NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

LESSON 1
What is NAVIGATION?
• Science of determining the position of a ship, aircraft or guarded missile.
• Means of directing a course for guiding the craft expeditiously from one point to
another.
• Science of determining the position of a ship, aircraft or guarded missile.
• Means of directing a course for guiding the craft expeditiously from one point to
another.

Navigation involves the determination of:

• Position
• Direction
• Speed
• Distance
• Time

BASIC INSTRUMENTS OF NAVIGATION

 Nautical Chart
 Magnetic Compass
 Azimuth circle
 Log
 Echo Sounder
 Divider
 Parallel Rule

NAUTICAL CHART
Nautical chart is a standardized drawing representing part of the navigable waters
of the Earth.

CARTOGRAPHERS
Makers of maps and charts who use math to work out chart projection
techniques.

Terrestrial Sphere or GLOBE

A sphere on which is depicted
a map of the earth.

POLES
The north and south poles are
located at the ends of the axis on
which Earth rotates.

MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE
 Longitude are lines drawn on the surface of a globe running through the poles.
 These lines converge at the poles.
 Measurement of position east or west from the prime meridian
GREAT CIRCLE
Any circle formed by the intersection of a plane passing through the Earth’s center,
with the Earth’s surface.

EQUATOR
 Equator is a great circle of the Earth that is equidistant from the North Pole and
South Pole
 It cuts every meridian in half.
 Meridians is also a great circle because it divides the globe into two halves.
PARALLELS OF LATITUDE
 Measurement of position north or south of the equator.
 The distance of arc north (N) or south (S) of the equator, measured along a
meridian.

EARTH’S GRID - GRID SYSTEM OF LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE LINES

REMEMBER!

 LONGITUDE is always measured east or west from 0° through 180°.

 LATITUDE is always measured north or south from 0° through 90°

It is necessary to convert the round surface of the globe to one that is flat and two-
dimensional (having only length and width) – to a flat piece of paper on which a chart
is drawn.
CHART PROJECTION - Flat surface representative of the Earth.

MERCATOR PROJECTION
  Earth is projected onto a cylinder-shaped piece of paper wrapped around the
globe at the equator.
 Commonly used for navigational charts
 Developed by a Dutch cartographer, GERADUS MERCATOR, in the 1500s
 Most useful projection for navigation

CONFORMAL PROJECTION
 A projection on which any rhumb line is shown as a straight line.
 Used chiefly in navigation, though the scale varies with latitude and aerial size
and the shape of large areas are greatly distorted.

RHUMB LINE
 A curve on the surface of a sphere that cuts all meridians at the same angle.
 The path taken by a vessel or aircraft that maintains a constant compass
direction.
SCALE OF CHARTS
 Used to measure distance
 Relationship between actual and chart distance.
 Printed near the legend as a ratio, such as 1:7,500,000.
 Small scales are used to depict large areas on a chart and large scales are used
to depict small areas.

REMEMBER
 The larger the scale, the smaller the area shown on a given chart or map.
 The large-scale charts show areas in great detail.
 Features appearing on a large scale chart may not show up at all on a small-
scale chart of the same area.
TYPES OF CHARTS
 Nautical
 Sailing
 Harbor

NAUTICAL CHARTS
Nautical charts have information for safe navigation, such as:
 Symbols, figures, and abbreviations
 Depth of water
 Type of bottom
 Navigational aids

HARBOR CHARTS
 Harbor charts are large-scale charts that show harbors and their approaches in
detail.
COASTAL CHARTS
Coastal charts are intermediate-scale charts used to navigate a vessel whose
position may be determined by landmarks and lights, buoys or soundings offshore.

NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEMS
LESSON 2
Distance Measurement on Navigational Charts
 Distance on a chart is measured along
the meridian, using a tool called
dividers.
 Nautical Mile is one minute of arc
measured along the equator, or any
other great circle.
 Distances are not measured on parallels
of latitude because one minute equals
one nautical mile only along the equator

COMPARISON OF STATUTE MILE TO A NAUTICAL MILECOMPARISON OF STATUTE

MILE TO A NAUTICAL MILE
 A nautical mile is based on the
circumference of the earth, and is equal
to one minute.
 It is slightly more than a statute (land
measured) mile (1 nautical mile = 1.1508
statute miles). Nautical miles are used for
charting and navigating.

Speed Measurement
 KNOT- unit of measurement in
navigation.
 1 Knot = 1 nautical miles/hour
 1 Knot = 1.15 statute miles/hr.

