Fi G 6 doin iis A Comprehensive Quiz Book By : Aamir Shehzad University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan Research Assistant | Blodiesel Expert : NRG & NUST, Islamabad.Contents Lo Clay Chemistry. 06 Inen Solids and Active Solids........ 1.2 Colligative Properties of Clays. 1.3 Effect of Calcium and Magnesiumon Clays....... 14 Effect of Salinity on Clays..... 15 Prebydration of Bentonite. 1.6 Cationic Influence on Hydration... 1.7 Bentonite Suspensions... 1.71 Stability of Bentonite Suspensions 1.72. Effect of pH on Bentonite Suspensions 1.73 Deflocculation of Bentonite Suspensions. Polymer Chemistry & Applications. . 14 21 Natural Polymer. 22 Starch..... 23 Xanthan gum..... 24 Modified Natural Polymer. cess 2.11 A Modified Stareh: Carboxymeth Starch (MS). 2.12 A Modified Starch: Hydroxypropyl Starch... 2.13 A Modified Cellulose: Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). 2.14 A Modified Cellulose: Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC). 25 Synthetic Polymer. 26 Sodium Polyacrylonitrile 2.7 Resin/Lignite Complex. 28 Synthetic Liquid Resin... Mud Treating Agent 2 3.1 Deflocculants (Thinners)..... 3 Dispersants. 33 Surfactants40 5.0 6.0 34 Emulsifiers, 3S Welling Agents........ecece 3.6 Fluid Loss Control Agents... 3.7 Viscosifiers...... 38 Lubricants... coo 3.9 Superabsorhent Polymers, 3.10 Quality and type of water. Shale Stabilizing Additives & System: 4.1 Mechanism of clay-swelling inhibition... 4.2 Shale Inkibitors. 411 Salts 4.12 Formate and Acetate.. 4.13. Polymers with Special Shale Affinity (e.g. cationics, amines, PHPA)....... esseesss cvs ae a 4.14 Sugars and sugar derivatives....... 4.15 (Poly-)glycerols and (poly-)glycols. 4.16 Mixed polyol-salt systems, 4.17 Silicate 43 Recent Advances in Inhibition Chemistry... Shale Instability. Sil Shale-Water Based Drilling Fluid Interaction, 5.2 Shale Stabilisation, 53 Borehole Instability 5.31 Cause of Wellbore Instability 5.32 Wellbore Instability Problems 5.33 Factors affecting Wellbore Stability. 5.364 Wellbore Instability Effect on Drilling Fluids... 5.35. Contol of Wellbore Instability Formation Damage and Lost Circulation Matetials.ssscsseeecseenasees 6.1 Formation Damage: 62 Causes of Formation Damage... 63 Types of Formation Damages 64 Formation Damage in Carbonate Rocks and Clastic Rocks. 7 48. 3540 5.0 6.0 34 Emulsifiers, 3S Welling Agents........ecece 3.6 Fluid Loss Control Agents... 3.7 Viscosifiers...... 38 Lubricants... coo 3.9 Superabsorhent Polymers, 3.10 Quality and type of water. Shale Stabilizing Additives & System: 4.1 Mechanism of clay-swelling inhibition... 4.2 Shale Inkibitors. 411 Salts 4.12 Formate and Acetate.. 4.13. Polymers with Special Shale Affinity (e.g. cationics, amines, PHPA)....... esseesss cvs ae a 4.14 Sugars and sugar derivatives....... 4.15 (Poly-)glycerols and (poly-)glycols. 4.16 Mixed polyol-salt systems, 4.17 Silicate 43 Recent Advances in Inhibition Chemistry... Shale Instability. Sil Shale-Water Based Drilling Fluid Interaction, 5.2 Shale Stabilisation, 53 Borehole Instability 5.31 Cause of Wellbore Instability 5.32 Wellbore Instability Problems 5.33 Factors affecting Wellbore Stability. 5.364 Wellbore Instability Effect on Drilling Fluids... 5.35. Contol of Wellbore Instability Formation Damage and Lost Circulation Matetials.ssscsseeecseenasees 6.1 Formation Damage: 62 Causes of Formation Damage... 63 Types of Formation Damages 64 Formation Damage in Carbonate Rocks and Clastic Rocks. 7 48. 3570 80 9.0 10.0 11.0 65 Factors Affecting Formation Dama 66 Control of Formation Damage 67 Lost Circulation Materials Rhcological Properties TA Rheology. 7.2 Rheological Properties. 7.3 Fluid Types. 74 Factors Affecting Rheological Properties TAL Clay 7A2 Aging Temperature Water-Based Drilling Fluids - Non Inhibitive Muds, 8.1 Non Inhibitive Muds... 8.11 Bentonite-Water Muds. 8.12 Lignite-Lignosulfonate (Defloc ‘Water-Based Drilling Fluids - Inhibitive Muds. 9.1 Inbibitive Muds..... 9.11 Calcium-Based Muds..... 9.12 Salt-Based Muds....... 9.13 Potassium-Based Muds.... Polymer Fluids.. 10.1 Polymer Fluids, 10.11 Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds. 10.12 High-Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds.... 10.13 _ Silicate Mud System. Oil-Based Muds. ILI Oiland synthetic liquids.. 1111 Oil Mud Additives 11.12 Oil Mud Properties... High Temperature High Pressure (HTHP) Drilling Fluids. 12.1 Factors affecting Drilling Fluids Behavior, 12.2. Effects of HTHP conditions on 12.21 Rheological Properties, 68 1 10130 140 15.0 160 12.22 Orwanophillic Clays 12.23 Polymers 123 Brine-Based Drilling Fluids, ‘Scomi Oiltools Drilling Fluids. 13.1 HYDRO-FOIL System... 