THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS John F. Harvey, P.E. fui YAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD COMPANopr 198 Wy Van Noe Rell Copan Ts inary of Cong Cotor Cr Nome BST sae bua ‘ahs eee Ct pron of hk wer capri ©1980 ede lie rl Coarse ene Twa eof Made rs JO Am en pnd cra 0 0 = et Phe ng teping esra. anh tam etd ane not pms o te ts Bieudeseer AMER Ne anon an Nowra Rameld eeu a is, cma unary Congr Can i Pon a Honan ges senizeaen WSS0TT Bivonaiaes PREFACE “This book is intended to serve as an introduction to pressure vessel design forthe student by presenting the fundamental theory, ane as ‘lesign basis forthe pracHeing engineer by demonstrating the applica tion of this theory with ivstations and examples ofthe solution of practical problem. In each chapter, devign methods ar illustrated by fumerical problems in which the arithmetial work has been made ‘imple in order to focus attention upon the theory involved thereby {nodding the danger of {t Becoming merely « mechanical operation ‘with aa incomplete understanding of the theory and is significance ‘A considerable amount of new material and references have been ‘idded ina manner so a8 to preservean orderly presentation. Theres, fas been a complete revision and substantial increase in the sizeof ‘rginal text, including a new chapter on buckling collapse, The latter has been prompted by the rapid yrovth in undersea exploration and ‘mineral mining potential. Deep diving submersible, offshore pls forms, and deep Grilling casings have ude a priority of light weighs high strength materials in order to save weight and costs, Te results that clastic and plastic buckling instability have become incresingly important as failure modes. ‘Chapter 1 introduces the basic design considerations, analytical and experimental attest analysis methods, and the interaction of material properties and. fabrication methods. ‘The significance and Consequences of applied and residual stresses under service loading nd operating environment are emphasized. Pressure wesc crminol ‘ey i presented and basie membrane ligament theory devo "Chapter 2 covers the basic theory of membrane stress and defle sion analyse of axieymmettc vessels and its application co commonly {encountered eylinders, spheres, elipsoids, cones, and tori. An analy Sh of intersecting spheres and diaphragm vessels, upon which way ‘deep diving oceanographic submersibles are based s presente. Corre Spondingly, instabilicy in the knuckle region af lrg, shallow, dishes ‘ead is investigated because of their extensive use. Aso, an analysiswi PREFACE, of vessels for ultrahigh pressure, employing thick-all, mubilayer, ‘atcade, segmented, yoke, and wedge principles of design is presented. fan ingeeduction to steady-state and teansient thermal stresses and ‘teat ett in terms of he fll restraint thermal tess by analy eal and graphical methods is given, ‘Chapter 8 covers the bending of Mla, sold, cincula ples under uniforn and concentrated loading, and dhe effect of local lexbility Mtclamped-edge supports, Likevese, the design of stacked and built-up lates @ developed and the desig of orthogonl aad concent ren Forced and perforated plates is analyzed together with expanded and welded tubeto-tubesheet joints, Expanded tube joints, wherein anion Tr achieved through residval stress, are eated in depth. Not only is thi the oldest and most widely used joining method, but is the ‘aly one available for many pressure components employing umweld ‘ble disimilar materials. ‘Chapter 4 presents the determination by the elastic foundation method of secondary bending and direct stresses encountered in ves is ae arent of differentia dilation of thei pats. An analysis of Pimetallic joins, frequently used in the chemical petroleum and poet industry, and their optimum location sdeveloped, Likewise,an Rnroduetion t0 flange design is presented, together with a diseussion tl clastic foundation sttensation Factors and their pvt in appraising ‘he extent af secondary stestes and opening reinforcement limits vessels ‘Chapter 5 discusses the failure analysis and failure prevention of materi in their environment, for example, irradiation damage, Rydrogen embrittlement, clevated and cryogenic temperacircs, the Italtivadionus effects on fatigue if, ete. The economic rend to high rength materials, with their associated suscepibility 10 bite frac ture has focused considerable ateation to ths subject. Applicable theories of failure and fracture mechanics analysis methods ate pre ented to predict thee behavior. Tis involves a basic understanding Sf'ine structure of metals and their elastic and plastic behavior. Fa tigue isa prime catise of vee failure, but it is completely amenable te prevention: accordingly, lor and high eyee fatigue behavior, life prediction and damage accamalation are given together witha fate Reory to account for multidirectional applied and residual stress ‘ondtions. High temperatures inthe petroleum, chemical, and power Sndusties have accentuated the problem of creep and rupture.Hence, Ife and strain fraction concepts for predicting service life, methods US cstimating the telaxation af bolted joints, and the effect of the ‘heamal stress reli of residual sreses in welded vesels to enhance tafety ae developed. Ways of etblihingoprimua mal forming {operate fo abriestion ae presented sre meth eva ing mater degradation a elevated temperate High emperatres Sh al wodees oppor ercrenmeral elects fer inane they Increase the hyéroge embriemen of petroleum prosesng veel, ‘Male mitigating tt matron embntioment af nuclear ect vee Ii prods hve flaws which enginste withthe paren mst re Sule fom te fabreation method o are designe in by onstrveton etal Hence tis important to appreciate th realty aod appre te Sifcanee forthe intended sere nti rexpet, cack aceptence Stern defect sine evfuton, and design methods for stan the moore vaeiafeane due! Ghapts& coves dep cooiruéton fours an terest seometic and thermally ded sree conentation Paria Streson i pen to thse encountered understate an dysmic Condition at wear openings nose sd structural supports tad the Sven of coping wih hem to inure maximum neg. The they Ind practice of Seifoced openings for radial, nonrada andslple toe srangement are covered, signing thet hema seve Which ate salto ve Mermatahock rotction. Serene nts Ind the doign of bolted and nonboltdlorte recive extensive trement au thee of ac ret feature to negate ble fae ‘tre penal Ves support sits, and attachments nse borhstactural sad themal loading that mun be seconced wth thecal ene es, Gate eal fo esl i am and Sux type, eng