Eeng224 Circuit II, Course Information

 Instructor: Mustafa Kemal Uyguroğlu, Room No: EE 134, Office Tel: 630 1433

 Office Hours: Wednesday 09:30–10:20, Friday 09:30–10:20 (Otherwise: Anytime I am available in my

office)
 Course Webpage: http://opencourses.emu.edu.tr/course/view.php?id=12&notifyeditingon=1
 Lecture Notes : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Bilgekul

 Lab Assistant:
 Textbook: C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku, Electric Circuits, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill.
Grading:
 Midterm 1 Exam : % 30
 Final Examination : % 40
HW & Quizzes : % 15
Lab Work : % 15
 Prerequisite: EENG223 Circuit Theory I
 Attendance Requirements: Students must attend all the lab sessions. Students are also expected to
attend the lectures.
 Make-up Policy: Students missing an examination should provide a valid excuse within three days following the
examination they missed. No separate make-up exams are administered for midterm and final exams. Re-sit examination
are administered as make-up examinations, instead.
 NG POLICY: Any student who has an overall failing grade, and who has failed to attend the lectures regularly (min 80%)
will be given the NG grade.

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 Chapter 9
Sinusoids and Phasors

Chapter Objectives:
 Understand the concepts of sinusoids and phasors.
 Apply phasors to circuit elements.
 Introduce the concepts of impedance and admittance.
 Learn about impedance combinations.
 Apply what is learnt to phase-shifters and AC
bridges.

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 Alternating (AC) Waveforms
 The term alternating indicates only that the waveform alternates between two prescribed levels in a set
time sequence.
 Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time; denoted by the lowercase
letters (v1, v2).
 Peak amplitude: The maximum value of the waveform as measured from its average (or mean) value,
denoted by the uppercase letters Vm.
 Period (T): The time interval between successive repetitions of a periodic waveform.
 Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time.
 Frequency: (Hertz) the number of cycles that occur in 1 s f 1
T

 The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating waveform whose shape is

unaffected by the response characteristics of R, L, and C elements.

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 Sinusoids
 The sinusoidal wave form can be derived from the length of the vertical projection of a radius vector
rotating in a uniform circular motion about a fixed point.

Vm sin

Vm cos

 The velocity with which the radius vector rotates about the center, called the angular velocity, can be
determined from the following equation:

 The angular velocity ( ) is: t

 Since ( ) is typically provided in radians per second, the angle α obtained using α = t is usually in
radians.
 The time required to complete one revolution is equal to the period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform. The
radians subtended in this time interval are 2π.

2
or 2 f
T EENG224 ‹#›
 Sinusoids
 The basic mathematical format for the sinusoidal waveform is:
Vmsinα
 Vm is the peak value of the waveform and α is the unit of measure for the horizontal axis.

 The equation α = t states that the angle α through which the rotating vector will pass is determined by
the angular velocity of the rotating vector and the length of time the vector rotates.
 For a particular angular velocity (fixed ), the longer the radius vector is permitted to rotate (that is, the
greater the value of t ), the greater will be the number of degrees or radians through which the vector will
pass. The general format of a sine wave can also be as:

Vm sin( t )
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 Sinusoids
 A SINUSOID is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
 The sinusoidal current is referred to as AC. Circuits driven by AC sources are referred to as AC Circuits.

 Sketch of Vmsin t.

T Period

(a) As a function of t. (b) As a function of t .

• Vm is the AMPLITUDE of the sinusoid.

• is the ANGULAR FREQUENCY in radians/s.
• f is the FREQUENCY in Hertz. 2 f and f 1
T
• T is the period in seconds.

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 Phase of Sinusoids
 A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT),
for all t and for all integers n.

1
f Hz 2 f
T

 Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be

compared by their amplitude and phase difference.
 If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase difference is
not zero, they are out of phase.

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 Phase of Sinusoids
 The terms lead and lag are used to indicate the relationship between two
sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency plotted on the same set of axes.
 The cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve by 90 .
 The sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve by 90 .
 90 is referred to as the phase angle between the two waveforms.
When determining the phase measurement we first note that each sinusoidal
function has the same frequency, permitting the use of either waveform to determine
the period.
 Since the full period represents a cycle of 360°, the following ratio can be formed:

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 Phase of Sinusoids
 Consider the sinusoidal voltage having phase φ, v(t ) Vm sin( t )

• v2 LEADS v1 by phase φ.
• v1 LAGS v2 by phase φ.
• v1 and v2 are out of phase.

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 (120 V at 60 Hz) versus (220 V at 50 Hz) AC
 In North and South America the most common available ac supply is 120 V at 60 Hz, while
in Europe and the Eastern countries it is 220 V at 50 Hz.
 Technically there is no noticeable difference between 50 and 60 cycles per second (Hz).
 The effect of frequency on the size of transformers and the role it plays in the generation and
distribution of power was also a factor.
 The fundamental equation for transformer design is that the size of the transformer is
inversely proportional to frequency.
 A 50 HZ transformer must be larger than a 60 Hz (17% larger) sinusoidal voltage having
phase φ.
 Higher frequencies result in concerns about arcing, increased losses in the transformer core
due to eddy current and hysteresis losses, and skin effect phenomena.
 Larger voltages (such as 220 V) raise safety issues beyond those of 120 V.
 Higher voltages result in lower current for the same demand, permitting the use of smaller
conductors.
 Motors and power supplies, found in common home appliances and throughout the
industrial community, can be smaller in size if supplied with a higher voltage.

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 Trigonometric Identities
 Sine and cosine form conversions. Graphically relating sine
and cosine functions.
sin( A B ) sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos( A B ) cos A cos B sin A sin B

sin( t 180 ) sin t

cos( t 180 ) cos t
cos( t 90 ) sin t
sin( t 90 ) cos t
cos( t 90 ) sin t

A cos t B sin t C cos( t )

Where
B
C= A 2 B2 and =tan -1
A

sin( t 180 ) sin t

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Figure shows a pair of waveforms v1
and v2 on an oscilloscope. Each
major vertical division represents
20 V and each major
division on the horizontal (time)
scale represents 20 ms. Voltage v1
leads. Prepare a phasor diagram
using v1 as reference. Determine
equations for both voltages.

EENG224 ‹#›
 EXERCISE
 Voltage and current are out of phase by 40°, and voltage lags. Using
current as the reference, sketch the phasor diagram and the
corresponding waveforms.

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