132 OPTA-FLO System 13.3 RHEO-PLEX System. Centrifugal Separation Devices 14.1 Decanting Centrifuges... Solid Contents & Specific Gravity... Solid Contents & Filtration Control References 17 119 123Clay Chemistry Give answer of following short questions relating: L Inert Solids and Active Solids Colligative properties of Clays Effect of Calcium and Magnesium on Clays Effect of Salinity on Clays Prehydration of Bentonite Cationic Influence on Hydration Bentonite Suspensions ¥ Stability of Bentonite Suspensions ¥_ Effect of pH on Bentonite Suspensions ¥ Deflocculation of Bentonite Suspensions vv Inert Solids and Active Solids What are inert solids? Answer : The inert solids are those that have very little tendency to react with each other. ‘These are non swelling solids which are electrically uncharged and easily dispersed. They consist of such materials as sand, silt, limestone, feldspar, and barite, Discuss effects of inert solids on mud properties? Answer : They increase the plastic viscosity and do little to reduce fluid loss and actually cause the filter cake to be thicker. Since they are not hydrated, they cause the filter cake to be dry and brittle with a high coefficient of friction. These are poor qualities to prevent differential pressure sticking, Undesirable solids increase drilling costs. They cause reduction in penetration rate, promote lost circulation and cause high mud costs due to treatment and dilution to maintain necessary mud properties. What are active solids? Answer: The active solids are those that have ctrically charged surfaces and are reactive with their environment Discuss effects of active solids on mud properties? Answer : Due to their charge distribution, they can int with one another to form a gel structure within a fluid. Most of the active solids also have the ability to hydrate in water. The commercial solids like bentonite that provide the density, viscosity, and fluid Joss control requirements of a mud. ‘How clays present in shale are differentiated from that clays added in mud?Answer ; The montmorillonite in shales is usually calcium montmorillonite since it is in equilibrium with the formation water, which is normally rich in calcium. Sodium ‘montmorillonite is nomally added to a mud to increase viscosity and reduce fluid loss. Other clay types may be considered contaminants, as they are not as effective as a commercial clay How you will explain dispersion of clay? Answer : In freshwater, clay layers adsorb water and swell to the point where the forces holding them together become weakened and individual layers can be separated from the packs. Separating these packs into multiple layers is known as dispersion, Discuss the structure of clays like kaolin, montmorillonite, chlorite or illite? Answer : Clays exist in nature with a stacked or layered structure, with each unit layer roughly 10 angstroms (A) thick, This means there bout a million layers of clay per millimeter of thickness. Clays are usually either of the two layer type like kaolin or three- layer type such as montmorillonite, chlorite or illite. Each plate-like clay particle consists of @ stack of parallel unit layers. Each unit layer is a combination of tetrahedrical (pyramid) arranged silica sheets and octahedrical (eightfaced) arranged alumina or magnesia sheets. Three-layer clays are built of unit layers composed of two tetrahedral sheets on either side of one octahedral sheet, somewhat like a sandwich. Two-layer clays are built of unit layers consisting of only one tetrahedral and one octrahedral sheet. Discuss bentonite erystal structure and also compare hydration of calcium-based bentonite ‘and sodium-based bentonite? Answer : The bentonite crystal consists of three layers: an alumina layer with a silica layer above and below it. The clay platelet is negatively charged and has a cloud of cations associated with it. Ifa significant amount of these cations are sodium, the clay is, often called sodium montmorillonite. If they are primarily calcium, then the clay is called calcium montmorillonite. Depending on the cations present, the interlayer spacing of dry montmorillonite will be between 9.8 (sodium) and 12.1 A (calcium) and filled with tightly bound water. When dry clay contacts freshwater, the interlayer spacing expands, and the clay adsorbs a large wwelope” of water. These two phenomena allow clays to generate viscosity. calcium-base bentonites osily expand to 17 A, while sodium bentonite expands to 40 A,10. n. R. 2B. ua Discuss how ability of smectite to adsorb water is much greater than other clay minerals? Answer : Smectite, in addition to adsorbing water and cations on external surfaces, absorbs water and cations to surfaces