaurants
and also allowing hotels to operate at 100%
capacities, HRAWI said in a statement.
“While the government has given a nod to the

later, the former request did not find any mention
in the order on August 31,” the statement added.
HRAWI said the industry has appreciated the

government’s decision to allow hotels to operate
with full capacity but is pressing on it to consider
allowing restaurants to re-open with dine-in
services as well. – PTI
8.20 P.M. | KERALA
Kerala registers single highest day discharge of

COVID-19 patients
Kerala on Friday registered the highest number of

discharges of COVID-19 patients in a single day at
2,716 and reported 2,479 fresh cases.
With these fresh cases, the COVID-19 tally in the

state now stands at 82,103. Health Minister K. K.
Shailaja saidthe death toll has gone up to 326 with
11 more fatalities being reported.
Those infected include 60 police officials from

Thrissur and 34 health workers.
Out of the new cases, 59 came from abroad, 71

from other states while 2,255 people contracted
the disease from their contacts.
8 P.M. | GOA
1-year free treatment for Goa plasma donors:

Minister
Goa Health Minister Vishwajit Rane on Friday

announced that people donating plasma after
recovering from COVID-19 will be given one-year
free medical treatment and complimentary health

check-ups.
Addressing a press conference, he said the move

was to make more people come forward to
donate plasma, a therapy which he added was
showing good results in treating COVID-19
patients.
Mr. Rane informed that COVID-19 facilities in the

state needed a least 1,000 bags of plasma
currently.
Talking about the 200 deaths from the infection in

the state, Mr. Rane put it down to some patients
waiting till the last moment before getting
admitted.
7.50 P.M. | GUJARAT
Gujarat reports 1320 new cases
Gujarat on Friday recorded 1320 new cases and 14

deaths, bringing its numbers of COVID-19 cases to
1,01,695 while fatality count has reached 3078.
Active case are at 16,219 while discharges stand at

82,398.
7.40 P.M. | TAMIL NADU
Violations of COVID-19 norms made

compoundable offences in Tamil Nadu
The Tamil Nadu government on Friday

promulgated an Ordinance making violations of
guidelines on COVID-19 lockdown and preventive
measures such as social-distancing compoundable
offences.
Governor Banwarilal Purohit promulgated the

Tamil Nadu Public Health Act, 1939 (Second
Amendment) Ordinance 2020, to carry out
amendments to the Tamil Nadu Public Health Act,
1939 (Tamil Nadu Act III of 1939) based on a
proposal sent by the State government, a Raj
Bhavan release said.
When contacted by PTI, State Health Secretary J.

Radhakrishnan said with the offences made
compoundable, the implementing authority can
levy a spot fine on the violators instead of filing a
chargesheet.The Raj Bhavan release said despite

the government’s aggressive information,
education and communication campaign on the
public health experts precautions including
mandatory wearing of face mask, maintaining
physical distance and other measures to prevent
the spread of coronavirus, a section of people,
institutions and shops do not follow these norms.
Thereby, they put themselves and others at risk of
spreading infections. Further, violence against the
persons implementing these measures had also
been brought to the notice of the government.
7.30 PM | WORLD
India to deploy 2 medical teams in DR Congo,

South Sudan to help combat COVID-19
India, which is among the largest troop

contributors to the UN peacekeeping, will deploy
two medical teams in the Democratic Republic of
Congo and South Sudan after a request by UN
chief Antonio Guterres to scale-up health
infrastructure in the areas managed by the Indian
peacekeepers to help contain the COVID-19

outbreak.
India’s Permanent Mission to the UN said in a

statement that the country responded to a
request from UN Secretary-General Guterres and
mobilised all efforts to assemble two teams of
medical specialists to be deployed in hospitals at
the UN missions in DR Congo and South Sudan.
7.20 PM | NEW DELHI
Delhi reports 2914 new cases
Delhi recorded 2,914 new Covid-19 positive cases

on Friday with 13 deaths and 1,751 recoveries.
The total positive cases have now risen to

1,85,220 with 4,513 deaths and 1,61,865
recoveries. There are 18,842 active cases in the
city.
7.10 PM | PUNJAB
Punjab minister launches drive to counter

misinformation about coronavirus
Punjab Health Minister Balbir Singh Sidhu on

Friday launched an awareness campaign to
counter misinformation about coronavirus on
social media.
Launching the drive, Mr. Sidhu said a stigma and

discrimination have been attached with the
disease which needed to be addressed
immediately.
Mr. Sidhu, according to an official statement here,

said the campaign will be conducted by the Punjab
government in collaboration with the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the
World Health Organization (WHO).
Besides counselling, it is necessary that reliable

and accurate information regarding COVID-19 is
provided to all patients so that they do not fall for
misinformation, Mr. Sidhu said.
6.50 P.M. | NEW DELHI
CBSE class 10, 12 compartment exams to be held

from September 22-29
The compartment examinations for classes 10 and

12 will be conducted from September 22 to 29, the
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
announced on Friday.
The board said that examinees will carry hand

sanitisers and wear face masks in view of the
COVID-19 pandemic.
“The compartment examination for the two

classes will begin from September 22 and will
conclude on September 29. All candidates will
carry their own hand sanitiser in transparent
bottles and (their own) water bottles, and will be
required to cover their mouth and nose with mask
or cloth,” CBSE Exam Controller Sanyam Bhardwaj
said in an official notification detailing the exam
schedule.
6.30 P.M. | HARYANA
Authorities launch contact-tracing drive after 75

COVID-19 cases detected at 2 Murthal dhabas.The
Sonipat district administration has launched a
massive contact-tracing drive after 75 workers at
two popular eateries in Murthal tested positive for

COVID-19, officials said.
Sonipat’s Deputy Commissioner Shyam Lal Punia

said sampling work has been initiated at other
eateries also.
Sixty-five workers at Amrik-Sukhdev dhaba and 10

at Garam Dharam dhaba had tested positive for
coronavirus following which both the eateries
were sealed on Thursday till further orders, he
told media persons.
Both eateries are located in Sonipat’s Murthal and

nearly 50 km away from Delhi.
6.20 PM | PUDUCHERRY
One in 20 people in Puducherry showed evidence

of COVID-19 by end of July: JIPMER survey
One in 20 people in Puducherry showed evidence

of COVID-19 infection by the end of July while the
positivity rate for antibodies was higher in the
urban population than the rural population, a
community-based survey conducted by the

centrally-administered JIPMER has found.
The premier medical institution here conducted

the survey to study the prevalence of antibodies
in serum (blood) in an attempt to find the extent
of spread of coronavirus infection (SARS-COVID-
19) among the population in Puducherry.
A JIPMER release on Friday said the survey found

that “one in 20 persons in Puducherry district
showed evidence of coronavirus infection by the
end of July.”
Experts from the Departments of Preventive and

Social Medicine and Microbiology constituted the
team, selected patients and collected blood
samples. They also conducted the tests and
analysed the results.
The release said blood samples were collected

from randomly selected adults aged 18 years and
above from 30 clusters with the ratio of urban and
rural areas being 21:9 to reflect population

distribution in the Union Territory.
6.10 PM | RAJASTHAN
More than 6.15 lakh people fined for COVID-19

rule violations in Rajasthan
More than 6.15 lakh people have been slapped

with fine, totalling over Rs 9 crore, in Rajasthan for
violation of guidelines against the novel
coronavirus such as wearing of mask and
maintaining social distancing.
The fines were collected under the Rajasthan

Epidemic Ordinance, Director General of Police
(Crime) M L Lather said.
He said that so far 7,966 persons have been

arrested for violating prohibitory and quarantine
norms by registering 3,634 FIRs.
5.55 PM | WEST BENGAL
E-Passes for crowd management at Kolkata Metro

when services resume
The West Bengal government on Friday suggested

that Kolkata Metro issues e-pass to passengers
availing metro railway services in an attempt to
manage the crowd when the services resumes
later this month. Crowd management has turned
out to be biggest challenge for the authorities for
resumption of the underground metro services in
Kolkata.
A few days ago, Kolkata Metro said passengers

with only smart cards can avail the services and
tokens for a single ride won't be issued when the
services resume. But the number of passengers
using smart card is more than two lakhs and if so
many people try to take metro in peak hours of a
day then crowd management would become a
challenge.
"A meeting was held at Metro Bhawan today with

the State Government officials. The State
government has proposed developing a system to
issue e-pass for entering the Metro station, which
was explained by the developer to the
committee,” spokesperson of Kolkata Metro said.
The e-passes which would be issued for a few

hours would provide real time data about number
of passengers at a particular station to the Kolkata
Metro and avoid overcrowding in the metro.
The dates for resumption of Metro services that

connects north to south of the city has not been
announced so far. Under the Unlock 4 guidelines
of Ministry of Home Affairs Metro Services can
resume in the country from September 7.
5.50 PM | ASSAM
Assam prepares SOP to implement Gauhati HC

directives
Assam government is preparing a standard

operating procedure (SOP) to implement the
directives of Gauhati High Court on adherence to
COVID-19 protocol issued by the health
department, state Minister for Health and Family
Welfare Himanta Biswa Sarma said on Friday.
The Gauhati High Court had expressed deep

concern over the rise in coronavirus cases and
have made the police and the deputy
commissioners personally liable so as to ensure

that the directives and protocols issued by the
State health department to check the spread of
the contagion is maintained in public places, the
minister told a press conference here.
The situation in the state is alarming with an

average of 3000 new cases of coronavirus
reported daily for the last three days. But the state
government cannot have further lockdowns
without the permission of the Centre, he said.
“We are committed to follow the high court order

and a meeting will be held with the police and
deputy commissioners to ensure that the SOP
being prepared is implemented.
”...We do not have too many tools with us, except

to ensure that people wear masks and maintain
social distance to check the situation. The high
court order will help the government convince the
people to take adequate preventive measures”,
he said.
5.30 PM | NEW DELHI
BDR Pharma to launch 400 mg Favipiravir tablets
Drug firm BDR Pharmaceuticals on Friday said it

plans to launch 400 mg Favipiravir tablets, used
for treating COVID-19 patients, in the country.
The ‘BDFAVI’ 400 mg tablets will be priced at Rs

990 for a strip of 10 tablets, BDR Pharma said in a
statement. Each tablet will cost Rs 99.
In August, the company launched 200 mg

Favipiravir tablets.
“We aim to make BDFAVI available in sufficient

quantities to meet the high demand for the drug
in the Indian market to help curb the current
crisis... introducing a higher dosage is an attempt
to ensure a smoother experience to patients and
caregivers,” BDR Pharma CMD Dharmesh Shah
said.
The company had received approval from the

Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI) to
manufacture Favipiravir to treat patients with
mild to moderate COVID-19 symptoms under the

brand name BDFAVI, according to the statement.
Go Air to add over 100 flights in domestic network

from Sept. 5
Budget carrier Go Air on Friday announced the

addition of over 100 new flights in its domestic
network, including from its base Mumbai besides
other cities such as Delhi, Bengaluru and Chennai,
starting September 5.
The airline, in a release, also said it expects the

capacity to reach 45 per cent of the pre-COVID-19
level by September 21 and by October 15 to 60 per
cent of what it was operating prior to the
emergence of the pandemic in the country.
The domestic aviation sector is witnessing a

gradual growth in demand owing to increased
traffic, which is expected to spike further with
many states lifting travel curbs, said Go Air Chief
Executive Officer Kauhik Khona.
The new connections include services to and from

Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Ahmedabad,
Hyderabad, Kolkata, Pune, Lucknow, Nagpur,
Varanasi, Jaipur, Patna, Ranchi, Guwahati,
Chandigarh, Srinagar, Leh and Jammu.
5.20 PM | NEW DELHI
’4,500 beds occupied by COVID patients in Delhi

hospitals, 33% by people from outside’
Out of the over 14,000 beds for COVID-19 patients

at various hospitals in Delhi, around 4,500 are
occupied by people, 33% of whom are from
outside the city, according to government sources.
As per the latest heath bulletin issued by the Delhi

heath department on Thursday, the total
occupancy rate of beds at COVID-19 hospitals
stands at 31 per cent.
Out of 14,140 total beds, 4,477 are occupied and

9,663 are vacant, it said.
“Close to 70% of beds in Delhi hospitals are still

vacant. Out of 14,000 beds, around 4,500 are
occupied of which 1,500 (33 per cent) are

occupied by those patients Who are from outside
Delhi,” a government source said.
Only three out of the 131 COVID-19 hospitals

(private and government-run) are fully occupied,
he said.
“There’s no shortage of beds right now. But

increasing number of patients from outside Delhi
coming to city hospitals for treatment is a cause of
concern,” the source said.
ICU beds at a few top private hospitals like Max

hospital Saket; Max hospital, Patparganj;
Indraprastha Apollo Hospital; Fortis Hospital,
Vasant Kunj are all occupied, he said, adding that
over 70 per cent of these patients are from places
outside Delhi.
5.00 PM | MADHYA PRADESH
BJD MP Ramesh Chandra Majhi said on Friday that

he has tested positive for COVID-19.
Majhi, the Lok Sabha member from Nabrangpur,

said he is in home isolation and his condition is
stable.
Tested COVID-19 Positive. Requesting all those

who have got close contact with me to be cautious
and isolate themselves, he said in a Facebook post.
Mr. Majhi, also a former state minister, is the third

parliamentarian from Odisha to be infected by the
coronavirus.
Earlier, Bargarh’s BJP MP Suresh Pujari and

Bhadrak’s BJD MP Manjulata Mandal were
diagnosed with COVID-19.
Besides, 17 MLAs have also tested positive for

coronavirus infection.
Don’t mark staff in COVID-19 isolation as absent:

Thane mayor
Thane Mayor Naresh Mhaske on Friday asked the

city’s civic chief Vipin Sharma to ensure staff was
considered “on duty” during the time they were

absent from work after being detected with
COVID-19 and sent into isolation.
Mhaske said such staff should be given full wages

since they contracted the ailment while
discharging their duties on the field.
He released to the media a copy of the letter he

wrote to Sharma on this issue.
4.09 PM | PUNJAB
No more quarantine posters outside houses of

patients in Punjab
Punjab government on Friday decided to

rescinded his government’s earlier decision of
putting posters outside the houses of Covid
patients under home isolation or quarantine in an
attempt to mitigate the stigma attached to the
pandemic.
Issuing direction in this regard, Chief Minister

Amarinder Singh, said the move is aimed at
minimising the stigma resulting from the affixing
of such posters at the front doors of such patients,

thus also negating the fear of testing.
“The psychological trauma which patients were

seen suffering as a result of these posters, which
were meant to protect neighbours and others of
such patients, was defeating the very purpose,” he
said, adding that these posters were actually
found scaring people away from testing.3.57 PM |
NEW DELHI
Over 60,000 recoveries for 8th consecutive day in

India India’s total COVID-19 recoveries crossed the
30 lakh-mark on Friday, taking the recovery rate to
over 77 per cent, the Union Health Ministry said
on Friday, asserting that the figures show that the
number of patients recovering is steadily rising.
One of the goals of the ‘Test-Track-Treat’ strategy

of the Centre is to reduce COVID mortality and
keep the case fatality rate low, the ministry said in
a statement.
There has been sharp attention on sustaining high

levels of recoveries and to strengthen the clinical
treatment protocols to provide a uniform

standardised level of medical care to save lives, it
said.
“Not only is India’s case fatality rate lower than

the global average and progressively declining
(current figure is 1.74 per cent), but a very small
proportion of active cases, amounting to less than
0.5 per cent, are on ventilator support,” the
ministry said.
Data also shows that two per cent cases are in

ICUs and less than 3.5 per cent of the active cases
occupy oxygen supported beds, it said.
As a result of these measures, India’s total COVID-

19 recoveries crossed 30 lakh (30,37,151) on
Friday.
With the recovery of 66,659 patients in the last 24

hours, India has continued its trajectory of posting
more than 60,000 recoveries for the eighth
consecutive day, the ministry said.
The recovery rate amongst COVID-19 patients is

77.15 per cent demonstrating that the number of
patients recovering is steadily rising over the past

several months, it said.
3.23 PM | HARYANA
Sero-survey results reveal zero-positivity of virus is

8% in Haryana
The results for the sero prevalence survey in

Haryana, conducted in mid-August, have revealed
that the overall zero-positivity of the deadly
COVID-19 virus is 8% in the State. It is around 6.9%
for the rural areas and 9.6% for the urban.
The results for the survey were announced by

Health Minister Anil Vij on Friday. The survey was
conducted in collaboration with Post Graduate
Institute of Medical Education & Research
(PGIMER), Chandigarh, taking 850 persons from
each district including both urban and rural
population.
3.07 PM | NEW DELHI
August last week saw 35 pc hike in COVID cases,

30-40 pc reported from same family: Delhi Health
Dept
New Delhi, Sep 4 (PTI) The last week of August saw

a 35 per cent increase in coronavirus cases as
compared to the previous week, with 30 to 40 per
cent of the new cases coming from the same
family, according to an analysis done by the Delhi
government’s Health Department.
The Health Department analysed the cases in

August, which saw a spike, and found that the
infection was spilling over to rural and middle-
class pockets and there are increasing incidences
of cases in migrant habitations.
The government’s analysis also found that there is

a lack of adherence with coronavirus appropriate
behaviour by the public which might be
responsible for the spike.
The other reasons it listed for the spike were the

festive season, late testing by COVID suspects,
cross-infection, return of migrants and unlock

measures.
Fresh and active cases have shown an increase in

the last several days, with Chief Minister Arvind
Kejriwal announcing last month that COVID-19
tests in Delhi will be doubled to 40,000 per day
within a week as there has been a marginal
increase in the number of cases.
In the last week of August amid a spike in cases,

Kejriwal had warned people against complacency
and said that more and more people should get
themselves tested if they observe coronavirus
symptoms.
2.52 PM | KERALA
Kochi Metro trains ready to resume operations

from Monday The temperature within Kochi
Metro trains will be maintained at 26-degree
centigrade and relative humidity at 70 degrees, to
enable safe commuting during the pandemic, A
Manikandan, General Manager (Operation and
Maintenance) of KMRL said.
Speaking to media persons at the metro's coach

depot in Muttom near Aluva, he said that
personnel of the mainline wing will frequently
inspect the water content in the ambient air
within coaches when trains call arrive at stations,
to maintain it at 70 degrees. Adequate number of
humidity meters has been purchased for this. The
temperature will be maintained at 26 degrees, to
rule out the possibility of coronavirus in case
temperature is lessened, he said.
2.45 PM | KARNATAKA
Mangaluru-Bengaluru train to resume services

from Friday Train services between Mangaluru
and Bengaluru, suspended since March due to
COVID- 19, would resume services from Friday.
This is part of the three special trains the Railway

Board has permitted to operate in the South-
Western railway division.
The Yeshwanthpur-Karwar train would begin

operations from 6.45 pm on Friday. In the return
direction, the train would leave Karwar at 6 pm on

Saturday, a press release from the railway here
said.
The Bengaluru-Mangaluru train would resume

service on Friday, while the services from
Mangaluru would start on September 6. The train
operates four days a week.
The train that runs between Bengaluru and

Mangaluru thrice a week would resume
operations on September 6 while in the return
direction, the train would start from Mangaluru on
Saturday.The trains would operate until further
notice and people have to book the tickets in
advance, the release said.
2.25 PM | NOIDA
Noida Metro resumes service on Monday; only

one gate for entry/exit at 15 of 21 stations
Only one gate would be functional for entry or exit

at 15 of the 21 stations of the Noida-Greater Noida
Metro, which resumes service on Monday after

remaining shut for over five months due to the
coronavirus pandemic, according to official
guidelines. In the remaining six stations, both
entry gates will remain open.
Also, commuters will have to maintain adequate

social distance and have been advised against
touching any surface inside Metro coaches.
The Noida Metro Rail Corporation (NMRC) had on

Wednesday announced that the services of the
Noida-Greater Noida Metro, also known as the
Aqua Line, would resume from September 7.
The rail service between the twin cities of Noida

and Greater Noida were suspended in March due
to the outbreak of COVID-19. Only one gate will be
kept open for entry or exit at Sector 101, Sector
81, NSEZ, Sector 83, Sector 137, Sector 142, Sector
143, Sector 144, Sector 145, Sector 146, Sector
147, Sector 148, Alpha -1, Delta — 1 and GNIDA
Office metro stations, the NMRC stated.
Both entrance gates will be kept open for

commuters at Sector 51, Sector 50, Sector 76,
Knowledge Park-II, Pari Chowk and Depot metro
stations, it added.
2.20 PM | GUJARAT
40% recovered COVID-19 patients lost antibodies:

Survey
Around 40 per cent of COVID-19 patients lost

antibodies post their recovery from the disease,
revealed a survey by the Ahmedabad civic body
covering 1,800 previously infected people in the
city. The loss of antibodies makes people who
have recovered from the disease susceptible to
reinfection, said Dr Bhavin Solanki, medical officer
of the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC),
on Friday.
The survey was conducted on 1,800 persons, who

tested positive for coronavirus between March
and July through antigen tests, said Dr Jay Sheth,
associate professor of civic-run MET Medical

College.
Developing antibodies means a person contracted

COVID-19, recovered and subsequently developed
them against the viral disease.
“The survey has revealed that around 40 per cent

of the recovered patients have lost antibodies,
and antibodies disappear from several people in
the long run after recovery,” Solanki said.This
suggests that people who have lost antibodies can
contract COVID-19 again in the future, he said.
9.00 AM | TAMIL NADU
200 vials of vaccine arrive in Chennai for trials
Oxford University’s COVID-19 vaccine, Covishield,

has arrived in Chennai for clinical trials. Health
officials said they had received 200 vials of the
vaccine for trials that will involve two institutions
and 300 volunteers.
Clinical trials of the vaccine will be taken up at the