Origin of KNOT
The term knot dates from the
17th century, when sailors
measured the speed of their ship
by using a device called a
"common log." This device was a
coil of rope with uniformly
spaced knots, attached to a piece
of wood shaped like a slice of pie.
The piece of wood was lowered
from the back of the ship and
allowed to float behind it. The
line was allowed to pay out freely
from the coil as the piece of wood
fell behind the ship for a specific
amount of time. When the specified time had passed, the line was pulled in
and the number of knots on the rope between the ship and the wood were
counted. The speed of the ship was said to be the number of knots counted
(Bowditch, 1984).

Speed Measurement

• Speed over Ground (SOG) = true speed- Direct output of many electronic
navigation systems (GPS, Loran)

Speed through the water can be measured using:

 Impeller Log
 Pitometer Log
 Doppler Speed Log
 Shaft RPM

Impeller Log
 Small propeller mounted in the water
that passes by the ship hull.
 The rotation rate of the propeller is
proportional to the speed of the ship.

PITOMETER LOG
 Pitometer log is similar to that of
the pitot tube on an aircraft.
 The part of the pitometer protruding from the ship is
sometimes called a pitsword or rodmeter.
  The dynamic pressure of the seawater is a function of
the depth of the water and the speed of the vessel.

Doppler Speed Log

The speed measurements from a Doppler instrument can
therefore be relative to the ground, or to the water.

Measurement of DIRECTION – COMPASS

Types of COMPASS
 MAGNETIC Compass
 GYROCOMPASS

MAGNETIC COMPASS
 Magnetic compass gives direction relative to
magnetic north
 It contains magnetized pointer that shows the
direction of the magnetic north and bearings from it.

GYROCOMPASS

 A non-magnetic compass which is based on a

fast-spinning disc and rotation of the earth to
automatically find geographical direction.
 Find true north as determined by the earth’s
rotation.
 Unaffected by ferromagnetic materials such as
the ship’s steel hull which change the magnetic
field.
CARDINAL POINTS in a COMPASS
Cardinal points in a compass refers to the four primary directions of the compass:
 NORTH
 SOUTH
 EAST
 WEST

NORTH MAGNETIC POLE

Magnetic compass point to the Earth’s
northernmost magnetic pole located in northern
Canada.

TRUE NAUTICAL DIRECTION

 Measured from TRUE NORTH (North Pole) as
located on a globe
 Measured from TRUE NORTH (North Pole) as
located on a globe

VARIATION ANGLE
 Refers to the difference between magnetic
and true north in degrees.
 The difference between true and magnetic
north varies by location and over time.
 In most populated parts of the world, it
currently ranges from 30 degrees west
(south-eastern tip of Africa) to 26 degrees
east (southern tip of New Zealand).
 On the west coast of the United States, the
compass direction lies between 10 and 16
degrees east of true north. In locations on
the east coast, the magnetic declination is about 10–12 degrees west.

How Variation Affects the Compass

Remember, variation changes
depending on your position relative to
magnetic north

Converting Direction
 To convert from magnetic to true, just
add or subtract the variation at your
location to the magnetic bearing.
REMEMBER
 Westerly variations are subtracted and
easterly variations are added.

HEADING is the direction the ship is FACING.

COURSE is the direction the ship is STEERED through the water.

EXAMPLE OF CONVERTING DIRECTION

 1. If your ship was heading 080° magnetic in a region where the variation was 10°
East, what is the true heading?
The true heading would be 080° + 10° = 90°True

2. If your ship was heading 270° true in a region where the variation was 10° East,
what is the magnetic heading?
Magnetic heading = 270°- 10°
Magnetic heading = 260°

BEARING
The direction of an object from an observer, measured clockwise in one of three
standard ways:
1. TRUE bearing
2. MAGNETIC bearing
3. RELATIVE bearing

TRUE BEARING
 Bearing using true north as the
reference

MAGNETIC BEARING
The direction of an object measured
clockwise from magnetic north.

RELATIVE BEARING
The direction of an object measured
clockwise from the ship’s head (bow).

When recording a bearing, assume it to be

true bearing unless followed by the letters
M or R.

Examples:
030°M means 30°right of magnetic north
030°R means 30°off the starboard bow.

Objects seen by lookouts are reported in terms of relative bearing by degrees.

To emphasize that it is a true bearing the letter T (for example 030°T) follows the
three-digit true bearing, spoken “030 degrees true”

True Bearing = Relative Bearing + True Heading

 RADAR SYSTEM
RADAR can be used to determine:
- Range or distance
- Altitude (Elevation)
- Direction (Bearing)
- Speed of objects
RADAR was coined in 1941 by the United States Navy as an acronym Radio Detection
and Ranging.