between layers in its crystalline structure. The ability of smectite to adsorb water is much greater than other clay minerals, Discuss colligative properties of clay? Answer : The ability of clay to adsorb water, the quantity of exchangeable cations (CEC) and the surface area are closely related phenomena that are sometimes termed colligative properties of clay. These colligative properties are basically measurements of the reactivity of the clay How reactivity of a shale relates with the clay minerals? Answer : The reactivity of a shale depends on the types and amounts of clay minerals present in the shale. Smectite is clearly much more reactive than other clay mineral materials. Shales containing smectite are the most water sensitive and hydrate the most Shales containing other clay minerals have less ability to hydrate but still may be water- sensitive. Colligative Properties of Clays Defined colligative properties of clay? he ability to adsorb water, the quantity of exchangeable cations (CEC) and the face area of the clay minerals are termed as colligative properties of clay. These tive properties are basically measurements of the reactivity of the clay. These properties are often used to characterize clay minerals as well as to minimize drilling problems, Defined Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of clay? Answer : The compensating cations that are adsorbed on the unit-layer surface may be exchanged for other cations and are called the exchangeable cations of the clay. The quantity of cations per unit weight of clay is measured and reported as the CEC. The CEC of clay can be measured with a methylene blue titration. The CEC is expressed in milli equivalents per 100 g of dry clay (meg/100 g). Discuss the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of major types of clay?Is. 16. v7. 18. Answer : The CEC of montmorillonites is within the range of 80 to 150 meq/100 g of dry clay. The CEC of illites and chlorites is about 10 to 40 meq/100 g, and for kaolinites it is about 3 to 10 meq/100 g of clay. Effect of Calcium and Magnesium on Clays How calcium and magnesium ions effect mud properties? Answer : Calcium or magnesium ions in a mud have a pronounced effect on behavior of the clays. These ions replace sodium ions on the clays, reduce the degree of hydration, and promote flocculation and aggregation of the clay particles. This leads to increases in yield point, gel strength, and fluid loss of the mud. Whereas addition of deflocculations such as lignite and lignosulphonate will lower the fluid loss and YP/gel values. Discuss how excess calcium and magnesium ions are removed in the mud? Answer : Caustic (NaOH) is sometimes used to suppress the level of soluble calcium ina ‘mud, The usual method for precipitation of calcium is the addition of soda ash (NasCO3). The calcium is precipitated as CaCO; (Limestone). One Ib /obl of soda ash will precipitate approximately 1000 ppm of calcium, Magnesium can be removed from solution by the addition of hydroxy! 1s. At a pH above 10, essentially all the magnesium is precipitated as insoluble magnesium hydroxide. The extracting organic agents such as lignosulfonate and CMC should be added to a mud after addition of caustic and precipitation of the magnesium, What is effect of temperature and pH on the solubility of calcium in fresh water? Answer : The solubility of a calcium salt such as gypsum or lime is increased by increased salinity and decreased by increased pH or temperature, Effect of Salinity on Clays Discuss the effect of salinity on the behavior of clay solids? Answer : The salt content of a mud has a great effect on the behavior of the clay solids. The degree of hydration of bentonite is reduced by increased salinity. This results in decreased plastic viscosity and increased fluid loss. When clays are hydrated in fresh ‘water, addition of salt will cause flocculation and increased yield point and gel strength. Note:19. 21. 22, When the chloride concentration is 20,000 mg/l or higher, prehydrated bentonite should be added for ‘Muid-loss control. Dry bentonite added to such muds will not hydrate sufficiently to give good flid-loss ‘control Discuss the effect of s ity on clays? Answer : As the salinity is increased the degree of hydration is decreased. This is caused by the cations in solution pushing the exchange cations closer to the surface of the clay platelet. This causes the water layer bound by the clay surface and the exchange cations to be thinner. As a result the plastic viscosity will be less and the fluid loss will be greater than when the clay is hydrated in fresh water. Since the water layer is thinner, the platelets can come closer to