and cued poumcersiey proms Thin cladding are widely used to prevent corrosion of the Base metal contamination of the med thie apprise Gupte 7 intodsecs fataton-onstoction oethods and thet subi pso inha socio ie fcourement sch a flamentwound, mulayer, wiew"spped ink Scaled, rested ste and eoncrete, and oer veel Mater tes on Uy buns cove peut of ere on pom efety fore ating anced composts high strength matt, ofthese with hanced proper sih at ha obtained tom dieciona ose Gon Tey are crm atin ct tive fats, metallurgeal Bonding and healing of internal defects by hot omate peng, teal to achieve the excel 0! Tow coat ad long pees Eleva pected. Chapter 8 invoduces the Mablty theory of plain and stifencd vse and itr application tothe desig of thin, intermediate andthick walled ones, The overall stabilizing effect of structural iff. ice Mel ar their effect in regions of high local compressive stress 3 tel from nial design, falure analysis, and repair viewpoints icone ihe basis for the development of regulatory codes and Ti fiance standards. The fabrication tolerances and construction Haar ares oncicularity, local thinning, unrinforeed openings and sere Sincentrators are” not self limiting or self-compensating In Beep ceslenomenon, and these extical effects are evaluated. Sh ike preparation of tis book, the author bas drawn from bis prvioun publications, lecture noes used in teaching 9 the Unversity Pret engineering experience with The Babcock & Wilcox Com Staycand ana member of numerous committees of te American Betay of Mechanical Engineers, and as chairman of the Pressure ‘Vessel Research Committe. Joun F. Hanvey NOTATION Gro sectional area Distance Distances Flesiral ii ‘Dimer © Modus of lacy Unit strain i Uni arin in int in, yand ¢dtectons Vila point sais Force Height, thickness Thickness Moment of nena Polar moment of inertia Siren concentration Tater Fatigue strength reduction factor Modulos of tundaon, sess Distance, span : Length, span ‘Beading moment Resting bending moment Uline bending moment Bending moment at which yielding bes Twisting moment seat Concentrated forces Presure Load per anit length entity facto Radiot ae Radu, ada of curvature Length te iting moment, temperatare Rite otra, dplacement nx diecton‘numerical coeficient Angle, numerical eoeicent ‘Seating sain Distance deflection, difference Total elongation, total deletion, distance Angle Poison’s ratio Distance, radios Unie normal sess Guewes Principal stresses Unie formal stresses on planes perpendicular femme Mo the 3,9, and 2388 om ‘pit stre at endurance limit cen Ultimate stress trie Yield poin stress : Vnit shear ates Tyvtyeter Unit shear stremes on planes perpendicular to rawtoeas Whe x.) and 2 axeh and paallel 10 the J pans axes cy, Yield point stress in shear 3 Aagle CONTENTS Prerace Noranion 1 Presume Visas Introduction Methods for Detrmining Stretcs Sires Significance Design Approach 1 1 1 r 1.8 Tenminology and Ligament Eifcleney STRESSES 1 PRUSGURE Vesens 24 Introduction 2.2. Stresses ima Circular Ring, Cylinder, and Sphere 23 Poisson's Ratio 24 Dilation of Preure Vessels 25. Intenecing Sphere, 26. General Theory of Membrane Steses in ‘Vessel Under Internal resaze 27. Tomi Under internal Presure 28. Thick Glider and Thick Sphere 29. ShrinksFit Stress in Bultup Cylinders 2.10 Autolettage of Thick Cylinders 2.11 Thermal Stesses and Their Sgnitiance 2.12 Thermal Stresses in Long Hollow Cylinders 2.13 Graphic Determination of Thermal Stes 09 ‘Cylindrical Vernet for Any Thermal Grain 14 ‘Thermal Stretes Due to Thermal Transient 15 Ulsaigh Pressure Vessel Design Principles 38 37ss CONTENTS 3. Smeses wy Flar Piamis 3.1. Behivior of Flat Plates 32 Bending nf a Pate in One Direction 355 ending of Plate in Too Perpendicular Directions 3.44 Thermal Stessesin Fates 355 ending of Circular Plate of Constant "Thicknes 4.6. Bending of Uniformly Loaded Ptss of ‘Constane Thickness ez Besng of Cenaly Loaded Cieular Plate of Constant Thickness 5:8 Bendigo a Cirelar ate Concenticaly Loaded Bb Dekettbon eta Symmetsally Louded Gircalar ‘Plteof Uniform Thickness with a Greulor Centra ole 9:10 Reinforced Circular Plates ST Tbe to ube Sheet Joints S12 Local Flesiity st the Suppers of Camped the design. For example, in the riveted joints of bridges ana! sine, normal and overloads may produce local yielding of the mele icinity of rivets. This doesnot renal in upture, however, since src ‘ual stee has igh ductility which results in a eedistibution and reCpt eos aly ich ae meen sec abaes i de ability of a material absorb energy during plastic emi, ee eM el J Sone et {Saptari a n 18) which eth total area under the sresestran dlgray, Fig: 1.6. This ene determined by a planiteter, or by approximate mods Gee Cenwenient method that is employe or many ductile waters ome ete product ofthe ulimat ses times the tan at ruptures Bto85 in ipprosimate measure ofthe area under the szese strain Secrtt, Mael of igh toughest have high seen, a el 38 eerecy, Brtile mater have lose toughness, since they have dar ct Nae dformations before rupture. Toughness a most Gye property in para, structures, or veses subject to mecha {Garth ec oe : pander type of fonghness i that measured inthe presence o a notch and elle “notch roughness.” When the noch @ = ery Shap ene a crack this matedal property becomes the bass for ee cnigg Une atewes im the ror of « cack called Fracture Mechanis, Po. 522, 1.2 Methods for Determining Stresses ‘Stress analyses can be performed by analytical or experimental cane, The avalyical method involves a rigorous satheratial sls PRESSURE VESSELS 11 tion bated on an applicable theory of elasticity, plasticiy, creep, ee 4nd itis the most direct and inexpensive approach when the problem 2uapis itself to such a solution. It requires a general solution to the ‘hulibrium equation equating internal resisting sttesies of the mas {etal and that imposed by the gradually applied static external forces. ‘When the member is a simple one such thatthe mathematical equse tion ean he reacly seriten to deerbe the continuous stain behavior ‘Of the material throughout, the ordinary equations for direct ses, P/A, bending sess, Me/Z, and torsional shear tres, 7c) 7, cas be dleveloped (orhere P is the load applied atthe centroid of the cre Section of area which is under consideration: M isthe bending mo: ‘ment applied to che cross section which has 2 moment of inertia 1 bout its neutral axis and ir the distance from this axis, and 7 sche {visting moment acting on the ers ection which has apolar most ‘of inertia J). However, when the member hat geometric shape dis continuities, sich a¢ internal holes or external abrupt croseseccion tangs bce ea wo expres the continuo ers sn istribution mathematically and obtain a particular slution o the ‘equations. When the problem i co complex and beyond analytical {olution, or when a check or evaluation of an analytical solution is desired, recourse aust be made to experimental means. Three of the mote commonly used methods fellow. 