RADAR CAN NOW BE USED IN THE FF. FIELDS

 Navigation
 Space Exploration/Tracking
 Air Traffic Control
 Weather
 Threat Detection (Military)
 Missile Guidance (Military)
 Battlefield and Reconnaissance
 Biological Research
 Automobile Traffic/Speed Detection
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RADAR
a. Reflection of electromagnetic waves.
- The electromagnetic waves are reflected if they meet an electrically leading surface.
If these reflected waves are received again at the place of their origin, then that means
an obstacle is in the propagation direction

b. Electromagnetic energy travels through air at a constant speed, at approximately

the speed of light (300,000 kilometers per second or 186,000 statute miles per second
or 162,000 nautical miles per second). This constant speed allows the determination
of the distance between the reflecting objects (airplanes, ships or cars) and the radar
site by measuring the running time of the transmitted pulses.

c. This energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and will vary only
slightly because of atmospheric and weather conditions. By using special radar
antennas this energy can be focused into a desired direction. Thus the direction (in
azimuth and elevation) of the reflecting objects can also be determined.
DETERMINATION OF DISTANCE

• RADAR signals are narrow high frequency pulses. The intervals between
these pulses are considerably larger than the pulses themselves and it is during
these intervals that the reflected pulses are received. The time lapse between
 the pulse transmission and return of its echo represents the distance of the
reflecting object, because the speed of the radio wave is constant.
Range(Distance)= (ʊ x time lapse)/2
Where: ʊ = 186,000 statute miles/sec
= 162,000 nautical miles/sec
= 300,000 kilometers/sec
Bearing Determination
The bearing (true or relative) of the target
may be determined in which the directional
antenna is pointing when the target was picked
up is known. The bearing of a target is
expressed in angular degrees. May be measured
either from true north (true bearing) or with
respect t the heading of a vessel or aircraft
containing the radar (relative bearing).
Altitude Determination
Altitude can be determine using
trigonometric function:
If the range and the bearing of the target are
known, elevation or altitude can be determined.
Altitude = Slant range X sin θ
where: θ = angle of elevation

DOPPLER EFFECT
What is Doppler Effect?
It is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to its source.
The observer observes an upward shift in frequency when the wave source is
approaching. And a downward shift in frequency when the wave source is retreating.
Doppler Effect applies to all waves including:
Sound waves
Light waves
Water waves

DOPPLER Effect in RADAR

Constant speed and frequency of radio waves is
transmitted by RADAR transmitter. If there is a
frequency shift in the reflected signal then the
reflecting object is moving. By calculating this
frequency shift, the radar determines the
speed of the object and its direction of
movement.
DETERMINATION OF SPEED USING RADAR
TYPES OF RADAR

PULSE RADAR
This system operates on the principle of radiating a pulse of RF energy through
space which strikes an object and is reflected back, and then pick up by the receiver of
the same system. Choice of pulse repetition frequency decides the range and
resolution of the radar.
Pulse Transmission
Pulse Width (PW) - Length or duration of a given pulse
Pulse Repetition Time (PRT=1/PRF)
• PRT is time from beginning of one pulse to the beginning of the next
• PRF is frequency at which consecutive pulses are transmitted.
PW can determine the radar’s minimum or maximum detection range; Need long
pulses to have sufficient power to reach targets that have long ranges PRF can
determine the radar’s maximum detection range.

Pulse Radar BASIC Block Diagram

Transmitter
Synchronizer

RF ATR

Antenna
Duplexer
Power (Switching Unit)
Supply
Echo TR

Receiver
Display Video

Antenna Bearing or Elevation

ANTENNA – radiates and receives the signal. Antenna will transmit a pulse signal at
every clock pulse. The duration between the two clock pulses should be chosen in
such a way that the echo signal corresponding to the present clock pulse should be
received before the next clock pulse. It must be highly DIRECTIVE.
Beamwidth Vs. Accuracy
The size of the width of the antenna beam (beam-width) determines the angular
accuracy of the radar.
TRANSMITTER
The transmitter generates and amplifies signal at appropriate frequency. Basically
consists of driver, modulator and RF generator.
 Driver – ckt. when triggered drives the modulator with a rectangular pulse of
accurately timed width.
 Modulator – supplies power to the RF generator in the form of a timed, high-
amplitude, rectangular pulse.
 RF generator – The oscillator that generates the radio frequency signal.

PULSE RADAR- RECEIVER

- Receives, amplifies and
processes the return
signal.

