Study Guide - Communication Studies PDF

Contents
Introduction 4
Chapter 1 Chapter 8
The process of communication Defining language (vodute Z) 68
(Module 3) 6
Chapter 9
Chapter 2
Varieties and variation (vodute 2) 75
Forms and contexts of
communication (t'todute f) 15
Chapter 10
Language in Caribbean societY
Chapter 3 84
(Modute 2)
The process of reading (Modute 1) 22
Chapter 11
Chapter 4
Technology, culture and
Etements of research (Modute 1) 30 communication (Vodute Z) 90
Chapter 5 Chapter 12
Summary skilts (t'todute t) 39 Organising skitts (Module 3) 94
Chapter 6 Chapter 13
Study skills (Modute 1) 49 Developing writing skitts (vodute a) 105
Chapter 7
Developing criticaI thinking skills
(Modute 1)
Introduction
* Purpose
The Caribbean Examinations Council {CXC@), in Howeveq, the sequence of the chapters does not mirror
collaboration with the Commonwealth of Learning that of the syllabus modules since the syllabus modules
(COL), has developed self-study guides for a number of are not bound by a rigid sequence. The sequence of
Caribbean Secondary Education Certifi.cate (CSEC@J and topics in this course is designed to facilitate study by
Caribbean Advanced Proficienry Examination {CAPE@) leading you through topics in a way which will enable
subjects. The main purpose of these is to provide both you to build on previously learnt skills.
in-school and out-of-school candidates with resource
materials which should help them in preparing for CXC
examinations. Each chapter is student centred and its ffi What resources wittyou need?
language is student friendly. Remember that these chapters will not be all that
This course is designed for people over age l6 who wish you need to complete the syllabus and prepare for
to further their studies. The course is equally useful your examination. You are expected to make use of
to people who are pursuing part-time study and those the resources listed at the end of the course book as
enrolled full time in an educational institution. well as engage in other wide, general reading, which
will improve your general knowledge, vocabulary and
You may have completed five years of secondary structural competence.
education, or you may be a mature student with work
experience. The course is based on the assumption You will also need basic study equipment, for example
that you are abeady able to do the following: pape!, pens, pencils and highlighters for marking
important parts of the text. A good dictionary and a
1 Interpret accurately material intended for the thesaurus are also essential to this programme.
informed lalperson.
2 Express personal opinions and factual informarron
clearly, demonstrating logical sequencing and ffi Managing your time
appropriate English registers up to the level of the Remember to put aside a special time each day Ior
CSEC Ceneral Proficiency or its equivalent. general readingin addition to your study time. Chapter 6
(Study skills) will help you ro get organised for study.
t course aims
This course aims to develop your competence to ffi Ctrapter structure
function in a wide range of communicative situations.
You should be able to gain: Each chapter is divided into eight parts to facilitate
your study, as follows:
1 an understanding of the nature and functions of
langrrage lntroduction This places what you are about to study
2 an appreciation of the process of language
in the context of your everyday life and
relates it to what you have done in
3 the ability to use language appropriately and previous chapters.
effectively in a range of contexts
Content This lists the topics that are to be
4 an appreciation of the role of language in culture in the chapter.
covered
5 the ability to explore the use of technology in Objectives These help you to identify the specific
communication. skills that you should have acquired
by the end of the chapter. you should
il Course structure read these carefully to acquaint yourself
with what you are meant to be learning
The course consists of 13 chapters, which are all during the chapter.
based on the Communication Studies syllabus. Each
chapter addresses the skills and conteni of a specific
module of the syllabus. The module on which the
chapter is based is indicated on the table of conrenrs.
Activities Instructions are provided at the start
of each activiry. Read all instructions
I Assignments
carefully before you attempt the activity. Course assignments are included in order to allow
Some activities require you to think you to check your progress through the course. The
about something before you read any assignments enable you to determine your areas of
further. You should take the necessary weakness and to check your understanding of the
time to do so. The thinking activity is concepts.
designed to help you {ocus your thoughts
in the directions which will facilitate
your ability to complete the activities
il Examination
Please refer to the latest syllabus for guidance on the
that follow.
structure of the exam, the number of papers, the lengh
Feedback Each activity has a feedback section that of each papeq, what marks are allocated to each question
allows you to determine how you will and the structure of the school-based assessment.
have done in the activrry. If you have not
completed the activity successfully, you
should reread the preceding examples or t Note on the ordering of modules
in{ormation carefully. It is recommended that certain concepts be mastered
Examples These are meant to guide you to an early in the course. Consequently, the chapters are
understanding of the concept being not arran8ed in the sequence that corresponds to
taught. All examples should be read the modules in the CAPE Communication Studies
carefully before you attempt any syllabus.
activities that {ollow You will find it useful to employ an integated approach
End Test This comes at the end of each chapter to studying the CAPE Communication Studies syllabus.
and is designed to ensure that You The syllabus is divided into modules, allowing you to
have acquired those skills identified see how the connections between the various language
in the objectives. There is a feedback areas facilitate communicative language learning. For
section following the End Test which example, speaking and writing require many of the
allows you to measure the accurary of same skills. Therefore, a lesson on vocabulary would
your answers to the test so that you naturally address vocabulary in both speech and writing
will know whether or not You have situations. In the same way, you should be encouraged
acquired the competencies. If there are to make listening-reading connections in order to see
questions in the End Test that you have that the comprehension process skills are similar in
not answered satisfactorily, ensure that both cases. Reading-writing connections must also be
you return to the relevant part of the emphasised. For example, a lesson on expositorywriting
chapter and review those areas until you should also include reading of expository pieces to see
are satisfied that you have understood how techniques work. In this case, specific objectives
the concept. I and 8 in Module 3 and specific obfectives I and 8 in
Key points These summarise important concepts Module 2 could be taught simultaneously.
that you need to remember and PaY
special attention to it in the future.
The process of communication
General objective Introduction

At the end of this chapter, you We begin to communicate from the moment we are born. As babies, we
should be able to: communicate discomfort or unhappiness by crying; pleasure by laughing
or gurgling. As we get oldeq, the ways in which we can communicate
demonstrate understanding become more varied and sophisticated. Personal and professional
of'the different types of relationships depend on good communication skills, and the ef{ectiveness
communication relevant and with which we communicate becomes key to success.
appropriate to your academic,
This chapter will introduce you to aspects of the process of communicatron
professionaI and vocational
and help you to dwelop strategies for effective communication. you will
needs.
need only a pen or pencil and writing paper. you must complete all parts.
Content
Specific objectives Process and communication:
You should be able to: s identifying the elements in the process (sende4 message, channel,
receiveq, feedback)
exptain the concept of process
iq describing the process (conceptualisation, encoding, selection of
identify the etementr of tt," channels, decoding interpretation, feedback)
communication process ::r 6sdi4 channels and technologies
describe the communication : facilitators and barriers.
Process
Understanding the concept of process
select media, channels and
technologies appropriate This activity will help you to determine what is meant by process so that
and relevant to specific you will be able to apply this knowledge to communication.
communication acts
, recognise and analyse
the possibte facilitators
and barriers to effective
communication.
Feedback
You may have come up with a list that looks something tike this:
1 Brushed her teeth.

2 Had a shower.
3 Ate breakfast.
4 Packed her bag.
You may also have stated: 'Marva is getting ready for schoot,.
Chapter 1 The process of communication ffi
The separate acts Marva performs are a[[ part of a process. Marva is going
through the process of getting ready for school. Of course the exact acts listed
and their order are not important, as long as they are atl part of the same
process of preparing for schoo[.
Therefore, a proc€ss is a series of actions or behaviours linl<ed in a particular

order to bring about a particular goal or to change one thing to another.
Elements of the communication Process

The following activities will help you to understand what is necessary
to the process of communication so that you will be more aware of what
happens when you are communicating.
Activity 1.2
lnstructions: Think about the fo[[owing.
Feedback
You may have considered the best way of Putting the information across; the
most appropriate words to use. In other words, you were deciding how to encode
or create the message. You may also have considered the nature of the person
with whom you had to communicate and the purpose of the communication.
In order to understand your message, that person wou[d have to decode or
interpret it. However, in order to decide how to get the message across, yoL
would have had to plan or conceptuatise exactty how you woutd put it.
Encoding: What words will I use? Do I need signs or pictures?

Decoding: What does this message mean? How am I expected to respond
to it?
conceptualising: what is the best format for this message? How should I
get it across?
This activity witl help you to discover more about the elements of
communication.
Activity 1.3
lnstructions: Read the scenario betow and answer the questions that follow.
ln the above situation:

Feedback
1 Who was sending the information?
2 Who would be receiving the information?
-l Marva's mother.
3 Which of the following did Marva's mother use? 2 The principat.
a Speech. b Writing. 3 Writing.
4 By what means was the information sent? 4 Mait/post.

ffi Communication Studies
You notice that there was a sender (Marva's mother), a receiver (the
principal), a medium (a letter) and a channel (the post office). These are
four basic elements of a communication act. The fifth element would
be the response made by the principal or the feedback. The relationship
betlveen the elements of the process is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
MEDIUM CHANNEL
SENDER (examPte: (exampte: RECEIVER
(conceptuatises & tetter, post office, (decodes message;
encodes message) emai[, I nternet, creates feedback)
speech) radio)
\ FEEDBAcK
Figure .7 The relationship between the elements of the process

1
This activity will help you to ensure that you can identify the elements of
the communication process.
Activity 1.4
lnstructions'. Read the foltowing scenario and answer the questions that fotlow.
Feedback n" *ir"i

.r.il llt-:r .,r:i
lf your answers were:

In the above scenario:
'l Minister of Education
1 What is the name of the sender?
Z the generaI public 2 Who are the receivers of the message?
3 an oraI announcement 3 What medium is used for the message?
4 the radio 4 What channel does the sender use?
Describing processes in communication

The following activities will help you to recognise the different parts of
the communication process and appreciate the significance of each.
Activity 1.5
lnstructions: Read the scenario below and answer the questions that fottow.
to hotd a concert to raise funds to gurchase new

Your class has deckjed
computer software. Yqr have been asked to prepare an airrertisenrent to
'
encourage sctroolmates to attend the coflcert.
Feedback
1 List the activities that you would undertake to prepare this advertisement.
You wi[[ notice that you had to do 2 Place the activities in the order in which they woutd be undertaken.
e, g, f and c in order to create the
advertisement.
3 Now check which of the fotlowing woutd best describe your activities.
a and b woutd be done by the a decoding b feedback c encoding

receivers (the target audience) of the d interpretation e conceptualisation f selection of channer
messaSe. g selection of medium.
Chapter 1 The process of communication K
This activity will enable you to consolidate your knowledge of the

components of the communication process.
Activity 1.6
lnstructions'. Complete the fo[[owing crossword puzzle to ensure that you
understand the components of the communication Process.
Figure 1.2 Crossword
Ctues
Down
"'l The first stage in the communication Process.
Across
2 Students witl have to do this when they see the advertisement'
3 This witt help you decide if the advertisement is a success'
4 What the audience must do to get the fu[[ message'
5 Where the advertisement wit[ be placed.
Feedback
Now check you inr*.rt by tooking at the answer grid below'
?.D E c (J DIE
N
r.l- E EID B A clK

P
T
U
I
4.1 NIT EIRIPIR EIT
S
tc I H A N N E
Figure 1.3 Answers to the crossworo

X Communication Studies
Selecting appropriate media, channels

and technologies
The following activities will help you to think more carefully about howyou
convey in{ormation and why you should be careful about your methods.
Activity 1.7
Refer to Activity 1.3. Think about other ways in which Marva's mother could have
got the message to the principat. why do you think she chose to write a letter?
Feedback
lf you think that she cou[d have used a telephone, text message or emait, you
are correct. However, you may have thought that she chose a letter because
a letter is a more formal medium and can serve as a permanent record. This is
perfect[y right.
Now attempt the next activity.
Activity 1.8
lnstructionsi Read the two scenarios below and answer the questions that
follow.
Which of the two individuals mentioned above selected the more

appropriate method of getting information across?
Why do you think this method was more appropriate?
Feedback
'l lf you thought that Marlon's method was more appropriate, you were
correct.
z You would probabty have reasoned that a group of pre-schooters would

respond more positivety and with more understanding to a cartoon video
than to a straight lecture.
The medium and channel for communication, therefore, must always be

appropriate to (a) the receiver (audience) and (b) the context.
Always ask yourself questions like:
c.* Who is my receiver?
;q: How best can I get my message across to him or her?
+ Should I select a written or an oral medium?
*u What technology should I use?
Chapter 1 The process of communication K
Now try the following activiry which will help you to select appropriate
channels and media to ensure that your communication is most
effective.
Activity 1.9
lnstructions.. Read the following scenarios and circle the most appropriate answers.
1 You have to ask your Parents for permission to attend a friend's party. You:
a write them a letter
b ask them during dinner
c send them an email.
2 A hurricane is approaching your country. The MeteorologicalOffice should:

a send out flyers
b tetephone people
c make a radio announcement. Feedback
3 You are inviting people to your sister's wedding. You: '1 b

a send out written invitations )r
b callthemonthetetePhone
c send them a fax. 3a
Note again that the medium and channel ale determined by the people
involved and the purpose or intent of the communication'
Facilitators of and barriers to communication

Have you ever been put at a disadvantage because someone did not
understand what you wanted to say? This activity will help
you identify
!o
the reasons you were misunderstood and to appreciate why this happened'
Activity 110
lnstructions: Read the scenario below and answer the questions that
follow.
z
3
Feedback
'lTherewasatanguagebarrier;thenoticewasbad[ylocated;themethodof
notif ication was fau [tY.
2Whenyourbrotherselectedthemeansoftransferringthemessage.
3Hecoutdhavewritteninalanguagethateveryoneunderstood;hecoutd
have used the telephone or spoken to the three people directty'
The scenario in Activiry 1.10 illustrates that some things can interfere
with effective communication. Anything that inhibits effective transfer of
information is abarier to communication. Some typical communication
barriers are:
s the sender and receiver speak different languages
ro the channel is inaccessible to the receiver
w the message is ineffectively encoded, meaning it is ambiguous
+ the medium does not suit the message.
Your answers to Activiry l. l0 identify the things that could have helped
the sender to convey his message effectively. Anything that helps to
ensure effective transfer of inJormation is a faciktator of communication.
Some typical facilitators of communication are:
i!: selecting a language which is familiar to the receiver
+: using an accessible channel
e ensuring that the medium is appropriate to the message
s using audio/visual aids to enhance encoding.
Now that you have completed the exercises above, you should be abre
to demonstrate that you are aware of the important concepts of the
communication process. proceed to the End Test.
Key points
It is important to remember that:
s the act of communication is a process
t using this process effectively is a skill
** good communicators are aware of the things that may hinder effective
communication
s we must be careful to select appropriate forms and methods
of
communication.
In the next chapter we will look more closery at the various forms of
communication and how we can use them effectivelv.
Conclusion
This chapter should have made you realise how important the
communication process is and how much we take it for granted.
once
you recognise that effective communication can be disrulted
at any stage
of the process, you will begin to put more thought into how
Vo., .rr.oa"
and decode information. you also need to think-carefuily
and channels that you use to communicate your ideas. ihe "uo"itrr.tedia
ability to
communicate effectively enhances every aspect of our lives.
Suggested further reading

Simon, V and Osborne, S. CA2E Communication Studies, London:
Macmillan Caribbean, 2009 (ch. i).
Chapter 1 The process of communication il
End Test
'
Answer a[[ questions.
1 Tick the appropriate column to show which of the fotlowing are 'Processes and which
:
are non-Drocesses.
Non-process
Making a cake
Changing a tyre
Running up a ftight of steps
Switching on a light
Writing an essay
Learning a foreign language
2 Labet the fottowing diagram to indicate the etements of the communication Process-
'
Figure 1.4 Communication methods
3 |dentifytheproces5e5invo[vedinthecreationofaneffectiveadvertisement'
Read the fottowing scenario and indicate the rnedium, channeI
and technotogy'that
4
you would use.
You are the onrrcipat of a secondary school lt is the evening

of tle day
before final Lxanimations are due to begin and you realise that there is an
etectricalprdlemattheschoot.Youneedtoinformyourstudentsthatthe
.,,
emminstlsnrimetabtehas been ehanpdt
Read the diatogue below and state:

process?
a What barriers may have interfered with the communication
b What steps could be taken to remedy the breakdown?
Marton: Are You going to town?
Martha: No, l'm only going to town' '
Marton: Oh, thought you were going to town'

I
Now turn to the feedback. lfyou are satisfied that you have understood.the-concepts
is anything that you
introduced in this chapter, prlceed to the next chapter. lf there
it" u*rr" aboui, ieturn tothe retevant activities and repeat them'
Feedback for the EndTest
Process You should have the following on your [ist:

Non-process
Making a cake r/ a conceptuatisingtheadvertisement
b identifying the target audience
Changing a tyre r' c selecting the medium or media
Running up a ftight of steps x d setecting the channet(s).
Switching on a light x Since it is the end of the day, the principal must rely
Writing an essay r/ on the mass media to ensure that a[[ students get the
Learning a foreign language r' information. Therefore, you shou[d have indicated that
he should use the medium of speech/writing;that he
lfyou have a[[ of these correctty checked, you show should use either radio or television as the channel and
that you can differentiate between a process and a that the technotogy should be electronic. Note that
non-process. Running up a ftight of stairs is one act both speech and writing may be used on television.
and not part of a series of acts. So is switching on a a You should have suggested one of the following:
tight. Therefore these are not processes.
i The word 'town' may have had different
meanings for the two individuals.
2 You should have identified the fotlowing:
ii Perhaps neither speaker could hear the other
a Presenter - sender.
ctearly.
b Congregation - receiver/decoder. b lf you chose (i) then you would need to indicate
c Microphone - channe[. that the speakers should ensure that they both
d Balloon - NB: tf you thought that the bal[oon have the same understanding of the word or know
represents the words of the sender then you which town is being spoken of by asking a question.
would have said 'message'. lf you thought that lf you chose (ii) then you would need to indicate that
it represents speech, then you would have said speakers shoutd ensure that they are within hearing
'medium'. range or that, if they are hearing impaired, they select
a different medium, for example sign [anguage.
Forms and contexts of communication
lntroduction
At the end of this chapter, you Communication takes place in avariety of settings and in a number of
should be able to: ways. In the last chapter we looked at the process of communication and
how some things may act as barriers to communication. In this chapte4
use different forms, media, we will see how the specific form o{ communication that we choose
channels and technologies of relates to the situation in which it is used.
communication to maximise
One element of communicative competence is our abiliry to get our
effective communication in
message across accurately. Very often the message is ineffective because
specific contexts.
we have not used the correct form of communication. These exercises
will help you to understand the different ways in which people can
communicate and help you to make appropriate decisions when you
Specific objectives are communicating.
You shoutd be able to:

Content
identify the main forms
of communication Forms of communication:
identify the characteristics of

* verbal (speech, writing, braille)
each form * non-verbal:
body language {for example gestures, posture, facial expression)
understand the various "
contexts of communication
w use of space
n use of oblects
evaluate the appropriateness a dress
of a communication act to its
context.
r graphics (charts, tables, diagrams)
* integrating forms for specific purposes and situations
(practice cases, role-play and simulation).
Contexts of communication:
w intrapersonal (for example thinking, solving problems, imaging)
i* interpersonal (for example interviews, conversatlons/
intimate communication)
x small gloup (for example leadership meetings, role-taking,
goal setting)
* organisational (for example business, government, educational
purposes,
s academic (for example essay/ research paper)
*: public (for example speeches, debates)
* intercultural (for example communicating across social sub-groups,
in tourism).
Forms of communication and their characteristics

This activity will help you to identify the rwo main forms of
communication.
tr Communication Studies
Activity 2J
lnstructions: Read the following scenarios and answer the question on each.
1 Cathy woutd tike to describe her graduation ceremony to her aunt who
lives in Canada. Think of two ways in which she could do this.
2 After the graduation, Cathy wants to demonstrate to her brother at home

the way she watked up to collect her certificate. What do you think she
would do?
Feedback
lf you said Cathy coutd telephone or send a letter, you are correct. Notice that
both of these ways would require Cathy to use words. That is, they are both
verbaIforms. Speech and writing are both verbaIforms of communication.
lf you suggested that Cathy might imitate the way she walked by repeating
the action, you are correct. In this case she does not need words. She is,
therefore, using a non-verbalform of communication. This type of
non-verbaI communication is ca[[ed body [anguage.
Non-verbal communication relies on elements other than speech or

writing. It is iustas important as verbal communication. Often our
non-verbal actions tell a different story from the one we are telling in
words. For example, if you say to someone, ,I,m pleased to meet you,
with an unsmiling or un{riendly face, he or she will not believe that you
are truly pleased. In fact, you would definitely not leave a favourable
impression on this person.
This activity will help you to recognise the ways in which body language
conveys information.
Activity 2.2
lnstructions: Read the fottowing scenarios and infer what the non-verbal
behaviour in each one tells you.
1 Charles is waiting at the bus stop and he is pacing up and down.
2 Patra is biting her nails while she waits to be interviewed.
3 Tamara is frowning while she reads a letter from her boss.
4 Carlos is jumping up and down while he watches a horse race.
5 Jamat is explaining to his mother why he is [ate, but is avoiding meeting

her eye.
Feedback
You would probabty have thought of the following:
1 Charles is impatient.
Z Patra is nervous.
3 Tamara is angry or does not like what she is reading, or she may be making
an effort to concentrate.
'4 Cartos is excited or neryous.

5 Jamal is afraid or not tetting the truth.
Chapter 2 Forms and contexts of communication I
You may also have formed some different impressions in some cases.
Example
Howevel, the fact remains that all of these behaviours would have made
Use of graphics
an impression or conveyed a message even though the individuals may
not have been aware that they were communicating. A teacher exptains the parts of a
ftower to the class by drawing a
It is important to pay attention to the type of message we are sending diagram.
through non-verbal communication. Very often we exhibit behaviours
that we are not aware of and, therefore, transmit messages even without Use of objects
intending to. A civil engineer creates a scale
model to illustrate what the finished
Now let us look at other examples of non-verbal communication' buitding witt took tike.
Use of dress
Contexts of communication
Some people wear dark or
Notice that, in the examples given, the non-verbal elements have been sober-coloured ctothes to a funeral
selected to form part of that communication because they seem to suit to indicate mourning.
the circumstances of that communication. Those circumstances are
referred to as the context of communication.
Communication does not occur rn a vacuum. It occurs within a context.
This activity will help you to better understand what we mean by

context.
Activity 2.3
Instructions:Ask yourself: 'lf I had to give a speech in each of the following
situations, would I need to make changes or adjustments to my presentation?'
1 To my Board of Directors in a conference room.
2 fo a group of fifth-grade children in their school assembly hatt.
3 To an oral examiner in a sma[[ examination room.
4 To a group of people opposing my ideas.

