SURFACE MINING: MECHANICAL EXTRACTION METHODS 7.1 CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS. Exploitation in whieh mining of ore, coal, or stone is carried ovt atthe surface ‘vith essentially no exposure of miners underground is refried to as swface mining. Although oceasional openings may be placed below the surface ail Timited unwlerground development is occasionally requieed, this type of mining is essemtally surface-based “Table 4.1, the susface mii ‘ur altention to the mechanical extraction methods, The methods were divided into two classes, In this chapter, we t four methods in thi lags ate 98 follows: 1. Open pit mining 2. Quateying 3. Open east (stip) mining 4, Auger or bighwall mining more than 90% of the surface mine production in the United States and the bulk of the nation’s total onnage of Coal, ore, and stone Two of these methods open pit and open east mining fank as the most important surface methods and are among the eight most portant of all the methods. The terminology of susface mining applied to the mining of stone should be lar point, The term qeurry 1s vsed in the mineral industay ane the atnie to mean a mine that produces stone oF apgecgate. THe stone industry even uses the worm to deseribe an undergrovund operation that mines stone. However this term does not describe mining method, only the product These methoxls. ae responsible 182 SUnrACE Mane. ZONA EXTRACTION MEHOOS ined. Most surface quanties use the open pit mining. round quarries utilize the room-and-pillar or stope-and-pil Tn this book, wo define quarrying as the mining method associated. wit production of intact blocks of rock called dimension stone, typically for architectural or decorative use ‘Applicable to many near-surface deposits, the open pita inethoxls employ a conventional mining eycle of operations to extract Rock breakage is normally accomplished by drilling and blasting, followed by the matetials handling operations of loading and haulage. Quarrying and ‘augering are mote specialized and less frequently used methods in which breakage is by allernalive means. Explosives are not normally used for Iyreakage, although they can be used in quarrying to fie large blocks of stone, The variations of these two methods are outlined in the sections that follow. “The student should prepare a sheet on each method for his or her Mining Methods Notebook; see Section 4.10 ‘mining method, the ‘open cast mining ral 7.2. OPEN PIT MINING Open pie mining is the process of mining any near-surface deposit by means of ‘a surlace pil excavated using one or more horizontal benches. Open pit mines ‘ve often sec in) mining metallic or nonmetallic deposits and more sparingly in coal and other bedded deposits, Both the overbueden (if present) and the ‘ore are typically removed in benches that vary from 30 ft (9 m) to 100 1 (305) iw height By adding additional benches, a pit of any depth can be extracted. {A thick deposit requires many benches aa may resemble an inverted cone, with the higher benches being larger than the lower benches (soe Figue 7.1). A single benich may slice if the deposit and overburden are relatively thin (50-150 {0 of 15-43 m), which is typical of some US. coal and! nonmetallic of the benches is to control the depth of the blastholes, the pit walls, and the dangers of highwall faces. The benches also ugh length of face (o allow sustained, uninterrupted production, deposit, stripping and mining are urge waste costs, while at the same coordinated so that ore revenues will rei time long-range objectives are being met Individual benches ate designed (o gecommodate the materials-handling equipment utilized. The teach of the excavator limits the height of the bench, 4 power shovel eam trim a higher bank than a frontend loader or a hydraulic excavator, The width must be suficient to contain most of the flyrock from a Dench blast and provide maneuvering room for excavator and haulage waits ‘The slope of the bench anc of the pit itself is the maxim dictated by rock ‘or soil mechianics concerns (see Section 7.7). Commoa practice is a follows:ri (i ( FIGURE 7.1. Biyjian Canyon Moe near Salt ake Cy, UT Photo comes Copper Corpocation Minera Heal, (0) Copper w0-0 (12-18) Nonmetatis| 40-100 (12-10) sible for more than 60 of most met production equipment that is al, 1982), Figure 72 shows some of the variations of « that it can be used on flat-lying 3 Where several seams exist such as in $0 toa number of other deposit lic deposits. It permits the types, as intensive but lab ns (Figure 7.2 1 von oF coal Bech Dimensions width 1 (0) 80-125 24-38) 6 10018 {60-150 (18 43) rees at lower cost (a enable the mining of eve lization of highly mechanized, mass 199 Slope 50-60" pit mining, Note nd that it is often used sures, H also jv i Figures 7.2b through 7.26 scale method in terms of produetion rate, respon. ofall susface outpul. It continves to produce move 124 Suna nmin MecHacA! exrKACHON MEMOS mtd f o © o ao © y= ‘Advancing benches FIGURE 7.2. Vaan of epon pty. (3) Fa ying soam oF be, al Yea, Exampie Irn, taconite. by Moose depca Wat toa. Example: wan (0) Phin seam or bod, a touein ek Exampie: connor. (0). Tick 7.2.1 Sequence of Development th procedute for laying out a susface mine was detailed in Chapter 6. ‘The ial applica opment are Sections 6. aux! 62. They shoukl be reviewed now. Note that open pit mining normally involves the haulage of mexlerate to lige amounts of w re out of the Dil for relatively long distances at steep geades. These haulage requirements will ty to open pil devET fonenrar unina 105 affect the layout of the pi, the selection of equipment, and the presctibed production rate, Because ore grades are typically low, aud in most commend ties, decreasing steadily, ratios must be held (0 modest levels (usually 1 10 5 y¢/ton, oF 08 t0 4 n'/tonne) Thus, most open pit mines are less than 1000 ft (200 1) in depth unless they ate associated with deposit of better than average grad, stripping ratio, oF size (Crawford and Mustralid, 1979; Atkin: son, 1983), ‘Major steps in the development of an open pit mine ns follows: After all lings are located anid constructed as described in Seetion 4.2. Particalaily important is the location ‘of waste dumps and, if reclamation of the surface is required, topsoil stock piles Ore storage, processing, and stornge facilities ate located, keeping the ultimate pit limit and outside access in mind, Equipment is selected and acquited as ed stepping of 0 tion of the ore to begin on schedule. Strippil coordinated 1 ing are ler conducted range and long-range mining plans Establis ri of the frst bench seeding bench in waste oF ore ch is relevved to as the box eut is a critical operation. The initial entry in a be (or drop cut), a wedge-shaped volune of rock that must be removed 40 establish a new bench face. Dullhotes are placed in parallel rovis in desconding, order of depth so that when the box cut is blasted and excavated, there isa ramp of negotiable grade fom the upper to the lower bench, The many fing a box cut are outlined in detail by Husteulid and considerations in exces Kuchia (1995), ‘A major concern in pit development isthe proper design of the benches and the haul roads. The excavator veach and other distensions of the equipment used generally determine the height and with of the working benches. Pits ate ollen developed using @ working slope, slope angle wilh a relatively bigh factor of safety so that the slopes are stable duting the exploitation of the deposit, When the pit is in its final stage, the slopes may be steepened 0 a inping ratio. The masionum slope of the pit ie then called the timate sfope. Particularly when the ultimate slope is being used, the Denches must be designed as catch hewches so tit any saterial that is slodged Irom the pit walls is caught on the benches, Call (1986) has outlined recommendations for the design of these benches, The design of haul ronds is important for both safety and elfiieney. The best-managed pits will have proper haul road width, banking. safety berms, and curve designs to allow the trucks to operate with the greatest safety and a low rolling resistance. Haulage ticks in many pits travel on the eft side of