SYNCHRONIZER
• Determines timing and coordinates action among other circuits.
• Regulates the rate at which pulses are sent (sets PRF) and resets timing clock.
• Consists of sine-wave oscillator, over-driven amplifier, differentiator and clipper.
DUPLEXER
When only one antenna system is used for both
TX and RX, a switching arrangement must be used
to connect the transmitter to the antenna when RF
pulse is to be transmitted and to connect the
antenna to the receiver during the interval between
pulses or when receiving the echo.
Such a switch is also called TR switch. This
switch is not a simple SPDT switch, but it is an
electronic switch made up of coaxial line or
waveguide section and a special spark-gap tube
called TR. The tube prevents the power generated by the TX from damaging the
sensitive RX tube.
WAVE GUIDES
• Used as a medium for high energy shielding.
• Uses a Magnetic Field to keep the energy centered in the wave
guide.
• Filled with an inert gas to prevent arcing due to high voltages
within the waveguide.

Types of Radar Output Displays

A – SCAN
Presents only the range to the target and the
relative strength of the echo.
 Used for gunfire control
Accurate Range information

B – SCAN
It provides a 2-D representation in which horizontal
axis represents measurement of azimuth (bearing)
and the vertical axis represents the measurement of
the range.

E – SCAN
Essentially a B-scope displaying range vs. elevation, rather
than range vs. azimuth. The name simply indicating "elevation".
E-scopes are typically used with height finding radars, which are
similar to airborne radars but turned to scan vertically instead of
horizontally.

PLAN POSITION INDICATOR (PPI) SCAN

It is an intensity-modulation type display system which
indicates both range and azimuthal angle of the target
simultaneously in polar coordinates. The distance of the
bright spot radiating outward from the center gives the
distance of the target from radar transmitter. While the
direction in which spot deflects corresponds to the
direction of the radar antenna (i.e. target direction) at
that instant.
Continuous Wave (CW) Radar
• Employs continual RADAR transmission
• Separate transmit and receive antennas
• Relies on the “DOPPLER SHIFT”

CONTINUOUS WAVE RADAR COMPONENTS

Transmitter
Antenna

CW RF
Oscillator OUT

Discriminator AMP Mixer IN

Antenna

Indicator
 • Transmit/Receive Antennas- Since must operate simultaneously, must be
located separately so receiving antenna doesn’t pick up transmitted signal.
• Oscillator or Power Amplifier - Sends out signal to transmit antenna. Also
sends sample signal to Mixer. (used as a reference)
• Mixer -
a. A weak sample of the transmitted RF energy is combined with the received
echo signal.
b. The two signal will differ because of the Doppler shift.
c. The output of the mixer is a function of the difference in frequencies.

• Amplifier - . Increases strength of signal before sending it to the indicator.

• Discriminator -
a. Selects desired frequency bands for Doppler shifts, eliminates impossible
signals.
b. The unit will only allow certain frequency bands so won’t process stray
signals.
• Indicator – Displays data.
• Displays velocity or the component directly inbound or directly outbound.
Range is not measured.

COMPARISON BETWEEN PULSE AND CW RADAR

RADAR RECEIVER PERFORMANCE FACTORS

• Signal Reception
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• Receiver Bandwidth
• Receiver Sensitivity

Signal Reception
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• Measured in dB
• Ability to recognize target in random noise.
• Noise is always present.
• At some range, noise is greater that target’s return.
• Noise sets the absolute lower limit of the unit’s sensitivity.
• Threshold level used to remove excess noise.

Receiver Bandwidth
• Is the frequency range the receiver can process.
• Receiver must process many frequencies
• Pulse are generated by summation of sine waves of various frequencies.
• Frequency shifts occur from Doppler Effects.
• Reducing the bandwidth
• Increases the signal-to-noise ratio(good)
• Distorts the transmitted pulse(bad)

Receiver Sensitivity
• Smallest return signal that is discernible against the noise background.
• Milliwatts range.
• An important factor in determining the unit’s maximum range.

Pulse Effects on Radar Performance

 Pulse Shape
 Pulse Width
 Pulse Compression
 Pulse Power

PULSE SHAPE
• Determines range accuracy and minimum and maximum range.
• Ideally we want a pulse with vertical leading and trailing edges.
• Very clear signal – easily discerned when listening for the echo.

PULSE WIDTH
• Determines the range resolution.
• Determines the minimum detection range.
• Can also determine the maximum range of radar.
• The narrower the pulse, the better the range resolution

PULSE COMPRESSION
• Increases frequency of the wave within the pulse.
• Allows for good range resolution while packing enough power to provide a large
maximum range.

PULSE POWER
• High peak power is desirable to achieve maximum ranges.
• Low power means smaller and more compact radar units and less power
required to operate.
Other Factors Affecting Performance
• Scan Rate and Beam Width
• Narrow beam require slower antenna rotation rate.
• Pulse Repetition Frequency
• Determines radars maximum range(tactical factor).
• Carrier Frequency
• Determines antenna size, beam directivity and target size.
• Radar Cross Section (What the radar can see(reflect))
• Function of target size, shape, material, angle and carrier frequency.