5 Onnationaltelevision.
5 On radio.
Feedback
You would surely have thought about how you would have to adjust the type
of speech, your choice of words and the non-verbaI elements you woutd use.
Obviously the context of an assembty hattfitted with fifth-graders is vastty
different from that of an oral examination and it would be very odd if you were
to address the examiner as you would a fifth-grader. Therefore who is present
is an important part of the context.
Simitarly you wou[d want to be very carefuI about what you woutd say to a
hostite audience as in scenario 4. So the generaI attitude of your audience is
also part of the context.
In the context of an electronic media presentation, you would certainty not

use the same techniques for a radio presentation (which is onty aura[) as you
would in a television Dresentation which is also visuat. The television context
would certainty tend itself to more use of non-verbaI etements. So where
the communication takes place is also part of the context. Other factors
[ike size of room, tighting or placement of furniture would also influence
communication.
Retating form to context

Look back at Activity 2. t. You will notice that, in each case, Cathy
would select the more appropriate form of communication. She could
not have used demonstration to her aunt overseas and it was far more
effective and realistic to use body language to show her brother rather
than to describe her actions to him in words since he was right there
with her. In Activity 2.3, you recognised that you would have to make
changes which would make your presentation more effective in the
particular context.
Therefore, just as you learned in Chapter I that you need to consider
appropriateness of elernents in the process of communication/ you should
also consider the appropriateness of the form you select in relation to its
context.
This actMty will help you to evaluate the appropriateness of non-verbal
forms of communication within various contexts.
Activity 2.4
lnstructions: Think of some instances where inappropriate non-verbaI actions
may cause probtems of communication. You may want to think of incidents in
your experience when someone may have been saying one thing but you got a
different impression.
Feedback
You woutd have come up with severaI situations in which someone's non-
verbaI cues coutd have sent a wrong message. Some of your thoughts may
have been similar to those in the examples betow.
lf you were to turn up for work looking as if you were dressed for the
beach or for a party, this would communicate a particu[ar message. your
peers or boss wou[d not think this attire appropriate to the workplace and
would most likely conctude that you are unprofessional and frivolous. In
other words, your attire would not be appropriate to the context within
which it is worn. In the workplace, you normatly try to communicate
professionalism and seriousness. Therefore, your mode of dress would be
inappropriate or out of context.
Example You may have attended a party where someone remained alone most of
lf you were inviting someone to the evening and hardly spoke to anyone else. You woutd certainly have
a wedding ceremony in a church, formed impressions of that person based on his or her behaviour. Perhaps
you would most [ikety use formal you thought the individualwas a snob, when he or she might have been
language in a written invitation. shy. So you would have received the wrong message from the mode of
However, if you were inviting behaviour.
your friend to a card game at your
home, you would most tikety use
informa[ [anguage via the telephone, In the same way thatyour non-verbal modes of behaviour can be
email or a brief note. Most people inappropriate to the context of the communication in which you are
would not appreciate being called engaged, so can your modes of speech and writing. The context of
on the teleDhone and invited to communication may be either formal or informal and all elements of the
a wedding the next day and your
communication should reflect this.
friend would most tikety be very
surprised to receive a flowery printed A formal context would be one in which certain societal norms would be
or embossed invitation to a Fridav evicient and there would be perceived patterns of behaviour. A non-formal
evening card game. context is one where individuals or groups would not be constrained by
specified ways in which communication would take place.
Chapter 2 Forms and contexts of communication ffi
This activity will help you to evaluate the appropriateness of verbal forms
of communication within various contexts.
Activity 2.5
lnstructions: Match the scenarios below with the most appropriate form
of verbaI communication.
Scenario Form of communication
1 A parent wants to inform the school that she her A

will not be able to pick up A written notice/poster
daughter on time because she is caught in traffic. B A skit
2 A student is asked to bring an excuse for her absence from a school activity.
a A written note
3 A policeman has been invited to caution students on road crossing.
D A television/radio address
4 Your drug-free club has been asked to itlustrate the
-"- --"o- - -'-'-o
dangers of drug
addictiontotherestof theschoot.
E Atelephonecall
5 The Prime Minister wants to justify a controversiat partiamentary decision. I

F A short talk
6 A librarian wants to remind students of the librarv's rules.
Feedback
Your responses shou[d have been as fo[[ows:

,I E 2C 3 F
48 5 D 6 A
Key points
w much of our communication is non-verbal
s communication contexts can be formal or inJormal
e the type of communication must be tailored to the context.
Conclusion
You have learnt in this chapter how the context or circumstances within
which communication takes place can affect the choices you make.
Unless your mode of communication is appropriate to the context, it
will be difficult to get your message across ef{ectively. You run the risk
of either alienating your audience completely or having them interpret
your message incorrectly. Careful consideration of the context within
which something is said or written will also assist you in makrng correct
interpretations and judgements.
Suggested further read i ng

Simmonds-McDonald, H., Fields, L. and Roberts, P. Writing in
English: A Course Book for Caribbean Students, Kingston: Ian Randle,
1997 lch.ll.
Simon, V and Osborne, S. CAPE Communication Studies, London:
Macmillan Caribbean, 2009 (chs. 2-3).
I Communication Studies
End Test
Answer all questions.
1 Fitt in the blanks of the fotlowing sentences.

a You can communicate verbally through and
b Body language includes ' " ;.'', i:ri: ::':
'''
and r '' r::'::rrl :
c Use of graphics is a type of communication.
2 Match the fotlowing scenarios with the non-verbal element being displayed by ptacing
-
the correct letter next to each sentence.
A use of dress B use of objects C body language D graphics
a Monte[ is trying to stop a bus by waving his arm.
b Sherma is-,modelting her national costume at an internationa[;conference. ..........:::.:.:::. .. .
c Chris dr:awi a map to explain tfie route,to.,the party venue. .......: -.'a:..:4.: :.4: a
dSandra.brings.inherpetrabbitaspart'of.herbiologydemonstr:atioi.-
3 ldentify which of the fottowing communication contexts are formal and which are informal.
a Giving a eulogy at a funeral.
b Introducing a guest speaker to your ctassmates.
c Writinga notetoyourclassmate.
d Writing an essay in an examination.
e Updatihg.!;:ur brother on the lateitririiket,score, l,
'..,.,...,..'',,
4 Place Al lappiopiiate) or 'l' (inappropiiiiel,niit to the communiiaiion act described

in each scenario below:
a Marsha has to present to her boss a summary of a meeting she attended.
Communicationact:ShePresent5hersummaryviathetelephone.-
b Mr Moses has been asked to act as a referee for one of his past students who is
apptying for a job.
Communication act: He writes a format tetter of recommendation.
c Car[os,haqto explain the wor:king of-a,,mathematics problemto h!!,9tasimates.
Communiiation act: He uses the ihalkboa-r'd to illustrate the Workiii$:While
exptaining the steps.
d Shameeka needs to contact all her friends to tet them know that basketbatl
practice has been cancelled that evening.
Communication act: She prepares a formal address for the evening news
broadcast.
-
1 a You can communicate verbalty through speech 3 You should have identified the contexts as follows:
and writing. a Formal.
b Body [anguage includes gestures,facial b Formal.
expressions and body movement/position.
c Informat.
c Useof graphics is a type of non-verbal
d Format.
communication.
e lnformat.
2 Your resDonses should have been as fo[[ows:
aC 4 Communication acts should have been rated as follows:
al
bA
cD bA
cA
dB
dl
Chapter 2 Forms and contexts of communication I
Tutor-marked assignment
The fottowing assignment should be done afteryou have completed
Chapters 1 and 2.
You have been asked to educate a group of five-year-olds on the importance

of caring for their teeth:
1 Setect the form and medium for your presentation.
2 Createyourpresentation.
3 Discuss why you think your presentation is appropriate to the task.
l.tote, tiyou ,elect an orar ioi#,,br,presentatio;;:i;u,may submiteitilii^ , ., ,.,,,.
audio/video tape or written text and graphics. UoWiner, ttre discussion ,,r ,il
of your rationale MUST be in writing.
Marking key
Content 40%
Organisation 30/"
Language 30V"
The process of reading

At the end of this chapteryou We all engage in a variety of reading tasks throughout life. Whether we
should be able to: are reading the daily newspape! the computer screen or a psychology
textbook, we must draw on specific skills to allow us to read effectively.
apply comprehension skilts of The exercises in this chapter are designed to help you to develop the
analysis and critical evaluation skills necessary to perform the various types of reading that you engage
to a wide range of written in. You must complete all parts.
materia[.
Content
Stages of reading:
Specific objectives
i:: pre-reading
l,: during reading
describe the process of reading ;:,, post-reading.
identify the three basic types of 'lypes of reading:
reading
s; quick reference reading
differentiate among the types sr critical reading
of reading ;1 assthsfig reading.
utilise skills appropriate to In Chapter 1 you learned what a process is. You will remember that a
different types of reading process is a series of actionsAehaviours that bring about a particular
material goal. Have you ever thought of the act of reading as a process? In reading,
the goal is comprehension and the process is the steps that the reader
recognise specific '
takes to ensure that the reading act leads to comprehension. Now let us
textual signals which aid
identify these steps:
comprehension of text.
;:t glsp 1: pre-reading.
' Step 2: during reading.

:o: Step 3: post-reading.
This activity will help you to understand the first step of the reading
process.
Feedback Activity 3J
Pre-reading
You probably noted that the first lnstructions: Ask yoursetf the following questions and note your answers.
thing you do is look at the picture on
the cover or that you read the blurb 1 What is the first thing you do when you pick up a book that you may want
or the editor's description at the
to read?
back or on the inside cover. You have Z Have you ever read the back cover before opening the book?
probabty also ftipped through the
pages, glancing at parts that catch
3 Haveyou ever looked through the contents before buying a book?
your eye. 4 What features of a book help you to decide whether to buy it or not?
Chapter 3 The process of reading K
All of these things have probably influenced you to read or not to read a
pafticular book. By doing them and thinking about the bookbefure you
read it, you are engaging in the first part of the reading process: pre-reading.
Pre-reading involves:
* wondering/imagining/predicting what the book will be about
* thinking about what the title reminds you of
* deciding what you would like to find out from the reading material
* relating the description or the contents to things you know.
Remembeq, thinking or talking about what you are going to read helps
you to understand the material better when you actually begin to read it.
This activiry will help you to understand what happens during the second
stage of the reading process (step 2).
Activity 3.2 Feedback

During reading
Read the following comments and reflect on whether or not you have ever Some of these woutd have seemed
made similar remarks while reading. famitiar to you. Consciousty or not,
a good reader reflects constantly
white reading. We make or confirm
predictions, we double check
information or word meanings,
we read ahead or skip pages, atl in
response to an issue that we have
discussed menta[[y.
These reading strategies arc paft of the second stage of the reading
process - the'during reading' stage. This stage is important because it
allows the reader to monitor his or her comprehension.
This activity will help you to understand what is meant by the third
stage (step 3) of the reading process.
Activity 3.3
Post-reading
Read the following behaviours and tick each one that you have engaged in
after a reading activity.
You think about what you have read.

You tell others about what vou have read.
You discuss what you have read with others who have read the same
thing.
You look for other material written by the same author. Feedback
You look for similar materiatwritten by other authors.

lf you have done any of the above,
You use ideas and vocabulary from what you have read in your own you have engaged in the third stage
writing or speaking. of the reading process - post-reading
The post-reading stage is important because it allows you to consolidate

what you have read and to begin to apply it to the other aspects of your
life. Thinking over and discussing what you have read helps you to
ensure that you have understood it.
Remember:
[*--rrir*l
inctudes:
I I
I Discussing I
I Apptying I
I rninung
neneains
I
I I
Figure 3.1 The stages of reading
Now that you have understood that the act of reading is really a three-
stage process, let us think about the tlpes of reading that people engage in.
Types of reading
There are three basic types of reading:
A Quick reference reading, which focuses on seeking specific
information that addresses a particular question or concern that we
have.
B Critical reading, which involves discerning ideas and concepts that
require a thorough analysis.
C Aesthetic/pleasure reading, which we do for sheer entertainment or to
appreciate an author's style and ability.
This activity will help you to think about how the type of reading is
related to the purpose of your reading.
Activity 3.4
Feedback Types of reading
lnstructions: Read the fottowing scenarios and indicate whether you should
You shoutd have categorised the use reading type A, B or C in each case.
scenarios as fo[[ows: 1 You are reading a book of nursery rhymes to a young child.
d Numbers 1 and 5 -Type C 2 You are looking for a number in the telephone directory.
(aesthetic/pleasure read ing)
r Numbers 2 and3 -Type A
3 You are trying to find a hotel by searching internet listings.
(quick reference reading) 4 You are reading your chemistry textbook in preparation for class discussion.
s Numbers 4 and 6 -Type B 5 You are reading the latest best-seller.

(criticaI reading).
6 You are doing research for a school project.
As you go through the following exercises, you will notice that each type
of reading makes different demands on the reader.
Quick reference reading

This is commonly used by students to locate information on a topic
for home and class assignments or for general in{ormation. You often
have to skim through lots of reading material in order to find all of the
information you need. Quick reading requires you to be able to pick out
the main ideas in a piece of writing.
Quick reference reading requires you to be able to look for clues or

signal words in the author's writing which will help you to locate the
information you need. Sigrral words indicate the trend of the author's
thoughts. They are usually either conjunctions or transitional phrases.
Chapter 3 The process of reading I
The type of clues you look for will vary depending on the rype of writing. Example
(T1pes of writing are explained in chapter l3')
And,/,inaddition,indicatesthatthe
The following activities will help you to pick out signal words that will author wi[[ add something to the
enable you to find information quickly as you engage in quick reference same idea.
reading.
'On the other hand' indicates that
the author is about to make a
Activity 3.5 contrast.
Signal words 1 'Firstly'/'secondty' indicates that
lnstructions: Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow. ideas are being placed in a sequence.
As a result' indicates that the author

Most students are ditigent, but sorq-ar€ guite lackadaisical. The latter
is making a link between a cause and
are often absern fiom dass. FurtherWre, the1t tend not to do required
an effect.
assignments. The good student ensurg that she has the necessary materiats.
Ihen, she begins to appty hersetf to tle task of studyittg. Consquently, 'To conclude' indicates that the
she consistentty perfqrms at a high standard.Therefore, the conscientious author is making a summary of
student will always be more successfut than the indotent one. preceding points.
Look carefully at the words in italics in the passage above. Now fitt in the
blanks: Feedback
1 Which word signals more of the same idea?
1 Furthermore.
2 Which word signals a cause-effect relationship?
3 Which word signals an order or sequence?
2 Consequently
4 Which word signals a summary?

3 Then.
5 Which word signals a change in direction of thought or comparison?

4 Therefore.
5 But.
Check your answers.
Activity 3.6
Signal words 2
lnstructions: Read each sentence and identify the kinds of signals given by the
word in italics.
1 Before Mr Bennett became principal, he had taught for 15 years.

a Cause and effect. b Order.
c Summary. d Change in thought
2 Most horror movies rely on the same sound effects. Moreover, they tend
to have similar plots.
a Change in thought. b Order.
c More of the same. d Cause and effect.
Feedback
3 ln conclusion, rainforests are vitaI to the continuation of life on earth.
a Summary. b Change in thought. 1b
c Order. d More of the same.
2c
4 Not one match could be played because of the inclement weather.
3a
a Order. b Change in thought.
c Cause and effect. d Summary.
4c
Now check vour answers.

CriticaI reading
So far we have looked at signal word clues that tell us about the content
of a piece of writing. We use these clues mosrly to help us with quick
reference reading. Howevel, when engaged in critical reading, we are more
interested in the author's intent and purpose and how he conveys his
ideas. Therefore, we need to look more closely at the devices, strategres or
techniques that he uses. These are specific ways in which the writer uses
language in order to make a particular impression on the reader.
An author may use figurative language, which is the imaginative use of
Example
words.
Metaphor: He is a pit bull when it
comes to getting his way. Notice that these are used to convey an image to the reader but are not
meant to be taken literally.
Simile: She is as slender as a blade
of grass. Other popular strategies include repetition, where a writer uses a word or
phrase several times for emphasis, and rhetorical questions (for example,
Hype rbole / exag gerati on :T hat
'How can we expect children to be respectful when adults are not?') which
salesman can talk your head off.
are designed to make the reader think but do not require an actual answer.
The following activities will help you to identify some of the devices that
provide clues in critical reading.
Activity 3.7
CriticaI reading
Look at the advertisement below and comptete the exercise that follows.
ra{&k#i@@@@.sz
Revitatise your entire tife with
ARRfST
6,.t|arsni46d:t6,:
n
Figure
p
r'?
3.2 Advert for hair restorer

.tgfug
1 Exptain what the writer is trying to do.
2 List the devices used to accomplish this purpose.
3 Exolain the effect of these devices on the reader.
Feedback
You would probably have come up with the fottowing answers:
1 The writer is trying to convince or persuade us to buy a product.

2 Devices used were:
a rhetoricaI questions, for example 'Falling hair?'
b repetition, for exampte ARREST'
c hyperbole or exaggeration, for example 'revitalise your entire life',
Chapter 3 The process of reading ff
3 The rhetoricaI questions draw the reader's attention by speaking directty

to us. Repetition of the name keeps us focused on the product being
advertised. Hyperbote appeals to our emotions.
Critical reading skills help you to understand why an author has written
something, to evaluate how effective it is and to determine whether or
not you agree with the author's perspective.
Critical reading also requires you to be able to distinguish between fact
Example
and opinion.
of Martinique is
Facf: The island
This activity will help you to practise this critical reading skill. situated between St Lucia and
Dominica.
Activity 3.8 Opinion:The island of Martinique is
Fact and opinion the most beautifulof a[[.

lnstructions: Put an'F'in front of the statements of fact, an'O'in front of the Fact and opinion: Martinique, the
statements of opinion, and 'F & O' in front of statements that contain both most beautifuI of the istands, is
fact and opinion. situated between St Lucia and
Dominica.
1 _ Alcohot shoutd not be advertised on television.
2 _ Fario's pizza is better than Bolino's.
3 _ The Caribbean is home to many varieties of f lowers.
4 _ The awe-inspiring Blue Mountains overtook the city of Kingston.
5 _ Cancer is the most insidious disease known to humans.
5 _ French and Spanish are both European languages.

Feedback
7 _ Aluminium is made from bauxite.
8 _ A fruit salad is both nutritious and deticious. F -3,6,7;O-1,2,5;F &O-4 and 8.
Now that you have understood the difference between fact and opinion,
try to apply this skill while reading newspaper and magazine articles or
while listening to the news. Opinionated statements indicate that the
author is presenting a biased viewpoint. Factual statements can be used
to support points and to provide evidence.
Aesthetic/pleasure reading
This tlpe of reading does not require any special skills apart {rom the
basic reading skills. You may read because you like the author's sryle
or use of humour or you find the topic interesting. Howeve4, aesthetrc
reading also helps you to develop your own style o{ writing by exposing
you to a number of strategies and new vocabulary. This is useful in the
development of your own writing skills. Therefore, you should always
make time for leisure reading. Remember that the more you read, the
more proficient you become as a reader.
Key points
w reading is a process and you should try to go through all of the steps
& you should always be aware of the type of reading that you are
engaged in
K Communication Studies
:rt most written pieces have signal words that help you to understand the
writing
,s distinguishing between fact and opinion will help you become a good
critical reader.
In the next chapter we will look at the different levels of comprehension
that we need to apply to our reading.
Conclusion
Now that you realise that the act of reading is actually a process, you
should be giving more thought to how you approach your reading.
Pay attention to your thoughts before you read, while you are reading
and after you read. Constantly thinking about what you are reading
and how you are reading helps you to comprehend and internalise
information. Practise spending time predicting and anticipating what
you are going to read, based on titles, picture clues and summaries.
The more active your mind is as you read, the more you will benefit
from what you read.
Suggested f urther reading

Macmillan Caribbean, 2009 (ch. 7).
End Test
Answer atl questions.
1 Why is the act of reading referred to as a process?

. , .:..:. . .i.i. .........
2 i,,vvhat are the three basicrtypeg of reading? ,, ..i
3 Croup the foltowing under the three tyPes identified in Question 2 above.
a Interpreting a graph. ,
b Reading a comic book.

]cFindingitopicinatab[eofcontent5.'.'.].':.:..:).:..
d Finding information on digestion in your Biology text.
e Reading a beauty magazine.
4 Match the fottowing words with the signals that they give:
Uttimately change in thought
i:'::
Thereafter: cause and effect
Simitarty 5Ummary
Thus order
On the contlery more of the game
5 Read the following passage and identify the author's purpose;

Chapter 3 The process of reading ffi
6 Which of the sentences in the following eyewitness report would you inctude
, a factual report on,,ihe incident referred,to?
r,'rr,,',in : ..t,,,,,.',
..'...''-Therewerefiveofusintheschoolyardafter:schoo[.l.''..'']
b We noticed a blue van pull up to the gate.
c I don't know why these peopte are allowed to come so close to the schoot.
d The driver seemed to be a friendly person.
e He wore a grey shlrt and a pair of black trousers.
f Suddenty he leapt out of the van and grabbed Tara.
g I was stunned and didn't know what to do.
h The driver pushed Tara into the back of the van where someone etse grabbed her.
i Then he leapt back into the van and sped off.
j He must have been doing at [east 80 miles per hour.
k We stood there in shock for a long time.
t Then we all started to scream.
1 You should have indicated that a Drocess is a series 4 You should have made the following matches:
of steps. The act of reading requires a series of Uttimatety summary
steps that leads to the outcome of comprehension.
Thereafter order
Therefore the act of reading is a process.
Simitarty more of the same
2 The three basic types of reading are: quick reference,
Thus cause and effect
criticaI and aesthetic
On the contrary change in thought
3 Your groupings should be as fotlows:
5 The author's purpose is to persuade.
Quick reference: a, c, d
Critical: f 6 A factuaI report wou[d include only sentences: a, b, e, f,
Aesthetic: b, e h and i. The other sentences are the author's ooinions
and personaI perceptions.
4 Elements of research
General objective lntroduction

At the end of this chapter, you At this level of study, you will need to understand how to go about
should be able to: obtaining inIormation for various purposes. In most areas of study, you
will be required to conduct basic investigations into a variety of topics
appreciate the appropriateness and you will be expected to apply critical and analytical skills to the
of data collection methods. inJormation that you encounter. It is important to develop a methodical
and logical way of approaching your investigations. This skill is essential
in many life areas where we need to gather in-formation in a systematic
and formal way. There are many approaches to research - an essential part
Specific objectives of every business and profession - and many ways to document findings.
You should be able to: The exercises in this chapter will help you to develop a precise and
distinguish among key concepts effective way oI finding, analysing and presenting information. You
relating to research MUST complete ALL parts.
select appropriate sources of Content

information and data
Current issues: Evaluating sources
present and interpret graphical
e defining key concepts (authoriry reliabiliry validity, bias, fact,
information opinion)by:
document sources and r grving examples and non-examples
references. n comparing and contrasting concepts
identifying a significant issue
i:F. sources of information.
w locating sources
x choosing from among sources
x differentiating between data and information
u evaluation of the appropriateness of data collection methods
s summarising content of sources
m evaluating the reliability and validity of sources:
s author and speaker (expertise, authority, perspective, social and
political biases)
* context (social and historical)
* t€xt (factual accuracyt logical structure, cogency).
Understanding concepts of research

In the previous chapter we looked at gathering information from the
everyday reading material with which we come into contact. Howeveq,
at some time in our academic or working lives, we have to engage in
more systematic information gathering in order to investigate or to
draw conclusions about an issue. This is known as research, and the
inIormation that specifically leads to our conclusions is called data.
While research involves investigation/ not every investigation can be
called researc.h. The key characteristic of research is that it is systematic.
This activity will help you understand the concept of the term 'research'.
Chapter 4 Etements of research I
Activity 4J
lnstructions: Each of the following describes a form of investigation. Select the
ones that would qualify as research.
1 Kayra takes apart a watch to see what is inside.

2 Soraya tries to develop a drug to ki[[ a particular type of bacteria.
3 Daniel counts the books in the library to see how many are there.
4 Ahmed wants to find out the kinds of food consumed by students in his
schoo[.
The Ministry of Health wants to find out the main causes of death in the
past five years.
Feedback
You would probabty have said that2,4 and 5 woutd be considered research.
In each case there would have to be systematic enquiry, documentation
of findings and conclusions drawn. You wi[[ notice also that a[[ three
investigations would require a certain amount of time spent collecting
pertinent information. Then, that information wou[d have to be analysed in
order to draw conclusions about what was being investigated. However, in the
case of 'l and 3, a one-shot activity would be all that was necessary. Therefore,
we can say that research is a process.
This actMty will help you determine the first step of the research process
Activity 4.2
lnstructions:Think of an issue that you woutd like to research in your school or
environment, then think of what you want to find out about it.
This activity should take you about 10 minutes.
Feedback
Example
As you pondered on what you wanted to know about the issue, you may lssue or topic: Carbage disposal in
have noticed you were asking yoursetf some questions. These would be your the Ranier community.
research ouestions. Research ouestions:
1 How is garbage disposed of in the

community?
Your research questions give direction to your investigation and
determine what you will focus on as you investigate. Selecting your 2 What are the problems
topic and phrasing your research questions comprise the first step of the associated with garbage disposaI
research process. in the community?
Setecting appropriate sou rces

Once you have your research questions/ the next step is to determine
how to go about getting the answers. These answers will come from the
specialised information or data that you collect. Data arc not just any
information gathered on a topic, but facts that, when put togethe! can
enable you to arrive at a reasonable conclusion.
Note: You may want to review the difference between {act and opinion or
bias, which is explained in Chapter 3.
Data are obtained from specific sources. A source would be a place from
Example
which or person from whom you obtain information. Therefore, your
The encyclopedia is a source of next step would be to determine which sources you should use in order to
general information on garbage obtain data useful to your investigation.
disposal, but it would not provide
data specific to disposal as it relates Apart from being relevant, sources must also be reliable. Reliability
to your community. Therefore, in means the extent to which your source can be depended on to give
this case you woutd not use the accurate information pertinent to the research questions.
encyclopedia as a source of data to be
This activiry will help you to understand how to determine the reliability
anatysed. However, information from
of a source.
the encyclopedia would give you
generat ideas to guide your research
or to inctude in an introduction. Activity 4.3
lnstructions: Put a tick next to those sources that would give the most
pertinent data on the research question identified in the example about
garbage disposaI in the Ranier community.
1 The Prime Minister
2 Peopte living in the community _

3 Anvone in vour countrv
4 Community sanitation workers
5 People in the neighbouring communities
6 Books on sarbase disoosal

7 Internet articles on garbage disposal
-
Feedback
The sources which would be most reliable in this case are 2 and 4. These two
groups of people would be able to provide data specific to your questions
because they woutd have first-hand knowtedge of the situation in that
particutar community. Both groups are directly involved with the issue since
one group is producing and disposing of garbage while the other is collecting
and providing further disposaI services.
Much of your preliminary research time will be spent reading a variety

of books and articles. Howeveq, the say'rng 'not everlthing you read is
true' must be borne in mind at all times as you research a topic. You
should be especially careful with internet sources since the source of
many internet articles cannot be verified. Ensure that you use reputable
sources like universities, large organisations or government information
sites. Personal, social-networking or pressure group websites are the least
reliable sources on the internet.
Once you have narrowed your sources to the most reliable, it is time to
determine how you will collect the data from them. In research, data arc
collected through instruments. Your instruments are the techniques that
you use to get the factual information that you need. Some examples of
research instruments are:
:rir questionnaires
rx interviews
.* observation checklists.
Remember that the items that make up your instrument must be
relevant and pertinent to your purpose.
The following activify will help you to select relevant items for your
tnstruments.
Chapter 4 Elements of research I
Activity 4.4
lnstructions'. Based on our two research questions on garbage disposal, which
of the following should we inctude in a questionnaire or interview schedule for
people in the community?
1 Where do you place garbage in your home?
2 What do you think of garbage disposaI genera[[y?