the road (0 allow the driver to gauge the location of the vehicle with respect ta the berm. This decreases the probability of misiulpig te location of the bern aid accidentally driving off the road. The many aspects of proper haul road desi 1 (1977), Atkinson (1992), and Haste atid are discussed by Kantian and A and Kuchia (1995), 186° suFACE Mates MECHAMCAL EXTRAGTION METOOS 7.22. Cyole of Operations nis for exploitation of an ore body include the following: sipping overburden, mining the valuable minerals, and the auxiliary oper- jons that will enable the operation to proceed in a safe and efficient manner Bach ofthese is examined separately. The requir 7.2.2.1 Stripping Overburden. Stripping is the teem applied to removing Cverlying material (o expose the deposit and excavating overburden within the confines of the pit afler the ore is exposed. The natute of the overburden determines the cycle of operations. Some softer materials may not require breakage More consolidated rocks will require breakage by explosives. Ma terials-handiing equipment is then selected (o satisly the operating conditions, Systems of equipment were compared in Table 6.3. Additional information on the selection of equipment ean he found in Martin et al (1982) and Atkinson (1983, 19928), “The following are alternative methods for performing each of the steps in the eyele of operations Drilling: auger (weak rock), roller bit rotary (avernge rock), percussion (hard rock) Blasting: anynonium nitzate-fwel oil (ANFO) or slurry, loaded by bulk ‘explosive trucks ot by hand, firing by electeical eaps or detonating cord Excavation: power shovel, hydsaulic shovel, front-end loader, dozer, seraper (oil), bucket wheel excavator (soil) Halage: tack, belt conveyor, dozer, scraper (Soil) 7.2.2.2 Mining Ore, Coal, or Stone. In open pit steipping ane mining, equipment and cycles of operations can often be very similar or even ier ical — the determining factor is the diference or similarity of the ore and waste wa it is to the mine operator's advantage to employ the same equipment and cycle. ‘The primary reason is that equipment can be interchanged al times when breakdowas oceur or iehen unexpected production or stripping demands occur. The mining cycle of operations and the equipment used generally consist of the following: xy ane very much alike, the Drifting: roller-bit rotary (average rock), percussion oF votary-percussion (hatd rock) Blasting’ anaes {uel oll (ANFO) ox slucry (alternative: soft rock cam be ripped, coal ean be loaded directly), loading and firing similar te the processes used in slipping Excavation: power shovel, hy scraper (soil like res) Haulage: wuck, belt conveyor, rait Hoisting (very steep pits: high-angle conveyor, skip hoi ie shovel, frontend londer, drag hhydiaulic pipelineoreweirumne 187 7.2.2.3 Auniliary Operations. Ausiliary operations are similar ble 5.12 for the general stipping, For open pit lope stability, and mining. They are outlined in T the auailiary operations that contol, pumping and drainage, waste disposal, waimtenance of equipment a hnaul roads, and personnel transport tal control must also be emphasized throughout the lifetime of the mine. Reclamation is now an awniliary operation that is parsed di ation to ease any environ mental problems and minimize the expense of reclaiming alter mi tern og is ited, 723. Conditions: ‘The natural, spatial, and geotogic condi pit operations are indicated! in the following list, whieh has been compiled from information in a variety of sources. 1 should be remembered that these represent the most logical circumstances wniler which the mining method known as apen pit mining ean be applied 1 associated with suocessful open 1. Ore strength: any 2. Rock strength: any 3. Deposit shape: any, but prefer deposits parallel to the surface 4. Deposit dip. any, prefer deposits with low dip 5. Deposit size: large oF thick 6 ave favorable 1 e easily Ore grail: can be very low if other conditio Ore uniformity: prefer uniform ore, but blend ted in mast operations 8. Depth: shallow to intermediate yplemen ited by the economic strip ratio) The interaction between these deposit conditions ean alter the variables that apply (0 a mining method. For example. a deposit of high grade and large extent can be mined to a much greater depth. Note also that ore strength and tock strength will be telerred 10 in general terms, For more specie strength values, readers may use the data provided in Table 142. 724 Characteristics “The characteristics that wormally apply to any ni of the method. These are summarized in the following lists of ava stsaal vantages This information has been compiled from discussions in Peider (1973), Crawford and Lustrulid (1979), and Hustrulid and Kuehta (1995). 188 sunFACE MING MECHINACAL EXTRACTION METHODS ies have been loyeeshil, ish productivity (U.S, averages for copper and iron m the range of 100 to 400 tons oF 90 to. 360 tonnes peru including both ore and waste). 2. Lowest eost of the broadly used methods (rel 1. High production rate (in most mines, production can be increased by number of exeavation units. ve cost about 5%). increasing d 4. Low labor requirement; can be relatively unskilled labor for the most part 5. Relatively flexible; can vary output if demand changes 6, Kal for large equipment, which permits high productivity, 1 % Fairly low rock breakage cost; superior to underground mining. openings requited, although Simple development and acesss; advanced stsipping may be considerable. 9, Little support normally required; proper design aud maintenance of provide stability 10, Good recovery (approaches 100 benches ); moderate to low dilation ris 11. Fayorable health and safety factors; no underground haz Disadvantages 1 Limited by depth to about 1000 f (300 m) because of the technological nits of equipment; deposit beyond pit limits must be mined under ‘prowl of left in place, 2 Limited by steipping ratio (range of 1 to 5 yd"/ton or 08 to 4 an*/tonne) because of economies. 3. High capital investment associated with wee may require extensive reclamation, an expense added to the production cost ree exipment 5. Requires large deposit and large equipment to achieve lowest cost, 6. Weather detrimental, can impede oF prohibit operations, ape stability is critical; proper design a nance of benches plus ge essential posal, provision of dump aea and proper good dri 8. Mast provide waste design is essential 9. Pit may fil with water after snining; water may be polluted, 7.2.5 Applications 7.2.5.1 Open pit mining has been applied to many types of mineral deposits. Iw the United States the method has been extensively applied (0 copper, gold, ancl ivon deposits. However, it has also been applied to coal, | || retirv sans 169 n, and! most nonmetallics. Open pit mining is uranium, bauxite, molybde ul other surface fiso the most common method used in surface limestone 7252 Case Study: Bingham Canyon Mine. Kennecott Uta Copper Corporation's Bingham Canyon copper: Focated about 30 miles (12 ki southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, It was the world’s fist open pit mine and is ail operating today. The history of Bingham Canyon bevan with under round mining in the 1800s, As the high-grade copper ores were being depleted, 2 young engineer, Daniel C. Jackling, proposed in 1898 the mining. of Tower-grae copper mineralization by excavation of a large open pit. In 1906, the Bingham Canyon open pit mine was initiated Tingham Canyon proved that the open pit concept was “eonomical, and, a5 fa result, the mine grew into the largest hunan-made excavation of ils type on caith, The pit is shown in Figure 7.1. The production system eventually grew into a shovel-rail system for ore production and a shovel-ttuck combination for sipping waste, In 1950 the mine was using 150 ton (136 tonne) wucks and was producing 370,000 tons (336,000 tonnes) of ore and waste per day (WVoynick, 1998), However, low copper prices pushed the mine into unprofitable operation, and in 1985 its operators closed it in ovder to sethink and cedesign the mine and the mill complex ‘After new labor agreements and ane an were in place, the mine reopened in 1987. ‘The new layout, shown