1. Shain Gage ‘This method consis of mearuring the surface strains on as acu este or structure, oF scale model, with mechanieal or electrical xe Stance strain gages Two Of the more comunonly used mechanical foxes are the Berry and Pggenbrer strain gages Fig 17. Each works fn the principle of multiplying stains by mechanical leverage. The ‘ery sain gage, Fig 7s, consis af a frame 0 whichis attaches sationary contact point, and a second movable contact point on the ‘hort leg ofa be-erank lever. The long leg ofthe lever i in contact, ‘witha dial indicator which ir used to measure the stain. The lever ‘aioe ually one to Rive; and the gage length is 2 or 8 in. A snore Sensitive mechanialsrain gage i the Huggenberger, Fig. 1.7, hic’ fbodies a ore elaborate anultplying lever spmcia to ise oval ‘sision readings? t0 0.0001 in. The gages are available in! in. and ‘Hn, gage lengths In recent yeare mechanical gages have been larly supplanted by electric resistance gages. These have the advastaze o cate of application and adaptability to difielt location, such shar (corners or the inside wall of presure vesel. The SK goie, Fig. [S the most commonly wed electric tain gage. [1 consists 9! shorsnd are di show in Fig. 1,12. Italo gives an o mand indicates region of both high tress, cenpeimae to reduce the concentration, and regions of low sess, Chere material can be removed without detriment to the gener 8. Moire Method m8 the most adaptable analysis method's for evaluating thermal, as wells mare steses, can be applica directly 40 metals in model Tea strates bene, restions imposed by smiled condition whe tin oes han tare sed msl he beh riodie rulings are made to overlap, interference patterns called luced. The simplest fore of moite pattem arise Troite fringes are produced P foun the parallel saperpo ro sets of paralel lines whe ven ue lines are not wide cru to fila space completly by a _ANU the she ‘eves the pri viding iSSURE VESSELS avhere dy isthe ydistance beowsen two interference fringes and were his che alstance between two interference fringe ‘Silay, the interference fringes ofa pid parallel withthe OT axis are the contour lines of the displacement fy rom which i fallow where dy is the sistance between two interference Hinges, a with being the y-distance between two interference fringes, From the Tice trsin'components tm en and 7 4«— ay the principal traies Shir eivecion can be determined. Figure 1.16 shows the moire pattem on aplate with a small, central circular hole subject 0 tens Pine vertical, or OT direction, The regular spacing of borizontal fGnges ip Figure 116s, ane vertical Iringes i Figuce 11 tively short distances away from the hole indicates thatthe effect of the hole it very Toca. In contrast, the clotenessof these iinges adj ent to the hale edge of ity horizontal ans indicates high stains in thisloeal area, The steep angle ofthese fringesin« crossssped region 45° to the anis denotes an aren of high shear, Art. 5.5 This method of experimental stress analytes adaptable to models ss wellas prototypes, to mechanically and thermally produced sess, tnd is particularly valuable in hgh temperature stress analysis whi fase the grid pattem ix etched directly on the metal stucture Although thee are the three mast widely wed experisental smathods others which eerploy opie. aed sounical ologragh lrasones, Xray difraction, Brite model, piste models, oa dectrie analogy, uid flow analogy, repeated ste, plastic tre frequently wed for particular applications 1.3 Stres Significance Analytical fri fr the evaluation of strewes are usualy bo fon elastic theory and elastic behavior of the rial terial whieh conforms to Hooke's law, and ie may at fist be tho thateriae vehict follow this behavior right up 10 the breaking p would be the most desirable for use, Thi is ot the case, how instance, plaster of Pars has a perfectly sraight strstr to the breaking point but, of course, i not a stable mater ructural member or presture veel, strictly because i¢ i (tal ‘laste and not partially plastic in ts behavior Tie ts ty ofthe material with ies ability to give or yield under ideal stress and so acconnmodate the applied loadin able disetbution of internal sre, thatthe moe important of a presure veed material. The elastically computed strength of most members considering the structure as shal be considerably reduced it were not accompanied by plait formation at varios relatively small portions of the mesh gh Local stresses occur Tis important not only to determine te value of to interpret its meaning oe sigaifieance—the two go “har Determination of ree sgnifteance requires a knovled LL The type and mature of the applied loeding and th sreisdistibution o pattern within the member. For22 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS applied loading mechanical or thermal, of a steady (watie) vn SEs (wartable or eyelie) nature, and isthe resulting sess pattern Uniforen or does it have high peak voles? ithe ductile aod plastic properties ofthe material. For instance, are the properties ef the material such that internal yielding ot Fe SGjainenr af srain can reduce the effects of local ress concentra ere toughness or adaptaility of the material under advene working conditions orensiconmente!™ For instance, are the propertiey trike sateral sutfiient to absorb applied impact or shock loadings? The trength of a member docs net depend only on the value ofthe maxi sires oF stain in the member, but also on the external Shape readjustment that the anernber itself can make tO one more [everable than that assed in the design, andl on the plastic property ff the material to pert intern} stress adjustment. 