Rajiv Gandhi Government General Hospital and
the Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education

and Research.
8.45 AM | JHARKHAND
Six new fatalities in Jharkhand Jharkhand’s COVID-

19 caseload rose to 46,480 on Friday as 1,618
more people tested positive for the infection,
while six fresh fatalities pushed the State’s
coronavirus death toll to 444, a health official
said.The fresh infections have taken the number
of active COVID-19 cases in the State to 15,150,
while 30,886 people have been cured of the
disease so far, he said.
8.30 AM | MAHARASHTRA
Over 2,700 Mumbaikars fined for not wearing

masksOver 2,700 people have been fined by the
Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation in the last
five months for stepping out in public without
wearing masks amid the COVID-19 pandemic, an
official said on Friday.
As per the Union government’s guidelines

following the viral outbreak, the civic body made
masks mandatory in public places since April 9.
The civic body in Mumbai has collected a total of

₹27.48 lakh in fines from 2,798 citizens between
April 9 and August 31, the official said.
8.15 AM | TELANGANA
TS healthcare workers have highest positivity rate

in India
The positivity rate among healthcare professionals

in Telangana is 18%. As per the statistics
announced by Union Health Ministry officials at a
press conference held on Thursday, the positivity
rate (percentage of people tested who are
positive) of 18% is the highest when compared to
other States. Healthcare professionals include
doctors, nurses, para-medical staff, lab
technicians, and patient care providers.
Around 80,000 to one lakh healthcare

professionals in Telangana are involved in COVID-
19 management for the past six months. Last
week, senior officials of the State Health

department said that around 2,000 healthcare
workers contracted the infectious disease, and at
least 14 had died.
8.00 AM | NEW DELHI
Bars to be allowed to function on trial basis from

Sept. 9
Bars in hotels, restaurants, and clubs will be

allowed to function on a trial basis in the city from
September 9 to September 30, and these
establishments will have to operate with 50% of
seating capacity and adhering to social distancing
norms, stated an order issued by the Delhi
Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) on
Thursday. The order also allowed functioning of
Metro services from September 7.
Bars within containment zones will remain closed.
7.45 AM | UNITED KINGDON
Members named to panel probing WHO’s

pandemic response
An independent panel appointed by the World

Health Organisation to review its coordination of
the response to the COVID-19 pandemic will have
full access to any internal UN agency documents,
materials and emails necessary, the panel said
Thursday as it begins the probe.
The panel’s co-chairs, former Liberian President

Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and former New Zealand
Prime Minister Helen Clark, announced the 11
other members during a media briefing. They
include Dr. Joanne Liu, who was an outspoken
WHO critic while leading Medecins Sans Frontiers
during the 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak in West
Africa.
Also named to the panel are: Dr Zhong Nanshan, a

renowned Chinese doctor who was the first to
publicly confirm human-to-human transmission of
the coronavirus; Mark Dybul, who led the Global
Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; and
David Miliband, a former British foreign secretary
who is CEO of the International Rescue
Committee.
7.30 AM | ANDHRA PRADESH
No respite from surge in positive cases in A.P.
The State reported 75 new deaths and 10,199 new

infections during the past 24 hours as of Thursday
morning. For the ninth day in a row, the State
witnessed over 10,000 new infections,
and so far over 94,000 cases were reported in the

past nine days. During the same period, an
average of 60,991 samples per day were tested.
The overall tally has gone up to 4,65,730 and the

death toll to 4,200. As many as 9,499 patients
recovered leaving 1,03,701 patients active. The
recovery rate stands at 76.83% with a total of
3,57,829 recoveries so far.
7.15 AM | LOS ANGELES
Robert Pattinson tests positive for COVID-19, says

media reports
British actor Robert Pattinson has tested positive

for COVID-19, news media reported on Thursday,
halting production of “The Batman” and

highlighting the industry's struggles to get back to
business after months of a pandemic-induced
shutdown.
Movie studio Warner Bros. said in a statement

that “a member of The Batman production” in
Britain had tested positive for the coronavirus, but
did not give a name. “Filming is temporarily
paused,” the studio's statement added, but did
not say for how long.
Variety, the Hollywood Reporter and Vanity Fair

all cited sources as saying the person who tested
positive was Pattinson, the film's star.
THE BEST SCIENCE-THEMED COMICS TO READ

RIGHT NOW
BY: SHAIKH ABDULAZIZ
We delved into the physics and chemistry of comic

book superheroes earlier this week, but there are
some paneled pages where science doesn’t lurk
beneath a cape. Here’s a roundup of some of our
favourite science-themed comics on the web and
in print: Bird and Moon by Rosemary Mosco

(shown up top): These bright, fun, and informative
nature comics will teach you many things: how to
recognize common bird calls, the difference
between toxic and venomous animals, the biology

behind Christmas symbols like holly and
poinsettia, and what to do if you find a baby bird
on the ground. Mosco’s art is appealing for the
sheer clarity of her line and the pleasant color
palettes she works with, and her passion for
science shines through on every page.
Neurocomic by Dr. Hana Roš and Dr. Matteo

Farinella: A graphic novel that wends its way
through the brain. But this is no ordinary
anatomical tour—Neurocomic takes the reader

through forests of neurons, caves of memory, and
encounters with strange beasts as a way to learn
how the mind plays a role in memory, sensation,
and identity.
PhD (Piled Higher and Deeper) Comics: A slice-of-

life strip about the trials and tribulations of
academia, including but not limited to inscrutable
professorial demands, the care and feeding of
undergraduates, and the perils of science
journalism. Author and artist Jorge Cham speaks
from experience; A robotics researcher, he
received an engineering degree from Stanford
University and taught mechanical design courses
at Caltech.
Boxplot by Maki Naro: Every week, Naro (a friend

of the Festival!) tackles a variety of scientific
subjects in his comic over at Popular Science. He’s
covered plants that suck up radiation, Jupiter’s
shrinking red spot, and the effect of microgravity
on astronaut organs, among many other newsy
topics, always serving up a witty twist at the end.
Freud by Anne Simon and Corinne Maier: Whether

you’re familiar with Freud or not, this comic book
guide to his life is the perfect balance of
biography, dreamy art, and concise explanations
of the principles of psychoanalysis.
Saturday Morning Breakfast Cereal by Zach

Weiner: This daily, darkly funny gag comic
frequently touches on scientific and skeptical
themes. Weiner mines illuminating jokes from
both larger scientific ideas and less well-known
details (like the actual methods of the oft-cited
Stanford prison experiment).
xkcd by Randall Munroe: Simple stick figure

drawings belie the complex discussions in this
comic, which delve into computer science, math,
love, general nerdery, and much more. Munroe

has experimented with data visualization (as seen
in charts about radiation dosages, for example)
and narrative (as with “Time,” a comic that
unfolded over 3,099 panels spread out over four
months). He also maintains a spin-off from XKCD
called “What If?” where he parses outlandish
questions from readers with both serious science
and humor.
The Oatmeal by Matthew Inman: This cartoonist

led a massive fundraising effort to help a nonprofit
buy the former laboratory of Nikola Tesla, with the

aim of setting up a museum (he later convinced
Tesla Motors’ CEO Elon Musk to donate $1 million
to help build it). But Tesla is just one of Inman’s
favorite science topics: He’s also explored the
amazing properties of the mantis shrimp and the
bizarre reproductive life cycle of the anglerfish.
YOUR COMPLETE GUIDE TO THE TOTAL SOLAR

ECLIPSE (INFOGRAPHIC)
Whether it’s aurora borealis, horizon-spanning

rainbows, or lightning storms, nature knows how
to put on a good show. On August 21, 2017,
everyone in the United States will get a chance to
witness one of nature’s rarer displays, when the
moon moves between the Earth and sun in what’s
known as a solar eclipse. Want to see it for
yourself? Check out our infographic and gallery
below for a full guide to this special event and a
selection of images from notable eclipses.
2017: A YEAR ON EARTH
BY: SHAIKH ABDULAZIZAs we say goodbye to

2017, here’s a look back at some of the things
that happened on our planet this year.
MILESTONES IN HUMAN COMMUNICATION
In 1989, a CERN engineer named Tim Berners-Lee

invented the World Wide Web to help scientists
around the globe share information. His invention
eventually became one of the biggest revolutions
in the way people communicate, but it’s far from
the first. Humans have been creating new and
innovative ways to share ideas and exchange
information for as long as we’ve existed,
connecting emojis and Snapchats to cave
paintings and symbolic scratches in a deep history
of humanity’s inherently social nature. Socializing
is even built into our bodies: Modern research has
shown that a lack of social connection can be as
dangerous for your health as a heavy smoking
habit, linking an isolated lifestyle with a long and
varied list of maladies including heart attacks,
depression, and cancer. And while the nature of
our interactions has shifted dramatically since
early humans first experimented with symbols
some 100,000 years ago, at our core, we humans
remain the same profoundly social creatures,
always searching for new ways to communicate,

cooperate, and truly connect.
Research and writing by Albert Zhang and Laura

Dattaro.
Illustrations by Sarah Peavey and Julie Rossman.

Pieces of some illustrations are courtesy of
Shutterstock.
SOURCES
“Johannes Gutenberg,” American Society of

Mechanical Engineers
“Egyptian Hieroglyphs,” Ancient History

Encyclopedia
“Gilgamesh,” Ancient History Encyclopedia
“The Invention of Woodblock Printing in the Tang

(618–906) and Song (960–1279) Dynasties,” Asian
Art Museum
“The first mobile phone call was made 40 years

ago today,” The Atlantic
“‘Earliest writing’ found in China,” BBC News
“The birth of the web,” CERN

“Cuneiform,” Encyclopedia Britannica
“Epic of Gilgamesh,” Encyclopedia Britannica
“Where did the peace sign come from?”