3 Do you think there are enough garbage pick-up days in your community? Feedback
4 Where do you work?
lf you [ook back at the research
5 Are there enough public bins in your community? questions you wi[[ notice that onty
6 Would you classify garbage collection in your areas as (a) very efficient, Questions'1, 3, 5 and 6 would be
(b) somewhat efficient or (c) inefficient? relevant to our research. Question 2
is too general and Questions 4,7 and
7 What brand of garbage bag do you use?
8 are totally irrelevant to what we
I How many garbage bags do you use each week? are trying to find out.
Items on a questionnaire can be open or closed questions. An open

question allows the respondent to answer in his own words and sfyle. A Example
closed question requires the respondent to select an option from those Open question: How do you dispose
presented. of garbage in your home?
Closed question: Garbage is collected

Presenting and interpreting data daity. Yes/No
Once you have collected your data, you must think of arranging the data
in ways that will make interpretation easy for both you and whoever reads
your research report. Many researchers use graphical techliques as a means
of presentation, since they make it easy to gather inJormation at a glance.
This activity will help you practice interpreting in{ormation from data
presented in graphical format.
Activity 4.5
lnstructions: Look at the pie chart below and note the information it gives.
Then draw some conclusions or make general statements based on the
information gathered.
Bag/bin
Feedback
River You shou[d have Iisted the foltowing

55o/o information:
. 55o/o of people dispose of garbage
in the river
| 10% of people use bins or bags
for disposal
r 30% of people burn their garbage
Figure 4.1 Garbage disposal patterns in the Ranier community * 5o/o of people bury their garbage.
Once you have obtained the basic inJormation (raw data), you examine it
critically in order to draw conclusions about the issue under investigation.
Several conclusions, not explicitly stated, can be drawn from the data
presented above:
1 River disposal is the most popular method used in the Ranier

community.
2 Burial is the least popular method of disposal.
3 The majority of people either burn or throw garbage in the river.
4 Burning is the second most popular method of disposal.
Note that your conclusions indicate that you have studied and analysed
the data in Figure 4.1.
Another popular method of graphical representation is the bar graph.
i:tt,,,t,t,:::tl::,it,.,:':,:;',, .',':],]:,l ll.i.]]l
30
,i:ti1!t-:
a5
')::a)e..:
l,:,:. ,i,,111:,',,
Buming Bin/bag5 Fiver
Fiqure 4.2 Garbaoe disposat

::,, ,: Li;l:ilrl irl . r .i,rr:i:
Notice that Figure 4.2 represents the same data as the pie chart in
Activiry 4.5. It is up to you, the researcher, to determine how you want to
get the information across and the most suitable format in which to do
so. In some cases, it may sirnply be a matter of preference.
Docu menting references

Once you have written your research report presenting your data and
conclusions, you will have to document the sources that you referred to
Chapter 4 Elements of research I
for background in{ormation or ideas. Your reader should be given a list

of the books, articles and videotapes that you used so that he or she can
refer to them for purposes of checking the authenticity of what you are
sayrng or to further explore ideas you may have brought up. This list is
known as your bibliography.
There are several styles of documenting a bibliography, but the primary
elements are the same even though the order or format may be different.
This activity will help you to identify the basic elements of a
bibliographical reference.
Activity 4.6
lnstructions: Look at the reference below (written in two different stytes) and
answer the questions that fo[[ow. Feedback
,*s Brahms, 5. The Secret Life of Forests. Montego Bay: lsland Press. 1998.
You would probabty have identified
s Brahms, Sanjay (1998) . The Secret Life of Forests. Montego Bay: lsland
the following:
Press.
1 What is the name of the book?

1 The Secret Life of Forests.
2 Who wrote the book?

2 S. or Sanjay Brahms.
3 When was it written?

3 i998.
4 Where was it published? + Montego Bay.
5 Who pubtished it? 5 lsland Press.
These indicate the maior elements of a bibliographical reference: the

name of the authol, the title of the publication, the publisher's name,
the date of publication and the location of the publisher. Depending on
the nature of the reference, other elements would be added, for example
website, date of retrieval, or name of iournal.
Notice that the reference in the activity above gives the same basic
in{ormation regardless of how that information has been arranged'
The first reference is an example of the scientific style and the second
re{erence is an example o{ the humanities style. Whichever style yott
choose or is recommended by your tuto{, it is important that you use
it consistently. The most popular scientific bibliographical style is
the American Psychological Association (APA) and the most popular
humanities style is the Modern Language Association of America
(MLA) You can obtain more detailed information on those styles
from the associations'websites or from most texts on research in
your library.
Note that the sourcesjn your research paper should be listed
alphabetically on a separate page headed'References'which follows Example
the final page of the text. Entries should appear in alphabetical order
White every communitY should
accordinf to the last name of the author; two or more works by the same
be responsible for the disPosal of
author appear in chronological order by publication date'
its garbage, there must be a wider
Sometimes, as you write, you will need to refer to the source of an idea, governmental poticy governing the
principle or theory that you are describing. In this case, you need to special procedures they should use
indicate the source in your text. Note in the example that the reference (Reid and Sargusingh, 2000). The
in brackets tells your reader that the preceding idea was originally put Ranier communitY has imPlemented
forward by auth<lrs Reid and Sargusingh, whose text wrll appear in your such a policy.
bibliographical reference section.
Using someone else's ideas or phrasing as your own, either on purpose or

through carelessness, is a serious offence known as plagiarism. 'someone
else'can mean:
',, a professional source such as a published writer or critic in a book,
magazine, encyclopedia or journal
tl an electronic resource such as material on the internet
tl, the writing of another student at your school
r: a paper-writing service (online or otherwise) which offers to sell
written papers for a fee.
If you are presenting the author's exact words and not just the gist of
Example what he said, you must use quotation marks.
Spencer and Cattaghan (2OOl2a)
state that 'incineration is always the
Make sure that your reader can tell exactly which words were taken
most effective means of garbage directly from your source. In the event that you are using a longer
disposal'. However, this is the second quotation, skip a line, indent and write it as a block. Note that in this
least favoured method in the Ranier case there is no need to place inverted commas since the indentation tells
community. us that this is a quotation and the reference at the end tells us where it is
taken from.
Remember that plagiarism is a serious offence that infringes the
Example intellectual rights of others. Always give the reference of your source of
There seems to be a geographical information.
reason for the selected method of
disposa[:
Key points
ln most communities, the
geography of their location
seems to determine the means ',,' sources of data should be reliable
by which they dispose of their rri; graphics help to clarify your presentation
of data
garbage. Communities situated
near rivers are likely to throw
rtr research is always reported objectively
waste in those rivers while those or all sources must be acknowledged.
with more open space may
incinerate. (Ousami, 1999: 82)
In the next chapter you will learn more about organising information by
summarising the most important aspects of what you read or listen to.
This observation seems to be These skills will be useful whenever you undertake a research project
borne out in the case of the Ranier since you may not need to use all of the in{ormation you gather.
community, which is located on the
banks of a large river ...
Conclusion
Research is essentially systematic investigation which leads to reliable
and valid conclusions. You should always be careful to check the
reliability ofyour sources and to critically assess the bases on which you
rest your conclusions. Developing sound research skills helps you to
practise logical and analytical thinking skills. Regardless of what you are
researching, following the steps outlined in this chapter will ensure that
you maintain objectiviry throughout the process.

Simmonds-McDonald, H., Fields, L. and Roberts, p.Writingin EngJish
course Book for caribbean students, Kingston: Ian Randle, rg971ch. tl

Macmillan Caribbean, 2009 {ch. 9).
Chapter 4 Elements of research K
End Test
t Seleci one of the fottowing terms to insert in the appropriate space below:
authority retiabitity bias fact opinion data

When conducting research, we must check the ofthe : thatwe
collect. We should ask ourselves, 'ls the source an on the subject?'lVe must
be able to separate from or what peopte think. Good research
must be objective and must avoid-.
-
2 Indicate True or Fatse next to each of the fotlowing statements.
- -
a Marvin wants to cottect data on the incidence of disciplinary probtems f n his school.
He is most tikety to use the internet to obtain this data, ---;
b Mrs Kane, the janitor, says she believes that the incidence is very high' Her
statement coutd be used to support Marvin's findings.
c Marvin interviews the principat of the schoot. The principal would be regarded as a
reliable source.
- a statement on the
At the end'of his research, Marvin would be able to make
incidence of discipline problems in his district.
'What is the nature of disciptine probtems at this school?'woutd be considered a
valid research question.
Draw a tabte to depict the following ihformation:

A survey carried out to determine the poputarity of items on the school canteen
menu revealed that roti is by far the most favoured item. Students were asked to- :
list their favourite foods and 95% setected this item. O_n the other hand, onty 5olo of
students were interested in the satads. The second most popular choice was pizza,
select€d by 80% of students, white 7O% listed hamburgefs as one of their favourites. '
Both hotdogs and spaghetti were listed by, 45o,/o of students. However,, soup was only
stightty more popular than satads, having been chosen by onty 879 of students- l
The fottowing is a tine graph recordingthe average scores of boys and girls of the ,
Bluectoud High Schoot between 1992 and 2000. Write four observations thatyou can
make from the data presented. ':'r
100
,80
60
s
4A
'20
o
' I
e*ef *oF^."f ^g""êA *rq"""torC$ , ,
Year
Figure 4.j' Male/female score diiribitio;i r' '
'r I
5 Arrange the fotlowing infoimation into appropriate bibtiographicil format:

I Uooi calied west tnOi.nvoy.g", wriiten in iggi by Ratph Smith and pubtished
byJewet Pubtishers of Montserrat.
f Communication Studies
When conducting research, we must check the 4 You could have made any of the following
reliability ol the data that we cottect. We shoutd ask observations:
oursetves, 'ls the source an authority on the subject?' a The girls' average score was consistently higher
We must be able to separate /acf from opinion or than that of the boys'.
what peopte think. Cood research must be objective
and must avoid blas.
b The girls' score [eve[[ed out at7So/o from 1998
to 2000 while the bovs' score fluctuated
a False. throughout.
b Fa[se. c The highest score achieved by girts was
c True. 90% in 1994 and 1996 whereas the highest
score achieved by boys was70%o in 1997
d False.
and 2000.
e True.
d The girls' lowest score was 70% white that of the
boys was 60%.
Food i Percentage popularity
e The smatlest difference between girts' and boys'
Roti scores was 5 percentage points in 2000 white
the greatest difference was 30 percentage
Doints in 1994.
Hamburgers 70
Hotdogs 45 5 Smith, Ratph (1999). WestlndianVoyages,

Montserrat: jeweI Publishers.
Spaghetti 45
Or
Soup
Smith, R. West Indian Vovages, Montserrat: Jewel
Satad Pubtishers.1999.
The fotlowing assignment shoutd be done after compteting Chapters 3 and 4.
Select a topic that you would like to research. Ensure that you discuss it
with your tutor and locate two articles that deal with this iopic.
Wite a comparison of the two wriiers; approaches to ihe topic, evaluiiing

the reliability of each.
Marking criteria
Content 40%
Organisation 30Y"
Language 30%
5 Summary skitts
lntroduction
Summary skills are important in all areas of work and study. As a student
you will need the ability to condense the information you read and listen
to, into succinct notes and outlines to assist you in understanding and
memorising it. If you have good summary skills, organising information
for future study and revision will be easy. You will also need these skills
in the workplace to facilitate the writing of memoranda, reports or oral
presentations.
Specific objectives The exercises in this chapter will help you to develop the skill of reducing
inJormation to a concise, easily accessible format. You must complete all
You should be abte to: parts.
distinguish between main and
subsidiary ideas Content
use graphic organisers to ,l Summary skills:
summarise information
'ir;l note-tal 'ng and note-rnaking
make structured notes '':r distinguishing main and subsidiary ideas
write prose 5grrn66pig5. ' ,' :':" r understanding logical linkages between ideas
',: formulating topic sentences and linking them to subsidiary ideas:
* sequencrng
* condensing
x writing outlines
s writing continuous prose summaries.
Distinguishing between main and subsidiary ideas

The following activities will help you to deterrnine the main idea of a piece
of writing to distinguish betweel the main idea and subsidiary details.
"trJ
This activiry will help you to understand what is meant by'main idea'.
Activity 5J
lnstructions: Read the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow.
Feedback
lf you said the paragraPh was about

a hurricane or storm that destroyed
a country, you were correct. The
main idea is the main event or the
main topic that a piece of writing is
1 What/whom do you think the paragraph is about?
about or what the writer wants You
to understand by the Piece. {" What happened?
Now thinl< about some of the things that told you the extract was about a
hurricane. You must have referred to the howling wind, the roofs blown away
and overflowing rivers. These things helped you to determine the main
idea.
You realise that even though you used certain references in the paragraph
to come to your conclusion you did not need to mention them in your
main idea. These references are your subsidiary details. Subsidiary
details are aspects of a piece of writing that contribute to the reader's
understanding but are not the main point of the piece. They could have
been replaced with other details that would have conveyed the same
impression. Now see if you can pick out some of the subsidiary details in
the following paragraph (Activity 5.2).
This activity will help you to distinguish between main and subsidiary
details.
Activity 5.2
lnstructions: Read the paragraph and complete the exercise below.
.:,ri:, . ....,
Place a tick next to the correct main idea and an 'X' next to the subsidiarv details.
1 Marva had walked a long way into the forest.
2 Marva was hungry.
Feedback J Dozens of paths led out ofthe forest.

4 Marva was lost in the forest.
lf you ticked sentence 4 you were
correct. The other sentences are a[[ 5 Marva went to pick guavas.
subsidiary details. 6 The guavas were ripe and juicy.
So far we have been finding the main idea in narrative passages. Howeveq,
in expository or argumentative writing, the author normally indicates the
main idea through the topic sentence of each paragraph. Do the following
activify to understand how this works.
This activity will help you to identify topic sentences.
Activity 5.3
lnstructions: Read the paragraph below and answer the question that fotlows.
Which of the following best sums up the passage?

Feedback 1 The Peking Man.
lf you chose sentence 2 you were 2 Findings in caves give us clues about ancient man.
correct. 3 Tools and weapons of early man.
Chapter 5 Summary skitts ffi
Sentence 2 is the topic sentence of the paragraph and also the main idea.
Notice that this was the first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence
very often comes near the beginning of the paragraph. Howevel, it can also
appear in other positions in the paragraph or come at the end. You have to
ensure that the sentence you pick sums up the main idea of the paragraph.
Now that you have understood the difference betlveen main idea and
subsidiary details, you are ready to learn the fundamentals of note-takrng.
Note-taking
Thking notes is an effective way of summarising what you read or listen
to. You need to get the gist of what has been read or heard and reduce it
to its essentials. Use this activity to practise this reducing skill.
Activity 5.4
lnstructions: Complete the foltowing crossword puzzle by using one word to
summarise the undertined phrases in each clue.
Figure 5.1 One-word summary
Clues
Across
waves'
2 My television has an intercePtor and transmitter of etectromagnetic
6 On receipt of your salary, you shoutd always pay those to whom you owe
money.
one
7 SeveraI things he said coutd be characterised as having more than
meaning.
Down
1 You should see

until you are 18 Years otd.
3 Sandra is a verv able, qualified and skilted technician'
4 | woutd like to speed uD or hasten the process of obtaining a [oan'

5 Fleas
orpanrSm.
Feedback
Across
? antenna 6 creditors 7 ambiguous

Down
1 paediatrician 4 expedite
3 competent 5 parasites
Apart from being precise when we make notes, we also have to

clistinguish between the main idea and the subsidiary details. This helps
us to organise our information for effective study. Look at the following
example.
]. ,t,a r:startsrdipstiOn]. ir,: ,,:r:, .rt ,:,,, ,.:r, ,,: ]j: 0i),,fO.odlgcomesChym€,:, ,:,, ,,,,,
:' :.,:b'tohtainsiativarygtinds '':; ;r1' 1'1r

+ :imittiit*1166,', ,,,, ,r1,' ,,i', '1,':.ir:. ,]:'
. (i) make sativa , . digestive juice

. (1) moisten food (i) pancreas
(Z) starch to sugar (ii) walls of small intestine
2 r:Oesophagusr: rr :' ' :i, rr,,j:, .,:r. r,,:.. .,::. ,{jji}i,.
tirerr.:,. ,:i, ,,r.' .,:r::., -t:i,
a convela food (1) bile or galt
to
(i) peristalsis , .' ,' , i:" .l .i"& *t"ir u1oo!rti"r, ,!':
c digestion completed r'
:, ,;- . r.i:.
'
3 Stomach 4
I 'r'r:' '11 1' rir' ttarge inteitirie 'r:r l::
a gaitric juices 1r::-
5' ',1".
::1:; :1: '1:11r '''1,"
(i) made in walls a liquid drained off

(ii) mu.cus protects b hotds solid wastes
. walls c rectum
If you were revisi'g for a biology test, these outlined notes would be a
good guide.
The following activity will help you to see how well-structured notes can
help you obtain, review and retain information.
Feedback
Activity 5.5
1 Digestion. lnstructions: see if you can answer the fottowing questions based on
the
example above.
2 Five.
1 What is the topic on which the notes were made?
3 Moistens food; converts starch
to sugar. J How many parts is the main topic divided into?
4 Inthe pancreas, wa[[s of the 3 What are the functions of saliva?

sma[[ intestine and the liver. 4" Where are digestive juices made?
#':i,11
ofr'.11r"$
Notice that you can find all the answers in the outline above. Howeveq,
should you need to reyiew the details of a specific area, the outline
immediately guides you to the relevant part of the textbook that you need
to read. Your outline notes simply put down the main ideas that you
want to remember.
Using graphic organisers

You can also use different types of graphic organisers or semantic
maps to summarise the information that you read. Graphic organisers
are a.very useful means of taking note of what you read. Look at the
example below. This is a simple graphic organiser used to illustrate
ecosystems.
Exampla
r:i.:: r:i,.' :::'il
. ':-
:1r,: , ,11.,' .::;ll.i' :it,r,i: :]tl:lii:',:t,i;l'r .tt:,tr. i:lil:'

Fta,ias. tt
.]]i:].ll ti:.rt'
,,':,'::, ,,'1,,i',' .,..::::: ,:]:,,, ,'il t:l: I '::].:. :'11;,..
':;:l '.:,',,
Notice that the main ideas related to ecosystems have been put in a
way that allows you to see connections instantly' Graphic organisers are
excellent study aids.
Activity 5.6 will help you to interpret a semantic map and understand its
usefulness.
Activity 5.6
lnstructions: Look at the semantic map below and answer the questions that
foItow.
o)! c'\
o
\d_
,\"e
,e
Feedback Figure 5.3 Transport system in mammals
"l Four main parts. 1 lnto how many main parts do you think the chapter on transport systems
in mammals is divided?
2 The capittaries perform an
intermediary function, moving 2 Why might the diagram be enhanced by an arrow between arteries and
capillaries and between the capitlaries and the veins?
blood from the arteries to the
vetns. 3 lf you were reviewing for a test on this topic, under which heading would
you find information on what happens to btood after it teaves thd heart?
3 Btood vessels.
If you got the above answers correct/ it means that you understand how
semantic maps work. You can experiment with different types of maps
and other graphic organisers to suit your purpose.
Prose summaries
writing summaries is another good way of mastering what you read. Like
note-taking or creating graphic organisers, good prose summaries should
have the following characteristics:
* They should contain only the most important information.
*r They should be organised logically.
s They should be stated in your own words as much as possible.
On the right is an example of a prose summary of the chapter on

Example
ecosystems.
An ecosystem describes the links
Note that the information in the prose summary in the example is the between and among four major
same as that given by the graphic organiser in the previous example. organisms: producers, primary
These are just different ways of summarising in{ormation. You may want consumers, secondary consumers
to vary your method of organising information based on your style of and decomposers. The producers,
studying and the type o{ information you wish to summarise. which are usually green plants, get
their inputs from sunshine, rainwater
The following activity will allow you to practise writing a short prose and minerals. These plants are eaten
summary. by the primary consumers, which
in turn are eaten by secondary
Activity 5.7 consumers. Waste products and
lnstructions: ln three or four lines, write a summary of the passage below. dead consumers are eaten bY
decomDosers, which break down
organic matter and return it to the
soi[, which feeds the producers so
that the whole cycle can begin again.
Feedback
The conceot of the mind was first

studied by Creek phitosophers.
Aristotle argued that the mind was
not part of the physicaI body, whereas
Plato and Caten thought that the
mind existed in the brain. Both views
are sti[[ held today.
check your own summary against the feedback to see if you included
any points that were not crucial to the main idea, or if you excluded any
important points. Remember that your summary should also be in your
own words.
Note that after completing rhe End Test, you should continue to practise
summarising and making structured notes. You can do this with any
textbook or resource material.
Key points
s the main idea sums up the gist or the most important messaSe rn a
piece of inJormation
m graphic organisers enable you to summarise information and clarify
your thinking
$ structured notes always state the main point first and list the main
supporting details
is a prose summary should not be longer than one-third of the length of
an entire piece and should not include unnecessary detail'
In this chapter we have looked at summary skills that will be essential to
your study habits. In the next chapter we will look at more specific study
skills that you should develoP'
Conclusion
You will need to practise the skills you have learnt in this chapter in all
areas of study. You must be able to extract the gist of information that
you read or listen to in order to comprehend it. If you take rough notes
as you listen to a lecture, always remember to put them into an ordered
format as you have learnt in this chapter. It is important to do this at the
end of every day. Use different methods of summarising. Remember that
the time you spend organising your information will pay of| in ease and
convenience of later study.
Suggested fu rther read ing

Lalla, B. English for Academic purposes, St Augustine: university of the
West Indies, Distance Education lJnit, 1997.
Simon, V and Osborne, S. CA?E Communication Studies, London:
EndTeSt '
Answer all questions. 'i ,
1 Select the main idea in each of the paragraphs below.
Paraanohl I
Associations betnveen t"r

T".p."re not always onedded as they are in
parasitism; there are many in which both parbrers derive benefit. These are
examples of nu,rtualism or symbiosis, although the tatter r,rord i, .*n"ti*",
., uqed to describe a1ry ctq5e dsociatb bgLweqn two species. The association:l,. ;1,
betv/een herbivorous mamrnals and the microbes in their food canats is clearlv
symbiotic, because mammats get help with their digestion and the microhs
. get both fbod.and setter. nre tt*biifs tfuingixt,rh[ uact*son*lnff:'and:ither
: ,,
large mamrnals are examples, for the birds eat the tick and the marflmds
benefrt from losing them. lichem are intimate associations between a fungus
' and;in'a@; lri $uhirh both prtners ebnuibutd'sory€ o*tngtood; lif . -
il
a Microbes and mammals benefit from close association with each other.
b Mutualism or symbiosis enables two species to live closely together.
c There are many assoCiations between two species, which are mutually beneficial.
Paragraph 2
To perform theirfunctions properly, satellitesrnust beconectlyorierrtated, or

positioned in a certain direaion inlpace. A weather sateltite mrst a*al point
its cameras towards the earth. A communications satettite must alwayspoint its
directionalantennae towards a ground statiofl. An astrono+nical satgiite must ue
capable of being pointed at specific regions of the heavens. Maintaining and chansine
the orientation of a satellite in space are the functions of its altitude .*rttot ryrtJ"."
, . Tfte qy.stenr, indude-sseosort,thrustefs, mornentum
@k:and:Osciiation *ilg..,
a Cround stations are important to satellite functions.
b A satetlite must be positioned correctly in order to function efficientty.
c The altitude control systern controls the functionsof a satellite.
Create a table to summarise the following information.
The Reading Habitsof High School Studer?ts
The research was carried out with a granp of 60 stud,ents. There was an equal number
of girls and boys. The data revealed that att the gifu read novels white ordy hatf
the number of boys did so. Atthough 26 girts reported that they enjoyed reading
magazines, only one-third of t}e boys [isted magazines among their readng material
Howeuer, 28 boys read comic books, compared to hatf that number of gifu. Half of
beth gloupi rgadinsirtspaFersr:Futllo,stedenr,repqrted redng:isurtlah.',':r:' '"'.:'
'
Make a structured note outtine of the information given in the following Passage.
Glaucorna is a group of diseases that can [ead to danrage to the eye's optic nerve and
result in btindness.
a;r..ag[ i fu;l, .rr" npst cqnrpn tor. ot g;.#u, u#rt iii.;l ',i'
million Americans - hatf of whom don't know they have it lt has no symPtoms at
fint. thr years it can steal your sight. With earty treatment, you can often
Bgt over
prot"a you, igainst serious vision tois and btindness. Although you witl never be
, "y"s
creO *gtqrcofila,hauirent",Often'can:co :it Glaucoma treatmentsindud*,' .,]:'l,
Medicine: Medicines are the most common early treatment for glaucoma. They come
in the form gf dTp:."ld.pitls. Some cause tlE eye to make less fluid. Others lower
:ry
pressure by hetping ftuid drain from the eye.
Glaucoma drugs may be takefl several times a day' Most people have no problems.
However, somi teiicin"s can caus€ headaches or have side effects whkh affect
odrer parts of the body. Drops may cause stinging bwning and redness in the eye.
Ask your eye-care professbnal to show you how to Put the drops into your eye. In
aoaiiion, t&t yorx ep-care Fufussionaiabout othei medications you may be taking
.|$re3ou;begi$glqt!.qratFt!!!$nt.'...''..:::.:ll.::l..1.:..l::1..'']::11l1.;;i;;'ll::l.l:ll:l
Many drugs are available to treat glauconra. lf you have problems with one
medication tet[ your eye-care professionat. Treatment using a different dosage or a
new drug rnay be possible.
' vau *in nEia ta,iirem" sior'trruio, ru *'rod"r'ihei]rktr' - tr :yoar +