1 Types of Loading ond The Siess Paton Structures are subject 0 bade eypes of loading: nanny saat Sade and tnteady (cable, eyeie or impo). Although Beste aly all sutures encounter variable or eye leading dose Pimmoe Euding structures any machine member, and an appr Thane erpresure vesely sich a boiler teary drums ay Be Seca oe sarily Joaded shout inirdueing seriows eon Be Sasiotc ue of ductile materials ad subject to atc lade {air gene yielding The ductility ofthe material allows a redetribu- wnat eues Dy pati How to attenuate points of high loa values so eesic qune favorable to snantmam restance. ence, the SORE sate portion or vlan are volved in de behavior f the AOSCUP fad'tnd base primary sce analy equations ae sgt nein determining thie strength and ins Tomes, wn the loading euch thatthe meer subjected 1.2 conskderabie number of tex eyles, even thowgh the material Scie apretie evr ean be inoue by comeing 2 te ‘basing ebeaton to exist in appraising integrity 06 the bass of sm Banbomalas, Under such eondions flue occars de co a cond ‘eaignowa as fatigue This ure doesnot involve suiientrmaunt Stiocta te make these foraularepeesntaiv ofthe action prevailing; fice in taigue fue i due primarily 10 a bghly localized ses ‘eile cause a ite face ehat gradually spreads ul the mes ree) Gibterca the pe of file se of particular taportance F Pressure fence for hydraulic oF pneumatic acum. PRESSURE V Innpact or shock lading can be insposed on structures, cluding ee ait by earth, explions, of collsion of mabe Cpe relies ition oi ae oP ie Vinee enerey throughout the vent, absorption ofthis eerty State wee and ited stare, and he of rates OF Saeuate wughnen “Fhe nee isution near the point of load applications, such a dee point of contact of the beam toad io Fig. Ll], or the sport Bee ono vey may vary grey from the astmed pattern on DitGh the ordinary equations are bated and these Tocl ste vales weet telatvey high Bven though the material ducile und « eclare of sess rdtibution cat orcur, these local ress ca DE ftezot on and are frequen responsible for fares nel Tey tue materials or tn dave material subjected co cyl ila, nrewes a the points of load application may contol the Senge of the member father than the stewes given by the rary Sfuutonn Tiss partculry imporeane in esl which are designed SMreebrane or eson member an eannt rest large being = Sent pespencicular to ther surface and yet for practical purbones tnt have sport aces ig ag ozs et atached ot. 2, Ista Redd Sst "The basic equations for determining stresses are based on the a sumption that the stesee fn a member are caused oaly by external Joach, and vesdual stress 4 up in the fabrication or construction proceas such a1 weld shrinkage, casting cooling, metal heat treat ‘ie, are not considered. Although these steses are secondary ‘her value is sleliniting (they are not produced by unrelenting tetera loads), they may be of grea importance in brittle materials land even in detle aterial when the material i subject to fatigue Tending Equally inportat is the danger of ereating, in conjunction with she applied loading sess, a dree-dimensiona sires pater ia ‘ick sections that is restive to the redistribution of high localized peak stress dutough yielding. Is for this reason that stres relieving Erthick vel ually requited by construction codes, is much more important than thin ones which the tate of stress is esentally 890 sdinensional 3. Shape of Membr ‘The basic assamption fr continwty of setion in a member on wii lordinary formula for direct strese and bending stess are based, 12 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS quiring that plane setion remain plane after bending, ano held sar of abrupt changer in seton duc to the eescating in sence ais afer poruion on adjacent sections. Fgute 1.10 lls ducati condition. Tie sreaes inthe region influenced by thee sre ica ahape discon ae higher than predicted by the see athemasal law of darbution on vehich che ocinary Sess fda are base and are known at localized of concentation tore eevor ntdced by the ue ofthe onnary fxn for UEdeign ot members with abrape changes of csion are generally 1 see load sate and the intel ductile a 10 permit ‘Fae mesure o pls lw; hence, the member acts more nearly 2s smamed ti peactcalty of this iy attested by the saistctory behavior of imat bekdinge, eset and machines, These Tocalized eis are Rokete vst nportaot in bile materia even under state oad aoe ec tic gonitins a redieibution or tander of sees ATTA cvemerened material to adjacent lower sitesed material {ses tue ake place and eaptare ofthe member rests They are Seely entfeant when cyl Toading is inelvedy even. when the can eUjuale nee the region of high srs act as foal point fom whieh fang tore ean sem. Fhe atic evaluating localized sens invents has ase smajee Pnportance in the las decade ar engineering advancements rane eee aual presure temperatore, and environment de- rane iacstecmure vende "The petroleum and cheiical proceses sranite operating preamure in the 5,000 to 200,000 pat range. The reat ekpandingcryogenles industry has introduced ow tempers: epi lons tb mus #23°F. The muclear powerplant has give She so prea gh epee an cacy anata 1H 22 hi bring coniion Al thse requirements ave focus arateehic acento om the sess analysis materials of consiuction, Sai economics of design of vessel or thee services. 14 Design Approach “The design of mos structures based on formulas that are Ksown © sc aiGtonfnte The unknown tems, such asestent of yeding and cre Rind fates in design and vara belavior, ee considered 0 pow for bythe we of working semen that ave admiedly be- Sp twat which she member wl a Ths "Tact of salty” or “Gite of ignorance” approach although possessing ius of having Sess ein te past fr ductile sates under state loading and PRESSURE VESSELS 95 Leena a 11. Tg of Kone providing the designer with preliminary sisng dati yeing to more ‘ined analytical nd experinental methods This inproverent wl Continve ar knowlege and cogoiance of influencing design ada arn nee a ei ae tse This night be istated bythe tangle of know 7 hich indices tata aur igerane decrees ith dicory of ‘Reopniton of more ofthe factor affecting behavior and proper a Cou ate i Sng analy aie fr eon Sera Sccordingly, the potential proper ofthe material canbe more “utilized with confidence. eam f Ree tt The alety demands of nuclear reactom, deepiving submersible syace vets and chenical ears have ecient promi rowel asl Ie au ta Knot Foran, se Ice react hit extremely age, heavy section ove flanges and orale reinforcement, operating under severe thermal tenn evi aan ene, foie or able auenion on rearch inthis area whieh as been diel re Sponue for improved rater, Knowledge of their betavior i ‘pede envronmenm and new sre: analy metho "High strength materia, ereated by alloying element, manic Jing pocees or heat weatent, are developed to sas coon or cnpineting demands, such at reduced veel thickness. They. se cet ting sd oh dng i onsen i igher seni, and adaped to vouel detign as experimental nd fabrication kovisage jose tht se, The sho one perc ps sure vse aerial table for all environteny bo roster slmp sod experimental material properties w rsluble equations