in Figure 7.3, was instituted to modernize the operations, cut down on labor and transportation costs, and provide @ lower overall cost of producing copper. Gone were the ain Feplaced by a shovel-truck-erusher-conveyor system to deliver the ore to the new Copperton Concentrator Plant, Hydraulic pipelines were established t0 ‘move concenteate (o the smelter, tailings to the waste impoundment, and water to the mine. In addition to its primary target (copper, gold, silver, and le size of the workforce was molybdenum are processed, ‘The approx fediced from 2,500) to 475 after the new plan was in place. This economic tejuvenation added about 25 yents to the mine's he as an open pit mine (Tygesen, 1992) Receniy, the co1al production of ore ancl waste was back up to 320,000) tons (290000 tonnes) per day. Curter-(1990) has listed details concerning. the pit and its logistics: Longest horizontal dimension of pit: 25 mi (40 kin) Pit cept OS 1 (038 kan) Daills roller bit rovary driling of 12 in. (0.3 my holes Shovel size: yd? (26 m?) Truck size: 190 tons (172 tonnes) In-pit rueher: 10 in, (0.25 m) gays 1OOD hp (743 KAW); 1,000 tonsfar (9070 mes/l) Belt conveyor: 72 in, (L8 m) wide, 5 mi (8 kin) Fong, £6,500 hp (12,300 kW) 190 SURFACE MiG MECHIARCAL ExIRACHON MEIC A (Pe atc AD FIGURE 7.3. Loycu of He who, concentaoe, male, relive, and slat Iai of the [Biogham Canyon Mino. statin couney of Renee al Sper Creston Concentrator storage: 350,000 tons (317,000 tonnes) Metals recovered: Cu, Mo, Aus, Ae Sup ratio: 08/10 Average grade: 0.6% Cu Chol grade: 0.23% Cw The Bingham Canyon operation also continues to extraet some copper from very low ginde ores by leaching it with sulfuiie acid and processing the Dptegnant liquor in 13 precipitation cones in which shvedded iron matetial isae sacrificed to collect the copper (Tygesen, 1992). This process provide seh copper that would offiewise be wasted. Bingham Canyon is a wor pails ease sty. Khas been operating for neatly a century, proving the value open pit mining to the mining industry and fo consomers 73 QUARRYING Dimension stone quarrying produces rectangular blocks of rock that ate face quarries resemble open pits, but the benches roughly sized and shaped {called faces) are lower and generally vertical (sce Figure 74). The highwalls of (Miuarty are often of imposing height and steepness, some attaining a vertical Gimension approaching 1,000 f¢ 300 1m). Although the term quarry is some: times applied to any susface mine exte mnean the mining method employed 10 produce intact blocks of dimension Hone. Thus, crushed limestone may be mined in a quarry, but itis produced lioiension g method known as open pit mining. By the same bo by the min stone is extracted from a quarry using the mining method we call quarrying Dimension stone is used for architectural building blocks, stone monuments, Jecorative buikling slabs, flagstone, curbing, rooting, and miscellaneous other tance. The ines. However, the dimension stone industry is receding in iny yer @ petiod of 15 years to a tonnage produced dropped about 30 1,080,000 tons (980,000 tonnes) in 1998 (Antonides, 1999), The value of th stone was somevat less than $200/ton ($220/tonne), making this mining tnethiod one of the most expensive. The reason is that itis a highly selective, uctivily. Quarrying and squate-set stoping ise foray, which accounts for their small-scale, method with low p fre the most costly mining methods in being used only where otter methods do not app 7.3.1 Sequence of Developmen (of wock commercially viable as dimension The properties that make a depo stone ace largely physical and mineralogical: color and appearance, compet nee, uniformity, strength, and frecdom from eracks, laws, and other delect (Gingleton, 1980), Therefore, prospecting, exploration, and devel lien cartied oul in quite a dierent manner than for other mineral comm Development begins with clearing the land and developing the processing and necessary support facilities adjacent to the quarry site. The processing plant is ordinarily used to cut and polish the ruck. However, sculpting and polishing may be performed elsewhere if required. Recuuse blocks ate cut oughly to size in the quarry, all mining and processing operations are geared dual blocks of stone. Waste is often substantial in the cutting al area nist he to handle ind Of the stone to more exact dimensions. Therefore, 0 disp laced i processing, Any overburden or weathe prepared for the waste p[FIGURE 75. Diagram of operations in devonsion stone qa. {By permission om West ‘Vein Geological and Econo Survey, Morganionn, WV) Fock thal must be removed (usually minor) is then stripped off the desired rock ‘ass, using any means that applies to the type of material te be snaved ‘Opening the first face is accomplished by forming a eut across the quarry ‘width, orienting the eut with due regard to the bedding planes, joints, and other geologic variables (Motrison and Russell, 1973; Power, 1975). The cut is established by cutting or channeling a key block, often about 4 f(1.2.m) wide, 121 (36m) deep, and wp to 30 ft (2.1 mo) long (see Figure 7.5), Once the block is removed, the key slot ean be eut across the quarry, which establishes the fast cut, Now there ate two fiee faces to facilitate hveakage and blocks of the ‘desired size are move readily cut and removed When the level is advanced sulfciently, a new working level can be initiated by removing another key block and key row. 7.8.2 Cycle of Operations 7.3.2.1 ‘Stripping Overburden. ev dimension stone deposit is generally not of rent thickness, simple stripping methods suffice Quarries may contract this operation to another company, a8 their equipment is not the type normally use for stripping purposes. Slipping inethods parallel those in open pit mining: the eyele of operations normally consists of the following: Use the overburden associated with 194 sunrace ss HECHIMECAL EXTRACTION MESODS Drilling: avger (weak rock oF soil), roller-bit rotary (average rock); per cussion dlls (very hard rock) Blasting: ANKO (alternative: sip if soil or very weak rock) Excavation: dragline, scraper, oF monitor (if sol); front-end foader (i rock) ick, scraper, or cast by dragline Haulage: 0 73.2.2 Quarrying Stone. Because of the highly specialized nature of di Iension stone recovery, # eustomized cycle of unit operations is normally employed. The method being weed ia Figures 7.4 and 7.5 is oriented toward {iceing manageable sized blocks in the pit and hauling or hoisting them to the surface, A general description of the methods used is found in Spielvogel (2978). Traditional methods include freeing the blocks by wedging vith plug ‘inl feathers 0 cating the blocks fice by using a wire saw. Alter the blocks a eed, they axe hauled or hoisted to the surface. Alternative methods to free the blocks employ circular diamond savs, diamond chain saws, channeling ma. chines, and flame jet or waterjet channeling technology. Milling or finishing ‘operations take place in the processing plant (Kostner, 1976). Recently, methouls of fieing larger blocks of stone in the pit have been lized. These methods, developed in the 1970s in Finland (World Mining Equipment, 1997, utilize precise deilling and toppling of blocks in the pit to break and homie the blocks of dimension stone more efficiently. The initial blocks ave as much as £40,000 (2 (4000 m9 in yoluine. A block is first drilled with a precise row of holes along its back and botiong. The sides are then freed by channeling or diamond wire sawing. A controlled blast using plastic cartridge explosives is milized to free the block from the surrounding rock (Singh, 1988), The large block is next cut into smaller blocks, normally using ‘8 controlled drill and blast method. These blocks are then toppled one by one ‘onto a bed of sand or erushed rock, where they are cut into slabs by wedging ‘or wire sawing. The slabs ate then londed and hauled with the use of front-end Jowders. Figate 7.6 shows a simila method used in 2 Maryland quarry (Meade, 1992), This operation uses to provide the initial freed blocks Toppling sii! Iivther processing ave then peslownied vin the methods digessed earlier. The eycle of operations