Encyclopedia Britannica
“Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age

levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa,” Journal of
Human Evolution
“40 years ago: The message that conceived the

internet,” Live Science
“A brief history of text messaging,” Mashable
“The original emoji set has been added to The

Museum of Modern Art’s collection,” MoMA
“Louis Braille,” National Braille Press
“Cave Paintings in Indonesia May Be Among the

Oldest Known,” The New York Times
“Proto-Sinaitic / Proto-Canaanite,” Omniglot

FAREWELL, CASSINI: A LOOK BACK AT THE

MISSION TO SATURN (INFOGRAPHIC)
When NASA launched the Cassini spacecraft to

Saturn two decades ago, flip phones were the
pinnacle of cellular technology and using the
internet required tying up your phone line. In the
last 20 years, our technological lives have been
revolutionized, and so has our understanding of
Saturn, its moons, and our solar system, thanks to
Cassini and its probe, Huygens. Perhaps most
exciting, the mission has given us new targets in
the search for life beyond Earth: its data revealed
that the icy surface of Saturn’s moon Enceladus is
hiding a liquid-water ocean with hydrothermal
vents, deep-sea features that, on Earth, are
teeming with life. Here’s a look at Cassini’s mission
and major discoveries. Check out the gallery
below for some of its most astonishingly beautiful
photos, and join our friends at WSF Brisbane as
they attend the live-streamed #GrandFinale and
final broadcast of data from the Cassini mission.
This still from a NASA video shows the Voyager 1

probe nearly 12 billion miles from the sun as it
goes boldly into the final frontier of interstellar

space as the farthest man-made object in human
history.
Now that NASA's Voyager 1 probe has left the

solar system, its next big spaceflight milestone
comes with the flyby of another star — in 40,000
years.
25 Greatest Science Books of All Time

SHAIKH ABDULAZIZ present the essential reading
list for anyone interested in science.
1. & 2. The Voyage of the Beagle (1845) and The

Origin of Species (1859)
One of the most delightful, witty, and beautifully

written of all-natural histories, The Voyage of the
Beagle recounts the young Darwin's 1831 to 1836
trip to South America, the Galápagos Islands,
Australia, and back again to England, a journey
that transformed his understanding of biology and
fed the development of his ideas about evolution.
Fossils spring to life on the page as Darwin
describes his adventures, which include
encounters with "savages" in Tierra del Fuego, an
accidental meal of a rare bird in Patagonia (which
was then named in Darwin's honor), and wobbly
attempts to ride Galápagos tortoises.
Yet Darwin's masterwork is, undeniably, The

Origin of Species, in which he introduced his
theory of evolution by natural selection. Prior to
its publication, the prevailing view was that each

species had existed in its current form since the
moment of divine creation and that humans were
a privileged form of life, above and apart from
nature. Darwin's theory knocked us from that
pedestal. Wary of a religious backlash, he kept his
ideas secret for almost two decades while
bolstering them with additional observations and
experiments.
The result is an avalanche of detail — there seems

to be no species he did not contemplate —
thankfully delivered in accessible, conversational
prose. A century and a half later, Darwin's paean
to evolution still begs to be heard: "There is
grandeur in this view of life," he wrote, that "from
so simple a beginning endless forms most
beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are
being, evolved."
"The most important science book of all time.

Darwin revolutionized our understanding of life,
the relationship of humanity to all creatures in the
world, and the mythological foundation of all
religions."
3. Philosophise Naturalis Principia Mathematica

(Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy)
Dramatic is an unlikely word for a book that

devotes half its pages to deconstructions of
ellipses, parabolas, and tangents. Yet the cognitive
power on display here can trigger chills. Principia
marks the dawn of modern physics, beginning
with the familiar three laws of motion ("To every
action there is always opposed an equal reaction"
is the third). Later Newton explains the eccentric
paths of comets, notes the similarity between
sound waves and ripples on a pond, and makes his
famous case that gravity guides the orbit of the
moon as surely as it defines the arc of a tossed
pebble. The text is dry but accessible to anyone
with a high school education — an opportunity to
commune with perhaps the top genius in the
history of science.
"You don't have to be a Newton junkie like me to

really find it gripping. I mean how amazing is it that
this guy was able to figure out that the same force
that lets a bird poop on your head governs the
motions of planets in the heavens? That is

towering genius, no?"
4. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World

Systems
Pope Urban VIII sanctioned Galileo to write a

neutral treatise on Copernicus's new, sun-
centered view of the solar system. Galileo
responded with this cheeky conversation between
three characters: a supporter of Copernicus, an
educated layman, and an old-fashioned follower
of Aristotle. This last one — a dull thinker named
Simplicio — represented the church position, and
Galileo was soon standing before the Inquisition.
Galileo comes across as a masterful raconteur; his
discussions of recent astronomical findings in
particular evoke an electrifying sense of discovery.
The last section, in which he erroneously argues
that ocean tides prove Earth is in motion, is
fascinatingly shoddy by comparison. Galileo,
trying to deliver a fatal blow to the church's
Aristotelian thinking, got tripped up by his own
faith in an idea he was sure was true but couldn't
prove.
"It's not only one of the most influential books in

the history of the world but a wonderful read.
Clear, entertaining, moving, and often hilarious, it
showed early on how science writing needn't be
stuffy."
5. De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the

Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres)
Copernicus waited until he was on his deathbed to

publish this volume, then prefaced it with a ring-
kissing letter to Pope Paul III explaining why the
work wasn't really heresy. No furor actually
ensued until long after Copernicus's death, when
Galileo's run-in with the church landed De
Revolutionibus on the Inquisition's index of
forbidden books (see #4, above).
Copernicus, by arguing that Earth and the other

planets move around the sun (rather than
everything revolving around Earth), sparked a
revolution in which scientific thought first dared to
depart from religious dogma. While no longer
forbidden, De Revolutionibus is hardly user-
friendly. The book's title page gives fair warning:

"Let no one untrained in geometry enter here."
6. Physica (Physics)
By contrast, Aristotle placed Earth firmly at the

center of the cosmos, and viewed the universe as
a neat set of nested spheres. He also mistakenly
concluded that things move differently on Earth
and in the heavens. Nevertheless, Physica,
Aristotle's treatise on the nature of motion,
change, and time, stands out because in it he
presented a systematic way of studying the
natural world — one that held sway for two
millennia and led to modern scientific method.
"Aristotle opened the door to the empirical

sciences, in contrast to Platonism's love of pure
reason. You cannot overestimate his influence on
the West and the world."
7. De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Fabric of

the Human Body)
In 1543, the same year that Copernicus's De

Revolutionibus appeared, anatomist Andreas
Vesalius published the world's first

comprehensive illustrated anatomy textbook. For
centuries, anatomists had dissected the human
body according to instructions spelled out by
ancient Greek texts. Vesalius dispensed with that
dusty methodology and conducted his own
dissections, reporting findings that departed from
the ancients' on numerous points of anatomy. The
hundreds of illustrations, many rendered in
meticulous detail by students of Titian's studio,
are ravishing.
8. Relativity: The Special and General Theory
Albert Einstein's theories overturned long-held

notions about bodies in motion. Time and space,
he showed, are not absolutes. A moving yardstick
shrinks in flight; a clock mounted on that yardstick
runs slow. Relativity, written for those not
acquainted with the underlying math, reveals
Einstein as a skilful popularizer of his ideas.
To explain the special theory of relativity, Einstein

invites us on board a train filled with rulers and
clocks; for the more complex general theory, we
career in a cosmic elevator through empty space.
As Einstein warns in his preface, however, the
book does demand "a fair amount of patience and
force of will on the part of the reader."
9. The Selfish Gene
In this enduring popularization of evolutionary

biology, Dawkins argues that our genes do not
exist to perpetuate us; instead, we are useful
machines that serve to perpetuate them. This
unexpected shift in perspective, a "gene's-eye
view of nature," is an enjoyable brainteaser for the
uninitiated. So is a related notion: that altruistic
behaviour in animals does not evolve for "the
good of the species" but is really selfishness in
disguise. "Like successful Chicago gangsters,"
Dawkins writes, "our genes have survived, in some
cases for millions of years, in a highly competitive
world."
10. One Two Three ... Infinity by George Gamow

(1947)
Illustrating these tales with his own charming

sketches, renowned Russian-born physicist
Gamow covers the gamut of science from the Big
Bang to the curvature of space and the amount of
mysterious genetic material in our bodies (DNA
had not yet been described). No one can read this
book and conclude that science is dull. Who but a
physicist would analyse the atomic constituents of
genetic material and calculate how much all that
material, if extracted from every cell in your body,
would weigh? (The answer is less than two
ounces.)
"Influenced my decision to become a physicist and

is part of the reason I write books for the public
today."
11. The Double Helix by James D. Watson (1968)
James Watson's frank, and often frankly rude,

account of his role in discovering the structure of
DNA infuriated nearly everyone whose name
appeared in it, but it nonetheless ranks as a first-

rate piece of science writing. The Double Helix
takes us inside a pell-mell race whose winners
were almost guaranteed fame and a Nobel Prize.
Most poignant are Watson's disparaging

descriptions of his encounters with DNA
researcher Rosalind Franklin. Her X-ray
crystallography images showed the molecule to
be a helix, crucial data that Watson and his
collaborator Francis Crick "borrowed" to construct
their DNA model. Franklin died of ovarian cancer
in 1958, losing out on the 1962 Nobel Prize for the
discovery. Perhaps to atone, Watson noted her
key contribution in the epilogue to his book.
"The telenovela of my generation of geneticists."
12. What Is Life?
Long a classic among biologists, this volume

describes, from the perspective of a Nobel Prize-
winning physicist, how living organisms differ from
inanimate objects like crystals. Schrödinger
carefully outlines how the two groups obey
different laws and puzzles over what the "paragon

of orderliness" of living things may signify. Some
editions include an autobiographical sketch, in
which Schrödinger describes the conflict over
teaching Darwin that raged when he was in school,
as well as his own fascination with evolution.
"What Is Life? is what got Francis Crick and the

other pioneers of molecular biology in the 1950s
interested in the problem in the first place."
13. The Cosmic Connection
At a time when NASA was reeling from the end of

the Apollo program, Sagan reacquainted both the
public and his colleagues with the majesty of the
universe, starting with the oft-overlooked worlds
of our own solar system.
He also championed the search for extra-

terrestrial life and argued for the likelihood of
planets around other stars two decades before
they were discovered. The TV series Cosmos
brought Sagan to the masses, but the adventure
began here.
14. The Insect Societies
The patriarch of modern evolutionary biology

explores the lives of everyone's favorite creepy
crawlies — ants, termites, bees, and wasps — in
this 500-page treatise unmatched in scope and
detail by any other work on the topic (with the
possible exception of his own 1990 volume, The
Ants).
It also lays the groundwork for his 1975 classic,

Socio-biology: The New Synthesis, which explores
the then-controversial idea that the social
behaviour of animals, including humans, has a
deep biological basis. The book is a labour of love,
infused with the author's boundless fascination
for his tiny subjects. Wilson openly acknowledges
the quirkiness of his obsession.
15. The First Three Minutes
When Weinberg was a student, "the study of the

early universe was widely regarded as not the sort
of thing to which a respectable scientist would
devote his time." But after World War II, radar
researchers turned their instruments to the sky

and helped bring creation stories out of the realm
of myth and into the realm of science.
Weinberg, winner of the 1979 Nobel Prize in