one another and tendency to flocculate will be greater. Increased bentonite additions are required to help offset the effects caused by increased salinity. Prehydration of Bentonite Discuss main functions of bentonite? Answer : Bentonite, a worldwide-used drilling fluid additive, is added to fresh water to increase hole cleaning properties and to form a thin filter cake of low permeability. Its main functions are to vi (Bailey et al., 1994). ify the mud and to reduce the loss of fluids in the formation Compare the efficiency of dry and prehydrated bentonite? Answer : Dry bentonite added to muds with chloride concentrations above about 10,000 mg/l will not hydrate sufficiently to give good filtration control. In these muds, prehydrated bentonite should be used. When prehydrated bentonite is added to a saltwater mud, it increases the yield point more than the same amount of bentonite would in fresh water. Cationic Influence on Hydration How divalent and monovalent cations affect hydration of clays? Answer : The thickness of the adsorbed-water film is controlled by the type and amount of cations associated with the clay. Water adsorbed to the large, flat, planar surfaces; comprises the major part of the total water retained by hydratable clays. Divalent cations, such as Ca’* and Mg”* increase the attractive force between platelets, thus decreasing the 1023. 24. 25. amount of water that can be adsorbed. Monovalent cations such as Na* give rise to a lesser attractive force and allow more water to penetrate between the platelets. How size and shape of the hydrated cation influence clay swelling and hydration? Answer : The size and shape of the hydrated cation affects its ability to fit between interlayer clay surfaces and influences both clay swelling and clay hydration, Spaces ‘within the crystalline montmorillonite layers is 2.8 A. Small ions, like potassium, that can fit between clay layers are more easily and permanently exchanged. In addition, cations that become large when hydrated expand the interlayer distances to promote clay hydration, Calcium is a good example, having a hydrated diameter of 19.2 A. Lithium is another example, having three water molecules and a hydrated diameter of 14.6 A. Monovalent cations with large hydrated diameters cause the most swelling and dispersion, Multivalent cations with small hydrated diameters are the most inhibitive. Bentonite Suspensions Stability of Bentonite Suspensions Discuss mechanism of stability of bentonite suspensions at high temperatures? Answer + Lignite provides stability to bentonite suspensions at high temperatures. It is used as an additive for drilling at temperatures in excess of 180 °C (Patel, 1995; Gavrilof et al., 1999) to avoid gelation. The additives used in bentonite suspensions are usually anionic polyelectrolytes which are thought to bind on the bentonit particle surface, imparting them a more negative charge, thereby increasing their mutual repulsion, prohibiting agglomeration of clay particles and maintaining the stability of the suspensions (Zhang and Yin, 2002). The additives used include modified, or non- ‘modified, natural compounds like lignosulfonate complexes with various metals, tannins, humic acids, lignite and modified lignite and synthetic polymer products (Patel, 1995). Discuss polyanionic character and role of humic compunds in bentonite suspension? Answer ; Humic compounds have been shown to stabilize clay suspensions (Tombacz et al,, 1999), These are negatively charged polyelectrolytes mainly due to ionization of carboxylic and to lesser extent of phenolic groups (Ramos-Tejada et al., 2003). They contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties behaving like surfactants. It can therefore be considered that humic acids or total humic and fulvic acids content present in u26. 27. 28, 29, lignites are important factors, which control the stability of the bentonite suspensions when exposed to high temperatures. Effect of pH on Bentonite Suspensions How bentonite dispersions vary at different pH values and cations? Answer : Lagaly (1989) reported that bentonite dispersions are governed by EF contacts (ard house structure) in acidic medium and FF (face-face) contacts (band-like structare) in alkaline medium. Also Ca’ ions promoted FF contacts and stabilized band-like structure. Gelling properties improve at all pH range except neutral pH, edge-face (EF) interaction becomes dominant at acidic pH while long range repulsive interaction is dominant at alkaline pH; MOH* (MgOH*, MnOH” and PbOH’) type cations make the surface charge of edges positive by specific adsorption of MOH’ (Obut and Girgin, 2005). Gelling properties of bentonite can be