, pgls-utre. T!!is ieryeryr]impqltaq!, Beeauw glaucoma often has no lrmptoms, pgople "':'
may be tempted to stop or may forget to take their medicine'
laser nrrgery (atso catled taser trabeculoptasty): Laser surgery helps ftuid drain out of
tr" fi"'"".jgn e)rc-care professional tay sugg"ttla# tutg"ry
*", *y tit",
"v". "t to
l, . it,iq often Aqne itter:qryi*g tratment with rmedi€ines.ln '8:tany'cases; You will need
keep taking gtaucoma drugs even after laser surgery.
Laser surgery is performed in an eye-care professional's office or eye clinic. Before the
surgery, yow eye-care professional wilt appty drops to numb the eye.
' ;*1n*i"dtr,"ilr",
-o machine, your eye-care il ,,i;"" 1r furJii t&i.i!;";'
,.:. t ey ntrigrenergr beamof light isaimed att$e l€nsand refteetEd&iitothe
rr:rr'
rneshwo* inside yow eye. You may see ftashes of bright Sreen or red tight. The laser
makes 5G100 eventy spaced bums. These burns stretch the drainage hc[es in the
meshwork-This hetps to open the holes and {ets fluid drain better through ttrem.
Yorr eye-care professionat witt cfreck your eye Pressure shortty afterwards. He or she
may a[so give you some drops to take home for any soreness or swetling inside ttre .
You witt need to make several fotlow-up visits to have your Pressure monitored.
"ye.
Once you have had laser surgery over the entire meshwork, further laser treatment
rry *t hetp. Studies show ihat laser surgery is very good at getting the Pressure
,: dsarnr:Sut its efkctg,qoffietirn€s we3rtoff ovEr time. Trwo )Fars,afteq lase,t surfefti',lhe,,
,,,
eryssu*incfasesagainFmo-rethanhalf o:f.a[tPatientt,,,.,,,, ,,,.,,,, ,.;,,., ,.,:;;,, ,r.,,, rri:r,i.r ,r,i
il Communication Studies
Conventbnal surgery: The purpose of zurgery is to rnake a rmv opening for the fluid
to leave the eye. Although your eye-care professional rnay suggest
it at any time,
this surgery is often done after medicine and {aser surgery have fuiled to control your
;prQ!9uf&1 aal. . ,.:.:,) .'. ''....:., ; ,11;, ,,,,;,, r, ,,,;, .. , ,,,1
','1i::1
Surgery h performed in a dinic or hospitat. Before the s.trgery, )pur qie-@re
profussional gives you medicine to heh lou relax and then sma[ injectiom arourd the
eye to make it numb.
Use the passage in Question 3 to write a prose summary of approximatety 90-100

words.
1 Paragraph 'l: c. Note that although your outline may not be exactly
Paragraph 2: a. like this, you can check to see if you have included the
most pertinent information that is oresented above.
2 You could have created a table that looked liked this:
4 This is an example of the type of information your
Type of reading Girls Boys prose summary wou[d have included:
material ,,
.. I i,::. ., t::-: :..:. ...
Nove[s 30 15 Glaucoma is a comrnon disease which isincurable

but can be treated. Medkal treatments inctude eye
Magazines 26 10 drops and pitls, some of radrich may have side effects.
Comic books 14 1,.1
Tlgre6Xet*otypsof surgicdlre1-unentfolthis.:r :;'.,
disease. Laser surgery can be used to support the

Newspapers 15 15 drug trcatmenl lt reduces the pressure in the eye
Journals 0 ;'; ry];cre-s$ng,area5,pf 4rainage. Howeyer, its effeeli, ,..j,'

are tenporaDf. Conventional rurgery also creates
drainage openings. h is the tast option and is usualty
Your outline may have tooked [ike this: done after medicine and lcer surgery are no longer
effectiva (87 words)
Alaucoma treatments :!:r.. : l.li. .:l:i::l
1 Medicine
Note that if you have gone beyond 1 00 words, you
a most common treatment wi[[ most likety have included subsidiary details that
b reduces or drains ftuid in eye are not criticaI to the gist of the passage.
c may have side effects (stinging buming
..:,,!r.,,,
'.j,r': r.ednes*).:: ::1;r' ;l:1r. .,:1.:: .r.rjr , ,:l' t:::
2 Laser surgery
,ri:r a.r,r helpsdrain,fluid,:,,, ,:; , ,,.;, , ,,;1. ,,1,, ,,r,
b. reduces pressure in eye

c can be performed in doctor's office
d retief is temporary (approx, two years).
:,::tt: '::i::," iii.,,r' ,"i' l:rl
':5' tanVelrti"mf Sqa6
' a used as a last resort
. b creates openings forfluid drainage
c performed in hospitals/clinics.
5 Study skitts
lntroduction
Many people undertake the task of study without understanding how to
approach it. Unless you take a systematic approach to your study time
and procedures, you will find it difficult to organise information and gain
app[y comprehension skilts of control of what you need to know.
anatysis and criticaI evaluation
to a wide range of oral and Summarising is a key study skill. This chapter will help you to identify
written materia[. other general study skills that will enable you to approach and handle
information effectively.
Content
Specific objectives
General study skills:
You should be able to:
*,: preparing to study (understanding mental, emotional and physical
make mentaI and physical connections, scheduling, controlling distractions )
preparations for study n defining and distinguishing between reading and listening
identify and use speciaI reading j:. setting purposes for reading (surveying, skimming, scanning)
skitts * setting purposes for listening (general, specific)
understand the process of ::' understanding factors which affect reading and listening
listening comprehension
select and use appropriate

strategies for accessing and Preparing to study
processing information. The preparation that you make to begin your study is as important as the
act of studying itself. Poor preparation often leads to bad study habits and
the stressful feeling of being overwhelmed by work.
This activity will help you to evaluate your own study habits.
Activity 6J
lnstructions: Answer the fotlowing questions Yes or No. Your answers should
be honest.
"tr | set personal goats every week.
2 | have specific study blocks of time

3 | tike to be spontaneous in my study habits. _
Feedback
4 | usuatly set target dates to reach my goats. _
lfyou have good study habits, 5 When I have no homework, I use my study time for other activities.
you should have answered Yes to
6 | am easily distracted from my studying.
Questions 1,2, 4 and 7 and No to
Questions 3, 5 and 6. 7 | maintain a balance of sociaI and academic activities.
You need to continually balance the three areas in your life: work, study
and leisure. Of course these three areas will not always be divided equally.
You will need to decide which area requires priority time at various stages
of your life. Your specific goals and needs at each stage will help you
determine this. Therefore, you are constantly adjusting these areas of
your life to achieve the sort of balance that creates happiness and reduces
StTESS.
Creating a weekly time management schedule can help you balance

your life and make appropriate adjustments to your schedule. The steps
involved in creating a weekly time management schedule are listed
below.
1 Write in all of your fixed activities. These are activities that do not
change from week to week, for example meals, sleep and church.
2 Write in your fixed study times for each subject. These will be the
times that you complete assignments, review completed work,
preview the work to come and create new study tools.
3 Add some flexible study times. These are additional periods of
time that you can use as a 'safefy net' in case you have unexpected
assignments or you have underestimated the amount of time required
for a specific amount of work. You can always convert your flexrble
time into free time if you wish.
4 Add times for specific goals. These goals are not necessarily academic.
They may include cleaning your cupboards or following a programme
of exercise. Unless vou schedule them vou will most likelv not work
on these goals.
5 Add times for other responsibilities. For example, household
chores or taking your grandmother to the market are some of the
responsibilities that may have to be slotted into a time schedule. If
you do not take these things into account, you will underestimate the
amount of time you actually have for study.
6 Schedule times for leisure, social and family actMties. This is a
very important area. Leaving out leisure/social time will create an
imbalance in your li{e and could lead to stress.
The example on page 5l is based on the life of a single working
individual who is pursuing self-study courses in Communication
Studies, Computer Science and History. Notice that there is ample time
for social or relaxation activities. Free time can be used for anything:
exercise, meditation, leisure reading, etc. You should try not to study
during your free time. Use 'flex' time if you need additional time for
study or assignments. Remember that time management schedules vary
from individual to individual and week to week.
This activity will help you to create a personal weekly time management
schedule.
Activity 6.2
lnstructions: Use the example on page 51 and create a time schedule for the
coming week. Ensure that you have followed the steps given above. Try out
your schedule and reflect, at the end of the week, on how well you managed
and what needs to be adjusted in your next schedule.
Chapter 6 Study skitts I
Feedback
You may have noticed that some of your activities were not catered for. You
wi[[ need to fit in reatistic time for these in your next schedule. You may also
have found that either there was not enough time or there was too much time
for one subject area. The results of this trial schedule witt hetp you to make a
more realistic judgement of time needed for individuaI activities.
Mon Tues Wed Thurs I Fri
7.00-8.00
commute
Work Wake, eat
| 9.00-10.00 Work Play tennis Church
10.00-'11.00 ' Work Play tennis Church
11.00-12.00 Work Chores Brunch
Brunch
I 12.00-1.00 Work
1.00-2.00 Lunch Lunch Free
Free Free
Work Comm. Famity

3.00-4.00
Studies visiting
Commute/ Comm. Famity

4.00-5.00
relaxation Studies visiting
Choir r Free Flex FIex History History

r 5.00-6.00 Free
practice
Dinner Dinner Dinner Dinner Dinner FIex History

6.00-7.00
7.00-8.00 Comm. TV Comm. History sociat time Social time Dinner

Studies Studies
History Comm. Computer Flex

Comm.
Studies Studies Science
: Ftex Computer Ptan weekly

9.OO-1O.OO Computer
schedule
, Science Science
10.00-11.00 Computer Flex Computer TV : Steep
Science Science
11.00-7.00
The following actrvify will help you to determine whether you have the
necessary resources {or comfortable study.
Activity 6.3
lnstructions: Complete the following checklist by ptacing a tick in front of each
item that you have.
1 A ouiet studv area
2 _ Adequate work surface

3 _ Lead and coloured pencils, sharpeners, erasers
4 _ Pens, hightighters
5 _ Paperclips, rubber bands
5 _ Stapler and staples
7 _ Calculator
I _ Ruler, mathematicaI instruments (if needed)
9 _ Scissors, paper punch
10 _ Dictionary and thesaurus

11 _ Notepaper, blank paper
'12
_ Index cards
13 _ File folders for papers, handouts and notes

'14 _Textbooks
15 _ Course outlines, syllabuses
Feedback
Try to ensure that you acquire the items that you have not ticked. Having the
physicat study aids wi[[ assist you in getting to work quickty whenever you
begin your period of study. lt wi[[ also eliminate the distraction of searching for
items or making several trips to the supply store.
Exampte Special reading skitts

Skimming when you study, you will want to obtain information as effectivelv and
accurately as possible in order to make the most of your time. There are
Reading a paragraph just to get a
sense of what it is about. certain skills that help you to access information quickly and efficiently.
Mastering and practising these skills will enable you to use your study
Checking the headtines in the time well and, therefore, maintain your time management schedule as
newspaPer. planned.
Skimming and scanning are tvvo skills that help make locating the
Exampte inJormation you want much easier.
Scanning a; You use skimming when you need only a general idea of the material.
Looking for a telephone number. Therefore, you do not need to read everything too carefully.
* You generally use scanning when you know what you are looking for
Looking for a word in the index of a
and are trying to locate it in the material. you do not need to read
book.
all the material but only the main ideas that are pertinent to vour
Checking for the correct spelting of needs.
a word.
Chapter 6 Study skills X
This activity will help you to practise your skimming skill.
Activity 6.4
lnstructions: Skim the following paragraph in 15 seconds or less to get an idea
of the gist.
Feedback
From a few seconds of skimming

you should have reatised that the
paragraph deals with the growing use
of tetevision in adult education. Now
oractise this skitt with material from
your subject areas or the newspapers
i,r.irii:::ri, :i.::ai
and magazines thatyou read.
il,rr,i
This activity will help you to practise your scanning skill.
Activity 6.5
lnstructions: Scan the paragraph below in 30 seconds or less to find out the
answers to the fo[lowing questions:
'l Which body initiatty assumed responsibility for facilitating communication
between adult educators?
2 When was the InternationaI Congress of University Adult Education

founded?
Feedback
lf you were abte to determine the

fotlowing answers in the required
time frame, you are utilising your
scanning ski[[s very well.
1 UNESCO.
2 1960.
The process of listening

Example
In addition to developing good reading skills, you should ensure that your Tony asks his daughter to bring
listening skills allow you to process inJormation effectively. Much of the him the tetephone directory. She
inJormation you receive will be via oral sources/ for example your tuto1, the acknowledges his request and brings
electronic media, your peers or study group. Unless your Iistening skills him the dictionary.
are ef{ective, it will be difficult to take accurate notes {or further study.
Tony's daughter heard the request but
It is important to remember that hearing is not listening, it is only a part was not listening. Listening requires
of listening. In fact, like reading, listening is a process and hearing is the more than absorbing sounds and being
first stage of this process. Failure to engage in the entire process can lead aware that words have been spoken.
to misunderstanding.
There are four steps in the listening process:
1 Hearing: attending to the sounds and words of a message.
2 Interpretation: deciphering the correct meaning/intention of a message.
Evaluation: deciding what to do with information you have received or

determining its value.
4 Responding: verbat/visual responses that indicate you have received the message.
Figure 5.1 The four steps of the listening process
In order to listen effectively, you should set your purpose for listenin.g
and then concentrate and focus on what you are hearing. fust as you
learned to do while reading in Chapter 2, you must question yourself
continuously as you listen.
This activity will help you to practise focused listening.
Activity 6.6
lnstructions: Select a television or radio broadcast, or a pubtic speech/address
to listen to. Determine your purpose for listening. Make notes on the main
ideas of the piece. Then ask yourself the questions tisted below:
1 Can I summarise what | listened to?
2 Was ldistracted while I tried to listen?
3 Did I maintain interest in the tooic?
4 Did the speech make me want to ask questions?
5 Did I experience any emotions as | listened?
Feedback
1 lf you were able to note att of the main ideas, you shoutd be able to
summarise the information that you set out to gather.
2 Note the type of distractions, if any, and try to control those in future oy
deliberately tuning them out.
3 lf you were abte to maintain interest, you were most tikety concentratrng
appropriatety.
4 lf the materialyou listened to evoked questions in your mind, this is further

proof that you were listening attentively and with interest.
Chapter 6 Study skitts il
5 You may have fett empathy, you may have agreed or disagreed with
the speaker, experienced anger, scepticism, humour or a host of other
feelings. This means you were caught up in what you were listening
to and you had reached the [eve[ of response, which is an indicator of
effective [istening.
Remember that listening does not happen automatically. It requires

a concerted effort on your part to receive, perceive, concentrate/ asslgn
meaning and respond to the message. A good listener takes accurate
notes, which help to make studying much easier and more focused.
Strategies for accessing information

One of the most important strategies you can adopt is that of surveying a
textbook or other resource material before you begin to use it' Surveying
is the process of previewing that helps you become acquainted with
the information before you begin reading. It saves you from spending
needless time later on, trying to locate information in the book or even
trying to determine how useful the book is to your needs'
The following activity will help you to evaluate the approaches you
should take to previewing or surveying a text.
Activity 6.7
lnstructions'.Write Yes or No in resPonse to the questions listed betow.
1 | recognise the name of the author of the text.

2 | know how currentthe book is. -
3 -
| have a general idea of how the chapters are organised.
4 | usually skip the preface and introduction ofthe book. -

5 | use the tabte of contents to get an idea of the topics I -
wi[[
be studying. _
6 | onty read the chapters assigned by mytutor'
7 | hardty ever use the gtossary. -

-
Feedback
lf you answered Yes to questions 1,2,3 and 5 and No to questions

4, 6 and Z you are probabty already using the surveying technique,
Surveying helps you become familiar with a book's content,

orgarrisation and features. You can survey an average text in less than
30 minutes. As you survey, look at each part and note the features,
but you do not need to read thoroughly. These are minutes well spent
since you will use the information you gather throughout your period
of study.
Think of the areas of a book that you need to survey in two parts: the
front and the back. The front part has four areas to survey as follows.
t:Titte pdge ,,rl rrr: i Z'rCopyright prge:l :r:
r. Front of the book ,,

o,. Datg o{ pubticaliort,
r. Nameofbook, . Printing history
.':' Authof's nime' l .'::'jrPublisher's,irddiesi,'
r.', Textbook edition ,: rr,,,,,lSBN number. ,,,. i,,
r Pqbtishing ,:,,,
location. '
3 Tabte oJ contents 4 lntr:oductorly mater:lal

o Titles of units . Information about
' and chiptiis :'' ':rthe author"' :';:.. :..:: ':
.i, Page numbers;,r ,, r':,' PurposB of ,the boqk r.
.,, Speciqf fealurq5

. Acknowledgementi.
:)
Figure 6.2 The front parts of a book
The back part of the book has the following areas to survey,
5,Appendix """ r'., ,rr

6'',Glo$ary r:r',1
o Suppteme,qtary, ,. t::t Deftnitions:of

materiaI specific terrns
j,' Aiiswer key5 ",,' '''
!,i E)dra.exercisBsr .:::.,
::, Ulefut tables, !.naps,

.
formulae.
7 Refsrences/bibtiography ; Stlndex .,,. ,,;,., .,...: .r:,. ...,rr

r Credit to works cited . Page numbers of
or used specific topics I
. Suggested readings. .':'Alphabeti6ttistingl lll
,,,.
of,,lmportqlrt names, :,,
terms,
,,, .concePF, ..,,,,. ...,
Figure 6.3 The back partsofa book
Another strategy that facilitates srudy is the Se3R method. The Se3R
method is a proven way to sharpen study skills. Se3R stands for Survey,
Question, Read, Recite, Review. It is a good slogan ro commlt to memory
in order to carry out an effective study strategy.
Activity 6.8 will help you to practise the Se3R method.
Chapter 5 Study skitts ffi
Activity 6.8
lnstructions: Find a chapter in one of your textbooks or another appropriate
piece of information and fotlow the steps outtined below:
1 Survey - get the best overal[ picture of what you are going to study before
you study it in any detai[.
2 Question - ask questions for learning. The important things to learn are
usua[[y answers to questions. Questions should lead to emphasis on the
what, why, how, when, who and where of study content. Ask yourself
questions as you read or study.
3 Read - reading is not running your eyes over a textbook. When you
read, read actively. Read to answer questions you have asked yourself or
questions the instructor or author has asked. Always be alert to bold or
italicised print.
4 Recite - stop reading periodicalty to recatl what you have read. Try to
recall main headings, important ideas of concePts presented in bold or
itaticised type, and what graphs charts or iltustrations indicate.
5 Review - survey what you have covered. lt is a review of what you are
supposed to have accomplished.
Feedback
Surveying shoutd have helped you to develop a sense of what wou[d be

important as you read.
The questions you asked were a result of the impressions made on you by
what you read. As you answered your questions, this should have helped
you to make sense of the materiaI and remember it more easily. Those
things that make impressions are more meaningfu[, and, therefore, more
easity remembered. Do not be afraid to write your questions in the margins
of textbooks, on lecture notes, or wherever it makes sense.
When you read, be sure to read everything, including tabtes, graphs and
ittustrations. Often, tabtes, graphs and illustrations can convey an idea
more powerfutty than written text.
Try to develop an overall concePt of what you have read in your own
words and thoughts. Try to connect things you have just read to things
you already know. When you do this periodicatty, the chances are you wi[[
remember much more and be able to recat[ material for papers, essays and
objective tests.
Rereading is an important Part of the review Process. Reread with the idea
that you are measuring what you have gained from the Process. During
review, it is a good time to go over notes you have taken to hetp ctarify
points you may have missed or do not understand. The best time to review
is when you have just finished studying something. Do not wait untiIjust
before an examination to begin the review Process.
One of the most effective study aids is writing notes in your textbook as
you read. However, you should use a specific method {or marking your
books and you should use it consistently.
,:; Underline or highlight important points that you want to stand out
immediately or that you need to remember.
:' When rereading or studying, concentrate on those highlighted areas.
W Communication Studies
Always underline the topic sentence (which contains the main

idea of a paragraph).
", Underline key words and phrases that are supporting details.
, Circle important terminology or words you know you will have to
define.
1 use numbers to label steps or lists.
,,. Az[4ks brief notes in the margins of your book, including
questions that you ask while reading or a brief paraphrase of
the information.
Use abbreviations in the margins to draw your attention to specifics,
for example, DEF (definition); IMP (important) or'?' (information
that you do not understand and need to come back to).
Figure 6.4 is an example of a piece of text marked for study.
Example
@the time.r'arty in the development of human cultures, be#e1he use
of metals. when tools and weapons were made of stone. The dates of the stone
Agevaryconsiderablyfordifferentpartsofthewortd@
,r: it 'began about Z rnitlion yqears ago. J,n the rnott advancEd parts of th5lv!&!dle EgE!.,
and southe.ast Asia it ended about 6000 Bc, but it tingered untit 4oU0 sc or later
in Europe, the rest of Asia, and Africa. The Stone Age in the Americas began when
human beings first arrived in the New Wortd, some 30,000 years ago, and ended
in some areas about 25OO ac at the earliest.
'1.::1.;......1..::::...::..::....:'li:.'.i'],,''.:.
I lhlsugh6ul':the immense,tirner,spen of the S.tone Age, vast changes occur,red,in,::'
:r,climale in,.otherr,conditions affecting human culture. Humans themselves,,
an-d,,
evolved into.their m.9dqm form during the latter part of it. The stone Age has
accordingly into three periods: the paleotithic, Mesolithic, and
R""T,,fl'#"d
Q,'' rhe@leglitFiEior'r'old'Stbn€ Age, wasrthe'tongett. I't began about z::rnillion years
,,:r ago, when stone tools:]wererfirst,iused !y humanoid creatures,:rand ended,with the
i. iclgse..of the:las[ ice age about 13,0O0 Bc. ,The] hunting and'gathe4ing of food was
,
the norm. At first, single tools, such as chipped pebbtes or ftaked stone imDle-
ments, were used for att.purposes. over time,;iariety or toors were rnaairor
specific purposes, By about 10o,o0o years ago, Neandertha[ cuttures had several
'','typeElof ioots and:weie usin! bone'impleme'nts;,' ,:, ',..; .. ',:,.
,,,,,,
'
ts
d^li64
r': After,13,00O eC' more'clement Weather patterns resuttedjn the greaterr,availabit::
,, itlr of food.. In tropicalrrand ternpefate,,,,for€st regions,r;pa[eo[lth.ie tools, sti[[:,
ElPp:+--y"r". :glpt"_d to the new conditions. This period is known as the ft^''' il
^Q O4esolithic)or Middle Stone Ase. tn
chAn€a
'. tn:both it',",MiaaL! eist and rnrl'tesoimerici; nf*iuai, agrtiutturar'viltagis had:,
',t begun to devetop: by,gOOO,.,sc:, This ils khown as fhe:rue6Ut6;s:pe,fiod, Ei XeW.
-
,':. stone,A,gs.,.Stone,tools became highty p6lishedand varied, :By 6000 Bc pottery,
,,, appeared inl,thg ancient.,Middte Easti!@_glppgl,was,,us€d for,Ihe,fir:st time in
q,, some regioqg. !p olher r"-tlof't, the@,
Figure 6.4 Text marked for study

Chapter 6 Study skitts ffi
As you read more widely and go through your period of study, you will
develop more personalised methods of study or become accluainted with
other recommended strategies. Tiy out as many as you can and use what
works {or you. Now read the following study tips before completing the
End Test.
Study tips
Decide what to study (reasonable task) and how long or how many
(chapters, pages, problems). Set and stick to deadlines.
3iq Do difficult tasks first.
Have special places to study. Thke into consideration lighting,
temperature and availability of materials.
Study for 50 minutes, and then take a l0-minute break. Stretch, relax,
have an energy snack.
Allow longer, 'massed' time periods for organising relationships and
concepts, outlining and writing papers. Use shorter, 'spaced' time
intervals for rote memorisation, review and self-testing' Use odd
moments for recalVreview.
If you get tired or bored, switch task/activify, subf ect or environment'
Stop studying when you are no longer being productive.
Do rote memory tasks and review, especially details, iust before you
fall asleep.
;* Study with a friend. Quiz each other, compare notes and predict test
questions.
Key points
l* time management is essential to successful study
w there are a variety of study methods or techniques that you can try
s it is necessary to create an environment that is conducive to study
:r familiarising yourself with the material that you are about to use
assists later comprehension.
Conclusion
The time management techniques discussed in this chapter are key to
effective study habits. Organising your time into specific blocks will
enable you to ensure that all of your activities are catered for and that
each one receives appropriate attention. Even after completion of this
chaptel, you will need to spend time practising and fine-tuning your study
skilis so that you can receive maximum benefit from them. Studying with
a partner or group and comparing strategies can be very useful'
Suggested f urther readi ng

Grant, P. Reading and study sft/,Is, Englewood clif{s: Prentice Hall Inc.,
1997.
Lalla, B. English for Academic Purposes, St Augustine: University of the

West Indies, Distance Education Unit, 1997 (Unit 4)'
End Test
Answer a[1 questions.
1 List the steps needed to make an effective weekly time managem.ent schedule.
2 Scan the excerpt from a table of contents below in order to answer the questions that
fo[[ow.
',ircQntents: .r,, ',:i., i.ti:. .ti:t ,.tt:.