in quarrying consists of the following Cutzing: diamond cixcolar, chain, oF wite saws; inline percussion, dlls, famejet oF waterjet chaoneler (hard rock) Weaging (feeing)- dill and broach; wedge, plug and feathers; controlled blasting Excavationjhoisting: crane, stiles Haulage: ral, trv der 1d Jondler -; front-end loader font 7.32.3 Auxillory Operations, Quarrying requires relatively simple ancl lary operations, similar to those for other surface mining methods, These wT)Society toring, Quarry, Frenasuie, MD Meade, 1862) By permission tant i FIGURE 7.5, Metnad ot tooing Gmenton-sione Socks Mealurgy, ans Exioraion, In. Litetn. CO, 195 196 sun ACE mma MeCAAUAL ExtRACHON MEHOUS inchuse power supply, equipment maintenance, pit diainage, waste disposal, tnatcrial supply, and reclamation, 73.8 Conditions ‘The mineral and related conditions amenable to dimension stone quacrying are listed below. ‘They have been compiled from information found in Bowles (1938), Barton (1968), Morrison and Russell (1973), and Singleton (1980), Ore strength: structurally sound; fee of unvwanted defects Rock strengths any Deposit shape: hich-bedded oF massive; large in lateral extent if thick large, thick physical and visual qualities Deposit dip Deposit Ore grate: hi Ove uniformity: wiformn Depile shallow to intermediate 7.34 Characteristics The following information is condensed from that provided by Morrison and Russell (1973) aud Power (1975). Advantages | Low capital cost, mechanization wet extensive 2. Suited to some sinall deposits 3. Fasily accessible; hoisting may compticale moving stone, supplies, and workers, 4. Stable walls and bene 5. High selectivity; ca 6, Good safety; little chance of stope failure eenerally uo bank support required regard or disc {tow «quality stone Disadvantages 1. Somewhat limited by depth; usually fess than 300 6 (90 my; cam be up (0 1,000 1 (300 my 2 Low prosluctivity; high labor east 3, Highest mining cost because of law productivity (relative cast = 100%) 4 Low production vate 5. Relatively skilled labor requived 6, Uaflexible, cannot easily change the mi 7. Mechanization i limited by the nature of the method. ng plan at depthonenicast stip) unis 197 ul costly rock breskage because of inability to use the full 8, Complicate power of explosives 9, Waste can be 60% to 90% 7.3.5 Applications Quacrying foe dimension stone is limited to the production of specific geologic materials that have either structural or aesthetic architectural properties. inples include granite (Vermont, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, Pennsylvauia), Bedford linvesione (Indiana), marble (Georgin, Colorado, and Tennesse), ard sate (Pennsylvania), Neatly all these mines axe sinall surface operations, but there are some variations. Dimension stone companies seldom go underground because of the high cost of deing so, However, Colorado Yule marble, which was used on the Lincoln Meme ed touay in an undergroitnd eine i Marble, Colorado (McGee, 2000). nan underground dimension stone quarry, thous for extracting the blocks are used, with the openings pillar mine jee room and pillar oF stope 7.4 OPEN CAST (STRIP) MINING. surface exploitation method, ased mainly for coal pit mining. However, it ol transported to waste Open cast (sivip) mining is ani other bedded deposits, which resembles ope dilfers in-one nique respect: ‘The overburden is ddumps for disposat but cast directly in ‘commonly sel in mining to ind into a final location. Materials handling thus consists of excavation and casting generally combined in one wnit operation nnd performed by a single machine. Sometimes overburden is loaded into conveyances and deposi ted in mined-out aneas; a1 other times, the stvipping is done partly by and partly by haulage, It is casting in the pit, however, that n Aistinctive, achieving for it the highest productivity aud offen alow cost a8 well ‘Open cast mining is classed as a large-scale mining method and #8 one of the most popular surface methods. ln U.S. coal mining operations, more than 50% ofall the tonnnge is produced by open east mining. The emphasis on stripping ‘overburden in open enst mining has led to the use ofa colloquial term for the method, strip mining. However, open cast mining is a more descriptive generic {erm for the method and will be nsed here 11 is not just the replacement of haulage with es ining atieactive. ‘The depositing of spoil (overbu means that the mining activity is concentrated in a relatively suvall area aud that teelamation cam immediately follow anining. "This is show in Figure 2.7 (hoth top and bottony), where the veelamation is pettor med as soon as possible aller mining. Another advantage is thal the pit is Kept open a relatively shont highovally ved-ont panels Casting is this process of excavation a ing thal makes open ea en) in. mined-out ae: lime, permitting steeper slope to the overbuecen bank (call 198 sunrAce nme: MECHAMEAL EXTRACTION METHODS po ap FIGURE 7.7. Open cast mine in singo'snam men ring. (Toy) Nomandstixe sna ain Componats of ering and ming, (Aer US. Department of Ene, 192), (Hota) Plan ‘iow oft owing access race gal ae et. Rod inva on the ighwal is ited to the maxium length of power eatle Tor he drgine tet canbe handed ready, (Aer Bucyrus Eo Co, 197% Dy peso feet Bucs Inernacnal he, Sou hwo, Wt) Typical dimensions in an open east mine are 100 40 200 (4 30 to 60 m) for the height ofthe higlwal, 70 10-150 ft Q23 to 45 m) for the width of the eut, 60 to 70° for the slipe of the highwall, and 35° (0.50? for the slope of the spoil pile (Rucyrus-Frie Company, 1976) The key to productivity in the open cast method is the output of the stripping excavator. By utilizing the largest land machines in the workl, theOrew cast IMF) MaNG — 199) umber of active faces in the mine fs reduced and the productivity is enhanced. However, « corresponding disadvantage is that a single excavator i resport sible for the entire production, andl major breakdowns can have dive conse: ‘quences, Today, increasing the size of the stiipping machine is no longer a jor priority in open cast mining More versatility and reliability ave often sought instead. Unlike open pit mining, the open cast method does not normally employ the same equipment for both stipping overburden and mining coal mineral Casting overburden requises specialized boom-type excavators, whereas ii ig is carvied out with conventional loading and haulage equipment. Further, Uliflerences in the overburden (soil or blasted rock) and the mineral mined {usually coal, blasted or wot blasted) requite different equipinent Tad Vi tion In Open Cast Mining Open cast m bounding to match the my ‘types of equipment available. The two major variations of open cast mining ed ia Figure 78) is mining cuts are ma 1g has developed into a versatile method with variation jig depth, slope of the original topography, and ars area mining an conto mining. Aven ining (it ie out on relatively lat terrain with lat-ying sean in stuaight, parallel panes, advancing avoss the property I is common intl US. West and Midiest. Contour mining is con y oF mown ferain, with cuts placed on the contows of the topography. The mining proceeds acound.the hills and mountains, as shown in Figure 79, extracting the coal seam to a depth Fixed by the exonomie sup ratio. Contour stip is commonly practiced in the Appalachian coal fields. Note that the coafigur- ation of the pit in Figure 7.9 allows the disturbed land to be fited to about 1000 (300 mn) along. the outcrop, with reclamation folowing close behind the coal recovery operation Other variations of open cast mining are often wilized as well Skelly and Loy, tne. (1979) ilusteate several methods of box-eut and block-eut mining in its surface mining manual, These methods emphesize mining the overburden in rectangular blocks rather ferapers ithe mining process. Anotter variation Is Which the overburden from a coal seam near the top of a mountain is emoved and placed in valle fils This i allowed under the regulaions of the Sutface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) if the land is reclaimed for a highcr use than would resll otherwise. However, the method is under attack in continnons