of elastic abe solutions, suchas the fhe clement me mportance, and ‘and analyses are the keys to Ton ction details aauresu vsel of balanced$2 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS eet ee ERs, “Terma Ses i Cynder by the acinar a Sa el VS est Sr er oe ermal bon A ead #0 JT oe Me er eg a Pe rat a NL cong hems Unde eee alae een re ee 2 a sng ne Dig Hig ters cm, nny Deri ey Oem eer tea se Ml of ee es Dawe Fe satus Piers SMe rere Bent pd Me for ape dune 1976." Oak Rge Noon cee ee men os Pe ae aerate eat te det it ih de cee Seen sea eee parameter aly.” One Rege Naina Lado so se ES Ue detain” Ee re cme a en ey ube f txperimental Mechanics, Jume 1978. re 2 Ah ti Wg Da” "a" Jc, Doyle and WT. Danylah, agate tisk or Anioyen cee eM rnaa tgeiend Me hg Str, Phi Hlopagy-W Moder Tol or Sue Aa geen es PRE etn Re” Erni Me aN En nate at Gang kenge 2 Stresses in Pressure Vessels 24 Introduction Pressure veel commonly have the form of spheres, cylinders, cllipsoids, or some composite ofthese. Such composite are illustrated {nthe veel shapes of Figs 2 and 22. In practice, vesels are usually Composed of complete pressure-contaiing sell together with Sange ‘ing? and fastening devices for connecting and securing mating pars A the name implies, their main purpose i 0 contain @ media ner Dresre and temperature: however, in doing so they ate aso sabe feted to the action of steady and dynamic support loadings, piping reactions, and thermal shocks which require an overall knowledge of the streses imposed by these condone on various vse shapes nd appropriate desiga means to ensuresafe and long Ie. When venele or sells are considered to be formed of plate in whicl the thickness smal in comparison with the other dimensions, nd as sch offer liu resistence to bending perpendicular to their surface, {hey are calle “merloanes,” and the stress calculated by neglecting bending are called “inembrane stress” A piece of writing paper ‘ery retetant to forces in its plane, but can offer litle resistance © bending perpendicular to ite plane. In one tense, ths 4 desable Condition for it permits the vesel to deforin realy without incurring large beting srewes at points of discontinuity, Chapter 4. Meme brane sexes are average tention oF compression stress over the thickness of the wesel wall and are considered to act tangent (9 (5 sar face. Most vesels for boller drums, accumulators or cherieal and: clear vests fallin this category. 2.2 Stresses in a Circular Ring, Cylinder, and Sphere I. thin circular ring is subjected to the action of radial forces formly diributed along is circumference, hoop forces will be pro35 THHORY AND DESION OF PRESSURE. VESSELS acting on the semicircular ring gives the equilibrium equation wena” ‘grsin da = 2gr 22.1) Fw (222) “The unit stress inthe rng ean be obtained by diving the force by the erosesectional area ofthe He ane 23) t " Inq, 22.147 sin i the projection ofa cecumferental element onadiameter; ence the right side of Eq 221 is merely the unit force fines the pojcted Leng of the contact surface, Tr the sing is considered a ection of unit length of a cylindrical ese of thiknestf subjected to internal prestre fy 30 that in Es. 223, 9 pand d =, the hop sires ina cylindrical vesel becomes tr ane 28) “The longicudinal stress can be calelated by equating the total pres sure against the end of the cylinder tothe longitudinal forces acting on tt transverse section ofthe eylinder, a6 indicated in Fig. 24, ving ular = par 225) Et 226) ae 2 Insimilar manner, the hoop and longitudinal stresses in thin sphere subject to internal presture my be found tobe equal, ané the same 1 the longitainal sess in a cylinder. * (22.7) % "This is of particular sgaifcance inthe design of presture veses be- ‘aoe the minimum abso stress value = a= = can given by & Sphere; henee, its the deal form stesewie. Since its required thick Tam fora given se of conditions is one hal that ecesary for a eyinder thd is the sine thickness as that required forthe longitudinal tres i a evlinder, forme of wire-wrapoed, coiclayer, banded or ssultiple Tayer cylindrical veel construction can be utlized,!29 Fig. 2.5. Suck ‘cormtructions have been widely sed (n the chewsical and petroleum, industry where they perinit a material selection compatible with the Fig. 24. Longitudinal Stes in a Cylinder and Sphere a | } | Fig. 2, Vesel Constucton Employing, Banded or Mulple-Layer “Glinders and Hepes ‘contained media for dhe inner layer, and economical stength sa tetal for the media non-contact poction (see Fig. 6.3). They also Petvce a mean of inating a peesres within the vesel wall, and Actas arrestors (fast unig eracks in environments conducive (0 Irie fracure 2.3 Poinwon's Ratio Ia bar is subjected to axial tension, ics elongated not only in the axial direction, but experiments have shown that {undergoes lateral38 TITEORY AND DESION OF PRESSURE VESSELS ‘contraction atthe same time, and thatthe rato of the unit lateral cou- {faction tothe unit axial elongation [s constant withthe laste Limit Fora given material. This corstant is called Poiwou's ratio and is de- tuted by the syinboly, Expertnental investigations ofthe lateral con- Uraction of botropie materials (Chapter 5), such as structural and fcsrue ves! sees, have shown that its value may be taken as 0.3 for {hear miterials. This phenomenon also applies i the ease of com- peesion, Anal compresion wll be accompanied by lateral expansion, Tha the same value of ir ured for calculating this expansion. ‘fa rectangular block of material is subjected to tere stress in two perpendicular directions, Fig- 26, the elongation in one direction dependent not only oa the stress in this direction but also on the foes in the perpendicalar direction, The unit elongation oe strain in the direction of the tenlle srs oy is oy/E. The tensile sea ex will fice lateral contvaction in the recon of, equa ory B90 that Tom sreses act smultancousy the unit elongation in the direction of wil be es) In the direction of 232) If one or both of the stresses are compressive itis neceaacy only to fonder these as. negatives when determining. the corresponding strains from Bags. 28.1 and 2.82. ‘Sunilany, i thre tenlle wreses, 0, om exist on a cube of sor ig, 26, Srain Due to Teo Principal Stes STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 59 teopie material, the strain in the direction of i 233) ‘he stresses existing ina vesel may be determined experimentally from actual stain measirements made on the vesel by employing Ege 23.1 and 2.12, which gives the stresses oan foctions of the ssaine ¢, and eas 24 Dilation of Pressure Vesels Dilation, or