.r
Getting started :5 ''

i.r I 'r,:i. r:rl ::r,. ..t,i t:: .i:i-. .r:,- r.ii,r ,i
tt, ,,t:.
Project overview .,,6,,,,, .,
Designing your new kitchen '9 1
.,,t-ii,r.t..
Sample plans 'F. ,::;,' .1
:, oeret;tnb iitoor pian ' ': 14 '':" ',
'a.: .:)...
Planning storage units 171, l
Dismantting the otd kitchen {9,'-i!rri I.
-t:t :i l, l-i
Appliances 4o ,,r, ,
Countertops ,U.,,,,.
,,
,i:1., , ilt i, .,t,
Cabinets 25..,', ..
: ,WillcOveiing! :,', !r' r::', 'i:;

26 ,, ,,
.r::.r r:: rt .rl
Floor surfaces z7
Light fixtures z8 "r:' ''i'

,,:, ,,,:, r r:::
;,. ,:Prqp6dng fur,jnslqt[qlion ,] 29 .,.,... .,
,::,1'
: tniialling your new kittheir '., 31 ,:::
., l . .::,, l:t, l,::, .,'. ii: I ri.t't .,,,. r:i, :,:l .:,':,
'l '
,
lit
': ' '.rt
Cabinets 32
l.i eounte-rtop5r]. l.l.' ,r:, i:r:: '1,..'
t4 ',ir:,,..
.,r:l,
':aaa:: ' ).: ' ): l
Tite countertoDs 36
Sinks 38 i.r: ,'lli
ir:, : tl,,' :::i

Fittinps and disoosals 39,
t:: ,,r.r
.
:
.rl i:
., :Appliances :.: :,,,', ,,:,,' :r,: r"l:;, 40'l;: ' r,'r1,,
-ir .t::, l:1.
Lisht fixtures 43
:lt:. i,,;, :,;1,
Sheet vinyt flooring 44 :.., :..:
Vinyl floor tiles 4! :'.

.: ir::'
'i
itiit'
Ceramic floor tiles 46 rrr:,,...:,t::
a Based on this excerpt, what do you think the entire book would be about? '
b On which page would you find information about removing light fixtures?
c once you are ready to draw the plan'foryour new kitchen, which chapter woutd
you need to read?
d On which page does the book deat with the removat of floor tiles?
e Where would you find instructions for installing a refrigerator?
Chapter 5 Study skitts &*$
3 Match the listening steps with theirdefinitions.
1 Hearing a deciding what to do with information received
2 Interpretation b attending to the sounds and words of a message
3 Evaluation c verbal/visuaI indication that you have received the message
4 Responding d deciphering the correct meaning/interPretation of a message
Fitt in the blanks with the correct part of the book

Whensurveying.abook,youwillfindtheauthor,snameonthe-.
However, if you need to know whatthe book contains, you will need.to check the
lf you are stumped by certain words or phrases, the
may help. To know how recently the book has been pubtished, look at the
you must look at the
1 Your steos should be as follows: You should have matched the fottowing:
a Write in a[[ of your fixed activities. lb 3a

b Write in your fixed study times for each subject 2d 4c
c Add some flexibte study times.
When surveying a book, you wi[[ find the author's
d Add times for specific goats. name on the title page. However, if you need to
e Add times for other resDonsibitities. know what the book contains, you wi[[ need to check
f Schedute times for leisure, social and famity the table of contents.lf you are stumped by certain
activities. words or phrases, Ihe glossary may hetp. To know
how recently the book has been pubtished, look at
2 You should have answered as fottows: the copyrightpage. Shoutd you wish to check the
a Remode[ling your kitchen. other works mentioned in the book, you must look
at the refe rences/ bi b liog r a PhY.
b Page 28.
c Designing your new kitchen.

d Page 27.
e Page 40.
Tutor-marked assign ment

The fotlowing assignment shoutd be donc on completion of chapters 5 and 6.
With the aid of your tutot select one written passage/article and one piece of oral
communication and summarise the main idea of each in no more than 30 words'
Marking key
Sy'nthesis 40%
Content 3Oo/"
Language 30%
Developing critical thinking skilts
Introduction
Atthe end of this chapter, you Critical reading and thinking are essential to responsible living in any age
shoutd be able to: and time. You will be called upon to express an opinion, to cast a vote, to
determine policy and a host of other things in your life. These will often
apply comprehension srkilts of require that you demonstrate critical thinking skills. Critical thinking rs
analysis and criticaI evaluation directly linked to critical reading. They require a similar set of processes.
to a range of material
evaluate examples of written Content
and spoken communication.
Critical thinking skills:
q,' the nature of critical thinking
I identifying the issue
Specific objectives ,* recognising bias and its sources
You shoutd be able to: ' recognising faulty reasoning
define cr:itieaI thinking li steps to critical evaluation of writing.
recognisi the elements of

criticaI thinking The nature of criticalthinking
You have aheady been introduced to critical reading as one of the types of
deter,mine the [inks between
reading. You should recall that a critical reader pays close attention to the
criticaI reading and critical
text, the wdter's purpose and the devices used by the writer to achieve
thinking
the purpose of the communication act. You will find that you must
''evaluate' i nformation gathered be able to think critically as well as read critically if you want to take
by apptying criticaI thinking responsibility {or your development.
'skitls to some basic reading. This activity will help you to understand the difference between
critical and other kinds of thinking as well as to recognise some of the
characteristics of critical thinking.
Activity 7J
lnstructions'. Read the following and respond to the questions that fo]low.
Which of the following could be used to replace 'thought, in line three?

dreamt, pondered, guessed, tonged for
7. What was the reaI cause of Ravi's anxiety?
3 Why did he think the situation was strange?
4 Was Ravi certain that turning 21 would provide the answers?
Chapter 7 Devetoping criticatthinking skitts X
Commentary Feedback
Your responses to the above questions should have led you to see that: 1 pondered
r there was an issue that needed to be considered Z The prospect of adopting adutt
r Ravi had a personal perspective on the issue responsibilities at 21.
r Ravi remained open to the possibility that there were other reasons that he 3 As a result of the apparent
needed to understand contradiction which suggests
I his own perspectives may therefore be chal[enged. that voting was more important
than [ife itsetf'
Each of these is important. Atthough critical thinking requires you to form an
opinion or to have an opinion, you cannot afford to have a closed mind or be 4 No. The word 'might' indicates
dogmatic. You must be open to other possibte positions or opinions. uncertainly.
You should also have noted that the 'thinking' that Ravi did was not
superficial but of a special, deliberate kind in which he gave serious
consideration to a particular matter, topic or concern.
Activity 7.2
Use the information you obtained in the previous exercise to develop a list of
some characteristics of criticaI thinking.
Feedback
Your response shoutd have hightighted the foltowing:
I recognising an issue
r determining what your own perspective on the issue is
I recognising that other perspectives on the same issue may we[[ exist
I evaluating other perspectives in an unbiased manner
r recognising the need to have sufficient information.
As an additional exercise you may want to try to define 'critical thinking'.
Determining the reasoning process
Activity 7.3
In at least two territories in the Caribbean that use English as the official
language, the Constitution prevents any person who is not literate in Engtish
from holding certain offices in government.
lmagine you are the person who framed these constitutions and consider the
following questions:
1 Why did you insert such a requirement?
2 Do you think the reason is a good one?
3 Can you think of any other way to address the probtem that you are trying
to resolve?
4 ls such an act fair to people who are not literate in Engtish?
ffi CommunicationStudies
Feedback
lfyou believe that the best people to run a country are those who have been
educated in the formaI systems, you would probabty be abte to justify the
position. However, if you betieve that people from at[ watks of life should be
attowed to participate in government at the highest [eve[, or that [iteracy in
Engtish is not a necessary condition for intelligence, your answers might be
cuite different.
Activity 7.4
Look at the opening paragraph in Activity 7.3. Consider the following
questions from the perspective of the person who is itliterate in English.
'l ls literacy necessary for good government?
2 Why do you think the literacy requirement was put in?

3 Do you think it is a reasonable thing to prevent a person from holding
pubtic office if the person is not literate in Engtish?
4 Would it be possible to sotve the problem in a different way?
Feedback
lf you examine the two sets of responses you would probabty note that two (or
more) reasoned positions could be held on the same issue. This indicates that
determining what may be right or wrong may sometimes be done on the basis
of personalvalues. That is why criticaI thinkers should always be open to the
possibitity of another point of view. A criticaI thinker woutd, therefore, have to
be guided by some set of values or standards. These values may be determined
by religious, personaI or community standards.
Determining the issue

Activity 7.5
What do the foltowing have in common?
1 In 1955, Rosa Parks, a btack woman going home tired after a day's labour,
boarded a bus. She took a seat. A few stoos later. a white man entered the
bus. By this time there was standing room only. She was instructed to give
up her seat to the white man. She refused. Her stand is seen by many as
starting the Civil Rights Movement in modern American life.
2 During the war between the USA and Mexico, a tax was instituted to help
Feedback provide support for the American involvement in the war. David Thoreau,
thinking the tax to be unjust, refused to pay it. He was jailed for his
In each instance people were refusa[.
prepared to stand up for their rights
3 Muhammad Ati, then heavyweight boxing champion of the world, was
and to endure the consequences. The ca[[ed to serve in the army during the time of the Vietnam War. For some,
important thing is that the people Ali was the greatest boxer ever. He refused to be drafted on the grounds
were guided by clear sets of personal that the war was contrary to his retigious beliefs. He was subsequently
vatues. stripped of his heavyweight boxing tittes.
.'''-
#"#
Chapter 7 Developing criticalthinking skitts I
Recognising bias
Activity 7.6
Here is a stanza from the British national anthem. lt reads [ike a prayer. Study
the stanza and respond to the questions at the end.
OLordoqGqd afqe,
:
Scattgrqry--_-eryTF,
Andwkrhemt*t
Confound their potitics,
kus6ate.tlief ,fn*istitri ctrs,

:
On thee onn hopes we fix,
CodqgYe,,gs Q+i
1 Who is praying?
2 Why is the person praying?

3 Who is God being asked to defend?
4 What is God being asked to do to others?
5 Do you think Cod should support one grouP over another?

6 What does the use of the phrase 'knavish tricks' suggest about the writer's
feeling about his own country's position?
Feedback
I Someone who is a native of the country.
2 To ensure that their country would be able to withstand any aggression

from other countries
3 The safety of the people of this country.
4 To prevent them from ProsPering.
5 Your personal beliefs woutd guide your answer.
6 To show that atl other groups are wrongdoers.
If you examine your answers to the above cluestions, you will find the
following statements.
1 There is a sense of bias against bur enemies'.
2 The word 'knavish' is deliberately used to make the enemies appear
wron8.
3 God is being expected to take sides.
4 'Our' is used to suggest inclusiveness.
The critical thinker must be able to recognise, confront and even deal
appropriately with bias.
t Communication Studies
Activity 7.7
Here is an interesting argument:
ttatfile&f ktbgeermanlno'tre*. 11 ;.;, ,.:., ;,r

,, ,,,
,,r.
Feedback
No bread is better than Monty's futl toaf.'
Perhaps that Monty's bread is not *aaCIalt,1;u,rui$'u.tt rthm Monty'sfuuGtii' ;11 "i1'':1' ';:,.;" :':i:':
rr
as good as it is made out to be.
-
L The reasoning is faulty.
1 What is the writer trying to prove?
3 The meaning of 'hatf a loaf is

2 Do you think this is sound reasoning?
different on each occasion. 3 Why do you give that answer?
Now consider the following:

All worker bees are female.
Example
All drones are male.
Att girts are young males.
There{ore drones arc of a different sex from worker bees.
Att boys are young females.
You may be easily led to accept the conclusion because the logic is sound.
Therefore all boys are of a different
Howeveq, the premise that worker bees are female is wrong. Although the
sex from all girls. The reasoning is
logic is sound, the premise is wrong and therefore the conclusions need
sound and the conclusion is valid.
not be accurate or true. Logical is not a guarantee that the conclusion
but the premises are both wrong. The
is true. If the premise is faulty then the conclusion may not be true or
reasoning is based on false premises,
correct even if the logic is sound.
but because the premises cancel out,
the conclusion is sti[[ true. Logic is concerned with valid reasoning processes. It gives no guarantee of
truth. Here is a transparent example.
Key points
The ability to think critically is very important in daily life. It allows
individuals to evaluate positions on day-to-day affairs and to determine
what their own position should be. It guards the individual against being
easily led or misled by the statements of others. Sometimes the logic may
be faulty. At other times the premises of the argument may be untrue, and
at other times the writer may hide some of the bias in the words chosen.
other limitations edst as well, but these cannot all be covered in this text.
Conclusion
In this chapter you have been encouraged to see the advantages of critical
thinking. This is a skill set that you will need on a daily basii. Do not
be afraid to analyse and challenge issues as we often accept positions
that subsequent reflection frequently proves to be faulty, inaicurate or
unreliable. If we are to participate fully in our society we must develop
the ability to think critically.
Suggested further read ing

Chaffee, l. Thinking Critically, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, I 995.
Ruggiero, Y. R. Becoming a Critical Thinker, Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
r996.
Macmillan Caribbean, 2009 (ch. Tl.
Chapter 7 Developing criticatthinking skitts I
End TeSt ,,. r, ..:.

:r .. r:.. ...ii: ..,. ....: r,. .r,:. ..r, .,,1
Answer all questions. . rri

'] i' .' ,:' .r, l" .:, ':': .:.,, ,
'j:,
1 List the features of criticat thinking that you lhinla 619 most important,r 'i ', ' ' r,, " .'i i,,' ',
2Givetwoexamplesofhowbias.may'beintroducedintowriting..:]...
3Whatdoestheuse]oftheword.blaCk,suggestineach,ofthefollowing?b[ack[eg;..'
btack.took;blacksheep;.b[ackba[l.:..'.':',.'.ll.
4 What.does the use,of 'blacken'add to the interpr:etation of the fotlowing sentence? : ,:, : ,r, , ,::
Her arrival blackened an otherwise interesting event. i , : ,
5 htt thieves' chitdren are liars. X is a thief's child. Therefore X is a [iar.'

showhowthetogicofthisargumentmaybeshowntobe]fau1ty':'
6 Eiamine the followingistanZa from a catypso and respond to the question5ri , ,:i r:' r r' I , i: ir ,:
that fotlow.
:rllW: n*htrq*gs;tffiOng.1,l.ltl lll:iti:. lf: ,r!.
,n|l|l1u*W;."r*# ;
':i
,;,;r.' ':'.
'
";i"']:;..,
li a| ' t i;c{yi :'.'i:'. ''::, '.r; ]f,r
rrlr;4:i.r .:jr':
.:t,::ttfi' tr'iil:
Bearing their dead ard dying. ':r:.. l.l:
rr.i::ll:. trriiii:rr. I ..rjt:l
'Hor many more?'l hearSnm say, . ..:

.rl::lri,i '.::
...\,)::4.
I
..:1
'.:,i.
1'P$W3y1t ,:1r .,ii' ,,r,i.,, ,,,ar ,,;i.;' ,lt:;11..., i:11;]r. '.r.r1
a What is the purpose of the question asked in lines 5 and 6? ' ' 'r ''''
b Why does the writer repeatthe question?

c What does the use of the word 'Lordf ,tellus about the mothers and daughters?
Your list should inctude the fotlowing: identifying The weakness is that the oremise assumes that
the main issue; evaluating the arguments presented; because thieves are dishonest then their offspring
considering other possible positions on the matter; must be dishonest too. The argument is based on a
recognising sources of bias or fa[[acy in argument. faulty premise.
By the use of words which have positive or negative The writer uses the question to suggest that the
connotations. people cannot see an end to the kitting. The question
is repeated to emphasise their frustration and the
3 Something bad.
mothers and daughters appeaI to a source that
4 It helps to show that the person's arrivaI had negative is supposed to know att things and to control a[[
effects. N.B. ln both 3 and 4, the colour black is usea things.
in a negative way.
I Defining [anguage

At the end of this chapter, you Assumptions about language are often inaccurate because of familiarity.
Everyone speaks at least one language. This often makes it difficult
even for the 'educated' to view language obf ectively. Sometimes, even
demonstrate understanding after being shown evidence, people cling to their views on the basis
and appreciation of the nature of emotion. However, a really educated person should display a more
of [anguage and to identify its accurate understanding of language and how it works.
major characteristics.
This chapter will help to cIarlfu the concept of language, its
characteristics and how it operates. The focus is on recognising that
language is a peculiarly human phenomenon.
Specific objectives
You shoutd be able to: Content
exptain the concept of [anguage Defining language:
identify the basic features of

;: identifying eiements of communication systems
Ianguage I distinguishing the features of human and non-human communication
systems.
distinguish between features
of language and other
communication systems
Understanding communication systems
The following activities will help you to come to terms with the
recognise [anguage as a
features of language and to develop a clear understanding of the nature
peculiarly human phehomenon. of language. They will help you to understand the similarities and
dif{erences between language and other forms of communication.
The {ollowing activify vzill help you to recognise the basic features of
communication systems, identi{y the features of language and distinguish
between language and other forms of communication.
Activity 8J
Read the fotlowing text and complete the exercise that fo[[ows.
Communication systems
Communkation systems share a number of characteristics. For example, they
all require the use of two parties at th€ very least: a seruder and a recelver; a
:'. speakEr and a htarec a eomposet andran audighce;rThey allsde on€ or rnor€ 'r:,
media of communication. The media may be physicat movement {or kinesics)
ma*s as in writing or Painting or as in the way the
as in dance; graphic or visual
peacock uses hh feathers to attract tlre peahen; sound as in music, drumming,
speech and ba*ing; smelt, as in the way the skunk threatens its enemies. Each
of these features may be used separately or in combinations with others.
Make a list of as many media of communication as you can think of. Keep this
list and add to it as your knowledge progresses.
There are many forms of communication, both human and non-human.

Human beings, therefore, are not the only ones who communicate. Nor
do human beings always communicate in the same way. The important
Chapter 8 Defining tanguage ffi
issue is whether all forms of communication are as complex as all the

others, whether each form of communication is as widely used as the
others and whether all forms of communication are similar enough so
that all of them could be treated as the same.
Distinguishing [anguage from other forms

of communication
The following exercises are designed to help you identifu the features of
human language and to recognise some of the dilferences between human
language and other systems o{ communication. At the end of the exercrses
you will be able to identify the characteristics of language. You will also be
able to distinguish between characteristics of language and those of other
forms of communication. The exercises will help you to conclude that
human language is unique.
Activity 8.2
Read the text below and follow the instructions given at the end.
Examine the communication systems used by the groups listed betow.
1 The pet dog (do not forget to look at the tail).
2 Any bird.
3 Ants. Feedback
4 Tatking drums.
Sound (bark)and movement (tait
5 Dancers. wagging).
+ ldentify the means used by each group to communicate. L Sound and movement.
ir State the type(s) of message that each group transmits.
Movement.
* ldentify the purpose(s) that the communication serves.
* Try to determine which system could be used to send out the most
r+ Sound.
complex message. 5 Sound and movement.
The activity above should have alerted you to a variety of communicatron

systems. It is also noticeable that they may use several media and that
users may be producers or receivers of the communication. In some cases
there are natural or other limitations to the ability to communicate. Some
systems, Iike those used by birds, convey simple fixed messages; others,
like dance, convey complex messages. The ability to transmit a message
might be limited by physical facrors.
Basic features of [anguage

Activity 8.3
Use a good dictionary (for example the Concise Oxford Dictiona,y) to find the
meanings of the following words and phrase:
systematic; arbitrary; creativity; displacement; instinctive; cuttural transmission
Try to match the meaning of one of the terms in the list above to one of the
features mentioned in the text that follows.
Language is complex. It involves a number of features which may exist

ln othei forms of communication, but it is only in the language of
human beings that all of these features can be found. The links between
the sound system and the things it represents are determined by a
society. Often there are many ways in which the same thing can be said'
Each language also sets up its own possible ways of communicating
information. Language is important for all human activity
It is, therefore, necessary to distinguish human langgage from all other
forms of communication both human and non-human.
Systematicity in language
If you think about it, you will note that all communication systems must
be systematic if they are to serve their purpose. Language systems operate
on several levels.
This activity will help you to establish the fact that language is
systematic. It will also demonstrate that this systematicity may be found
at several levels.
Chapter 8 Defining tanguage ff
Activity 8.4
1 Examine each of the following. For each pair of sentences (for example, a
and b or c and d) say which ones seem more acceptable to you as English.
Try to find a reason for each response you give.
You should note that in each case one sentence seems more acceptable
than the other. This clearly shows that there are systems under which
languages operate.
a My father's green cow is in the garden.
b My father's green car is in the garage.
c He is a tatl man.
d Man he ta[[ is.
e Spend.
f Ndeps.
g A buns. Feedback
h Two buns.
a and b: sentence b
2 Match the rutes below to the appropriate item (a to h above).
c and d: sentence c
a There is some restriction on the order of words in Engtish.
e and f: sentence e
b Some lexical items (words) cannot normally appear in constructions
with others. g and h: sentence h.
c Engtish has a specific order in which the words in a sentence may Rule a: sentence d
aPPear.
Rule b: sentence g
d Some combinations of sounds are not acceptable, or are not normally
usec. R.ule c: sentence d
There are restrictions on which words could be used with others even Ru[e d: sentence f
ifthe sentence structure may be correct. Rule e: sentence a
Can you think of any reason for the choices you made?
These examples show that English, like all other languages, is made up
of systems that operate at several levels.
v Sound - since some sequences of sound are not acceptable. Note that
the spelling in some cases is not readily recognised because it may not
suggest a sequence of sounds that speakers of English recognise or use
normally.
ll* Crammar - since some order of words, or parts of words, are not
acceptable.
* Semantics - words have specific meanings and people cannot
keep changing the meanings of words because they feel like it, nor can
they combine words which produce ridiculous combinations such as
'green cow'. Such a form is only possible as a figure of speech.
This activity will help you tosee that at the level of word construction
there are also systems. As you should have noted by now, language is very
highly structured, or rule governed. The fact that otherwise-intelligent
people use a particular language form does not make it automatically
acceptable.
Rules governing the semantic or meaning system and such rules often
prevent some combinations of words or parts of words from being
acceptable.
Activity 8.5
Consider the pairs of words below. Use the lists to determine whether or not
'irregardtess' is acceptable as an English word.
List 1 List 2
Care Careless Responsible lrresponsible

Feedback
Worth Worthless Rational lrrational
You would perhaps have noted the Speech Speechless Relevant lrrelevant
orefix 'ir-' is used to turn some words Sense Senseless Reverent lrreverent
into the negative. The same is true
You may use a dictionary to hetP you understand the meanings of any words
of the suffix '-[ess'. 'lrregardless' uses
in the [ist.
both and is therefore repetitive, even
though many people use the form. Now try to explain how some people might have come to use 'irregardless''
Characteristics of [a nguage
You have been able to distinguish a number of features of language and
other forms of communication. The following activity will give you an
opportunity to really distinguish between language and other forms of
communication.
At the end of the following activity you should be able to identify the
characteristics of language to distinguish language from other forms of
communication.
There are many {eatures used for communicating. Language uses
a peculiar combination of these features and no other form of
communication is nearly as complex and precise. Language may be used
to discuss things that do not exist or that never existed, to deal with
imaginary things, to separate as well as to unite and identify people' It
even affects the ability to indulge in abstract thought.
Key points
Communication systems may take different forms or combinations
o{ forms. They may vary widely in their levels of sophistication or
complexity. Language is one of a range of means of comrnunication.
Language is not to be regarded as iust another form of communication.
It is perhaps the most complex of all. It is flexible, dynamic, systematic,
creative and socially governed. It is to be distinguished from all other
forms of communication, both human and non-human, because it does
more than simply communicate.
There is a popular misconception that language is just another form
of communication. It is important to note that language is not like
other forms of communication and that in fact it is a peculiarly human
phenomenon, though many o{ its features are to be found in other forms
of communication.
ChapterS Defining tanguage &
Activity 8.6
Below is a table that lists some features in one column and some forms of communication on the others. Place a tick
wherever the particular feature may be found in the type of communication.
Features Communication systems

Dance Barking Parrot Ftag Human Music Deaf sign
signats
speaking ; speech language
Makes use of sound
Uses words as symbots
Has grammar
Changes over time
ls learnt instinctively
Makes new forms
May be used to talk about itself
ls used by human beings only

ls not a[[ learnt at once
Can send the same message in

different ways
Matures from early to late life
Now use the table to do the following:

1 state which form(s) of communication is (are) most like human language.
2 state which form(s) of communication is (are) teast like human language.
3 List the features that are found in human speech only.
4 Make a list of any differences you can think of which are not mentioned
in the tabte.
Feedback
Features Communication systems

Dance Barking Parrot Flag Human r Music Deaf sign
speaking signals speech language
Makes use of sound
1/ r/ t/ r/
Uses words as symbols
1/
Has grammar
t 1/
Changes over time
t r/
ls learnt instinctively
1/ 1/ t/
Makes new forms
r'
May be used to talk about itsetf
1/ ./
ls used by human beings only
./
ls not a[[ learnt at once
./ t/ e/ 1/ ./ r'
Can send the same message
in different ways e/ r'
Matures from eartyto late life
t/ 1/ / r'
S Communication Studies

Finnegan, E. Language, Its Structure and Use, Orlando, Florida: Harcourt
Brace College Publishers, l99a {pp1-13).