strips, often utilizing dozers or atop mining, 10 because ofits potential for stream degradation, ‘Muliple-sean mining és « commonly practiced method of vemovi than one seam of coal {com a pit in a carelully sequenced series of steps (McDonald, 1992). Figure 7.10 illusteates the process of removing two coal ing a single dragline. The initial cut exposing the upper coal seam is removed, as shown in Figure 7.10 (top). Alter the upper seam is recovered, the deagline is moved to the spoil pile to remove the overburden from the lower 200 GUMFACE ANS MAECIAHICAL EXIRACIHON MEINCOS FIGURE 7.8. Awa ming mato using 0 dale (Shall ne oy, 1879). By pension tom ‘Shally aad toy, Nawab, PA fs shown in Figure 7.10 (bottom), Similac operations ean be performed eagline, shovel and bucket Iwo excavators (vo draghines, shovel a wheel excavator, ete) Examples of these methods are discussed by Skelly and Loy, Ine. (1979) Explosives casting (also called cast blasting) isa in which the energy generated by blasting is wilized to move a portion of the 1 of open cast mining‘Pett cast (etre) anne 201 FIGURE 7.9. Contour mining va the hauldaek mel Mate ne, 1976) overburden into the area where it would normally be east by the excavator (Chironis, 1980, Bauer et al, 1983; Atkinson, 19924). Under the proper tances, explosives casting can be less expensive for casting than an exeavator. With proper blast design, 40% to 6% of the overbuden can be cast by explosives into the area designated for spoiling, with overall savings in the stripping costs 742 Sequence of Development The factors and sequence of dh opment in Section 42.2 a important steps are (2) cou environmental nssessinen Ot outlined in general for mine devel able 19 open cast ining ‘The mos n of the mining metho IS Gt required), (7) lo plant, ane! (9) selection of stripping sul mining equipment. hi Step 5, the provisions of SMCRA must be carefully followed, because open cast Inning of coal is specifically covered in that Act. In developing a lnrge open east mine in a fh the surface plant i lacated at or near the ce Focation ensures mini teserve. IF the deposit plant agjace 2 oF in one of low relic ‘crop, but on barren land so FIGURE 7.10. Suipping site seams wits the opan cast meted, using one excavating actin (Te) Casing evn et st pos. (Bolom) Cas paring on second 1488 {hte Bey Ena Co 1978 By poisson hom Bucyrus eran in, SoM way ,Pen cAsH (SHRI) HANG — 203 with mining. The type of surface tansportation (luuck, rail, or water) may ilucnce the Focation of the plant significantly By its very nature, open cast mining depends lcavily on the selection of eqwipnent. Reviewing the options in Table 6.3, the planning group must consider those equipment types that can be applied exist in the area to be mined. At one tine, draglines, overburden shovels, and bucket wheel excavators were the primary choices. Toxlay, hydraulic shovels, loading shovels with trucks, front-end loaders, and scrapers may also be considered. The mix of equipment used has changed substantially. Consider the choice between overburden shovels and draglines. A cost ‘comparison between the two in terms of $/yU (5/4) is shows in Figure 7.11 Given that these costs are indicative of the two machines, i seems reason able that overburden shovels would be chosen over deaglines for must ner the conditions that ou ous} ona] op} peo a 200 oT F25 T4960 Bache o dipper capacity, yl? j= Bi et rer pe 6 w Te 170 FIGURE 7.11. Comparison of unt opecating cats (par yt, oF, mala ship) ‘as cet spin (At Pi, 1872 by Paen han th Saat tin Motsilurgy, and Exploration, tne, Litieton, CO) = eet 208 stawace aan AteHaMNAL ExINACTIN METHODS open cast amines. The exact opposite is tine, However, the rexsons are lunicpendent of the casts of moving 2 fixed volume of overbatdlen. Today the tiragline i more popular because oF is versatility iv the mine. Draglines have te abiliy to work on the spoil pil, ean be used Lo excavate ramps and othes pit featuies, and caw reclaim the spoil pile area. None of these capabil Available in the shovel. The curves do suggest one reason for the halt in “Uragliaesiges ‘Two excavators of the 100 yd? (15 a) category can proxluce as cheaply as one dragnet the 200 yd? (150 m?) range tho dialines are move versatile and result iw less downtime costs than a single lager di Figute 712 provides adklitional cost information on open east mining Of Tignite ssing vavious equipment types: The dragline and bueket-wheel fercavator ave the most cost-efficient equipment types, but the wheel excay- for is not heavily used in the Unitad Slates because of the lack of ideal overburden conditions. Truck/shovel and seraper operations show the highest Costs and therefore ate avoided when # draglite can pesform the job. However, they find wse when the conditions are not sited Lo a dragline or bucket-wheel excavator ‘The major activities in evelopment of an open cast mine stact with clearing ff the land. A surface plant is then located and constructed. Because of the importance of teclamation i this sethod, special attention is given to the loca tenance of topsoil stockpiles. Fuvironmental and restorati Iwrocedures are worked cut with care 50 that they proceed in a logical an Expedient manuer long with mining Coal dumping, storage, processing (i Any), and transpoet facilities are located logically with respect to the mining “Aller tv equipment is selected, initial pit development takes place. As ia open inp the Grt cat may be a dvop out. This eut is the most dificult; some fen may be required, aud progress may be relatively fist cut is completed, clopungut and exploi jo and i ri haulage of the overbu slow. Because high wal is normally maintained after the the succeeding cuts are more efficient, Simultaneous de lation can then proceed in # normal fashion. 743. Cycle of Operations 743.1 Shipping Overburden, he cyek: of uperations dt ‘open cast mining. is deterwined largely by the nature of the overbu ‘and decomposed rock ean sonnetines be excavated without prior breakage, still Sil oF weal rock can be ripped prior f excavation, and land rock requires Guiting and blasting, ‘The duling wetbod is also a fiction of the overburden material Auger duills can be used in soil or soft rock, voller-bit rotary for intermediate tock, and percussion or rtary-percussion for hard rock, Dailing ally done wsing 4 pattern of vertical oles that terminates « few feet or 100 severely. stipping in ea, Soil About a ineter above the coal to avait! breaking the coal se (Otainarily, the eyele of operations in stripping consists of the following: i i }forca cAST (strir) nunic 205, 200 (60 map seo) soo} 2008 (60m) ‘pth so Buchel whos Frage 200 Noe: Derived rm manutectners estes ni ey sper ey Bi ae ec eee cere eet a ° Bi ie, is a FIGURE 7.12. Comparison ol unit ppeating costs (per Yon of mineral podces) forfour seavating yt lor varyg shiping aos Conte Iypelotal Gul Ce yo i, ‘mal precision § rion wt (48 min Yonnesy) (Ae Kable and Mosely 1083. By ‘mission hom the Society tor Ming, Mota gy, are Expoton >, Lato, CO ) 206 SURFACE AMINE: MECHAMICAL EXIRACTION METHODS. Drilling: auger dil (Sof vock), roller bit rotary (ayerage rock), percussion ‘or rotary-potcussion (bard rock) Blasting: ANFO, amnvoniuan nitrate (AN) gel or slurry, loading by macl (bulk) oF hand (bagged explosives); firing by electric caps or by deton ing cord Excanation: dragline, overburden shovel, hydraulic shovel, bucket-wheel excavator (Soil), dozer, seraper (soil), east blasting Haulage (it needed truck, scraper (soil), conveyor 743.2. Mining Ore or Coal. ‘The nature of the coal oF ore also determines he cycle used in this operation. ‘The process may involve direct loading, ripping and loading, or drilling and blasting. Many coal seams can be excavated diveetly without prior preparation. A power shovel or frontend bbe used in these eases. In phosphate operations the phosphate rock is sometimes excavated out of the pit with the use of a dragfine. After the ‘material is place om the highwal, hydraulic monitors fush the ore into slutty aul pipeline. ‘The mining eyete typically Cleaning: Rotaty bewsh or dozer cleans top of the seam. Dritfing, Small auger o¢ percussion dill used where needed