improved by employing such cations to induce the formation of the BF and BE (edge-edge) networks, which also depends on pH and Ca/Na ratio (Lagaly, 1989). Why pH range of drilling muds is mostly kept in the range of 7 10 9.5? Most of drilling muds are treated to be alkalin . they should have a pH above 7. The viscosity of a bentonite suspension is lowest in the pH range of 7 to 9.5. This is one reason why most water-base drilling fluids are run in this range. Increased dispersion of clay results when pH is above 9.5, increasing the viscosity ofthe drilling fluid Why high concentrations of bentonite is avoided in driling fluids? Answer : Drilling fluids with high concentrations of bentonite may have negative effect such as excessive friction and increased torque as a resull of which low concentrations of bentonite must be used in the formulation of such fluids, The difficulty with using bentonite is that eventually the solids build up in the mud making the viscosity difficult to control. In addition, many so-called “bentonite clays” contain variable proportions of polymers. making viscosity prediction uncertain. Therefore some polymer acting as a thickener must be added to bentonite (Mahto and Sharma, 2004) in order to achieve the desired drilling effects. Deflocculation of Bentonite Suspensions Why bentonite is treated with a deflocculant before adding it to the salty water? 123. Answer : Bentonite which is used as an effective viscosifier in saltwater, is first prehydrated in freshwater then added to the salty water, It is beneficial to treat the prehydrated bentonite slurry with a deflocculant before adding it to the salty water. In this way, the initial flocculation followed by a loss of viscosity from dehydration in the saltwater environment is reduced. How abnormal viscosity of water-clay suspensions caused by chemical flocculation is treated? Answer : If abnormal viscosity is caused by chemical flocculation (as indicated by a high yield point and gels). The organic and inorganic anionic additives can be used to effectively reduce flocculation Discuss the mechanism as how anionic additives effectively reduce floceulation in water- ‘lay suspensions? Answer : The primary effect of anionic viscosity reducing chemicals is believed to be @ neutralization of residual broken-bond cationic charges. The mechanism of this action in water-clay suspensions is to reduce that portion of viscosity due to attractive forces between the particles without substantially affecting that portion of viscosity due to hydration of the clay minerals. Anionic materials are adsorbed on the edges of the clay particles to si sfy the residual broken-bond cationic charges. Anionic charged chemicals commonly used for the treatment of drilling mud include phosphates, tannins, humic-acid lignins (lignite), lignosulfonates and low molecular-weight synthetic polymers. This adsorption changes the balance of forves acting on the clay particle from an attractive force (flocculation) to a repulsive force (deflocculation). Instead of being drawn together, the particles repel or tend to avoid contact with one another. 13Polymer Chemistry and Applications Give answer of following short questions relating: 2. 33. > Natural Polymer Y Starch ¥ Xanthan gum > Modified Natural Polymer YA Modified Starch: Carboxymethyl Starch (CMS) ¥ A Modified Starch: Hydroxypropyl Starch. ¥ A Modified Cellulose: Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) ¥ A Modified Cellulose: Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC) Synthetic Polymer Sodium Polyacrylonitrile Resin/Lignite Complex Synthetic Liquid Resin Discuss about the Polymers” structures? Answer > Polymers’ structures are classified as linear, branched or crosslinked. Linear, For example: CMC (Carboxymethylcellulose), PHPA (Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide) and HEC (Hydroxyethylcellulose). Branched, For example: Starch and xanthan gum. Crosslinked, For example: Crosslinked xanthan gum. Natural Polymer Starch Starches are used mainly for fluid loss control and are effective in a large range of fluid systems, such as seawater, saturated saltwater, KCI muds and lime muds. Starches are thermally stable to about 250 °F (121 °C). Starches, unless chemically modified are not resistant fo bacteria and require a biocide to prevent fermentation, and high pH muds. Describe polysaccharides found in the Starch? except in saturated salt Answer : Starch consists of two polysaccharides: amylase and amylopectin. Amylose, a chain of carbohydrate rings, makes up the straight chain backbone of the starch molecule. Amylopectin is a highly branched chain of carbohydrate rings that branches off from an amylase backbone. The ratios of the amylase and amylopectin fractions determine the properties of the starch, 435. 