Macmillan Caribbean, 2009lch. al.
Yule, G. The Study of Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1996 (ch. 31.
End Test
Answer al[ questions.
1 Prepare a list of eight items that represent the most important features of '
language.
2 Say what features the fottowing have in common with huma'n language:
a barking b' dance , , music d visual art'
g Give three examples which show that some forms of communication coutd not be
considered to be language.
4 what do the foltowing facts reveal about the differences between and among
languages?
ltu' is singular and

b In Engtish, 'you' is used for both singular: and plurat. ln French,
,vous7
is ptural, In French, 'tu' is atso used when participants are very famitiar or are
being informat
In French, the word for'derk'!s masculine and the word for ltable is
feminine. In
c
Engtish both words are neuter'
In French,
d In English, the word 'the' is'used as the definite articte with a[[ nouns.
,te' '[a' are used with mascutine and feminine nouns respe€tive\t as
the fJrms and
forms of the definite articte.
e InEngtish;thepossessionisusually-shown.byaddingthe5uffix..5lor,z'tothe,
porr"-rror. In Fiench, the word 'det (or one of its forms representing gender or
numberdifferences)isptacedbeforethePos5e5sor'
5 Use the information in Question.4 to give an indication'of'the differences between
language in general and a specific language'
F eed back for the E nd Test
1 Language is sound based; systematic; arbitrary; verba[; Atthough language is used by a[[ human beings, each
restricted to human beings; symbolic; maturationat; language has its own system of operation and the
could be used to talk about things that do not exist; is rules of one [anguage do not necessarily appty to
used to transmit complex information. another.
2 Answers to a, b, c can be found in the feedback to Language is the human ability to use certain forms
Activity 8.6. For d, symbots send the same message for thinking, speaking, enjoyment and aesthetic
in different ways. pleasure. lt is common to a[[ human beings'
A language is used by a particutar community.
3 Language may be used to discuss language itself'
Language may be used to discuss things that have
never existed. Any human being may acquire any
[anguage naturatlY.
Varieties and variation
Introduction
At the end of this chapter, you We noted in Chapter 8 that language is systematic or rule governed.
should be able to: Although this is true, it is also true that there is often variation in
the actual use of any language. All users of the same language do not
recognise that language often necessarily use it in the same way. Often the same speaker may
varies and identify the causes use the same language in different ways depending on a number of
of variation in language in factors.
general and in Engtish in
particutar. This chapter will help you to appreciate the {act that language often
varies. This chapter will also help you to understand some of the causes
of variation.
Note that although the examples are raken mainly from English, the
Specific objectives same or similar arguments could be made for all languages.
You should be able to:
identify the ways in which

the same language used by
Content
different speakers of that Variation and varieties of language:
language may vary
* nature and causes of dialects
provide some explanation for ; social class dialects
the differences ' usage factors and variation
identify the features of dialects + standard language.
recognise the factors that cause

dialects to devetop Variation/varieties of [anguage
determine the processes by Although any speaker of a language could communicate with any other
which a standard version of a speaker of the same language, these people often do not
all speak the
language is formed language in the same way. The *"y io which language is ,rsei
of,..r,o"rr",
from group to group, from one situation to anothiq, and from
analyse the implications of the individual
to individral. The language used may also vary in relation to
many internationaI versions the intent
of the.speaker or the purpose of the communicatron or even
of Engtish for the notion of the nature of
the relationship between the speaker and the audience.
Standard Engtish
identify the role of usage Activity 9J

factors in determining
Here is a passage written in British Engtish. In brackets are the
variation. equivalents
that American speakers woutd use. Reid the passage and complete
the
exercises.
Many people take a holiday (vacation) in the summer. For families

this witl
mean checking that the children (kids) have everything they need,
including
nappies (diapers) for the baby, trainers (sneakers) for t-he oider
ones, before
setting off. Everything is pited.into the boot (trunk) of the sedan (saioon)
and they will.join the busy highway, hoping that there won,t be
too many
targe lorries (trucks) to cause a traffic jam (gridtock). Most people have
a
mobite (cett) phone to use if they get into difficutty or *.ni to catt (ring)
ahead to their destination. For air trave[ers, standlng in a queue (rine)
is a
common feature of their journey. However they travel, everyone hopes
to
have some good memories to think back on when autumn (ialt)
comes.
Draw up a list showing the British terms and their American counterparts
Note that in each case the word is acceptable as English.
Try to find other items from other sources to add to this list.
What do you think are some reasons for these differences?
Feedback
For 1 and 2, develop your own lists.
3 lmmigrants to the US bringing their own [anguages, adoption of vocabulary

from native peoples, differences in preferred spetting.
Here are some further differences betvveen British and American speech.
American British
Pronunciation {ate) rhymes with mate rh)rynes with met
Crammar She had gotten used to it She had got used to it
Commentary
This activity shoutd have aterted you to the fact that the same tanguage
canVaryfromptacetoplace.Usuattythedifferencesaresystematic.Such
differences are not usuatty enough to make the speakers feel that
they are
not using the same tanguage.
|tusedtobesaidthatthesunneversetontheBritishEmpire.one
Engtish is very
consequence of this is that the range of peopte who speak
the world are separated by every
wide indeed. Speakers of Engtish across
speakers of any language interact
possible geographic form. As a consequence
they do with peopte from outside their
more ctoiety with one another than
geographic environment.
Activity 9.2
Check a dictionary for the meaning of the word
'dialect''
Feedback
Note the fottowing:

r diatects of
American and British speakers may be said to be using different
the same tanguage'
I Both are clearty Engtish, but there are some differences in
pronunciation
andvocabulary,andtheremaybesomestightdifferencesingrammarand
spelting as we[[.
n The differences in pronunciation are sometimes referred to as accent.
Chapter 9 Varieties and variation il
Activity 9.3
9l. Make three columns. List the British
Look again at the passage in Activity
first column, followed by the American equivalents and
Engtish terms in the
any local dialect versions that you know in the second and third columns.
Feedback
Note that sometimes you use the British item, while at other times you use
the American. Sometimes you might use both and sometimes you might
use neither. Yet each is a valid form of Engtish. Engtish is now seen as a wortd
language with national and regionalvariants. Each variety is equatly valid as a
form of Engtish.
Your [ist should have shown you that the differences could be found in eacn
subsystem of [anguage, the sound, grammar and meaning components. you
shou[d start a list of those features of diatects.
Activity 9.4
What coutd we conclude about the causes of dialect formation since we know
that Britain, the USA and the Caribbean are so far apart?
f x.a1i1e Figure 9J- lt represents some ways in which speakers of a language

might be isolated from other speakers of the same [anguage.
Use your knowledge of the distribution of English across
the world to identify
some possible places that might fit the diagrJm.
can you think of any other ranguage situations that could be considered
to
be similar to this one?
(r
\
-: >- rO '--.,,r,. O..,,
Figure 9.7 ways in which speakers of a ranguage might be

isorated from other speakers
of the same language
Feedback
The cross-section presented gives an indication of geographic

factors that
could have led to the devetopment of dialects of Engtish or any
other language.
There are physicat barriers to effective interaction, high
mouniains and a targe
body of water. Some dialects are therefore geographic.
* Communication Studies
Dialect and sociaI class

We noted above that geographic separation could cause the development
of different dialects of the same language. You should not be surprised if
you discover that other factors could also cause dialects to develop.
Activity 9.5
Read the fottowing extract and fotlow the instructions.
:r" ' -i
''-' '' r;' l: -' :: ';;"' ':l '" :' l: r-' rl' '' l'r I
I
,:i ':ir
;:'' i
'l:
Socblctass dralects
l..:'..1..;;..;;.;'....''.'.'].',l..'.'..:..-.:.:i':.,':':..
A study carried q.rt in Norwich in Ergland showed that speakers ftom
different sociat class levets pronounced certain sounds differently from
the Standard or Received Pronunciation. The foltowing chart shows the
percentage of non-stardard pronunciation b1t speakers from the different
socid levets. The sounds were -ing, t, h. Those who did not pronounce -ing
said -ln. Those who did not say 'tias in bottle, said bokt. Those othen did not
;.pronouneettiehsoiInd.8t.atL]::]:]].].j:'..:..::...:..::...'..'......'
Feedback . ifte t"Ue U4owlnUic+es.the t !?ge of, uier: sd lhq ditr€r€ntformi in

.
1 Middte middle ctass

SociaI class (-ing) (t) (h)
2 Lower working class
Middle Middte Class 31 41
3 Yes
14
Lower Middle Ctass
Your answers to the above shou[d
Upper Working Class 87 89
have led You to recognise that
atthough these PeoPle were a[[ 59
,, Middte Working Class 95
speaking Engtish, their pronunciation 94 ol
Lower Working Class
reflected links to their sociat
class. One major source of diatect
differences, therefore, is social
ctass. These are often referred to as SuzanneRomaine,LanguageinSociety,OxfordUniversityPress'2001(p71)'
sociaI ctass diatects. Atthough they Examine the tabte and respond to the following questions:
are as legitimate as the standard
1 Which grouP's speech is most tike that of the Standard Pronunciation?
versions, they are sometimes highly
stigmatised, esPeciattY when theY 2 Which grouP's speech is least tike that of Standard Pronunciation?
become associated with littte or no 3 Does there appear to be a positive [ink between social ctass and closeness
education. of the pronunciation to Standard Pronunciation?
Activity 9.6
follow'
Read the fotlowing Passage and carry out the instructions that
Feedback
1 Your answers can inctude: closer

interaction, common subject
matter, famitY relations.
2 Examptes can inctude: Profession,
lega[ [anguage.
Your responses shoutd have inctuded

religion, profession and sPeciat-
interest areas. lt woutd be a good for the
Make a list of the possibl'e causes given in the above Passage
idea to keep devetoPing the set of
development of varieties of any language'
examples and to try to account for as
many of them as Possibte. Find at least one example of each cause'
Chapter 9 Varieties and variation X
Usage factors and language variation

Introduction
Social factors and geographic factors that cause variation in language are
not under the control of the individual but that of the wider sociery. The
former indicates social status and the latter the location {rom where we
have come. The exercises that follow will help you to see that there are
other factors, generally under the control of the speaker, that could also
cause variation in language.
The following activity will help you to identify causes of variation that
are based on language use.
Activity 9.7
The following sentences are five versions of the same message.
1 Participants should remain standing untit the officiat party has teft.
Z Those taking part shoutd remain standing white the officials leave.
3 Kindty remain standing until the officiats have [eft.
4 Remain standing until the officiats have left.
5 Hotd on 'tilthe officials leave.
what reasons would you give for the different versions of the instruction?
Feedback
Compare your responses to the fo[[owing:
r The main reason is the relationship between the person speaking or writing
and the reader or listener.
r The first is very officiat and forma[ (usuatty written), the second is formar,
the third one is consultative.
r The fourth is casual and the final one is informal or intimate.
Commentary
since each of the above represents the same basic meaning, the
writer/speaKer
chooses one depending on a number of factors. These represent
changes in
style. Choice of style is often determined by the contextual issues
such as level
of formality and purpose of communication.
Each version represents what has been referred to as a register- a [eve[ of
language use which is appropriate for a particular situatio-n. The ,register,
term is
also used to represent levels of interaction. The same speaker might
use different
registers depending on a number of factors. The selection of
the appropriate
register is determined by the speaker's intent, relationship
to the hearer/audience,
or purpose for communicating. The first register in the above exercise is
very
officialand formal (usuatty written), the second is format, the third is consuttative,
the fourth is casual and the final one is informalor intimate.
Atreadyyou might have noted that the expressions disptay different [evers
of formatity. To choose the wrong one could make a big difference to the
retationships with the hearers though they would understand the
message.
style usuatly varies from the very formalto the very informa[. The first time
you meet someone you are inclined to be more formal but when
vou have
developed a cordial retationship you are tikety to use a more retax-ed styte.
G Communication Studies
When you want to communicate a sense of seriousness you use a more format
style than you woutd if you were mainly trying to provide entertainment.
Four important causes of this variation are:
1 the topic of the conversation, that is, the subject

2 what the speaker hopes his language witt do to the hearer, that is, the
purpose or intent of the speaker/writer
3 the relationship between the speaker and the hearer
4 whether the medium used is speech or writing.
This is the same message varied in relation to the tevel of famitiarity that the
announcer wants to set up with the audience.
Activity 9.8
consider the fottowing utterances and try to determine when and by whom
they may be used.
.l Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, you have heard the defendant claim
that he is innocent. He is right. He is innocent, so innocent that we are
convinced that he was tricked into doing what he ctearly did'
2 The market for this product is very promising at the moment'
3 Coffee Madam? Cream Madam?
Feedback 4 Stand at ease!
5 | now pronounceyou husband and wife.

By now you should have reatised that
different types of communicators ldentify the most likety speaker in each of the above cases' Try to determine
have preferred ways of, or registers what exactty caused you to arrive at that decision. Link each speaker to a
particular context.
for, saying things.
Activity 9.9
Read the fottowing diatogue.
[Scene - Classroom teacher rushes in']
Student: What do you mean arriving at this time?

Teacher: l'm sorry, I got hetd uP.
Student: Do You ca[[ that an excuse?
Teacher: I lost mY lesson notes'
Student: Knowing you, I am not surprised' You wil't lose your head next'
Teacher: Someone must have picked them up'
Student: Someone witl pick you uP next' Have you thought about what
you wil[ teach us for the rernainder of the day?
Teacher: l'm sorry.
Student: Sorry wouldn't cut it. Leave the ctass'
Answer the following questions'

'l ls there anything unusual about this dialogue?
2 What do you learn about language and power from the exchange?
3 What do you learn about how society shapes how we say what we say?
Chapter 9 Varieties and variation I
Feedback
The language used by both parties suggests that there is more power
in the hands of the student. This is indicated by the aggressive tone
of the student's speech.
The [anguage used suggests a reversaI of rotes. The teacher is usuatty the one
who is assertive and the student is apologetic. The passage is also a good
example of using [anguage ironica[[y since teachers reading this would be
forced to think of their own use of [anguage had the situation been reversed.
This is a good example of how different styles of writing operate.
Standard language
Activity 9J0
Read the following passage and do the exercises that fottow.
Feedback
1F 2F 3T
lndicate which of the fottowing statements are true and which are false. 4F 5T 5F
1 Att languages have a standard dialect. Many people think that the standard
form is the 'correct way'to speak a
2 Only the standard form has a grammar.
language. This is not so. peop[e speak
3 Books of reference are usua[[y written about the standard form. their own diatects and these are
as acceptabte in certain situations
4 The French language is not standardised.
as the standard is. There are even
5 Standard form is determined by a sociat criteria. situations in which non-standard
6 Spetting is used in standard to decide on Dronunciation. diatects are more appropriate.
Caribbean English
Try to think of some cases in which you would use words that are neither
British nor American. some of these words may be names of fruits or
flowers. often the words you use that are different from those used by
other speakers of the same language reflecr influences from languages
that might have been, or may still be, widely used in yo.r.
although these lang'ages are or have not been used in the "o.,riry-
same #"rr* ,r,
England or the US or other parts of the world where English is spoken.
Some examples may be found from Dutch, Spanish or French, or from
a number of West AJrican and Indian languages. These words are not
usually in standard use in England or the US but they are used in
standard speech in certain caribbean territories. A good example is the
use of the term 'Koker' by Guyanese to mean a sluice gate. Sometimes,
too, some words are used with slightly different meanings from those
they might have in other versions of the same language. They may even
S Communication Studies
be used with meanings that are no Ionger current in the language from
which they were derived.
Caribbean Standard English is another standard dialect o{ English. It
would be understood by other speakers of English, but some of the forms
it uses are not used by all other speakers of English around the world.
This is also the case with British anci American or any other standard
variety of the English language.
The standard variety of any community is usually the dialect that has
the greatest prestige. It is usually a symbol of education and high social
standing.
Key points
Dialects may arise as a result of social factors, conditions of usage and
the significance of the status of a language'
Standard English is are of the acceptable versions of the English language.
Conclusion
Languages may vary for a number of reasons. The main ones are social
,dialect' is used for any instances in which
and geographical. The term
one group of speakers of a language speaks the language in slightly
different ways than other groups wrth whom they do not interact
regularly. Generally, the term is used to describe variations that are the
results of social and geographic factors affecting larger groups or even
nations/ as is the case with English.
World languages such as English often display many different national or
regional standard dialects'

Macmillan Caribbean, 2009 (ch' 5)'
Roberts, P.west Indians andTheir Language, cambridge University
Press, 2nd E,d.,2007.
End Test
i"r*"r rU Ouestions. This is a test on the use of the language, especially variation.
1Preparealistofaltthecommunicationforwhiehyou.use.language.betweenthe.':'
time you awake in the morning and midday on any day. Make a 5eparate list of the
purposesforwhichyouuselanguigeinthatperiod.Usethelisttoidentifyfivemajor
I '
buriorat that tanguage serves in aiy soci*y'
2 ,:,, lndicate which of the fottowing statements are true and whieh are false. i : i
''aSometanguages.havqvariation.others,suchas'English,havenone.'
-i b Standard language tetls,speakers how their language should be sPett. i
',' c At[ languages have dialects. :
d Atl languages have a standard Version.

e Standaid version of iny language is a diatect
f Peopte use one varietyof f.ngurg" for all purposes'
Chapter 9 Varieties and variation ffi
3 What reasons would you suggest are responsible for the fact that the language of any
group of speaker:s may differ from that of other users of the same language?
4 Can you think of a word that describes these various forms of language use? you may i
use your dictionaries.
Write a short definition of standard tanguage.
1 Select from the foltowing [ist. Note that the [ist is not e False.
comprehensive. f False.
Togreet people, to ask and answer questions, to send
They interact frequently; they have simitar
messages, to pray, to give instructions.
occupations and levels of education.
2 a Fatse.
4 Use your dictionary.
b True.
5 A standard [anguage is that version of a language
c False.
that has come to be accepted as the form to be used
d True. on officiaIoccasions and for officiaI purposes.
10 Language in Caribbean society
lntroduction
At the end of this chaPter, You This chapter will {ocus on the language situation in Caribbean territories.
shoutd be able to: During the analysis and discussion of the language situation in the
Caribbean, it is important that you bear in mind the matters of variation
appreciate the nature, and dialect that have been discussed previously.
characteristics and rotes
of [anguages availabte in Content
Caribbean society.
Language in Caribbean society:
s language distribution in Caribbean territorres
Specific obiectives a language use in Caribbean territories

;* grammatical and lexical differences between Caribbean Creole
languages and the official languages
identify the officia[ [anguage in :* attitudes to languages in the Caribbean
at[ territories of the Caribbean :x language and Caribbean identirY
identify the popular [anguages q* impact of history on Caribbean language'
of each territory in the
Caribbean Language history and Caribbean language development
demonstrate a ctear
understanding of the Activity 10J
relationshiP between these Read the passage below and answer the questions that fo[[ow'
popular and officia[ [anguages
of the territories All human soci€ties use tanguage. Some socieths-use jryt oy 1M.a1
said to be monolinguat. There are few truty monolingual societies
in the.
discuss the status of the rnodem wortd. Most societies use morc than one tanguage. such societies
are b{timuat, triliqgual or even muttitinguaL sometirnes individuals
within
[anguages available in
a socied migtrt be Uitinguat or multilingual. There is a difference
beh,,veen
Caribbean territories
r t*i"6,tti ls bilinguit and an individuat that is bitingual' In bilinguat
give examples of the tinguistic societie-s such as canada, provision is sometimes made for equal treatment
features of Creole languages for sgeakers of either language. Road s'rgns and other public use of language
has to
are often presented in both tanguages. The bitinguat individual usuatly
distinguish between basic rnake a choice of tanguage depending on his audience'
features of Creole [anguages
oJ the Peo{" q9:Pok tlTh"
and those of Engtish Usua[ytrre.histoqy ofla tangtrygeis the his,lqy
caribbean prwides gd examptes of this. lt is a comphx linguistk area. The
identify the seminaI indigenous origind inhabitan$ spoke, and in places like Guyana ard SurirErTre stilt sPealq
groups in the Caribbean and the a rJnge of indigerous tanguages b'rorghtto the region many hundrcds of
[anguage that theY used yearslgg. tnese languages are mainly of the Arawaccan and Cariban hnguage
bups;dutthere ae etso''spiaketrs af nhn8u. ':
recognise the role of [anguage
The offrciat languages of the Caribbean are local or regionat fonns of European
in determining Caribbean t""*r"*"t such"asipanish, French, Dutch and Engtish. ln the special case of
identity. f-fiti, ti*Frerydr-lexicon Cre_deiianggagp,€dtt6 HaitisillS aborfeggrd€d ai' t:
an aff ieiat lan${4e atong,w*.th Fiet!qh.":i
It must be remembered tiat many of ttre Europeans who canre to the caribbean
t"rritori"a ur"* thenrselys spaters'Ut nsnt*tafidad Ameets Ot'eqti3ll: 59fne''
usages, for examf,e nose Mefo4roryiL'arevrdl dqqumenled rin diaterts other
thmthe4qndgrdvarie{inPrpsent'd8y€nglishi:: ,r,: ':.':. .,:,,,.:;' ,:,t:. ,::,:'::, ,,:,,,,, ,::.:,
"'::'.'
Chapter 1O Language in Caribbean society K
Why does the writer refer to the Caribbean as a complex linguistic Feedback
area?
1 Because of the many different
What are the main reasons for the complexity? languages that exist in a sma[[
Would you agree that the Europeans all spoke the same dialects of their sPace.
language? 2 The history and setttement
patterns of different patterns of
What evidence does the passage provide to suPPort your answer to
d ifferent territories.
Question 3 above?
From which continent do the majority of officiat languages of the
3 No.
Caribbean come? 4 The example of the use of 'nose

hote' rather than 'nostrit'.
What languages did the Europeans encounter when they came to the
Caribbean region?
5 Europe.
6 Indigenous Indian [anguages.
Activity 10.2
Select ten pages f rom the Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage. Examine
att of the items on each of the pages and make a list of words used and the
possible sources from which they might have come. Use this oPPortunity
to create a list of words used in different territories, their sources and any
changes you might note between their originaI usage and those in the
Caribbean.
This list could be used as the beginning of your list of Caribbean language
forms and the reasons why changes have occurred.
Activity 10.3
Read the following passage and answer the questions set.
Feedback
Colonialism, slavery and

ldentify the major historical factors given in the passage for indentureship.
the development of the language situation in the Caribbean. European, African, Indian, Asian
z ldentify alt of the language grouPs now available in the Caribbean. and Indigenous Indian languages.
3 Can you think of any languages that have been left out? Creole [anguages.
ffil Communication Studres
Activity 10.4
Use the following time periods to identify the languages that could have been
brought to the Caribbean'
Before 1492; 149? to i650; 1650 to 1834/38; 1835 to present.
What possible events in the history of the region could account for the times
indicated?
Feedback
You shoutd have identified the earty migration of the indigenous groups
into the area, the European expansion, the arrivaI of enslaved peoples from
West Africa, and emancipation and indentureship. Note that some migration
continued into the 2Oth century. In Trinidad, for instance, the Syrian Lebanese
community arrived in the 20th century.
Activity 10.5
Here is a list of people who have inhabited the Caribbean. Each group brought
languages and dialects to the region. Many [anguages have disappeared.
Some are disappearing even now. Put the groups in order of their arrivaI in the
Feedback Caribbean.
Chinese; Europeans; Amerindians; Africans; Indians; Syrian Lebanese.

You should have noted that some
languages have had a greater Consult the Dictionaryof Caribbean English Usage, the Dictionaryof lamaican
influence on the vocabulary of English or the Dictionary of Bahamian English. Make a list of 15 words that
Caribbean [anguage than others, or could be traced to each language group. Note that some tists witt be easier to
make than others. Use the following headings:
that some are restricted to certain
domains or areas of the vocabularv. Territory; Word; Source; Same meaning; Different meaning.
Cenerally speaking, the languages that are most widely used in the
Caribbean are Creole languages. These Creole languages developed as a
result of the need for a stable form for communication between captured
people brought from West AIrica, who spoke a range of different West
A-frican languages, and Europeans, who generally spoke different diarects
of the same language. Because the Europeans were in positions of power
and controlled the lives of the slaves, the new languages borrowed most
of their vocabulary or lexical items from the European languages. These
words were sometimes given different meanings from those known in the
European languages. Sometimes they retained meanings and usages for
centuries after the European languages stopped using them in the same
ways and with the same meanlngs.
Comparisons between Creole and English

This part will allow you to identify some of the more significant
differences between English-lexicon Creole and English. Note
that comparisons of language are usually made on the basis of an
examination of all levels of the language system: sound, grammar,
words and meaning.
ffi
Chapter 10 Language in Caribbean society il
Activity 10.6
Examine the images presented below. Think of how people say the names of
each item in the Creole language with which you are familiar. Now write the
Engtish version. Note any differences in pronunciation.
/A)
ry fl
6)
0
Figure 10.1 Differences between the Creole Ianguage and English
Feedback
By now you might have noted that there are some differences in
pronunciation. For exampte, in English Creole, the number 'three' is often
pronounced 'tree'. You shoutd examine the ways in which people who
speak Creole pronounce words and the ways in which the speakers of the
standard pronounce the same words in your territory. You wit[ quickty realise
that these differences are systematic and regutar. Consider the fottowing:
through, think, thin, theme, three. Each of them is tikety to start with a 't'
sound rather than a 'th'.
Try to create a list of the differences in pronunciation and keep adding to the
list as you find new differences.
Feedback
Activity 10.7
Below are some sentences that are written in English. Write down all of the Answers might include:
ways in which the same idea might be expressed by Creole speakers in your 'l She is sick
community.
Z He in the house; he dey in de
1 She is itt. nouse.
2 He is in the house. 3 Dey sleeping; Dem asleeP.
3 They are sleeping. 4 Dat book is she own.
4 This is her book.

5 Coat no fraid tiger.
You should have noticed changes in

5 No goat fears a tiger.
the grammar, changes in the words
Make a list of any differences you discover. used, and different pronunciation
from what you would consider to be
the standard. You could also note that
the differences are very systematic.
5 Communication Studies
Activity 10.8
What words are normally used in your territory to refer to the following:
1 A hot beverage with mitk.
2 The first meal of the day.
3 The part of the body between the hip and the toes.
4 Taking a photograph of a person.
5 The back of the neck.
6 Water flowing from the eyes when you are sad.