Blasting: ANFO (cipping with a dozer is an alternative) Excavation: Frontend loader, power shovel, continuous miner (designed for surfce mines), Haulage: Teck, tr belt conveyor, hydrautic conveyor, 743.3 Auxitiary Operations. In open cast mining, auxiliary operation include reclamation, slope stability, haul toad construction and maintenance, suipment maintenance, drainage and pumping, communications, power dis: ibution, dust contro, and safety. Reclamation 744 Conditions vary significantly with al extracted and the geologic conditions that exist in the deposit atea, The following are typical conditions and have been conipiled The deposit conditions amenable to open ast mini the type of min from information in PReider (1968, 1973), Bucyrus E ul Skelly and Loy, Ine. (1979): ie Company (1976), 1. Ove strength. any 2. Rock strength: anyorci cast (orMP) mans 207 3. Deposit shape: tabular, bedded 4. Deposit dip: any, preer horizontal or low dip, 5, Deposit size: prefer continuous deposit, large in lateral extent 6. Ore grade: can ve low if other conditions are favorable 7. Ore uniformity: prefer uniformity Deptt: shallow to moderate to con ol stripping ratio 748 Characteristics “The application of open east mining has numerous advantages and disad vas tages. The following information was gathered from PAeider (1973), Bucyrus Ene Company (1976), and Kable and Moseley (1983) Advantages |. Highest productivity of any coal wining method, with an average of about 985 tons per employee-hour (8.4 tonnes per employee hou), more than 2.5 timgs that of underground mining (Energy Information Administration, 2000). 2. Lowest cost per tom (tonne) of the coal mining methods (large equip: tment reduces wnit costs, relative cost 10%), 3. High production rate. 4, Barly production (modest development ret ploitation). 5. Low labor 6. Relatively exible, can 1. Suitable for large equipment, permits high productivity. 8. Low blasting costs; karge bench faces permit eff Free faves for blasting 9, Simple develop 10, Highwall support messures seldom necessary: ood recovery (can approach 100%); low dil 12, Normally cliinsates haulage of overbued 13, Good health and safety factors nts allow rapid ex sity, as compared with underground ining ease production by expanding operations 5, provid Disadvantages 1. Beonomie limits of the method! and technological Tints of the equip iment impose depth limits (generally about 300 f¢ or 90 10). is; typical sirip ratios from 1.5 ky etal, 1992). i reclamation required 2. Economics impose to 22 yd¥/ton or 13 10 19 a1*/tonne (Mut face is damaged; extensive ‘envira environmental expense is subs 208 SURTACE MG MECHANICAL EKIIACTION METHODS AP 5.9 6. Requires large equi ‘with sinall equipment 7. Weather can impede operations Requires earelul sequencing of operations, especi 9. Slopes must be monitored a 10, Swslace runoif must Le controlled; ean damage streams if wot properly managed image of open east musing is decidedly wegativ mote positive public relations ining company ne excavators requite skilled operators tel to realize Lowest cost; small deposits mined ly during stripping 7.46 Applications. In the United States open cast mining is used extensively for suslace mining of coal, It is also used for producing anthracite coal (Pennsylvania), bentonite (Arizona), lignite (Texas, North Dakota), phosphate (Florida), tar sands (Canada, and sraniam (Wyoming). Sludents looking for good case studies of open east mines will find a number ‘of interesting descriptions in the SME Mining Engineering Handbook (att man, 1992). Variations of open cast Appatachian contour steipping (Tussey, 1992), e (Rand, 1992), Florida phosphate (Olson, 1992), and # aumber of western multiseam coal tnines (Hricker, 1992; Anderson and Kirk, 1992; McDonald, 1992, Stubblefield find Fish, 1992), The Athabasea oil sinds mining operations in Alberta, Canada, provide other interesting ease studies of open cast mining. Deserip tions of those operations can be found ia MeKee (1992) and Phelps (1999) 7.58 AUGER MINING Auger wining is 4 wining method that vecovers coal or other minerals frou the highwal shen the ultimate stripping tatio has been achieved in open Cast inining operations. An augering machine or a continuous snining device that bores parallel holes or entves into the highwall extracts the coal. While te equipment goes underground, the erew remains on the surface and 0} the ea wotely; hence, we classify the method as a surface procedure. The method is wsed primarily in Appalachian contour mines, where fe long highvvalls permit recovery of a significant additional tonnage from the Two va niger mining ate ia current practice ‘The frst uses aditional augsring equipment developed in the 1940s to dill holes in the cout seaun (tow the pit bettom. A typical augeriag setup is shown in Figure 7.13 Augering machines employ drag-bit dilling heads of 2 to 8 (06 to 2.4 my) in jons ofIQUE 7.14. ADOCAR highway oye iveutar holes in the coal. Generally, holes of 200 to 300 ft a he highssall. To improve recovery ave productivity tiple heads are used, especial dianeter to pl (60 (0 90 1 in ke Still the 1 ne 0 place (Ford, Bacon, aud Davis, tne, 1975; Blakely, 1975), Utilization ean be found in MeCarter aul Siotwikar (1992p The seeond vasiation of auger 75.1 Sequence of Development ng is 0 relative Developing and preparing a site for auger or highwall winin atively ing stripping operation. Practically no) Miah! mining is he continuows miner into the hig! in width and the height of the highwa suger Dghts or the pusher/conveyor ‘A haul road nnust be maintained for the coal hautage Ith depending on the the highwall miner 7.14, Small pillars ve left betwe support needed. The depth of the holes can be vp to 101K A (304 mn) but may 7.52. Cycle of Operations | + mining is quite ateactive: ‘The ean be done at's much lower Gaiety, qwived for wn ost thaw in the primary st However, the mine mst have the highwall length, bench width, roof ex ons, dip, aud reserves to make the auger or highvall saining ible ‘The augering operation is not equipment around th ne i minesaucensenwin 211 additional production. The augering will delay the ability of the mine 40 backfill the pit, but augering operations can be coordinated with oth operations in the open east mine to minimize this delay. The cycle operations during production is simplified and conducted as Follows Excavation: 0 system Haulage (for angering) auger fights, conveyor or Yonder, wucks Haulage (fos Nighwall mines) conveyor wots arranged in a tain, conveyor ‘or loader, trucks ing machine (one, two, or thvee heads) or highwall mining Auniliary operations ay haul rouds ave the p 753 Conditions The following have been compiled from info Davis, Ine. (1975), Skelly ayel Loy, Lac. (1979), nation in Ford, Bacon, and nel Chadwick (1993), Ore strenguh: any Rock strength: any Deposit shape: tabular, bedded Depasi dip: ow, Deposit size: small to karge Ore grade: can be low Ore uniformity” wniforns in thickness, free of pastings Deptl shallow to moderate ly horizontal 7.5.4 Characteristics ‘The following information was obtained from Blakely (1975), Ford, Bacon, and Davis, Ine (1975), andl Choutwick Advantages 1. High productivity 25 10 500 tons oF 72 t0 450 tonnes per employe shit 2 Low anining cont; lowest of any coal mining method (relative cost abou 5%) - 3, Intermetiate production sate (100 10,2500 tons or 90 40 2200 tonnes? shit, 4 Little development required when used in conjunction with an open cast 5. Low labor requiement 212 auneACE Ana. UECHIMNEAL ExIRACHON MEMOS 6, Low capital investment for an augering machine; highwall 1 tems canbe coutracted on a royalty basis. i Sy 2S {ion costs incutte & Recovers enal that would otherwise be los. 9. Good health and safety characteristies; explosion hazards e ice topography is preserved, no separate te Disadvantages n conditions associated with open exst lone 1. Application is limited to cert ng; method rarely employ 2. Low coal recovery (40% 0 65 3. Methane explosions a hazard, can be mitigated (Volkwein and Ulery, 1993). 