Physics, offered the first authoritative, popular
account of the resulting Big Bang scenario in The
First Three Minutes. A 1993 afterword discusses
more recent advances. Amazingly, only the
description of the first fraction of a second of
cosmic history has changed significantly.
16. Silent Spring
When Silent Spring was first published, a chorus of

critics called Carson "hysterical" and "extremist."
Yet the marine biologist's meticulously
documented indictment of DDT led both to a U.S.
ban on the insecticide and to the birth of the
modern environmental movement. Carson argues
that DDT not only indiscriminately kills insects,
including beneficial species like bees, but also
accumulates in the fat of birds and mammals high

on the food chain, thinning eggshells and causing
reproductive problems.
Her chilling vision of a bird less America is still

haunting. "Over increasingly large areas of the
United States," she writes, "spring now comes
unheralded by the return of the birds.
17. The Mismeasure of Man
In this witty critique of bad science, Harvard

scholar Stephen Jay Gould sets out to eviscerate
the notion of biological determinism. For
hundreds of years, Gould argues, questionable
measurements of human intelligence, like skull
size or IQ, have been used to justify racism,
sexism, and class stratification.
According to Gould, even respected sociologists

and psychologists have used falsified or shaky data
to support the belief that Westerners are
genetically predisposed to rule the world. The
book drew political and scientific criticism,
especially from social scientists furious that Gould

had oversimplified or demonized their work.
18. The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat

and Other Clinical Tales
In these profiles of patients with unusual

neurological disorders, Sacks revolutionizes the
centuries-old literary tradition of presenting
clinical case studies. Far from dryly reporting each
case, the eminent British-born New York City
neurologist writes in lively prose with the gentle
affection of a country doctor on house call and a
contagious sense of wonder.
To him, the man with Tourette's syndrome and

the woman who cannot sense her own body
position are the heroes of the stories. Legions of
neuroscientists now probing the mysteries of the
human brain cite this book as their greatest
inspiration.
19. The Journals of Lewis and Clark

One of history's most famous tales of exploration

began on May 14, 1804, when William Clark and
his Corps of Discovery set off from the mouth of
the Missouri River, beginning an epic 28-month
journey west to the shores of the Pacific Ocean.
(Meriwether Lewis joined the group two days
later.) The Journals, a meticulous chronicle of their
expedition, offer an unprecedented glimpse at
unexplored, undeveloped America west of the
Mississippi.
Lewis, the group's naturalist and astronomer, and

Clark, the surveyor, documented new species of
wildlife (coyotes, jackrabbits, mule deer, and
others), unfamiliar geology, and interactions with
native peoples. A complete copy of the Journals
and their companion material is heavy reading
(the definitive Nebraska edition has 13 volumes),
but an abridged version captures all the adventure
in a palatably sized package.
20. The Feynman Lectures on Physics
Not only did physicist Richard Feynman win the

1965 Nobel Prize for his work on quantum
electrodynamics, he once played bongos for a San

Francisco ballet. The beloved book Surely, You're
Joking, Mr. Feynman! recounts his raucous
adventures, but these undergraduate physics
lectures, presented over two years at Caltech in
the 1960s, are Feynman's true gift to students at
all levels.
The first 94 lectures cover a wide swath of basic

physics, from Newtonian mechanics to
electromagnetism, while the final 21 venture into
quantum mechanics. Feynman's characteristic
humor and peerless explanations elevate these
classroom lessons to enduring classics.
"Feynman, the prankster-genius, appeals no

matter what field you're in. It helps to know some
basic physics to approach his lectures, but he has
such a luminous mind and is so good with
metaphor that you can grasp a fair amount about
what's going on in modern physics without formal
understanding of complex math, up to a point."
21. Sexual Behaviour in the Human Male

The first of two books known collectively as the

Kinsey Report, this treatise became an improbable
best seller. With raw, technical descriptions of
sexual acts, distilled from thousands of interviews,
it documented for the first time what people really
do behind closed doors.
Many researchers consider the book flawed

because of its sampling bias: Most of the men
interviewed were young, white, and eager to
participate. Nevertheless, the work remains an
outstanding model of scientific bravery in the 20th
century, with its insistence that sexual acts be
described as healthy functions of the human body
and that cultural taboos not stand in the way of
science.
22. Gorillas in the Mist
In a richly hued portrait of the lives and behaviour

of African mountain gorillas, Fossey documents
her 13 years dwelling in a remote rain forest amid
these enigmatic animals. One of a trio of protégés
picked by famed anthropologist Louis Leakey to
conduct field studies of great apes, Fossey was
determined, devoted, and often angry — over the

apes' diminishing habitat and especially over the
danger they faced from poachers (who may have
been responsible for Fossey's 1985 murder). In
Gorillas she leaves behind a scientific treasure,
one rendered more poignant by her death in the
service of these peaceful, intelligent beasts.
23. Under a Lucky Star
Roy Chapman Andrews made scientific history

during the 1920s by leading five motorized
expeditions into unexplored reaches of the Gobi
Desert. He emerged with the equivalent of
paleontological gold: more than 350 new species
(including the dinosaurs Protoceratops and
Velociraptor), the first fossils of Cretaceous
mammals, and the first nests of dinosaur eggs.
He packed out plenty of wild tales, too, which are

woven into this engaging autobiography.
24. Micrographia
A revelation in its time, Micrographia exposed the

previously hidden microscopic world. Hooke, an
early developer of the compound microscope,

used his device to peer at the eyes of flies, the
stinger on a bee, hairs, bristles, sand particles,
seeds, and more, noting every detail with both
words and masterful illustrations.
The original book is a hefty three pounds, so the

digital versions now available are more
convenient, but there is something to be said for
flipping through a printed copy and discovering,
like a hidden treasure, each drawing in its
beautiful intricacy.
25. Gaia
As an inventor of scientific instruments, James

Lovelock may seem an unlikely figure to have
launched a New Age, earth-mother environmental
movement. Yet that's exactly what he
accomplished with Gaia: A New Look at Life on
Earth. In it Lovelock laid out his daring idea that
our planet is a single, self-regulating system,
dubbed Gaia, wherein "the entire range of living
matter on Earth, from whales to viruses, and from
oaks to algae, could be regarded as constituting a
single living entity, capable of manipulating the

Earth's atmosphere to suit its overall needs."
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RECOMMENDATIONS FROM OUR STORE
Strange Science
Elements Flashcards image
Science comics and cartoons

Comics have
generally been
considered as
nothing more than a
cheap pastime.
However, Mico
Tatalovic suggests
some useful comics
to help promote and
explain science to
students.
There is an
increasing amount
of evidence that comics and still cartoons can be
useful when teaching science. Children enjoy
reading comics, and both the visual appeal of the
artwork and the intriguing narrative (which can be
humorous and educational) make comics an
excellent medium for conveying scientific
concepts in an interesting way.
As scientists have become aware of this novel and

appealing form of engaging with young people, a
variety of educational science comics and
cartoons has been produced and is now available
for teachers to ‘spice up’ their science lessons.
Some examples of these comics and their
associated websites are given here.
They can be used by teachers as a lesson starter,

to determine students’ prior knowledge (such as
existing scientific vocabulary, preconceptions and
misconceptions), to motivate students to ask
questions, and to help gauge students’
understanding of science topics by allowing them
to produce their own comics and punchlines. With
older groups, the comics could be set as
preparatory homework for subsequent classroom
discussion of the story’s scientific merit and
credibility. Unless indicated otherwise, all of the
following resources are free.
GENERAL SCIENCE
Newton and Copernicus
These are short comic strips about two lab rats

whose conversations can motivate students to
think about science and research:
Scientoons
Indian scientist and science communicator

Pradeep Srivastava has created cartoons
embedding new research, ideas, data or scientific
facts within the caricatures, satirical comments or
dialogue: www.scientoon.com
Planet Super Powers
Created by Planet Science, The Battle for the

Planet Science comic includes a competition to
‘engineer’ your own superhero. A teacher’s pack
and activities are also available.
The Adventures of Archibald Higgins
This adventure series is the brainchild of French

astrophysicist Jean-Pierre Petit, and the comics
cover many advanced science topics in many
languages: www.savoir-sans-frontieres.com.
Concept Cartoons
These are single-frame cartoons that depict a

single problem, such as ‘Would a snowman melt
faster, slower or at the same rate if we put a coat
around it?’. Offering no immediate solution, these
cartoons make students think about the problem
and discuss it. There are a few free examples
online and the complete collection can be ordered
in English and Welsh, as books, posters,
photocopiable cartoons or a CD-ROM, from:

www.conceptcartoons.com
The Young Scientists
This comic book magazine, aimed at 5-13-year-

olds, communicates science and the life stories of
great scientists and promotes creative thinking
and practical experimental skills.
Max Axiom
These comics cover a variety of topics from

electromagnetism to natural selection and are
aimed at students aged 8-14. They feature the
superhero Max Axiom who ‘will do whatever it
takes to make science super cool and accessible’.

Copies can be ordered from.
Jim Ottaviani’s comics and graphic novels
Nuclear engineer Jim Ottaviani’s comics include

Dignifying Science (why women are
underrepresented in science), Suspended in
Language (Niels Bohr’s life and scientific
discoveries), Fallout (science and politics of the
first atomic bombs), Two-fisted Science (the
history of science), Levitation (psychics and
psychology of magic), Wire Mothers: HarryHarlow
and the Science of Love (the science of love) and

Charles R. Knight: Autobiography of an Artist (the
story of an artist whose paintings influenced 20th
century scientific fact and fiction).
Big Time Attic comics and graphic novels
Zander and Kevin Cannon have illustrated non-

fiction graphic novels such as Bone Sharps,
Cowboys and Thunder Lizards (scientists who
discovered dinosaur fossils), The Stuff of Life (all
about DNA) and T-Minus: The Race to the Moon
(astronomy). Their books can be ordered from:
www.bigtimeattic.com
Biology, health and medicine
Interferon Force
An exciting story about the battle between the

immune system’s interferon molecules and flu
viruses. Free hard copies are also available from.
A good introduction to genetic modification and

similar topics, available in English
The Conundrum of the Killer Coronavirus
A two-page comic all about severe acute

respiratory syndrome.
World of Viruses
Graphic novels developed by the University of

Nebraska in Lincoln, Nebraska, USA, which each
present advanced scientific material about various
viruses. You can download a sample and order the
books here: worldofviruses.unl.edu/comics/
Friends Forever – A Triumph Over TB
A story illustrated in comic form for patients with

tuberculosis, which aim to raise awareness of the
disease.
Luís Figo and The World Tuberculosis Cup
An educational comic book featuring a celebrity

footballer and his support of the Stop TB
Partnership to raise awareness of tuberculosis:
X-Men Life Lessons
This comic book can be used to help young people

who have survived serious burn injuries, and
comes with a discussion booklet.
Medikidz
A group of five superheroes are followed on a

journey around Mediland (the human body) so
that young people can learn about medical issues.
The books can be ordered via the website, which
also provides additional resources for children.
Jay Hossler’s comics and graphic novels
Jay Hossler, Assistant Professor of Biology at