eadial growth, of a presure vewel can be obcained by inwegrating the hoop strain inthe vessel wall from an axis through the fener of rotation and parallel toa radius. Thus in Fig. 27 the dls 8 = [oreo 969 = or ea) and substicutng the value of from Eq. 2.3.2 gives a < 24.2) Fig. 27, Dilaon of Vewel Dut to Foternal Prete40 THRORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS “The dilation of a cylindrical veel i found from Eq. 2.4.2, by substi- Thing the value e fom Eq, 226 and oy from Eq. 2:24, 0 be (3. Testis behavior that causes dNincreste in te discontinuity stresses when ellipsoidal heads ace used itatead of hemispherieal ones for end closures on cylindrical shells of equal thickness, Par. 7.1 2.5 Intersecting Spheres "The sphere is an ideal presure vessel because (1) streswse i gives hc lowet posible value, (2) storagewse it contains the largest voltae hi ininiam surface area, and (3) costwise it has both eninimum Thickness and surface area, hence, lowest material weight and cost When requirements exceed thore posible or practicable fora single phere, stultiple intersecting spheres can be used, The basi wen Wane messes ean be found fom Eq. 227, and the sess on the {ntersection reinforcement seuber for equal size spheres, Fig. 228, by noting that te unit pul of the sphere wall isfr/2 which gives an Out Fig. 28, Forces acting atthe Junctare of Inenecting Spiers werd radial component tthe inuson of (co 9/2 for ech ‘he ora tal opr cog The sean spi py/Bh an con toning nit organs p(t) 202 renee Pie Fe Ama dite tae at he phate Eesti tarde t imine being teh. Tsk seco pli! by engin the ihren that under exalt Weary un aitareeti cumbrenceinl row Oe eat Trae te aatel ral gow a he prea vena tc ‘ah ofthe nesting ce The ada roth of the ners Sia wih clones ee b(t) sind Ek ‘Toe rial grout of a oid continuous diaphraga of thickres electing the effet of presure onthe diapragi, a preos 8—p)r sin fH and equating Bes. 2.5.1 and 2.5.2 gives a diaphragm thickocs of i es es, Ha theag Ifa reinforcing ving is ued, Fig. 2.88, the sme proceduce faa by tty A oun tn caeaeral are of in gy fhe hoop sites on the ring of Eq. 22.3 then becomes preening a 2.53) 442 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE, VESSELS “The radial growth of the ring from Bq. 24:2, newleting the second term of this equation sil and with a radius orn equal to7 sin 38 pcos sin? aE Equating this to Ba 2.5.1 gives 2h eos bind meets Interccting spheres have a practical aplication in the economical design of ves for extremely high presures, An example of this proach is scussed in puragraph 7.9 and is shown subsequently in Figs 7.33 and 7.94. They are likewise the basic constriction wsed for ‘ep-tving submeribles which must embody both minimim weight or buoyancy and maximum strength for pressure.” "The effect of noncicularity and residual stresson the collapse of spheres is discussed in paragraph 8.5. asa) 33) 26 General Theory of Membrane Stresses in Vessels Under Internal Pressure “The membrane sreses in vets of revolution, including those of complicated geometry, can be evaluated from the equations of statics provided they ave loaded in a rotationally syrametrical mances—the Fresure loading need aot be the sume throughout the entire veel Dut ay om any plane perpendicular to the axis af eoxation 0-0, Fig. 2° Th the veuel of Fig. 2: ian element afi et by two meridional sections, ob and ¢, and by {wo sections or and Bf vorveal to hese meridians i is sen that a condition of symmetry existe and only forinal steses act on the sides ofthis elernent. Let ‘ny = longitudinal or meridional seu (sees in the meridional ‘icetion) x = hoop srs (stress along a parallel circle) 1 = thieknes of ves! t= clement dimension in the meridional direction (face ub and) = element dimension in the hoop direction (face er ne ‘= longitedinal er meridional radius of curvature fe = radius of curvacire of the eemest in the loop direction (per= ‘pendicula tothe meridian) p= pressure Referring to Fig 2.9, the total forces acting onthe sides ofthe element are wildy and es, The force ood, has 2 component ina direction STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 49 Fig. 29. Membeane Steer in Vee normal t the clement, Fig. 2.94, of 24, = tnd) ean and sat the freed hata component in a dieton nora to ‘the element, Fig. 2.9, of in Fy = Qeyhde sin & 6.2) ‘The normal presure force on the element i yn44 THEORY AND DESION OF PRESSURE VESSELS which i in equilibria with the stm of the norial membrane com ponent frees Eq, 26-1 and Eq. 2.625 hence, thin sin (ME) + Bvt (5) -rlinse ome a] 8 and sin (%2) mle athe (2.6.5) “This can be determined more directly by appreciating in Eas. 26:1, 262 and 263 that for anal sngles the sine, tangent, and angle in sans are equal, and alo that the chord is equal tothe are. ‘The sign o€ the radi of curvature inthe derivation above are both positive since they point in the sane diretion toward the center of the Pete Tf the recive pointe away from the center ofthe vessel, itis Tegative;forinstance in location 4 of Fi. 2.8, the meridional radius En oritve in the lower part ofthe vetl, pases through an infection ohnt where it beeornes infinite, and ten becomes negative i region wei also well o mention again thatthe presure and thickness need ‘fot be conmant over the entire vesel in applying Eq. 2.0.5, but are the local Values. This permits due use ofthis equation for compart ented veils which operate at diferent pressure, or thowe subject 10 Varying pressures due to ahead of fluid, and likewise embody conre- ponding thickness adjustments. ‘Some applications of this equation for commonly used geometic shapes ae discussed below. "88538 1, Chine Vel Unde Intra Peso In the eae ofthe cylinder portion ofa vessel under internal pressure ‘ps the hoop radius rs = the longitedinal radius rv =, and each is Ponstant throughout the entire ejinder. Substituting these values into Bg. 2.65 aves a, ele (2.66) rok © (oop sires 2627 on = F (hoop stress) 2.6.7) [SIRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 45 “Toelongtudinal tre can be found, asin paragraph 22, by equating dhe longiidial ores prodocing extension tothe total prewar force nth row section of the veel axterk = pri 6a) be ox =F ongitudinal swess) ton 269) 2. Spica esl Under Ira Pree In the case of a sphere, the longitudinal and hoop radii ate equal, nere=ty and from symmetry it follows that w= ee=e Thus Eg 265 becomes a ook g (26.10) 8, Coil Veet Under Eternal rere In this cate, Fig, 2:10, iis seen that 11 = =, just asin the case of = conder since ies generates i straight Hie, and ry ~ 7/co=.