7 Earty morning (that is, just before dawn).
You may extend the list of differences in any way you wish. Then try
to think of any possible explanations for them.
Activities 10.3 and 10.4 should have made it clear to you that there
are reaI differences between the ways in which most people in
Caribbean countries soeak.
Feedback
Note that the words used in most cases are not used in the same way or with
the same meanings that each has in any of the other standard versions of
Engtish, including the Caribbean standard.
Key points
Language varieties are related to the history and geographic location of
the territories.
In all caribbean territories/ there is at least one creole language that rs
not usually the official language.
The official language is not usually the most widely used.
Conclusion
The Caribbean is a complex linguistic area about which greater levels
of awareness are needed. There are different official languages and also
different Creole and indigenous languages.
Differences between Creole and lexically related European languages
are found in all sub-systems of the language, the sound system, the
grammatical system and the meaning system. The standard versions o{
the official language reflect the various inlluences on caribbean history.
Suggested fu rther read i ng

Allsopp, R. Dictionary of Caribbean EngJish [Jsage, Kingston: Universrry
of the West Indies Press, 2003.
Roberts, P. West Indians and Their Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge
Universiry Press, 2007, 2nd Edition.
Simon, V and Osborne, S. CAPE Comm\nication Studies, London:
Macmillan Caribbean, 2009 (ch. 51.
Chapter 10 Language in Caribbean society ffi
End Test
An*rrer all guestions.
Quiz
1 In the Caribbean there are more speakers of this Creole language than of any other.
2 One Car.ibbean territory in which Engtish is the officia[ language and a French-lexicon
Creo[e(Kweyot)isthe[anguagemostwide[yspoken.
3 These islands are known as the ABC islands. The official language here is this European
language.
4 This is the tanguage most widely spoken by peopte in the ABC istands.
5 This is thought to be the oldest or most conservative of Caribbean English-lexicon

Creole [anguages.
6 lt is spoken in this Caribbean territory.
7 Many people in Belize speak this language along with and sometimes instead of the
officiaI language, English.
8 This indigenous language originated in St Vincent and spread to the Central American
area. lt is still spoken in Belize.
9 What are the two major indigenous language grouPs in Cuyana, Suriname and
Cayenne (French Guiana)?
10 The only European cotonial language stil[ spoken in the Caribbean from which no
Creole variety is known to have emerged.
11 Non-European parent languages of Caribbean Creotes come mainly from this

geographic area.
12 Largest group of post-slavery indentured labourers brought this [anguage.
The responses to the quiz could readily be checked in the

readings you have had or in the actual lessons.
-
1 French-lexicon CreoLe. 2 St Lucia or Dominica.
3 Dutch. 4 Paoiamento.
5 Saramaccan. 6 Suriname.
7 Spanish. 8 Carifuna.
9 Arawaks and Caribs. 10 Spanish.
11 West Africa. 12 Bhoj Puri/Hindi.

Technology, culture and
11 communication
Introduction
,At:the end of this chapter, you Communication in the last quarter of the 20th century came to be
shoutd be able to: associated with what has been described as 'high tech'. Even as one accepts
the increasingly significant role of technology in communication, however,
it has become increasingly necessary to ensure that there is an appropriate
awareness of the nature of technology and of the roles it has played in the
dwelopment of civilisation. This chapter attempts a brief exploration of
some of the issues relevant to the matter of technology in communication.
Content
Technology, culture and communication:
ri evolution of technology
,l channels
Specific objectives ,': time, space and social development considerations
You shou[d be able to:
'' reliable effective use of communication technology
define technology ii: awareness and pragmatics of use.
describe the major technologies
avaitabte for communication Technology, culture and communication
select appropriate If your grandfather was able to tell you the story of technology in his
youth, he might mention such things as telegrams, express mail, airmail,
communication channets
rudimentary telephones (now rapidly becoming landlines), open-reel tape
for specific communicative
recorders and radio stations with a limited range of geographic coverage. The
PurPoses following activity will help you to understand the nature of technology and to
determine the [ink between appreciate the roles and functions of such technology in communication.
technology and economic
development Activity 111
Here is a group of technotogical developments. Place them in sequence from
evaluate the impact of
eartiest to [atest.
technology on society
Now list them in order according to cost, starting with the most expensive to
emptoy appropriate the least exDensive.
'chann€ls for orat and written
,communication. Then list them in accordance with the levels of skil[ needed to use them,
starting with the most complex and moving to the least complex set of skitt
requirements.
Radio; emails; letters; memoranda; teleconferencing; films; slides; charts;
networking; chat rooms; press; ce[[ phones; audio tapes; video recordings; stone
carvings; tetevision; newspapers; mp3 players; PDA; smart phone; e-book reader.
Feedback
You should have noted that technology is related to the levets of scientific
sophistication of the society and that some forms of technology require
higher levels of skitts than others. You should have noted that some are more
exDensive than others.
Chapter 11 Technotogy, cutture and communication I
Activity 11.2
Use the items given in Activity 111 above to create lists under the following
categories:
1 Writtencommunication.
2 Orat communication.
3 Visualcommunication.
4 Telecommunications.
5 Comouterisedcommunications.
(NB: Some of the forms of communication may fit into more than one category.)
Feedback
TechnotogicaI systems vary in their levels of complexity and the levets of

ski[t needed to operate them. This has clear implications for the places in
which each may be used. Note that although more sophisticated forms of
technotogy exist, there are simpte forms of technology that have served
important functions through time. These must be recognised and their
continued usefutness should be accepted.
Activity 11.3
Below is a set of advantages that are associated with various communication
formats. Use the set to Prepare a list of the advantages for each of the
categories of communication given in Activity 11.2
Provides written record; Forms basis for contracts; Audience can be seen;
lmmediate feedback from audience is possible; Provides additionalvisuaI
stimutus; Increases speed of written communication; Facilitates [ow-cost
conversation across space; Altows for immediate feedback; May be used to
Feedback
send print versions quickty; Provides simulations of situations; Disseminates
information to widely dispersed audience; May be used to transmit artwork.
Your resDonses here should reinforce
Activity 11.3. Atttechnology has
strengths and weaknesses. The reatty
good user of technotogy is required Activity 11.4
to be discriminating in the selection Prepare a tist of the disadvantages of the forms of communication set out in
of medium. Activity 11J.
Activity 11.5
Betow is an example of a type of radio announcement that was regularty used
in Guyana up to the time of the introduction of ce[[ phones. Mazaruni and
Kurupung are areas in the interior of Guyana'
'Catting Joseph Sankies somewhere in the Mazaruni. Bring big boat to KuruPung
tanding on March 14th to coltect supplies. Aircraft arrives at 3.00 p.m
Anyone hearing this message and in a position to Pass it on to Joseph Sankies

somewhere in the Mazaruni area is kindty asked to do so.'
Answer the following questions:
1 What does the message suggest about the area of Guyana?

2 What does the message tett us about the communication system in the
interior of Guyana?
I Communication Studres
What would be the most reliable form of communication for these areas Feedback
in Cuyana?
'l The territory is [arge and not
4 What reasons would you give for your response to Question 3?
easity accessed.
5 What limitations are there to this form of communication? 2 lt is not very technologicatly
sophisticated.
From the earliest times, one of the serious challenges for humans was 3-5 Answers shoutd be based on
the need to transfer and or preserve information. Useful though speech your opinion.
was, it had some very specific limitations. In particulaq, it could not be
preserved or transferred over space and time. Mankind has been spending
its entire existence trying to overcome the obstacles to communication.
Communication was always affected by the available technology. Each
development in technology seemed to facilitate the communication
process. Feedback
Different Ievels of reliability and effectiveness may be attached to each

Your resDonse shou[d have
form of communication. Consider the fact that the person addressed may
noted that technology had to be
not have access to a radio where he is at the time of the message.
appropriate to time and context;
peopte can on[y use the technotogy
Activity 11.6 to which they are exposed; even that
Usethe information given in the previous activity and the responses given by use may be constrained by issues of
you to provide an indication of the impact of technology on development. cost and tifestyle.
Activity 11.7
The following is the transcript of an interaction between an airline passenger
and a counter cterk at a regional airport. Read the exchange and respond to
the questions that fo[[ow.
Passenger: Why isn't this line moving?
Clerk: l'm sorry, madam, but the computers are down. They
should come back up in about half an hour. Please bear
with us.
Feedback
Passenger: What is the matter? Have you people forgotten how to
write? Absence of a back-uo to the
Cterk (indignant): Madam, this is the 21st century. We use computers! technotogy.
The cterk views technology as the
Passenger: You do not understand the first thing about computer use.
onty option, while the passenger
1 What is the real reason for the hold-uo in the line? sees it as just one of a multipte
2 What differences are there between the attitudes to technology disptayed of tools.
by the clerk and the passenger? 3 Frustration.
3 4 The clerk could have shown

What would have caused the last response of the passenger?
wi[[ingness to consider other
4 How could the clerk have heloed the situation? ways of doing things.
Commentary
You may wetl have noted that the clerk fett that once new technolory had been put
in place, the older ones [ost their usefulness. Indeed, it would appear that a form of
setf-imposed helplessness has set in. Technology is as much about operationatskitt
as it is about awareness of context and the demands of proper service.
Chapter 11 Technotogy, culture and communication S
Activity 11.8
One textbook says that technology is 'the body of tools, materials, machines,
Feedback
techniques, and processes used in human interaction for sending and receiving
messages.'
This exercise shou[d have alerted you
to the many factors that impact on 1 Use the selection of devetopments given in Activity 111 to write a short
the appropriate use oftechnology. paragraph on the levels of technology.
Key points
Technology is vital to communication. Its levels o{ sophistication evolve
with each new development. People should learn to use appropriate
technology and bear in mind the limitation on conditions of use of each
form of technology.

End Test
Answer all guestions. : r,. , ,
1 lt is said that 'effective communication is the result of a careful selection of the

appropriate medium or combination of media available.' Do you agree? Provide four'
examptes to suPPort your position.
2 Write a short paragraph in support of the idea that the use of stone tablets was one
form of technology.
3 What'adtantages are theqC to th. ur. o1fl1e:following forms of technotogy? Give one
exampleiof wh-ere you would expect each of ihe fotlowing formsbf technotogy to be'
used and show how. State how the forms help the communication in each case.
a Tetephone.
b Chalkboard.
c EmaiUtext message.
d nadioPtrone. i :,. : ,'
4 How woul.d you define communication technotoglt?
1-2 Ensure that you compare your responses to those you provided earlier in the activities. Ensure that the
focus is on awareness and usefulness of technology rather than on levets of sophistication.
3 a lmmediate feedback, personaI touch.

b Communicates with large grouPs.
c Speed can provide permanent written record, no geographical [imitation.
d Economica[, immediate, no geographica[ [imitation.
4 your answer might be something [ike: a range of physicat devices used to facilitate transmission of information.
tl tr
| /. organising skitts
Introduction
At the end of this chapter, you It is impossible to communicate information effectively unless it has
shoutd be able to: been organised into a cohesive format. Whether in speaking or writing,
incoherent thoughts inevitably create confusion in the mind of the
demons'trate organ ising listener/reader or convey incorrect impressions.
competencies in oraI and
written communication. Getting your message across depends very heavily on how you structure
that message. This chapter will help you to think out and plan your
communication carefully and to use appropriate strategies to create the
desired effect on your audience.
Specific objectives
You should be able to: Content
create effective introductions Organising skills:
and conclusions
* introductions and conclusions
write an effective essay plan i*r the writing process
use transitionaI words and. m' planning and paragraphing
phrases to link ideas in your m creating logical linkages
speech and writing e revising and editing.
revise and edit written work.
Introduction of a speech or an essay
The introduction of a speech or an essay is the part that determines
whether or not your audience will continue to readristen and the attitude
with which they will do so. Introductions capture attention or arouse
interest in the topic, give a brief bacl5ground or explanation of it and grve
the audience an idea of what to expect in the rest of the presentation.
Whether you are speaking or writing, you must pay attention to how you
Feedback begin your presentation because your introduction will establish your tone,
your approach to the topic and whether or not it promises to be interesting.
You should have noticed that
The following activities will help you to understand the structure of an
the first sentence uses a startling
introduction and the function of its parts.
statement that jolts the reader.
That is its job. The first sentence in This activity will help you to understand the first function of an
your introduction is known as your introduction.
attentlon getter. There are various
types of attention getters that you
Activity 12J
can use depending on the nature of
lnstructions: Read the introduction and conclusion below. Try to identify the
your topic. Not a[[ attention getters
characteristics of the conclusion and its relationship to the introduction.
are startling. There are many other
types of introductory devices that
you can use to get the audience's
attention at the start ofyour essay
or speech. The device that you setect
wi[[depend on the type of essay/
speech and the nature of the topic,
as shown in the examptes on the
next Page.
Chapter 12 Organising skitts I
;,e;i,r. . .jr;i!r::
1 Ask a rhetorical question:
..;,:lr;', w& 441m*agi"o tg,*r*i *"n''ma *rdet *1llvnt,ni to *i

,. modernwgdd? ..
.,.,* 6$';ut66.,0"n,t:i.i. ':,,.:',.' ,',:l:::'': l.1.:t.,' .1l1l11; r,,:r,'::::' ':r::,:
. Aeeording-to the.Caribbean Medkat Jsumal, HIV/AIDS has proven to be the

great€Et challenge to our medical services.
:i!*l', 5f:rwfi
The Austrdian cicket team cunently hotds the wortd record for the highest
.r,t:':
ru.rmber of consecutive one-day match victories, having won 21 successive
nratches betuleen December 2O02 and May 2003.This team developed a
systemat'lc appparh to$qo@,gg thqqltumhtr,oneleam ll;lhe 1v,Et!,. ;'j:,,'
'l::ll:;
c1-earea11atory ::.: ,,,,,, ,,, ,rr: ,,,,, ,, ,,,

',,
Pouerty srld iltiteracy ofien exist as a chicken and egg situation; the two
seem inext{cab$ tinked in maryr corntriestoday. UNESCO has spearheaded
a &ive to improre the levet of titeracy in poor natiom.
Bqgin witha brief anecdote

..
As a child, Joe Brown spent hours leaping wer the fence in his backyard;
@qy he;ihas hffijumper, in the1vol!{,,Joes'$pty,tat
&@e,.fli$96p! 'r'::rr r::r.
beeome.ah inspil€tionb'many.:' ')
j{l' create a scenarb
Feedback
You should have noticed that the

second and third sentences te[[
you something about HlV, which is
the broad topic of the essay. In an
average essay, you wit[ not need
more than two or three sentences This activity will help you to understand the second function of an
to do this. You must be carefuI not introduction.
to go into the type of expansion
that betongs in the body ofyour
Activity 12.2
essay. Use the second part ofyour
introduction only to create a context lnstructions'. Look back at the paragraph in Activity 121. Which part of the
paragraph gives the reader a background to the topic or creates a relevant
orto give a brief background to the
context for the topic?
broad topic.
il Communication Studres
This activity will help you to understand the function of the third part o{
an introduction.
Activity 12.3
lnstructions: Look back at the paragraph in Activity 121 and try to determine
the purpose of the last sentence in that paragraph.
Feedback
lf you said that the last sentence gives you an idea as to what specif ic aspect
of the topic witl be dealt with in the essay, you are correct. This sentence is
known as the thesis statement. This is the axis on which your essay rests. The
thesis statement actuatty sums up the gist of your essay. Everything you write in
your essay wil[ be an expansion of your thesis statement. Therefore, your thesis
statement estabtishes the focus of your essay and is the most important sentence
of your introduction. lt is most often the concluding sentence of the introduction.
Remember that introductions must:

* capture attention
I providebacfuround/createcontext
s create expectation of what will be discussed.
Conclusions
A sound conclusion is as important as an effective introduction. Your
conclusion is your last chance to leave a favourable impression on the
reader.
The following activity will help you to understand the functions of the
conclusion.
Activity 12.4
lnstructions: Read the introduction and conclusion betow and try to identify
the characteristics of the conclusion.
ranclgsiol? ":r,r.]i::
.White the Caribbeanrfrceds to pay attention to ttle cost llptieations fm: - :,:,1::,,.:
:]:touristi]anaihd,namtu,of the tourist experhnceinthai6$#; tti .istaffi'mult.

constantty be vigilant to the increasing cornpetition from other regions. Unless
serious attentbn is paid to these factors, rnany of us may well cease to survirne.
Feedback
Look at the last sentence of the introduction and the first sentence of the
conclusion. You should have noticed that the conclusion reiterates the thesis
statement or the main point of the introductory paragraph. You should atso
have noticed that it does so without repeating what is said in the introduction
Chapter 12 Organising skitts K
Your conclusion should:

r summarise your thesis
r re-emphasise your main point
. give your essay a sense of completeness
I introduce no new ooints.
Your conclusion should not:

x simply rephrase your thesis statement
I introduce a new idea or topic
r focus on a minor point in the essay
r contradict points made earlier in the essay
Ptanning your essay

It is useful to regard writing as a process that begins long before you
actually put pen to paper. In fact, what we do before we write determines
the quality of what we eventually write. The stages in the process of
reading, r,r'hich you learnt about in Chapter 3, are very similar to those tn
the process of writing: pre-writing, writing and post-writing.
Pre-writing tasks are the activities that help you plan your writing.
During the planning stage you need to:
1 select your topic
2 narrow your topic
3 consider purpose and audience
4 generate ideas for writing
5 determine the organisation of your ideas.
Having selected your topic, you will naturally begin thinking about it.
A useful activity is brainstorming or noting all of the possible ideas that
could be associated with the topic.
The following activity will help you to practise brainstorming.
Feedback
Activity 12.5
lnstructions: In '10 minutes, jot down all' of the ideas that you associate with Everyone witL come up with different
the fo[lowing topic. Do not pause to think; just note your ideas instinctively. ideas during brainstorming, depending
on his/her knowtedge, experiences or
Example imagination. Figure'l2J is an example
Dealing with stress (see Figure 12J)
of one student's brainstormed ideas.
yortt bear{o t^k*r! uritll'fr it]4i5

h"af.pi,noit ch///c/.t /"y^l t""!1""!
dMlug nzl.itation fil,t4rl/ oitunttet
u<erct t0 !anê' hnbbiz.t
reilt*1 food ca.lat eaptvonnut

tuee,r A. plants plaVtry wrk-
Figure 2.1 Brainstorming'Dealing with stress'

1
This activiry will help you to practise organising your ideas to plan your
essay.
Activity 12.6
lnstructions:
I Look at the example in Figure 121 and try to cluster (group) the ideas that
seem connected.
Z Try to give each cluster a general title.
Feedback
'tr The student came up with the fottowing groupings. However, your
groupings may be somewhat different depending on your trend of thought
(*) (o) (d)

tPortt beaLl.t tal/</]41 ulitl.tfriunr
ex,erciso calneru*on^vNznt
fâ'u// ^ttit itt .t
daa///4j treet & pl"a.ntt h"obbiz.t
!il4't2,t p{a7u1 nu,rw rez.drnl
fu*l fod tuEl""j

2 The student in our example used the following headings:
a PhysicaI activity.
b Spirituat means.
q Environment.
cJ Emotionatsatisfaction.
Notice that your brainstorming activity may have given you too many
or too few ideas to use in one essay. After you have brainstormed you
may want to add to your information by doing some research and broad
reading on the topic. Your next task is to narrow your topic and create
+ your thesis statement. This is quite easy to do once you have decided
which groups of ideas you will use. Considering the audience you are
writing for helps you to determine this. The student in our example
came up with the following thesis statement.
Examote
-'--' ' 'r --
Muy/' nrylaL
lwte di,sco uenl, tlut Lpfu
/
ska.L attipiris, r4rhta/'
auicfuu,xtanl,'*posithnuwinwaantarorot*wof / {fiowortdfe*iue,
tt
wayr of duthg,igo**.
''., rl .r. .r..
Note how this student has merged the ideas into a focus point for his/her
essay. The thesis statement is usually the first part of your essay to be
written. Once you have a thesis for your essay/ your next pre-writing step
is planning the outline. Either a topic outline or a sentence outline may be
used. The {ollowing example illustrates the difference between the tr,vo.
.T
t
Chapter 12 Organising skitts I
lEiarnFh:,,, ,' :::' r,,,:,' -'' -',, ,
Thesii sqqqieni fqtlOy,,p"od* have discovered'that ptrysM @*tlt*, splrltud

enrkhrnenle@ q posititlelnvironrng$ are sqflte of the mostreff€ctive wrys of
deating witlr stress.
A Topic outline
1 Phruical activity:
a Organised sport
b Fun sports/garner
c 6ym wor{<outs.
2 Soiritual enrichment:
a Attending church.
b Pralmandrneditation.
3 Retaxingenvironnrent:
a .Nalqrat be€!r--ty' 'l
b Artistic creations.
B Sentenceoutline
1 rhe arrerqge Per-son has a varie0l of formal artd informal stress'reducing
. pi*icatartiviticsto.choosefrom:
a One can engage in organised sporting activities.
,
:b Fun sports are also just as eff,gqtivc,,
' c Gymwukartsarebecomingincreasinglypopular.
Z Payingattentiqn toryirituat needs is an effective means of keePing strcss

under control:
:, a :,*€cutar ch{rd}go$ng hetrps many people-maintain peaceful {ives.
t : SotngpqPte find piivate prayer 6|1d meditation effective.
"
3 lt is generatty fett that the beauty and comfort of one's sunoundings can
rnake a maior contribution to stress relief:
a The trarquillity of beautiful sunoundings works wonders for stress.

b Art, music and literature atl have a soothing effect on human beings'
Practise using both types of outline and use the format that works best
for you. You will notice that the sentence outline actually gives you the
topic sentences of your paragraphs. Notice also that b<-rth outlines focus
on the specific aspects of the essay that have been identified in the thesis
statement as the gist. Your outline must be directly related to your thesis
statement and must outline the points in the same order as they appear
in your thesis statement.
Writing a first draft

Once you have an outline for your essay/ you arc ready to write your first
draft. This is the next stage of the writing process. In Chapter 2 you
learnt about tlpes of speaking and writing and the different nethods that
can be used to develop each type. Determine which method you are going
to use to develop your ideas, then follow the sequence of your outline and
write a complete piece without stopping.
Try to ensure that the method you use is appropriate to the topic you are
writing about.
This activity will help you to review what you learnt in Chapter 2 and
to make connections berween some topics and appropriate methods of
paragraph development.
Activity 12.7
lnstructions: Match the following topics to the most appropriate method of
exposition:
1 What effect is electronic commerce A Anatysis by division

tikety to have on businesses in the
Caribbean? B Cause and effect
2 What are some of the moral C Process
implications of genetic engineering?
D Comparison and contrast
3 How to ensure the survival of a
sma[[ business.
E Definition
Feedback 4 Explain what is meant by'white-
coItar crime'.
You should have matched topics and
methods as fo[[ows:
5 How does the tifestyle of teenagers
in your country differ from that of
their parents' generation?
1B;2A;3C;4E;5D.
Linking ideas in speech and writing

In Chapter 3 you Iearnt how certain 'signal'words gave you clues as a
reader or listener to the author's or speaker's intention. As a speaker/
writel, you also have to be attentive to your use of these words. Not only
do they add fluency, form and style to your expression, they also help to
claifu meanings for your audience. Ensure that you utilise transitional
words to keep your writing fluent and clear.
This activiry will help you to familiarise yourself with many transitional
words and phrases and to observe how they are used.
Activity 12.8
lnstructions: Refer to the fo[lowing lists of words often and try to find them in your reading.
Addition: also, besides, furthermore, in addition, Restatement: in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is
moreover, again to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently
Consequence: accordingly, as a result, consequently, Contrast and comparison: in contrast, by the same token,
hence, otherwise, so then, therefore, thus, thereupon conversely, instead, likewise, on one hand, on the other hand.
on the contrary, rather, simitarly, yet , but, however, stitt,
Summarising: after a[[, att in att, att things considereo,
nevertheless, in contrast
briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event, in brief,
in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the Sequence: at first, first of alt, to begin with, in the first place, at
final analysis, in the long run, on balance, to sum up, to the same time, for now, for the time being, the next step, in time,
summarise, fina[[y overa[[ in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, in the meantime,
later, while, earlier, simultaneousty, afterward, in conclusion
Generalising: as a rule, as usua[, for the most part,
genera[ty, generalty speaking, ordinarily, usualty Similarity: likewise, similar, moreover
Diversion: by the way, incidentally Direction: here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite,
under, above, to the left, to the right, in the distance
lllustration: for example, for instance, for one thing
Chapterl2 Organisingskitts I
Feedback
You wil[ have noticed that Activity 12.8 is an ongoing activity. Refer to this
page often while you write and be alert to the use of these transitionaI devices
while you read.
Revising and editing written work

Once you have been through the process of brainstorming, planning and
writing the first draft of your essay the next step is ensuring that this
is really what you wanted to say and how you wanted it said. Inevitably
there will be things that you would like to change. This is why good
writers always revise or review what they have written. Thke-home
assignments allow you to do this at your leisure. Under examination
conditions, however, you have to be able to revise quicldy and make
changes by crossing out and rewriting above the origrnal.
Revising requires you to reconsider the ideas/content, the approach and

the layout of your essay. Use the following questions as a guide to revrse
your essay.
1 Does my essay begin with an appropriate attention getter?
2 Is my thesis clearly defined?
3 Is the scope of my essay obvious from the introduction?
4 Is my paragraphing logical?
5 Do my paragraphs have clear topic sentences?
5 Am I using recognisable techniques of paragraph development?
7 Does my essay develop a clear line of argument?
8 Do I make use of research and source material?
9 Are the issues analytically explored?
10 Is my vocabulary interesting, varied and sufficiently sophisticated?
11 Have I used transitional words/phrases to improve fluency?
12 Does my conclusion draw together the major issues without
introducing new material?
Editrng is the last step in the writing process prior to submitting or
publishing your writing. It requires you to look at the more mechanical
of the essay like punctuation and grammar' Here are some of the
"rp..ts
questions that you may want to ask yourself.
1 Have I used correct punctuation marks in sentences?