Juniata College, Huntington, Pennsylvania, USA,
has written and illustrated graphic novels such as
Clan Apis (bee behaviour), Sandwalk Adventures
(how natural selection works and how it differs
from creation stories) and Optical Allusions (eye
biology and evolution). You can read some of the
shorter comics online and order the graphic novels
from his website.
Cardiocomic
In 2009, the Centre d’Investigació Cardiovascular

(Cardiovascular Research Centre, CSIC-ICCC) in
Barcelona, Spain, ran its first competition for
school students to draw cartoons about
cardiovascular disease. You can find the cartoons

in Spanish and Catalan, as well as details on the
2010 competition, here: cardiocomic.blogspot.de
Menudos corazones
The Spanish ‘Menudos corazones’ foundation for

children and young people with cardiopathies has
edited three comics on the topic to help these
youngsters cope better with their situation:
Chemistry
This chemistry comic series is designed to teach

chemistry to pupils aged 7-10. Each issue covers a
single subject, has an engaging narrative that
explains the science involved, and features a
glossary explaining the scientific terms.
Physics, astronomy and space science
On 14 January 2005, the European probe Huygens

entered the atmosphere of Titan – one of Saturn’s
moons. Based on this major event in space
exploration, the European Space Agency (ESA) has

developed a comic book with supporting fact
sheets for teachers to use in the classroom. They
are available in Dutch, English, Finnish, French,
German, Spanish and Swedish.
The STEL Mangas
The Solar-Terrestrial Environment Laboratory

(STEL) of Nagaya University in Japan has produced
a series of eight Manga comics on topics such as
global warming, solar radiation, geomagnetism
and cosmic rays. The comics are freely available in
English and Japanese and for translation into
other languages.
Environmental issues and agriculture
Produced by the United Nations Environment

Programme, this interactive comic provides
information and activities about the ozone layer,
environment, climate change and the
atmosphere.
SCIENCE IN ACIENT INDIAN
One of the oldest civilizations in the world, the Indian

civilization has a strong tradition of science and
technology. Ancient India was a land of sages and seers
as well as a land of scholars and scientists. Research has
shown that from making the best steel in the world to
teaching the world to count, India was actively
contributing to the field of science and technology
centuries long before modern laboratories were set up.
Many theories and techniques discovered by the ancient
Indians have created and strengthened the fundamentals
of modern science and technology. While some of these
ground-breaking contributions have been acknowledged,
some are still unknown to most.
Here is a list of 16 contributions, made by ancient Indians

to the world of science and technology, that will make
you feel proud to be an Indian.
1. The Idea of Zero
Little needs to be written about the mathematical digit

‘zero’, one of the most important inventions of all time.
Mathematician Aryabhata was the first person to create
a symbol for zero and it was through his efforts that
mathematical operations like addition and subtraction
started using the digit, zero. The concept of zero and its
integration into the place-value system also enabled one
to write numbers, no matter how large, by using only ten
symbols.Six hundred years later and 12,000 miles from
Babylon, the Mayans developed zero as a placeholder
around A.D. 350 and used it to denote a placeholder in
their elaborate calendar systems. Despite being highly
skilled mathematicians, the Mayans never used zero in
equations, however. Kaplan describes the Mayan
invention of zero as
2. The Decimal System
India gave the ingenious method of expressing all

numbers by means of ten symbols – the decimal system.
In this system, each symbol received a value of position
as well as an absolute value. Due to the simplicity of the
decimal notation, which facilitated calculation, this
system made the uses of arithmetic in practical
inventions much faster and easier.
decimal system Commonly used system of writing

numbers using a base ten and the Arabic numerals 0 to 9.
It is a positional number system, each position to the left
representing an extra power of ten. Thus 6741 is (6 × 103)
+ (7 × 102) + (4 × 101) + (1 × 100): note that 100 = 1. Decimal
fractions are represented by negative powers of ten
placed to the right of a decimal point.
3. Numeral Notations
Indians, as early as 500 BCE, had devised a system of

different symbols for every number from one to nine. This
notation system was adopted by the Arabs who called it
the hind numerals. Centuries later, this notation system
was adopted by the western world who called them the
Arabic numerals as it reached them through the Arab
traders.
A digit is what is used as a position in place-value

notation, and a numeral is one or more digits. Today's
most common digits are the decimal digits "0", "1", "2",
"3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", and "9". The distinction
between a digit and a numeral is most pronounced in the
context of a number base.
4. Fibbonacci Numbers
The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appear in

Indian mathematics as mātrāmeru, mentioned by Pingala
in connection with the Sanskrit tradition of prosody. Later
on, the methods for the formation of these numbers
were given by mathematicians Virahanka, Gopala and
Hemacandra , much before the Italian mathematician
Fibonacci introduced the fascinating sequence to
Western European mathematics.
5. Binary Numbers
Binary numbers is the basic language in which computer

programs are written. Binary basically refers to a set of
two numbers, 1 and 0, the combinations of which are
called bits and bytes. The binary number system was first
described by the Vedic scholar Pingala, in his book
Chandahśāstra, which is the earliest known Sanskrit
treatise on prosody ( the study of poetic metres and
verse).
signals that are constantly changing from one value to

another, for example amplitude or frequency, digital
circuits process signals that contain just two voltage
levels or states, labelled, Logic “0” and Logic “1”.
6. Chakravala method of Algorithms
The chakravala method is a cyclic algorithm to solve

indeterminate quadratic equations, including the Pell’s
equation. This method for obtaining integer solutions was
developed by Brahmagupta, one of the well known
mathematicians of the 7th century CE. Another
mathematician, Jayadeva later generalized this method
for a wider range of equations, which was further refined
by Bhāskara II in his Bijaganita treatise.
Let us describe the Chakravala method roughly first. The

basic idea is to start with the initial values p0 = [√ N] and
q0 = 1 and look at them as solutions of the equation x 2 =
m0y 2 = 1 where m0 = p 2 0 − N. Taking an appropriate x1
close to √ N, one has a solution (x1, 1) of the second
equation x 2 − Ny2 = x 2 1 − N.
7. Ruler Measurements
Excavations at Harappans sites have yielded rulers or

linear measures made from ivory and shell. Marked out
in minute subdivisions with amazing accuracy, the
calibrations correspond closely with the hasta increments
of 1 3/8 inches, traditionally used in the ancient
architecture of South India. Ancient bricks found at the
excavation sites have dimensions that correspond to the
units on these rulers.
A ruler can be defined as a tool or device used to

measure length and draw straight lines.
A ruler or measuring tape can be used to measure lengths

in both metric and customary units. Here, the ruler is
marked in centimeters (cms) along the top and in inches
along the bottom.
8. A Theory of Atom
One of the notable scientists of the ancient India was

Kanad who is said to have devised the atomic theory
centuries before John Dalton was born. He speculated the
existence of anu or a small indestructible particles, much
like an atom. He also stated that anu can have two states
— absolute rest and a state of motion. He further held
that atoms of same substance combined with each other
in a specific and synchronized manner to produce
dvyanuka (diatomic molecules) and tryanuka (triatomic
molecules).
9. The Heliocentric Theory
Mathematicians of ancient India often applied their

mathematical knowledge to make accurate astronomical
predictions. The most significant among them was
Aryabhatta whose book, Aryabhata, represented the
pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. He
correctly propounded that the Earth is round, rotates on
its own axis.
The heliocentric, or Sun-centred, model of the solar

system never gained wide support because its
proponents could not explain why the relative positions
of the stars seemed to remain the same despite the
10.Wootz Steel
A pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in India, Wootz

steel is a crucible steel characterized by a pattern of
bands that was known in the ancient world by many
different names such as Ukku, Hindwani and Seric Iron.
This steel was used to make the famed Damascus swords
of yore that could cleave a free-falling silk scarf or a block
of wood with the same ease. Produced by the Tamils of
the Chera Dynasty, the finest steel of the ancient world
was made by heating black magnetite ore in the presence
of carbon in a sealed clay crucible kept inside a charcoal
furnace. Wootz steel was highly prized across several
regions of the world over nearly two millennia and the
products made of this Indian steel came to be known as
Damascus swords
11. Smelting of Zinc
India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process,

an advanced technique derived from a long experience of
ancient alchemy. The ancient Persians had also
attempted to reduce zinc oxide in an open furnace but
had failed. Zawar in the Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the
world’s first known ancient zinc smelting site. The
distillation technique of zinc production goes back to the
12th Century AD .Zinc smelting is the process of
converting zinc concentrates (ores that contain zinc) into
pure zinc. The most common zinc concentrate processed
is zinc sulfide, which is obtained by concentrating
sphalerite using the froth flotation method.
12. Seamless Metal Globe
Considered one of the most remarkable feats in

metallurgy, the first seamless celestial globe was made in
Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in the reign of the
Emperor Akbar. In a major feat in metallurgy, Mughal
metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting
to make twenty other globe masterpieces in the reign of
the Mughal Empire. Before these globes were
rediscovered in the 1980s, modern metallurgists
believed.
All of us are familiar with an ordinary terrestrial globe

which shows the earth, with its physical and political
characteristics.
13. Plastic Surgery
Written by Sushruta in 6th Century BC, Sushruta Samhita

is considered to be one of the most comprehensive
textbooks on ancient surgery. The text mentions various
illnesses, plants, preparations and cures along with
complex techniques of plastic surgery.
Plastic surgery is a surgical specialty involved with both

the improvement in a person's appearance and the
reconstruction of facial and body tissue defects caused by
illness, trauma, or birth disorders. Plastic
surgery restores and improves function, as well as
appearance.
14. Cataract Surgery
The first cataract surgery is said to have been performed

by the ancient Indian physician Sushruta, way back in 6th
century BCE. To remove the cataract from the eyes, he
used a curved needle, Jabamukhi Salaka, to loosen the
lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The
eye would then be bandaged for a few days till it healed
completely. Sushruta’s surgical works were later
translated to Arabic language and through the Arabs, his
works were introduced to the West.
Cataract surgery is a procedure to remove the lens of

your eye and, in most cases, replace it with an artificial
lens. Normally, the lens of your eye is clear.
15. Ayurveda
Long before the birth of Hippocrates, Charaka authored a

foundational text, Charakasamhita, on the ancient
science of Ayurveda. Referred to as the Father of Indian
Medicine, Charaka was was the first physician to present
the concept of digestion, metabolism and immunity in his
book. Charaka’s ancient manual on preventive medicine
remained a standard work on the subject for two
millennia and was translated .
The ancient Indian medical system, also known

as Ayurveda, is based on ancient writings that rely on a
“natural” and holistic approach to physical and mental
health. Ayurvedic medicine is one of the world's oldest
16. Iron-Cased Rockets
The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the 1780s

by Tipu Sultan of Mysore who successfully used these
rockets against the larger forces of the British East India
Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. He crafted long
iron tubes, filled them with gunpowder and fastened
them to bamboo poles to create the predecessor of the
modern rocket. With a range of about 2 km, these rockets
were the best in the world at that time and caused as
much fear and confusion as damage. Due to them, the
British suffered one of their worst ever defeats in India at
the hands of Tipu.
India’s civilization valued science and knowledge above

all and some of the most extraordinary scientific
advances took place there.
The annual Indian Science Congress, which just

concluded, had its usual share of controversies about the
history of Indian science and I have been asked to weigh
in. It so turns out that I did precisely that in a brief account
titled “Science” for Stanley Wolpert’s Encyclopedia of
India(2005) and since that is freely available online, I shall
be more selective of themes in this revision of the
previous essay[1][2]. This account does not include the
modern period for which many excellent histories exist.
The Vedic texts assert that the universe is governed by