« Ths from Eq. 205, br Fig. 210 Stress ina Cones! Wet46 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS from which itis sen that (1) the hoop strest approaches that i a yl Inder se approaches ero, ad (2) the sires becomes infinitely lowe ate sppragches 90" ard the cone flatens out into plate. The ater Jherely verifies the asumption that a lat membrane canot take loads pespencicular co its plane. “Pie longitudinal ress ean be found by equating the axial com- ponent of tis force in the veel wall to the total pressure force On a plane perpendicular t the axis of revolution exler cose = po? 26.12) b ange 2613) and comparable deductions to those above from the hoop strest can be made 4. Blip Vee Under eal Pesce Elliprodal shaped heads are frequently used for the end closure of ‘cylindrical shells for steam boilers reactor, and storage vesels in hice to accommodate special space oF volume requirement! In fuck constructions a half of aa eso is used, Fig. 2.11, Since the {radius of curvature varies fromm point to point, the solution of Eq, 2.6.5 becomes somewhat store complicated than for those geometric shapes ‘eonstant radi. An ellipse of seriemajor axis and semicminor axis b {i deseribed in orthogonal coordinates and.) by the oqaation ee apaae 25.19 e619) (2.6.16) (26.17) STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS «7 Fig. 211, Sr in a Epi Substituting these values in Eq. 26.16 gives - LOE (2618) e ‘The radius of curvature 7 in the hoop direction isthe length of the normal from the elipee tothe axis rotation The slope of the tangent {0 the clipue at coordinates andy iegives Dy a "Nes @si9) Noting tan # = »/f and substituting the value of tan ¢ From Bq, 2.6.19 geet te Alo re snd substicating the value of! from Eq. 2.6.20 gives ee SE=D nn af oe48 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS “The longo or meridional, ses can be oud tn Paragraph To ering heel ofthe portion ofthe ellipsoid above Baty cielo that che rl atone By the ange Si The equation fequibiam ie wip ~ Benes = 0 om a HE 2625) wie) “The hoop stres ex can be found from Ba. 2.6.5 using the values of andr from Eqs. 2.6.22 and 2.6.25, respectively, anda from Eq. 2629 ont Hn 2) (2526) ‘see crown = 1: a/b and om Eat 2.525 and 2625 ene asx At he equator 1 = ba and rn = a5 from Ba, 2528 a-f (2.6.28) ii which fs the same asthe longitudinal stress in a cylinder, while from Eq. 26.20 ys (2.6.29) a= M(1-8) ene ‘and iti seen that the hoop stem becomes compressive ifa/b > 12. "Ar the a/B ratio inereate above 142, the location ofthe maxinara shearing stems 0 which the falure of ductile materials subscribe, Par 315, hifi om the center of the crown where the maximem hearing sea noting the average radial stress through the thick nes is 2/2, (2530) 53) (2632) 4 . i. TX. ao ae ae OSG Fig, 212, Ratiooé Stet inan Elipmoid to Str ina Cylinder with Varston Tn Kato of Najrso-Minoe Axi ‘The variation i stress daroughout an ellipsoid for increasing 2/6 ratios is shown in Fig 212. The meridional sete remains tensile throne the elipsoid for all 4/6 ratios, being a maximum at the crown. and Aitinishing in value to a minim a the equator. The boop sre flo tense in the exown region but this decreases as the equator is proached where it becomes compressive for a/b ratios greater than TAZ, A ratio a/b = L, a sphere, gives the lowest stress Ife/2 ~ 23 ‘maximunn enlle sre of p/h, which isthe sare athe hoop sre a Clinder, occurs at the center of the erown and a hoop duces are calelable by the equations of paragraph 28.3. As an ex Simple, prior to asembly the ouside eadius b of the ince cylinder in Fig, 225 was larger than the inside radius ofthe outer elinder by a datiount& creating a presire p between the cylinders after assembly STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 65 is Fig. 228 ShviskeFit Tangential Sicoe in a Cinder es value can be determined from the condition that the increst in the inner radia of the outer eylinder plus the decreae in the auterradiut fof tie ier eyinder ust equal 8 Ths, fom Eqs. 2.8.26 and 2.8.29, » Flee {auch 4 butup eyinder i now subjected to internal premure, the ssreses predic by this presare ae he same as those it sli wall ‘Slinder of thickness equal the sum of thone of the individual yl inders ea. Thevestenes are superposed on the shrink sues div ‘ned previouly. The later are compressive athe foner surface ofthe Ser winch reas the masa angen tae ss ic {he internal prsture a this point, thereby creating a more lavorabie Sex ieribution than in the ene of toda liner ice the ilueaive problem below). This procedure af building up elie ‘wed in the construction of gun barrels and of veel for exter high internal presuren This favorable ste patern does sot cust sles66 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSEES ‘the parts have undergone a shrink or interference ft. Veses are often connructed by applying one cylinder on another, without a sink or fmererence ft, a fabrication means to obtain thick wall Iuiraite Polen. Determine the tangesial sees. at the inne oe anti saraces of he up sel esinaer af Fg. 2293 subjected (oan Renal pecute p= 2G ph when's = iny P= 8 In © ~ 10 iy E'S'30 10 andl he shrinkage # = ODE in Satin; Te pressure created at te mating lace ‘tam Bq 292 Bin due to bis 30 10 0.0045" =)008—88) ae e “The stress caused by this presue onthe inner cylinders fom 9. 2.825, i = Lop. _ niet) aa “The sues caused by this premure onthe outer cylinder irom Eq. 2.8.19, ‘Those inal rezes predyced by the sbrnkft are shown, ia Fig, 2.2%, ‘The arenes caused by the neal pecsure ave the sane ws fr vld-wall, piney of thicknes 10 nn, = 4 im and ate shown in Fig. 296 a8 ‘Reeemined by Ba 28.19, OO) a0 00 pt (1435) = sna00 00 29 000%.246" 20002 _ 99500 px Superposition ofthese two sree pattern goes the final total stress sib thos Fig, 225, rn which oer hat the ntl anembly sens ede the aginar reste eylnder when ei Sbjeced to ternal presi roo 42,300 po wo 37.240 ps Shrink-fit strestes do not influence the bursting prestuce of such built eylinders which sequal tothat ofa simple slid wal cylinder pf the same overall diameter ratio, Par. 2.106, 2.410 Autofretage of Thick Cylinders 4. They I is also posible wo obtain favorable inital stress acter, analo- ‘gous to that stetioned ia paragraph 2.9 for builtup sorinkie line deve, by applying a nificiently high internal premure to produce plas foe tn the inner part ofthe cylinder. Affer removing this n= ternal pressure, residual sess persists due t the plastic low or defor. ‘mation that has taken place, with the inner part in eompresion and the outer part in tension. This i called “autfeetage.” ‘Vieiding