37. Why Starches are pre-gelatinised? Answer : The starches are pre-gelatinised in order to permit them to readily hydrate Starches are peptised chemically or by exposure to heat. The peptisation ruptures the microscopic sacks which contain the amylose and amylopectin allowing them to contact with water and hydrate. Discuss chemistry of Pregelatinized Starches? Answer : Starch in its raw form is not water soluble; it simply floats around as starch particles. To make starch effective in drilling fluids, it is necessary to rupture the protective shell coating of amylopectin to release the inner amylose. This releases amylose, which absorbs water and swells to form sponge-like bags. Amylose lowers the filtration by reducing the free water in the system and plugging the filter cake’s pores. Why Starch solutions are not commonly used in brine fluids? Answer : Starch is sometimes used as a viscosifier in brine fluids, but starch solutions are more Newtonian and will not provide suspension for cuttings and weight material therefore these are not commonly used in brine fluids. Discuss how potato starch is better than corn starch? Answer : Com starch consist of an average of about 25% amylose and 75% amylopectin. Pregelatinized com starch is an economical filtration-control additive that is effective in all makeup waters from freshwater to saturated salt water, Potato starch which is slightly different from comstarch. Potato starch has a slightly higher molecular weight than comstarch and also has a higher concentration of amylose to amylopectin, Potato starch contains a biocide in the product. For these reasons, it functions somewhat differently. Potato starch has greater tolerance to hardness and a slightly higher temperature stability than corn starch. It also produces slightly more viscosity. Discuss some drawbacks to the use of starches? Answer: The biggest drawback to the use of starches is their tendency to ferment. They are natural biodegrading materials that must be preserved with a biocide when used in drilling fluids. A second limitation of starch is its low thermal stability. Starch degrades; rapidly when exposed to prolonged temperatures exceeding 25°F (102°C). 1539, 0. a. Xanthan gum Xanthan Gum is a biopolymer and is a product of the action of a bacteria (Xanthomonas ‘Campestris) on sugar. This material may be used in a variety of brines and salinity levels. Xanthan gum begins to degrade thermally at temperatures of about 225°R. Xanthum gum is the only polymer that provides thixotropy, i.e, formation of gel structures. Discuss chemistry that how Xanthan gum produce thixotropic properties (gels) in water- base fluids? Answer : ‘The long branching structure of the polymer, coupled with the weak hydrogen bonding among the side groups, imparts unique viscosifying properties to xanthan. The electrostatic interactions are weak and when shear is applied to the system, the attractive forces holding the polymers together are pulled apart, As the hydrogen bonding breaks, the viscosity of the fluid thins, When the shear is removed, the polymer chains resume their intermolecular hydrogen bonding and their original viscosified state returns. How Xanthan polymer produces shear-thinning fluids and gel structures in field work? Answer : Xanthan polymer product shear-thinning fluids and gel structures. As the shear is increased, viscosity is gradually decreased. When the shear is removed, the original viscosity of the fluid is completely recovered. Under high-shear-rate conditio in the drillstring, for instance, the viscosity of the mud system decreases. Under the very high shear rates experienced in the drill bit nozzles, the fluid thins dramatically until it behaves almost like water. Under lower-shear rate conditions, in the annulus, for instance, hydrogen bonding forms again and viscosity increases. Under static conditions, xanthan fluids display thixotropic characteristics providing gels. Why amount of xanthan necessary to develop thixotropic properties vary ‘makeup water? Answer : The concentration of xanthan necessary t develop thixotropic. properties depends on the makeup water. In freshwater, the polymer expands and the polymer branches come in contact, allowing hydrogen bonding and the resulting thixotropy to develop more easily. Only 0.5 Ib/bb] may be sufficient for a highly weighted freshwater system Whereas in high salinity brines, xanthan polymer, like other water-base polymers does not hytdrate easily and, to some extent, remains coiled so it may take 2 to 3 Ib/bbl in a KCI or a high-salinity NaCl system, 16