Rita (laws) and that consciousness transcends
materiality. The universe is taken to be infinite in size
and infinitely old.
Indian archaeology and literature provide considerable

layered evidence related to the development of science.
The chronological time frame for this history is provided
by the archaeological record that has been traced, in an
unbroken tradition, to about 8000 BCE. Prior to this date,
there are records of rock paintings that are considerably
older[3]. The earliest textual source is the Ṛigveda, which
is a compilation of very ancient material. The
astronomical references in the Vedic books recall events
of the third or the fourth millennium BCE and earlier. The
discovery that Sarasvati, the preeminent river of the
Ṛigvedic times, went dry around 1900 BCE, if not earlier,
suggests that portions of the Ṛigveda may be dated prior
to this epoch.
I write this with considerable impatience and one

question. Do we really have the time to waste on
controversies like what ancient India did or did not
achieve by way of scientific discoveries? This is when
there is the huge unfinished agenda to use the best of
science to tackle current challenges and crises.
At the recently
concluded annual
ritual of the Indian
Science Congress,
the Union science
and technology
minister drew solace
from the fact that
ancient India had
mathematical
prowess—we gifted
the Pythagoras
theorem and algebra
to the world. There
is truth in this, no doubt. But this is about the past. At
best, it tells us to be proud of our legacy. But what does
it tell us about what needs to be done to innovate for our
needs?
There is no doubt that Indian science is losing ground;

every indicator shows this. The ranking of our top
scientific educational institutions is consistently falling
and our achievements are fewer by the day. Most
importantly, Indian scientists are nowhere to be seen in

the world you and I inhabit. This is when our modern
world requires science to be integrated into every aspect
of daily life.
This is also the problem I have with the current

controversy about Vedic science—whether we flew
aircraft or mastered plastic surgery is immaterial for
modern India. What matters is ancient Indians
understood the science and art of settlement planning,
architecture and governance of natural resources. This is
the history we need to learn because it tells us what we
must do right. These are the real symbols of ancient
India’s scientific prowess.
Take water, for instance. Traditionally, we built highly

sophisticated systems, which varied to suit different
ecosystems, for harvesting every drop of water.
Archaeological excavations near Allahabad have found
evidence of early Indian hydraulic engineering. Dating
back to the end of 1st century BC, the Sringaverapura
tank is a remarkable system to take the floodwater of
Ganga into a set of desilting chambers, including water
weirs, to clean the water for drinking. It can be a matter
of belief that Lord Ram drank water from this tank. But it
is a fact that the technological system is so evolved that it
would put to shame all public works engineers of today’s
India.
Dholavira, a settlement off the coast of Gujarat, dates
back to the Indus Valley civilization. Archaeologists have
found this desert city had built lakes to collect monsoon

runoff, bunds and inlet channels to divert water, and
intricate drainage system for storm water, drinking water
and waste. Today, we cannot even build city roads that
do not get flooded each monsoon, or protect lakes for
storing rainwater.
Till the time the British came to India, the water traditions
were in vogue. British gazettes speak of these systems, at
times with awe, calling us a hydraulic society. Sir William
Willocks, a British irrigation engineer, who was called in
1920 to advise the administration on how to handle
famines, said the best answer was to go back to the
ingenious system of flood management of Bengal. This
was never done, of course.
Ancient Indians also understood the art of water

governance. Kautilya’s Arthasastra, written around 300
BC, has details of how tanks and canals are to be built and
managed. The key was to clarify the enabling role of the
state—the king—and the management role of local
communities. The kings did not have armies of public
works engineers; they provided fiscal incentives to
communities and individuals who built water systems.
The British changed all this, by vesting the resource with
the state and creating large bureaucracies for
management.
The British rulers also changed the tax system; collection
of revenue became paramount, even during droughts.
There was little then to invest in community assets. The
decline came quickly and was cemented by polices of

independent India. This is the history of resource
management we need to learn.
But if we must be proud of our water heritage and relearn

its art and science, then we must also reject its ills—the
focus on rituals and the evils of the caste system. We are
such a dirty nation today—look at the untreated sewage
in our rivers and garbage on our streets—because we
come from a society where waste is an “untouchable”
business.
New Delhi—The most widely discussed talk at the Indian

Science Congress, a government-funded annual
jamboree held in Jalandhar in January, wasn't about
space exploration or information technology, areas in
which India has made rapid progress. Instead, the talk
celebrated a story in the Hindu epic Mahabharata about
a woman who gave birth to 100 children, citing it as
evidence that India's ancient Hindu civilization had
developed advanced reproductive technologies. Just as
surprising as the claim was the distinguished pedigree of
the scientist who made it: chemist G. Nageshwar Rao,
vice-chancellor of Andhra University in Visakhapatnam.
"Stem cell research was done in this country thousands of
years ago," Rao said.
His talk was widely met with ridicule. But Rao is hardly the
only Indian scientist to make such claims. In recent years,
"experts" have said ancient Indians had spacecraft, the
internet, and nuclear weapons—long before Western
science came on the scene.
Such claims and other forms of pseudoscience rooted in

Hindu nationalism have been on the rise since Prime
Minister Narendra Modi came to power in 2014. They're
not just an embarrassment, some researchers say, but a
threat to science and education that stifles critical
thinking and could hamper India's development. "Modi
has initiated what may be called ‘Project Assault on
Scientific Rationality,’" says Gauhar Raza, former chief
scientist at the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) here, a conglomerate of almost 40
national labs. "A religion-mythical culture is being
propagated in the country's scientific institutions
aggressively."
Some blame the rapid rise at least in part on Vijnana

Bharati (VIBHA), the science wing of Rashtriya
Swayamsewak Sangh (RSS), a massive conservative
movement that aims to turn India into a Hindu nation and
is the ideological parent of Modi's Bharatiya Janata Party.
VIBHA aims to educate the masses about science and
technology and harness research to stimulate India's
development, but it also promotes "Swadeshi"
(indigenous) science and tries to connect modern science

to traditional knowledge and Hindu spirituality.
VIBHA receives generous government funding and is

active in 23 of India's 29 states, organizing huge science
fairs and other events; it has 20,000 so-called "team
members" to spread its ideas and 100,000 volunteers—
including many in the highest echelons of Indian science.
VIBHA's advisory board includes Vijay Kumar Saraswat,

former head of Indian defences research and now
chancellor of Jawaharlal Nehru University here. The
former chairs of India's Space Commission and its Atomic
Energy Commission are VIBHA "patrons." Structural
biologist Shekhar Mande, director-general of CSIR, is
VIBHA's vice president.
Saraswat—who says he firmly believes in the power of

gemstones to influence wellbeing and destiny—is proud
of the achievements of ancient Hindu science: "We
should rediscover Indian systems which existed
thousands of years back," he says. Mande shares that
pride. "We are a race which is not inferior to any other
race in the world," he says. "Great things have happened
in this part of the world." Mande insists that VIBHA is not
antiscientific, however: "We want to tell people you have
to be rational in your life and not believe in irrational
myths." He does not see a rise of pseudoscience in the
past 4 years—"We have always had that"—and says part
of the problem is that the press is now paying more

attention to the occasional bizarre claim. "If journalists
don't report it, actually that would be perfect," he says.
But others say there is little doubt that pseudoscience is

on the rise—even at the highest levels of government.
Modi, who was an RSS pracharak, or propagandist, for 12
years, claimed in 2014 that the transplantation of the
elephant head of the god Ganesha to a human—a tale
told in ancient epics—was a great achievement of Indian
surgery millennia ago, and has made claims about stem
cells similar to Rao's. At last year's Indian Science
Congress, science minister Harsh Vardhan, a medical
doctor and RSS member, said, incorrectly, that physicist
Stephen Hawking had stated that the Vedas include
theories superior to Albert Einstein's equation E=mc2.
"It's one thing for a crackpot to say something like that,
but it's a very bad example for people in authority to do
so. It is deplorable," Venki Ramakrishnan, the Indian-born
president of the Royal Society in London and a 2009
Nobel laureate in chemistry, tells Science. (Vardhan has
declined to explain his statement so far and did not
respond to an interview request from Science.)
Critics say pseudoscience is creeping into science funding

and education. In 2017, Vardhan decided to fund
research at the prestigious Indian Institute of Technology
here to validate claims that panchagavya, a concoction
that includes cow urine and dung, is a remedy for a wide

array of ailments—a notion many scientists dismiss. And
in January 2018, higher education minister Satya Pal
Singh dismissed Charles Darwin's evolution theory and
threatened to remove it from school and college
curricula. "Nobody, including our ancestors, in written or
oral [texts], has said that they ever saw an ape turning
into a human being," Singh said.
Those remarks triggered a storm of protest; in a rare

display of unity, India's three premier science academies
said removing evolution from school curricula, or diluting
it with "non-scientific explanations or myths," would be
"a retrograde step." In other instances, too, scientists are
pushing back against the growing tide of pseudoscience.
But doing so can be dangerous. In the past 5 years, four
prominent fighters against superstition and
pseudoscientific ideas and practices have been
murdered, including Narendra Dabholkar, a physician,
and M. M. Kalburgi, former vice-chancellor of Kannada
University in Hampi. Ongoing police investigations have
linked their killers to Hindu fundamentalist organizations.
Some Indian scientists may be susceptible to nonscientific

beliefs because they view science as a 9-to-5 job, says
Ashok Sahni, a renowned palaeontologist and emeritus
professor at Panjab University in Chandigarh. "Their
religious beliefs don't dovetail with science," he says, and
outside working hours those beliefs may hold sway. A

tradition of deference to teachers and older persons may
also play a role, he adds. "Freedom to question authority,
to question writings, that's [an] intrinsic part of science,"
Ramakrishnan adds. Rather than focusing on the past,
India should focus on its scientific future, he says—and
drastically hike its research funding.
The grip of Hindu nationalism on Indian society is about

to be tested. Two dozen opposition parties have joined
forces against Modi for elections that will be held before
the end of May. A loss by Modi would bring "some
change," says Prabir Purkayastha, vice president of the All
India People's Science Network in Madurai, a liberal
science advocacy movement with some 400,000
members across the country that opposes VIBHA's
ideology. But the tide of pseudoscience may not retreat
quickly, he says. "I don't think this battle is going to die
down soon, because institutions have been weakened
and infected."
Important Facts of Ancient India: Science & Technology
Ancient Indian made immense contributions in Science

and Technology. Here, we are giving the summary of the
important facts related to the Ancient Indian contribution
in Science Technology which will helps the aspirants in
the preparation of the competitive examinations like
UPSC-prelims, SSC, State Services, NDA, CDS, and