4, Production capability dependent on a single extraction unit in most eases) 7.5.5 Applications Augeri een used since the 1940s in Appalachian surface mines Generally, about 2% of U.S. coal production is derived from this source, The micthod is most prevalent in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Kentucky, with ‘occasional ise elsewhere, Highwall mining has been around since the Joy Pushbutton Miner was developed in the 1950s, That machine had technologi- cal problems that «nade it unswovesslul. Today's highwall miners have been ‘mutch, more reliable and productive. They have been used in the Appalach coal fiekls, in New Mexico, and in Australia (Chadwick, 1993) ( 7.6 [SPECIAL TOPIC A: SURFACE MINE BLASTING ‘Although blasting, theory and practice are covered later in the discussion of tundeeground mining (Section 11.6) and the general topic of explosives fas already been discussed (Section 3.3), surface blasting is a sufficiently unique {opie that deserves its own coverage. In ths section, we note common blasting practices and explore the design of blasting patterns in surface mining 7.6.1 Blasting Practice Since the advent of ae » nitrate based explosives and blasting agents and the demise of nitioglycerine-based high explosives ing, blasting practices have beet ized substantially, particularly in surface mining Moreover, the provision of several free faces with the existence of benches virtually all metho ing further narrows the practice of surlace imine blasting. The major elements of surface blasting practice consist of the surface mi { | { | |SPECI. TOPICA SUMFACE MIRE BLASTING 219 1, Iuctination of the borehole: Generally vertical; may be inclined to improve clicieney. 2, Subdriling: Depth of hoe extends below the intenited Noor (provided 10 ensure complete breakage to floor; inerenses in back rows of holes) Ros of holes: Usually multiple (wo, thtee, or more). ae Explosives: ANFO (bulk of packaged}; AN slurry or gel nachine (bulk) oF hand (packaged expos ig devices or drill cuttings, may deck between layers) to better 3 4. Hole pattern: Square, rectangular, oF tia 5 6 Hole loading: Pertormes by ives), explosives confine by stem explosives (lond in layers with inert distribute explosive energy, 7. Hole detonation: Double line of detonating cord is used to set off primers each hole; cord detonated by blasting eaps fied electrically; illisecons] delays provide delays between holes and rows to improve fragmentation reduce noise, and minimize seismic elects (ground vibra 8 Secondary breakage: Additional breakage required for boulders pet formed by mudenpping, blockholing, deopbaling, or hydraulic impact hammer 7.6.2. Design of a Blasting Pattern The design of blasting patterns in surface mining is based on concepts, but is modified by experience and empirical consider important factors are often considered evaluate the driling and blasting ‘operations. The fist is ealled the drilling factor the fengll of hole dill per ton (Lonne) of material blasted. The second is the powder factor, the weight of explosives per ton (tonne) of material blasted, These two factors have & wile ‘ange of values, depending on the strength of the material to be blasted asd the nutnber of planes of weakness dist ough the rock. Hartman (1987) reports that the drilling facto tee ranges from OD2 4 064 fYton (67 to 194 mm/tonne) and the powder factor varies from 0.05 to LOH on (0.03 (0 0.5 kw/tonue) In any given situation, x msg operation wil seek means of reducing these wo factors to the lawest possible valves consistent with good blasting resulls. Several aspects of the drilling pattern used in susface mines are shown in Figure 7.15. Note in Figure 7.158 that two primers are used to ensure proper etonation, In Figure 7.15), @ plan view of a triangular pattern of holes is shown for a surface mine bhist with two fice faces. The distance between rows is known as the Burden, whieh is shown as 21 to 24 1 {(4 to 7 San) in the figure The distance between the individual holes in any rave is known as the sarin. The spacing in the triangular system of holes is 26 to 281 (79 to 85mm). In Figure 7.15¢, a square pattern of holes is shown with the buiden (20 m oe 98M) equal to the spacing, n aurface 214 SuRTACE nN HECHRICAL ExTACTION MENHIOOS 5 Fe eevenmmn rat A senagn (75am | firemen oD FIGURE 7.15, Hoe oan nt last pate a alan been ng (9) Cros ston routes chow nan el change expisves. (Por wf agonal loti by pera om tw Soy tr Mig, (Pan ew scion tose pote: treaing tog verte ace wih natescoe fay, (ater C1 Gaon do Momo & Ga, 1077. Sy pomteson om Iho Inerators Sonny of Exlosher Engnce, Cevlan, OF) fof a blast in an open pit mine, the following In setting up the basic desi parameters must be deter 1, Bank height and slope: Based on excava ations 2. Hole diaaneter: 6 t0 18 in. (150 60 460 sos), 1. Hole angle: Noswally vertical; can be sloped at up to 30° from the vertical; orizontal holes not normally used. 4. Hole depuh: Hank height plus subdrilling length; subdelling length commanty 02 t0 0.5 times the burden (Atlas Powder Company, 1987; Hustraid, 1999), ul slope stability consider:ee 216 sunrace rain micniacan ExMRACHON METONS i worcou ie 5, urden: Perpendicular stance from the nearest free fave to the eemter rl a ‘ofthe charge if (im; generally ranges from 15 to 30 6 t0 9m) — in surface mines; tecomamended values can be foun in Atlas Power ? : : Company (1987) and Hustr ili (1999) 6. Explosives louding density: Weight of explosives per length of drill in Ib (kg/mm), 7, Height of charge in dvillhole: Usually continuous but will stem the upper part of the hole determined in ft or m 8. Height of charge per drilthote: Ln tb (ky) 9, Hole spacing: Distance between the holes in a row; generally ranges - from 15 to 30 (€ (46 to 9.1 m) in surface mines; recommended val [sna \ can be found in Atlas Powder Company (1987) and Hustrulid (1999), b= 40 n (122m) i 10, Nunber of holes required: Depends ow the area to be blasted | 11, Height of rock (ore, coal) broken: Tons (tonnes) FIGURE 716, Oosiga of sutace blast, sawing hank cross section al charged ile. Se 12 Drilling factor: Length of dellhole pet unit weight of rock broken, in j Example 7. i Ayton (m/eonne}. | 1 19. Powder factor: Weight of explosives per unit weight of rock broken, in ‘ Bank weight HF = wl’ = 20304 815) = 29.630 tons (26880 tonnes) i sits ACD) = 2430 (1110) ' Weight of eh sal consider- Lasting theory willbe diseussed farther in Chapter 1; theore ations are important inthe general application of explosives to the breakage e240 | re of tock. ‘The determination of most of the aforementioned parameters will be ‘ Wed LOT OEE Wien oeIMVONE at a mn Sm A900 cin (445 Kote) i ‘done by enopirical methods, that i, by experimenting with then in the mine olen { and deteimining the best set of parameters for the given geology andl material W 29630 _ 95 (eat 6) | j characeristcs. A basi design example follows m~ 4900 { ; 200 | Example 7.1, Provide the design parameters for the surface wine blast shown 73340) in Figure 7.16, given the following dat t } 1 Copper ore specific weight w 2.0 tony/yd? (24 tonnes/en') : 7.7 SPECIAL TOPIC B: SLOPE STABILITY i ook length 2001 (Em) ! Explosive ype AN slurey In the engivesting of suface mines, thee ate many occasions, such as when | i Loading density 70H (104 kg/m) lhe design of slopes is necessary, that the stability of he soil and rock is | | Powder factor PF 05 Iyton (025 ky/tonne) nporiant, The design of pit slopes anuf-mine highvwalls comes to mind fest, | | Height of charge im hioke & 35 RL m) G but the stability of soil and rock is also important in the construction of | Hole diaiseter 12 i, 205 aay Inklings and raul, the use of waste dumps an tailings ponds, and the design ‘of the final reclaimed Tandscape. In each of these cases, the proy geologic material must be analyzed to ensuite its stabi is this section, we look at the types of problems that occur ls that behave ike soil Typically, | resemble soil and may be susceptible backfill, caved SOLUTION, Bank area A = bh = (10X50) = 2000 1? (186 ) a 10k . pourly consolidated tock in jointed oF fractured minsses mn = M4815 yd? (41,325 m) to-analysis by soil mechanics. Similarly, in woslerground mi LA _ 20042000) Ra Bank yolume ¥| I I | | | | SPe0IN TOM R Sore Stay — 217 are often more like soil than