2 Have I explained all acronyms at first use?
3 Are proper nouns and titles capitalised?
4 Is my subiect and verb agreement consistent?
5 Are prepositions used appropriately?
6 Is my essay well formatted (headings, sub-headings, paragraphs)?
7 Have I included a bibliography or references?
I Is my handwriting/printing clear and legible?
Key points
s your introduction and conclusion must be closely related to each other
# re-writing activities are key to successful writing
ci you should use a variety of transitional words to enhance your

speech and writing
a all written work should be revised and edited before submission.
Conclusion
Whether writing or speaking your ideas, it is important to organise them
carefully and logically. Well-organised ideas carry your message across
effectively and make the desired impression on your readerlistener. Always
follow the planning steps identified in this chapter. This ensures that you
are thinking critically of what you will say or write. The strategies you use
in your oral or written expression will also determine whether or not your
audience receives the message you intended.

Lalla, B. English for Academic Purposes, St Augustine: University of the
West Indies, Distance Education Unit, 1997 (Units 5-8).
Simmonds-McDonald, H., Fields, L. and Roberts, P.Writingin English:
ACourse Bookfor Caribbean Students, Kingston: lan Randle, 1997
(Chs 5 and Z).
End
.-- Test
i,- -.--..:
1 In the fotlowing paragraph:
a identify the type of device used as the attention getter
b underline the thesis statement.
..2 . Indicate True (T) or False (F) for each of the fotlowing statements;
a Your conclusion should'always sum up your last paragraph;,
b Introductions exptain yourfirst pointtothe reader/listener. :
c Your thesis statement sumi up the gist of your essay.
d Transitional words/phrases punctuate the flow or movement of your essay.
e You should start a new paragraph when the one you are writing becomes too [ong.
f'ProPerplannipggivesyougreatercontrolofyourwriting.
g You shoutd never introduce new points in your conclusion,
Look at the essay plan below and indicate four things that are wrong with it.
Chapter 12 Organising skitts ffi
2 Mankind! detiberate removat of vegetation has been a major cause of

soil erosion.
,, a. Hurrkarcshaviblownd€qnmuehgfttppidorgstl, ..::: ,::,, ::.:t: ..:::;:.
,,,r ,, br:i Extengiveflgodlnghasdestf,ol|ed'mu,tytrees, :;;, ;,,.'-'., ;1;;, ,,.,: ,11 1,]:1,, -
3 Public education can eliminate the destructive human activities that

)).: '':''' ii r:"":.'- 'ii' irr'r rr!
CaUSeefOSiOn-::
a Television Programmes are very effective ways of getting the
message i.tJ*.
b Schoot]can inctude conservation in theii sociat studies curricutum.
Insert the appropriate transitional words/phrases in the paragraph betow:
uttimatety, since, and so, first, but, then, therefore
_ the paragraph is the second most important Part of writing structure (after the
sentence), writing aigood paragraph is an important skill to master. you need to
have an intention, a need to write, a reason to communicate. Once started, sentences
need to be thought of carefutty, not separately as parts of a whole. Short
sentences speak emphatiCally; tong ones have - the ability to be comptex. The effect
you produqe can be altered by tooking at the kinds of and lengths of sentences
you use and for what PurPoses you have used them. _.- we rewrite/revise in order
to communicate -our meanings and understandings more,effectively to other human
beings,- , writing is about communication. The paragraph is a csnvenlent
package for our thoughts is an-important tool to use and master'
a Create a checktist with at least five items that you would use to revise your writing'
b Create a checktist with at least five items that you would use to edit your writing.
1 n Attention getter: 'Have you ever wondered if f True.
taking att of those Spanish ctasses in your native g True.

country wi[[ reatty help you learn and speak the You should have noticed that:
language?
a The outline does not reftect the sequence
b Thesis statement: 'Yet, students should be aware suggested by the thesis statement. Point 1 In
that there are severa[ learning options available the outline is the second point in the thesis
to them which do not include leaving their own statement.
countries.' b The sub-points of point 2 are unrelated to the
2 You shoutd have answered as listed betow. topic sentence. They deal with naturaI disastei's
whereas the topic sentence deals with humans'
a False. Your conctusion must sum uP the entire
deliberate actions.
essay.
c Point 3 is not included in the thesis statement' lt
b Fatse. The first paragraph of the body explains
introduces an aspect not handted by the thesis'
your first point. The introduction introduces ideas
of the entire essav. d The third point in the thesis statement has not
been inctuded in the Ptan.
c True.
lnsertions shoutd have been made as fo[[ows:
d True.
e False. Each paragraph should togicatty be the Slnce the paragraph is the second most imPoftant
beginning of a new idea. part of writing structure (after the sentence), writing
a good paragraph is an important ski[[ to master. Firstyou need to have

an intention, a need to write, a reason to communicate. Once started,
sentences need to be thought of carefully, not separately bufas parts of a
whole. Short sentences speak emphaticatly; long ones have the abitity to
be complex. The effect you produce can therefore be attered by tooking at
the kinds of and [engths of sentences you use and for what purposes you
have used them. Ihe4 we rewrite (revise) in order to communicate our
meanings and understandings more effectivety, to other human beings.
Ultimately, writingis about communication. The paragraph is a convenient
package for our thoughts and so is an importarrt tool to use and master.
5 Remember that revising and editing address different aspects of your writing.
You could have setected any five from each of the foltowing checklists.
Example
Revising checklist Editing checklist
:l , Does my essay begin with an,appropriate 'l Have l,used correct punctuation marks in
attention getter? sentences?
? ls my thesis clearly defined? Z Have I explained atl acronyms at first use?
3 ls the'scope of my essay obvious from the 3 Are proper nouns and tittes capitalised?
introduction?
, + ts my subjeA and verb agreernent consistent?
4 ls my paragraphing togical? 5, Are prepositions used appropriatety?
5 Do my paragraphs have clear topic sentences?
,
S l5 my essay we[[ formatted (headihgs, :
C Rm I using recognisable techniques of paragraph sub-headings, paragraphs) ?

development? 7
l Have I included a bibtiography or references?
n Does my essay develop a clear line of argument?
I lS my handwriting/printing clear and legibte?
S Do I make use of research ind source material?
S Are the issues analyticatly explored?
1t) ls my vocabulary interesting, varied and

sufficientty sophisticated?
i1 Have I used transitionaI words/phrases to
improve fluency?
"13 Does my conclusion draw together the major
issuei without introducing new materiat?
The fottowing assignment should be done when you have completed
Chapters 11 and 12.
Select one of the topics given by yourarror. ,o v/rite an expository or

argumentative essay of about 500 words.
Marking key
Content 40%
Organisation 30%
Language 30'Yo
13 Devetoping writing skitts
General objectives lntroduction

At the end of this chapter, you In this chapter we will address the nature of writing skills and the ways
-shoutd be able to: in which these may be developed.
describe the mentaI and sociaI This chapter will help you to develop an understanding of the nature of
processes involved in writing writing, the characteristics of good writing and the roles writing plays in
everyday life. It will also help you to dwelop writing skills in some genres.
use appropriate organising
and formatting strategies in Content
producing specific types of
written communica'tion Developing writing skills:
s the nature of writing
distinguish between the
characteristics of different * writing wrth a purpose
kinds of writing e writing, as a process
recognise the features of
# characteristics o{ good writing
different kinds of writing l:l kinds of writing:
e personal writing
develop a coherent piece of
writing.
e expository writing.
The nature of writing

Writing is a form of expression different {rom speech to which it is really
ipecific obiectives secondary Many people who can speak a language cannot write it. Many
You should be able to: of the world's languages have never really been reduced to writing. Unlike
speech, writing is not acquired naturally. It is developed and improved
identify the characteristics of through processes that are linked to educational activities. Writing is a
writing composite of a different set of motor and cognitive skills from speech.
Failure to recognise the significance of this fact is perhaps at the basis
identify the purposes for which
for much failure of people to write well. Sometimes people allow ways of
writing might be used
setting speech down in writing to determine their pronunciation of the
recognise the characteristiis of words of a language. Although writing and speech have similar functions,
different kinds of writing writing is not always a good guide to pronunciation.
In both speech and writing the transfer of a message is an important
recognise the various factors
which could inftuenie writing function.
This activity will help you to determine some basic differences between
write on at least two of the
speech and writing.
various kinds of writing.
Activity 13J
tr Make a list of some of the things a person could say but which may not be
easily produced in writing.
2 Think about the way in which you say KNIGHT and NIGHT. Say what this
te[[s us about the differences between speech and writing'
3 Repeat the exercise for HERE and HAIR.
4 Make a list of those things for which you normally use speech and a
separate one showing those for which you normatty use writing'
ffiffi Communication Studies
Feedback
You shoutd have noted that the things that involve speech have different
requirements from those which require writing onty. Spetting is not always a
good guide to pronunciation in English or vice versa. Features such as stress
and intonation are not easily represented in writing.
Rotes of writing
Activity 13.2
Here is a list of rotes that writing serves or facilitates. For each role provide at
least one example from your experience. This exercise should take about
20 minutes.
Writing may be used to: For example:
Provide a written record
Provide evidence of desoatch and

receipt
Relay complex ideas
Summarise information
Disseminate information to
widespread audiences
Confirm, interpret and ctarify oral

communication Feedback
Estab[ish a contract
You shoutd have noted that these
Set out an argument rotes are quite varied. The roles that
you intend your writing to perform
Present a Iiterary perspective
also help determine the kind of
writing that is appropriate.
Writing with a purpose

People write for a range of different reasons. These reasons help to
determine the kind of writing that is appropriate. often it is your writing
that represents you. There{ore, it is important to represent yourself well
through your writing.
Activity 13.3
Give an indication of how writing might represent someone in the fottowing
situations:
1 Applying for a job.
2 Writing an examination. Feedback

3 Working in an office.
On each of these situations, people
4 Managing a firm. witt make judgements about you
5 Expression of personaI feelings. based entirety on the way in which
you write. lt is therefore important
6 Keeping track of daily activities. that you write wel[.
Chapter 13 Devetoping writing skitls &
Activity 13.4
Read the following Passages and answer the questions at the end.
Threeviewsof Jamaica
.A ,,AnivinginJarneicafrom.chittyOrthern{timqte$;visitors'ma}r'welt,{eqeive':
, tlE irnEe*sion €hatthey areWatchin8,a,p[4ry:!ho esrtaiE'riset,orl'a'rc€Ir€r
of bright sunshine ard vibrant colour. lmpressive nrountain ranges, exotic
vegetation and sparkling seas form the backdrop to the friendly wekome
they wilt receive from the actors in this flay, the people of Jamaica' But
unlit?e a ptay, however, our audience witl not be ushered out into a cotd
and dreary night. The scene will change as they see the canopy of the
ota ttTt:nt
, , heqeos pFreed by couottesiftar*,'qtld &eStivel To-on ..
. 'rnraxiqs4iiLy,{o,lbecornqlaf-tlgleamingorbof
silver. Inthistandof endless,
, ,sutlufr€frthenight,rservestoenhance{hqsensatbnsofthedoywith, ',:]. "
',r:
ceasctess lounds of frogs and'inseetsi'once:heard-and:never'forgotten I

'' .sounds that Mtl forev€r tran+ort the visitor into a'wortd of tiopicat
'
: :
enchantnxirit.
Further delights ofthis captivating istand jewet can be found amongst the
,,ablrndafrce*,t iUiaoUy+lo*erirg drrubsland$ees ot amongthe nnaiastic':]
wooded oeaks of the Blue Mountains. Nor is this tand a land without a
r,iJ*v' .mong the sturdy stone defences of Port Royat or the stately
",orr
gardens of Rose Hal[ and sense the nobte struggle of Jamaica's forbears
towards tiberty and independence.
B The istand of Jamaica is situated in the caribbean sea. lts approximate

location is 18 degrees north and 77 degrees west' lt is the third largest of
the many Carib*an istands Onty Cuba and Hispaniola (consisting of Hahi
ard the 6ominican Repubtic) have targer land masses. To the east of these
targer istards, an arc of smalter territories extends from the l:lTT i" .
the-norfi, offthe east coast of Florida, down to the istand of Trinid.9 "td .
;Tobagowhich ties off*he coast of veneznela the n+rther$ edgE of ssuth

oqr
Tfie,islands af tlre"ll&titndiei arein fact tlre peskbfia Hassive

.. '
',,, ':,Ameica'
::l,.5u|m$gedvoleanicrnountainrangg............'
Car,lbhan Sea;rnerges into the Attanti€ Ocean and'the.6utf of M*T::

' ',lte
To the south it extends to the shores of south America and to the w€st it
,,ir ,::,reaChes:the Coufitriesiof,C€ntratAr$eriea: lt{s hwv csnnected tothqPaeific
r,' r,Oi€An S thePanemi Canal. This canal b'reachesthe narrbWisthmuE Whieh
. r;;6'epl,J;;,,,,,r9yi;;a*, .-,',.'' .,
,:,,The distance,from €ngtand'tojamaica' isrnorethan 64O€0 klgTit!€s''
,' .fnorrf Ns\nrysrkthedstarr€e k ne8i€rr?4{lg,kitOn}etieg Fnlaica iS ;';rirr:'. ':
r :13600 mites fiorn l*atifax in,Ciriadatahdibut il4o:kitsmEtre3lldith ':
' ofihe Fananu tanaETF fWCttseU',i3bbut,Z$itonietre$q th: ;,
'' a46qrunt $*i*5:itanfe0 klt1i S:.,,,,,,,,, .,,.,,, :::,,:j .- : :, l
C Tovrn Road' down

Mechanicalty, *!e three donkeys turned off ttre Spani*r
garbagenen'k"*'tf
the tndustriit Terrace. The three
d*k"f:l Tl ry:-t*t coutd close.1h"ir
Tf
"j Y-"-ti1li"^
and tetl every irrch of the
"y.t
gtoundth"y p"ssed on
On the teft side of tl'ue road would be the miserabte tiftk'hqtg'ofl 'tt' ' ,
''.'.
gack-O-Watt; stutty and gimy with tiny tittte Peedloles beneath the old
rii. .Jri"gt. it -uirt m-t tritt-narcainndren too hungry to ptay' and
move'
shrivetted, atrophic otd men with their btack gums' too weal(to
peering Ard there would be the younger ones seedy arld slcr
would be
*lth tns;*drind drooping *rouldens tounging on the sidewatks, gla,ring
yellow of their
up at the-m from beneath their foreheads, with the whitish
eyes, dt waiting waiting fior the niglrt to fatt'
:
rl:l:i :rrr.
,.::. '
', ''i':.
:r'.
i.l:i:,, i:t;, rr::
Here are three possibte places in which each passage might be found:
a novel; a textbook; a tourist brochure. Select the most likety source of
each passage.
List some features of each passage that hetped you arrive at a

decision.
3 What would be the most likely occupation of each writer?

.+ What would you say was the purpose for writing each passage?
5 What is the most [ikely reaction of the reader to each piece
of writing?
Feedback
1 Passage A - tourist brochure

Passage B - textbook
Passage C - novel
2 Passage A - positive, strong, descriptive woros.

Passage B - use of facts and statistics.
Passage C - story sequence, use ofdescriptors.
3 Marketer, geographer, novelist
4 (a) Attract tourist

(b) Provide information
(c) Provide reading entertainment
5 Passage A - interest aroused, desire to visit provoked
Passage B - neutral
Passage C - interest, reflection, aesthetic response.
You should have noted that one of the passages is interested

in setting out
facts, another in telting a story (perhaps with a message) and
the thiriwith
trying to paint a picture in the mind of the reader. Rtt of these are
legitimate
purposes for writing.
Activity 13.5
Look at Passage C.
1 Make a list of the senses that are appeared to in the passage

and provide
examptes of each.
2 The story disptays characteristics of two kinds of writing.

rdentify the
types and give examptes to support your choices.
Chapter 13 Devetoping writing skitts X
Feeoiback
I Your list should include sight, smel[, touch and even taste -'sucked'.
2 Note that the main structure of this passage is a story, a piece of narrative
that the author develops through use of descriptive writing. Often writing
is a mix of several kinds of writing and this is a good example of such
writing.
This activity should have helped you to recognise that there are di{ferent
kinds of writing. Kinds of writing are determined largely by the intent of
the writer. It is the effect which the writer intends to have on the audience
that often determines what type of writing is intended. In Passage B, the
intention is to grve the reader some specific facts about the island. This
is one type of expository writing. This kind of writing seeks to glve some
factual inJormation leading to understanding. The passage sets out a series
of facts about the island and is the expository one.
When someone reads the passage that describes the impressions and
feelings, they might experience the passage in a subiective sense.
Descriptive writing of this kind often relies on appeals to the senses
When a reader listens to and enjoys a story the writing is said to be
narrative. The other maf or tlpe of writing in this kind of analysis is
argumentative. Argumentative writing seeks to persuade the reader to
accept a particular position on an issue.
Writing as a process
In Chapter I you will have noted the characteristics of a process in Feedback
general and of communication processes. Writing is one form of ttre
communication process. Compared to the other two Passages
on Jamaica, this passage gives very
Activity 13.6 specific information in an objective

and measurable way. This is a fornt
Return to Activity 13.4 and Passage B. Respond to the fottowing questions.
of writing that gives a lot of factuaI
1 What kind of land mass is Jamaica? information. lt is expository writing.
Expository writing is very imPortant
2 What is the size of Jamaica in relation to other caribbean territories?
in academic writing as it is the main
3 Where mayJamaica be found? means by which knowtedge can be
4 What is the distance from Jamaica to any of the major cities? demonstrated or examined.
Activity 13.7
1 The fottowing are some things that any Person does when preparing to
write. Place them in the sequence that the writer woutd have to follow.
Write notes; conduct research; decide on an approach; select topic;
prepare draft; sequence paragraphs; rewrite; revise; brainstorm; get other
ooinions.
Z What reasons woutd you give for the sequence you have chosen?
Feedback
You mlght have said:
1 Setect topic, brainstorm, conduct research, get other opinions, write notes,
decide an approach, prepare draft, sequence paragraphs, revise, edit,
rewrite.
? You might have approached writing as a cyclical process, e.g. ntore

research may be conducted during the revising stage or you may wish to
brainstorm further after having drafted.
The sequence of activities witt hetp you to see that there are steps that
must be apptied in the right sequence. In other words, a set of steps in a
proper sequence is part of the process. lf the piece is to be successfu[, it
must reflect a sense of good organisation. Each of the steps requires you
to perform a series of tasks. The important thing to note is that few pieces
of good writing are completed at one sitting. For some peopte it is possible
to do most of the processes mentatly and then set the product down.
Peopte learning to write are usuatly advised to go through each process
carefutty.
Characteristics of good writing

Now that you have had a chance to determine the features of different
kinds of writing, it is important that you are able to identify good wnting
and some of the characteristics that such writing should possess.
Cood writing should reflecr the writer,s abiliry to:
ir' write clearly and unambiguously, using correct grammatical and
written conventions of the ianguage
i' organise material to facilitate reading
i;r use the appropriate register for the pu{pose and audience
;. write with conviction
{'t f1ilg together a series of processes in arriving at a satisfactory
product.
Kinds of writing
Two of the ntore significant kinds of writing on which this chapter
focuses are personal and expository writing.
Feedback
Activity 13.8
Journals are normatly persona[.
Usua[[y journals are one major form of personal writing. Reftect on the past
However, the journals of many
week and then do the following.
people have turned out to be
significant sources of information I Select as many acts as possibte in which you were engaged each day.
about a particutar period of time.
? ldentify the ones you find most usefuI or interesting.
They are often seen as reliable as
people witl put into their journals 3 Select the most significant one for each day.
their most honest oersonal 4 Try to write a[[ of the significant detaits of that experience.
reftections. Writing to or about
yourself is a very useful way of 5 Select the style of writing that is used for tatking to a friend.
getting started with writing. {i Write one entry for each day.
Chapter 13 Devetoping writing skitts I
Writing your first 'emotion' poem
For many people, writing poems seems rather difficult. In writing, as in all
skills, it is practice that is critical. Try your hand at the following.
Activity 13.9
choose an abstraction - an emotion like tove, hate or jealousy; a quatity tike
Feedback
honesty or generosity, or a term like war or science - to write about. Now
apply the formula given betow to create a five-sense poem that witt make this
Writing about the emotions could be
abstraction concrete.
considered personaI writing. Here is
Formula an exampte.
Line 1:Tell what colour the abstraction you choose is.
Problems are dark
Line 2:Te[[ what the abstraction sounds [ike.
They sound like brakes screeching
Line 3:Te[[ what the abstraction tastes [ike. They taste of castor oil
Line 4: Te[[ what the abstraction sme]ls like. They smetl like rotting vegetables
Line 5:Tet[ what the abstraction looks like. Some look destructive and mean
Line 6: Te[[ how the abstraction makes vou feel like. and make me want to scream.
Activity 13J0
Below are some of the many ways in which writing may be classified
according to the purpose that it is intended to serve. Prepare a list of places
where each of these may be found:
1 PersonaI writing.
2 Descriptive writing. Feedback
3 Expository writing.
Your list should inctude, among
4 Argumentative or persuasive writing. others, journals and private letters,
reports, essays, book reviews, tourist
5 Literary criticism.
brochures, reports and ctassroom
6 Academic research writing. assignments.
Keep your list handy so that when you have to do any writing it will help
you to categorise it properly.
Here is a simple set of questions that you might want to follow when you
wrlte.
1 What are you going to write about?
2 Why are you going to write it?
3 What approach are you going to take?
4 Who is your target?
5 What is your relationship with the readerl
Key points
;' writinS is a form of expression that is different from speech. One
main difference is that it represents us when we are not present.
It must. therefore, be clear
there are many different kinds of writing depending on the purpose

intended by the witer
all writing is really a series o{ processes, preparation, drafting, editrng
and rewriting
each phase is comprised of a set of sub-processes such as topic
selection, brainstorming and refining
some people eventually manage to do most of these processes in their
heads.

Macmillan Caribbean, 2009 (Chs ll & 13).
End Test
Answer all questions.
Read the following passages and respond as directed betow.
A Wett, you just souryour dough. You start it off with a tittte yeast and flour and water,
and you set it up ctose to your stor/e with the tid off, cause they say there's so much witd
yeast in the air. Then you just set it up and you leave it there for like thirty-six hours or so.
And it gets a tang to it. And then you get ready to make your pancakes, you pour a [ittle
bit of this in a bowl, the way I do it. Now, most people don't do it this way.
B For the manufacture of yeast, most authorities have recommended that, subsequent
to the treatment with malt, the mash should be soured by the action of lactic acid bacteria,
a culture that is added in the final stages of the process and allowed to act for a period of
12 to '15 hours at a temperature of 59oC. The precise effect of this treatment is
obscure. lt is claimed, on the one hand, to bring about a hydrolysis of the proteins Present
in the grain extract and thus render them more readily avaitable for yeast growth.
1 Where would you normally expect to find each passage?
2 Who are the people most likely to write each?

3 Who would the most likely readers be?
4 What language clues help you to determine the answers to each of the previous
questions?
What kind(s) of writing are il[ustrated in these passages?
One passage is friendty and the other is forma[. The use of the personal
pronouns and other such devices is an indication of levels of formatity.
One also uses soecific scientific terms.

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Contents

General objective Introduction

1 Brushed her teeth.

Therefore, a proc€ss is a series of actions or behaviours linl<ed in a particular

Elements of the communication Process

Encoding: What words will I use? Do I need signs or pictures?

ln the above situation:

3 Which of the following did Marva's mother use? 2 The principat.

a Speech. b Writing. 3 Writing.

4 By what means was the information sent? 4 Mait/post.

Figure .7 The relationship between the elements of the process

Feedback n" *ir"i

lf your answers were:

Describing processes in communication

to hotd a concert to raise funds to gurchase new

a and b woutd be done by the a decoding b feedback c encoding

This activity will enable you to consolidate your knowledge of the

Figure 1.2 Crossword

3 This witt help you decide if the advertisement is a success'

4 What the audience must do to get the fu[[ message'

5 Where the advertisement wit[ be placed.

Now check you inr*.rt by tooking at the answer grid below'

r.l- E EID B A clK

Figure 1.3 Answers to the crossworo

Selecting appropriate media, channels

Now attempt the next activity.

Which of the two individuals mentioned above selected the more

Why do you think this method was more appropriate?

z You would probabty have reasoned that a group of pre-schooters would

The medium and channel for communication, therefore, must always be

2 A hurricane is approaching your country. The MeteorologicalOffice should:

3 You are inviting people to your sister's wedding. You: '1 b

Facilitators of and barriers to communication

Suggested further reading

Running up a ftight of steps

Learning a foreign language

You are the onrrcipat of a secondary school lt is the evening

Read the diatogue below and state:

Marton: Oh, thought you were going to town'

Feedback for the EndTest

Process You should have the following on your [ist:

You shoutd be able to:

identify the characteristics of

Forms of communication and their characteristics

2 After the graduation, Cathy wants to demonstrate to her brother at home

Non-verbal communication relies on elements other than speech or

2 Patra is biting her nails while she waits to be interviewed.

3 Tamara is frowning while she reads a letter from her boss.

4 Carlos is jumping up and down while he watches a horse race.

5 Jamat is explaining to his mother why he is [ate, but is avoiding meeting

You would probabty have thought of the following:

'4 Cartos is excited or neryous.

This activity will help you to better understand what we mean by

3 To an oral examiner in a sma[[ examination room.

4 To a group of people opposing my ideas.

In the context of an electronic media presentation, you would certainty not

Retating form to context

Scenario Form of communication