Railways etc.
Ancient Indian made immense contributions in Science

and Technology. Here, we are giving the summary of the
important facts related to the Ancient Indian contribution
in Science & Technology which will helps the aspirants in
the preparation of the competitive examinations like
UPSC-prelims, SSC, State Services, NDA, CDS, and
Railways etc.
Summary of Ancient Indian Dynasties and their

contributions
Ideas in Science and Technology in Ancient India
Physics
• They conceptualises that the universe is composed of
Panchbhutas – Water, land, fire and either-each a
medium of sense perception.
• They knew the existence of atoms and molecules even
before the Greeks.
• Vaiseshika School elaborated the atomic theory.
• Brahamagupta anticipated Newton‘s theory of
gravitation by declaring that –‘All things fall on the Earth
by law of nature’ and it is the nature of the Earth that

attract the things.
Mathematics
• Indians made three important contributions – notation
system, decimal system and usage of zero.
• Indian notation system was adopted by Arabs and
numerals are called Arabic in English. They are found in
Ashokan inscription.
• Indians were the first to use the decimal system and
Mathematician Aryabhatt was associated with it.
• Knowledge of Geometry is reflected in the Sulvasutras
of 5th century BC. Aryabhatta (Surya Siddhanta)
formulated the rule for finding out the areas of a triangle
which led to the origin of Trigonometry.
List of the Books and Authors in Ancient India
Astronomy
• Jyotisha Vedanga (500 BC) is the earliest source dealing
exclusively with astronomy. It contains rules for
calculating the position of new and full moon amongst
the 27 nakshatras.
• Aryabhatt explained the true cause of solar and lunar
eclipses, stated that the Sun is stationary and the Earth
rotates around the Sun. He gave the value of pie (3.1416),
and stated that the Earth is spherical in shape in his book
i.e. Aryabhattiya (499 AD).
• Varahamihira stated that the Moon rotates round the
Earth, and the Earth rotates around the Sun in his book
Brihat Samhita (6th Century AD).
Chemistry
• There was great development in Metallurgy with large
scale production of various metals like gold, silver,
copper, iron, brass and other alloys.

• Post Maurya Period steel products were exported to the
west.
• Gupta period copper statue of Buddha from Sultanganj
and iron pillar of Mehrauli at Delhi are the finest
examples.
Medicine
• Hyms of Atharvaveda is associated with Ayurveda.
• Charaksamhita of Charak (100 AD) refers to the various
diseases with cure and treatments, also about prevention
and control through diet.
• Sursutasamhita of Sasruta refers to various kinds of
diseases and operation with anaesthesia, surgical
treatment, cataract, rhinoplasty etc.
Apart from all the Ideas in Science and Technology during
Ancient India, there was also the development of
grammar and linguistics that help in the recitation of the
Vedic prayer and mantra with meticulous correctness
such as the production of Sanskrit grammar as in
Astadhyayi of Panini in 400 BC and Mahabhasya of
Patanjali in 2nd century BC. All these advancements first
originated for religious purposes.
“History of Ancient India”: A Complete Study Material
I write this with considerable impatience and one

question. Do we really have the time to waste on
controversies like what ancient India did or did not
achieve by way of scientific discoveries? This is when
there is the huge unfinished agenda to use the best of
science to tackle current challenges and crises.
At the recently concluded annual ritual of the Indian

Science Congress, the Union science and technology
minister drew solace from the fact that ancient India had
mathematical prowess—we gifted the Pythagoras
theorem and algebra to the world. There is truth in this,
no doubt. But this is about the past. At best, it tells us to
be proud of our legacy. But what does it tell us about
what needs to be done to innovate for our needs?
There is no doubt that Indian science is losing ground;
every indicator shows this. The ranking of our top
scientific educational institutions is consistently falling
and our achievements are fewer by the day. Most
importantly, Indian scientists are nowhere to be seen in
the world you and I inhabit. This is when our modern
world requires science to be integrated into every aspect
of daily life.
This is also the problem I have with the current
controversy about Vedic science—whether we flew
aircraft or mastered plastic surgery is immaterial for
modern India. What matters is ancient Indians
understood the science and art of settlement planning,
architecture and governance of natural resources. This is
the history we need to learn because it tells us what we
must do right. These are the real symbols of ancient
India’s scientific prowess.
Take water, for instance. Traditionally, we built highly
sophisticated systems, which varied to suit different
ecosystems, for harvesting every drop of water.
Archaeological excavations near Allahabad have found
evidence of early Indian hydraulic engineering. Dating
back to the end of 1st century BC, the Sringaverapura

tank is a remarkable system to take the floodwater of
Ganga into a set of desilting chambers, including water
weirs, to clean the water for drinking. It can be a matter
of belief that Lord Ram drank water from this tank. But it
is a fact that the technological system is so evolved that it
would put to shame all public works engineers of today’s
India.
Dholavira, a settlement off the coast of Gujarat, dates
back to the Indus Valley civilization. Archaeologists have
found this desert city had built lakes to collect monsoon
runoff, bunds and inlet channels to divert water, and
intricate drainage system for storm water, drinking water
and waste. Today, we cannot even build city roads that
do not get flooded each monsoon, or protect lakes for
storing rainwater.
Till the time the British came to India, the water traditions
were in vogue. British gazettes speak of these systems, at
times with awe, calling us a hydraulic society. Sir William
Willocks, a British irrigation engineer, who was called in
1920 to advise the administration on how to handle
famines, said the best answer was to go back to the
ingenious system of flood management of Bengal. This
was never done, of course.
Ancient Indians also understood the art of water
governance. Kautilya’s Arthasastra, written around 300
BC, has details of how tanks and canals are to be built and
managed. The key was to clarify the enabling role of the
state—the king—and the management role of local
communities. The kings did not have armies of public
works engineers; they provided fiscal incentives to

communities and individuals who built water systems.
The British changed all this, by vesting the resource with
the state and creating large bureaucracies for
management.
The British rulers also changed the tax system; collection
of revenue became paramount, even during droughts.
There was little then to invest in community assets. The
decline came quickly and was cemented by polices of
independent India. This is the history of resource
management we need to learn.
But if we must be proud of our water heritage and relearn
its art and science, then we must also reject its ills—the
focus on rituals and the evils of the caste system. We are
such a dirty nation today—look at the untreated sewage
in our rivers and garbage on our streets—because we
come from a society where waste is an “untouchable”
business. As long as we can live with the idea of manual
scavenging—somebody from a “lower” caste will carry
our excreta away—we will never get a clean India.
QUOTES
● Inverse and human stupidity; and I'm not sure about

the universe.
● The saddest aspect of life right now is that science

gathers knowledge faster than society gathers wisdom.
● If we knew what it was, we were doing, it would not be

called research, would it?
● One, remember to look up at the stars and not down at

your feet. Two, never give up work. Work gives you
meaning and purpose and life is empty without it. Three,
if you are lucky enough to find love, remember it is there
and don't throw it away.
● Somewhere, something incredible is waiting to be

known.
● The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity

has its own reason for existence. One cannot help but be
in awe when he contemplates the mysteries of eternity,
of life, of the marvelous structure of reality. It is enough
if one tries merely to comprehend a little of this mystery
each day.
The best scientist is open to experience and begins with

romance - the idea that anything is possible.
● The fact that we live at the bottom of a deep gravity

well, on the surface of a gas covered planet going around
a nuclear fireball 90 million miles away and think this to
be normal is obviously some indication of how skewed
our perspective tends to be.
● The most beautiful experience we can have is the

mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at
the cradle of true art and true science.
NOTES
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The Science of Storytelling by Shaikh Abdulaziz (2020)

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The Science of Storytelling by Shaikh Abdulaziz (2020)

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THE SCIENCE

WHY STORIES MAKE HELP

Shaikh Abdulaziz is a currently

Blood Group:- ....... Height:- ............... weight:- ................

Identity card :- ..................................................................

Passport No:- .....................................................................

Roll No :/ Reg.No:- ............................................................

Date of Birth:- ...........................................Sun Sign:-........

Travel Agent :-....Taxi Service:-............ Airport:-...............

The compelling, ground-breaking guide to creative

Stories shape who we are. They drive us to act out our

Shaikh Abdulaziz superbly chosen examples range from

Humans have been telling stories ever since we came

We would be nothing without story. Story moulds who

Stories shape who we are. They drive us to act out our

With good wishes to all of you!

Date: - 7, Oct 2020. Mr. Shaikh Abdulaziz

1}The Science of Storytelling

1.1 Introduction / Why stories?...................................002

2} The Science of Storytelling

2.1 Event Postponed....................................................005

2.2 Five Day Workshop................................................006

2.3 One Day Intensive..................................................007

2.4 Before lockdown....................................................008

2.5 Current Situation In London...................................009

3} The Science of Storytelling

3.1 What Is Science......................................................010

3.2 Science Technology................................................012

3.3 Universe of Science................................................013

3.4 Scientific Method...................................................014

3.5 What Is Science (FLOWCHART) .............................015

4.4 Scientific Knowledge and its Circulation……………..021

4.5 Circulation Through Geographies & History..........023

5} The Science of Storytelling (LOCKDOWN TOPIC)

5.1 Job lost...................................................................026

5.2 Income loss for poor..............................................027

5.3 Hotel in Containment Zone are Closed Due to

5.4 Indian Divisions Renewable Close..........................029

5.5 Indian Railways losses............................................030

5.7 Death Due to Corona............................................032

5.8 Reneve Loss for Metro..........................................033

6.1 Why Telling Stories Most Powerful........................034

6.2 Way to Active your Brain.......................................034

6.3 Our Brain on Stories...............................................036

6.4 How Our the Brain More Active When We Get

6.5 A story Can Put Your Whole Brain to Work And

6.6 Great Experiment...................................................039

6.7 quick last fact.........................................................042

7} The Science of Storytelling

7.1 The Science Behind The ‘ART' Of

7.2 The Science of Storytelling

7.3 Why We Love Stories Everyone Love A Good

8.2 CASE STUDIES.........................................................088

9} The Science of Storytelling

9.2 Making Assumption...............................................095

10} Scientific Knowledge

10.1 Benefits of Science...............................................100

10.2 Benefits & Outcome ............................................101

10.3 New Application on Science

10.4 New technological advance may lead to new

10.5 Potential application…………………………………………102

11} Publish & Perish?

11.1 What's In a Scientific Journal Article………………….105

11.3 Every Day Science Questions...............................108

11.4 Think Science.......................................................109

12} What Science Has Done For You Lately

12.1 Power Drill Could Set ............................................115