vock, Henes, si in mining engineering. We sholl exainine of a slope in surface mining ‘ground, nd soft running grow inechanics has widespread applica fly one common wsage— the desi Z.TA_ Principles of Soll Mechanics Soll mechanics is the study of the properties of soils and their behavior in elation to the design, construction, and performance of engineering works. Ht is also applicable 10 unconsolidated materials deposited diving Inman activity such a9 fills, wastes, tailings, dumps, stockpiles, and materials in bins, which anies is a compan field to inon in the design of broadens its utility in mine engineeting. Soil mec rock mechanics, andthe two have much geotechnical structures, Soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter along with the liquid and gas that occupy the empty spaces between the solid particles (Das, 1990), For our purposes, we wil also consider unconsolidated human-made materials #s soil and analyze them in the same manner. In visualizing the components of a soil, the three phases of the soil ‘ean be depicted in two ways, as shown in Figure 7.17, The upper diagram shows the soil in it natueal forn n illustrates the soit separated into its three phases, Cou ns.a volume ¥, grain volume F,, aul a void volume ¥.. Assume also that the volune of air is V, and the volume of water is VI the specific weight of the anit vol of sbi is IW, the weight of the grains is 1Y,, and the weight of the waters is M, wwe can devive the following (the weight of the air 1, is normally ignored), Total volame * V hain voto = Vg FIGURE 7.17. Soll eepeosmied a8 a ee pen system, cnsing of sok (gain), qu (water, and gas (i Top Neloraleomproai sang, (Beko Sainte sale by pines 218 sUnFACE MING: MECIIAMCAL EXTRACTION METHODS parameters ¥ x 100% m1 if x 100% a) Porasity n Me (expressed us 1 decimal) ny Moisture content 1 Sot wih in a) 0 ‘Another common measure of w in surface mining is bank or solid measure, in units of tons/yd* (an'ftonne). This i= novmally utilized for the description of soil in sit oil properties are usually grouped into two categories, Index properties ute Mechanical properties are physi identilication properties used to clasify 50 cal properties that determine soil behavior. The most important soil index property is yrain size. Grain size distribution is measuted by sieving, sedimentation, or a commercial particle size analyzer, ‘Once determined, the size distribution is plotted as a frequeney graph (Figure 7.182), a8 a cumulative undersize graph (Figure 7.18), oF as a straight Ii log probability paper (Figure 7.18c). The size distribution can help to class ie soil, Soil classification is performed with the use of several standard procedures, as outlined by Das (1983) and Terzaghi et al. (1996). ‘The commonly used methods are the Public Roads Administration (PRA) system, adopted many years ago and modified over time, and the United Soil Classification System, put together by the U.S. Army Corps of Engincers and the Huneau of Reclamation (US. Aemy Corps of Engineers, 1953). The classification chart in Figure 7.19 is based on the PRA classification. It ‘considets three prominent size fractions of the soil, consisting of very fine particles (clay), fine particles (si), and coarse particles (sand). A four is sometimes employed for the very coarse particles (gravel). The and 2 mm for sand. Gravel is icles below 0.2 jum ave ccategor Uupper timits ate 2m for clay, 6D jum for si Merial above 2 mm, and pi considered to ben 00) 100) < 109 Revcent Perce eqency Percont atin sie “= ‘indersize datibtio f soa teal) Price sve ‘Sie ® » FIGURE 7.18. Gran size stolen of sol, plotied as (le) frequency graph, (cont) cumulative andere gar, and (0 cunaive-undersize grag on log pcbabily papaapo ayn 125. For w the method of slices is used (see Figure 723 bottom). This vertical segments through the projected slide area to analyze the stability lr accuracy, thod uses= wont de As Bey ee cwcsinany 28 ze nrae mma wdc hl SRE OER gesisdeees » Len copa = AOR. 1ES | | , l= Zeote21y' ‘ b \ us aso0. arm f WV, = 1500 tons |) / eae FEI ag k Toh, tosses 58 } sare ta umes FIGURE 7.24. Fiold analysis of bank laste will clthele to datecinine tocalion of sang sunt — i Ton dco aes ROURE 724. Arn hae ahs ye pce hig. oa aro 7 ( Writing the moment equation (7.6) per uni of fength along the bank in units (of f-tons (m-tonnes): Deuails of this method ate provided by Conding and Cepeda-Diaz (1992) “The biggest problem of analysis in the past has been location of the rotational center 0. This can be accomplished by using a physical model of the nh 125 Thesnfore, the moment sr = 0,we wyyy es = if c ff Promens 227 Fi ined in the stability analysis of | | 3 72 the following information has ten det which is safe by a considerable ‘margin. This example shows the value of Eee eee i | Keeping water oat ofthis soil to maintain is stability, am important principle slop vo ' | to be used in soil stability problems Shear strength 1200 12 (57.5 kPay | “Length of ae siding 290 1 (88.4 m) i ‘Today, mote sophisticated anx! accurate methods of analysis ate possibile with o -© Tolal weight of bank mass falling 826 tons (746 tonnes) | | : 2 Lever arm 26.3 1(80 m conpiter and numeral ectniqus Aldiough te prewedingeximpleis her dP i NP Radius of are 1204 G66) , ig Simple, actual slopes may contain a number of soil types with dillerent oe properties. The more complicated the stope, the more helpful it will be 10 have hs 1s the bank safe, or will i fail? If safe, what is the factor of safety? 2 computerized method of analysis like the finite element method. Move ean ws te learned about the finite element method in Naylor and Pane (1981) and 7 Aw open pit bank in soi hus been analyzed snter dry conditions and the | | Heady santana (1084 following data obtained using a combined moment | Factor of safety ts 1 | & Overturning moment 6154 ftons (1702 m-tonnes) PROBLEMS H © Bank tight 52 1(138 a) \ Radius of are of sliding — 60 (18.3 m)_ i LAT. Panicle sae 4 1d in index property tests of five soils F L= Length arate 124 OTS my i samples, ive size distbutions age plotted on the B Bank angle av log-probability grap!l in Figure 7.26. Using the PRA chssification Soil cohesion 80 Bf 38 kPa) r identify aud nanne each soil Read the graph to the nearest § Soil fection angle a _ © Soil tection weight 62/2595 kyla) } we > Determine the factor of safety of the bank during (ee i FEF] the soil is saturated. Is the bark safe, or wilt fil ; 4 Fae 5 7A Investigate by the slip citele method the stability ofthe bank show in i et} , + ! | we fiw In=r= 1208 | | ore i ele i a « | | 75m iq My 931 tons | j— HH} Gt tomes | ; fea : ith | | i Ie tt 1000 ' 7 ‘gr ts, oases) cy FIGURE 726, Grain size sinbulono ow sls. Sea Problem 7.1, HONE 127. Any ct psa ana ak, So aan 7 ical Be mead j ees Set, seem Ney L |I | i Promens 229 Analyze (a) dey soil and (b) satu si 105 16/1 (1682 kg/m’) center of sliding is as shox Soil properties and hank din Soil specific weight Soil cohesion 112 MA (5.36 kPa) Soil internal friction bs Pitslope 2 Tank height sons Depth to rock ledge RON GEM), Caleulate the factor of safety. Is the slope safe? Investigate by the slip circle technique the stability of the slope shown igure 7.28 assuming that a slope failure is the inost likely to occur. The center of relation shown is considered to be the worst ease. Analyze (a) dry and (by saturated. Soil properties and bank dimensions are as follows: Soil specific Weight 169 Ihyf (2707 kg/m) Soil cohesion 215 Tf? (10.29 kPa) Soil internal friction angle 25° Pit slope 40" Bank height 60 (18 my Depth to rock ledge 800 24 my Calculate the factor of safety. Is the slope safe? Le 2a. Wy = 254 tons ioe (25¢ tones) is 1028 im FIGUNE 7.28, Anatyis of pone rlopa ans of tank Sse Prem 75. 230 UnFACE AHN MECHANICAL EXTRACTION MET}IOOS 7.6 Consider the blasting pattern for the surface mine in Example 7.1 and perform the followis fing pattern by increasing the powder (a) Modify the design of the bl ber of factor to 046, What is the effect on the hole spacing and nu holes requicec? (b) Design a blasting pattern to conserve explosives (reduce the powder factor) in Example 7.1 by modifying the hole burden, depth, or spacing