of inner surface due eo internal pressure will cur when the maximum shearing ses, Eq. 28.21, at ths point cones el to the yield point stress in shear of the material ry». Substtating this value fn Bi, 2.821 ives the presture at which yielding begins ss =o ht 2.10.0 pone ren ) Athe press is further increased, the plastic deformation penetrates farther imo the vewel wall until fe reaches the outside surace at 8 peesure ps when the entre wall ofthe eyinder hat yielded, The sree Stibution under these conditions can be determined by asursing the rial to be perletly plastic and 10 yield under the action of eos stant shearing stress ry. Then for every point in the plastic region 7 A. second equation involving the principal stretver »\ and», can.be ‘btained from the equilibrium of element of the wal a shown in Fig, 2.16, which gave the equation (Eq, 283). dey oe onan (220. sind substituting the value of o — from Ea, 2.10.2 into Ea. 2.10, oe de Deer, ee 168 THRORY AND DESION OF PRESSURE VESSELS ‘Upon integetion this gives 2ry.p loner C 2103) and the constant of integration C can be determined from the cond on that atthe outer surface ofthe cylinder, ry the radial stress Das C= Bev logd (e100) Placing this constant of fteraton in Eq. 2.105 gvet a out 2.10.7) for at the inner surface, * (22108) = true lose “The presure that is sequired so being the entre wall of the cylinder into & state of plastic flow is then -Bre been a) ‘ean be found by subsittig the value of fom 10.2, which gives, “The tangential Bg. 2107 nto Fa 2 oy = 2rve (1 +08) 2.10.10) Ut ahe internal presse is removed afer the evinder aerial has bea trough. pate condian, areal sem wl emai in the wall Thiszan be calculated by asusing that during unloading the ma ‘et lows Hook's law andthe sresiee which age to be subtracted Ail unlontng ave those ven by Bay 2.8 1B and 28.19 hen — is ‘aid orp. ee specu nfl peg + Tana te inal plastic How condition. Tiss bes Ulustated by ‘Masten cae, sye'd = 2.20 for which the sveses are shown in Big 224. Those were determined as fallow: (1) The disuibution of rail tes through the wall shown ja ig. 2.240 as ealeated from Eq. 210.7 oy = trun toe ) 6 STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 99 and likewise the tangeosisl stesso, diibution calculated by Ea. : tev [1+hee(a)) 5 = Prva. (I +logel) = Bev ® (2) The disuibution of radial suess «resulting from release ofthe Ineenal presure ie shown in Fig. 2.248 a ealeulated from Bge. 2.10.9, and 28.18, 212 co 1 peo = trun te(gi) = ont _ and he ng etre sion by 2818 one no — pita (ied) = ~ stn = ~ isasarnd = 12eevn) awn ope 2 0stp. = —050s0:0te0) = OMe) (8) The final residual stress distribution is obtained by superpor tion to give that shown in Fig. 224e. Tei very favorable to the ve application of internal presure since the accompanying tangential tensile ses must now fst overcome the residual compressive ste. For instanee i an internal presure equal 0 py i again applied, the tangential stesses produced by ths prestre mast be superposed on the residual steie, slid curve of Fig 224, with a rerltant maxima stres of 2'rrp. now occuring atthe outside wall ofthe veel, n0 Yielding wil occur during the second application af this internal pres {ure Comparing this tothe presture at which yielding wil begia atthe inide wall of 2 stzeafree cylinder which is given By Bq. 110.1 lor = 2.20 as pr = 0.79 rye, its seen that the presure ca be is creased two and half tines while maintaining elastic benavior of the cylinder. ie Tn this manner iti posible to increase comiderably the peestre which aeylinder can contain elastically, and the method i frequent ted in the design of accumulators, hydraulic ram cylinder, gus30. ‘THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS Fig. 224, Residual tenes in an Avtiretaged Thick Grinder re, ex, Not only oes increase the eat ti strena, bat [ss erble cin invendng gui paragraph 984 ote toatcatle nly to ieealles enders where a vasa oe Brgsemure tye exits trot the wal ches. He not ap we ae a tae wit tn walle sacs impomible to bud MD & rable eon se pater A ‘a Pie eegong analy considered plastic fow ofthe ent cylinder seall"bot star analy can be made wen oly a portion of the Tar eda" ies white the row rennin elastic The real valli a above were induced by peste or sald re SRE tn cy cam ho oe created by tempersture changes Se eng acompanving quenching ore vole change Se Tint dutiegmliungeal pose change during cling, These Se separ import nage Reavy OS OF NOSES teres, not being eetvely conseled a a he SE ean betome age tdci the art ar raph 5.173. 2. Poli! of The Antfetnged Pese Vest is ring atthe Equation 28.21 gives the maximum shearing test occurring inside wall of «cylindrical veel. This equation may be written in the form Qt ee aan “STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 71 Fig. 225. Influence of Autletage an a Cylinder and is plotied as the lower curve in Fig. 225. I's the shearing yield ftrengt ofthe material the ordinates of this lower curve represe ‘ale of the pressure, according to the maximum shear stress these ‘which are the uaximum that can be sustained elastically. Beyond cis ‘resure the Inside surface of the wall stained plastically, The elect, ‘tfurter straining to the point where the ouside surface just bec osnes plastic even by Eq. 2.109, This equation ean be written inthe form auto. apd is plotted asthe upper curve in Fig. 2.25. These equations apply to fither open-cidl or cloved-erd! eylinders. This is de to the fort shat they are baced on the maximum shearing seas whieh is one-half the largest algebraic dlference between any (0 of the threr principal streses or /2(,~ 2), and are therfore not influenced by U Tdi stress which va value interseste between 4 and «A os prion ofthese two curves indicates 1. The limited merit of using extremely thick wall cylinders o A= Wa rationin excessof about 30 when an elas stress condi Vion must be maintained throughout the eylinder wall. This is showa by the Rataesrof the lower curve, Fig. 225, wih eaton12. THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS yond this vale, In onder to satiny elastic conditions for pres pean his extremely thick walls, constructions embadying aa sal resided by shrinks, autofretage or other novel aah premure design principles, Par, 215, must be wed 4, he larg ncen in presnure reid fo cane laste sas Toe ae eae ender wal after the have started at spre ae tae Th sit by comparing the ordinates then wal ne curves fora given Ava. Thi ierease fo the or ined wan ineresing the searing ss A rei Shoe te shearing yess Subsegacat api Sate ao eal se fly plas setae er drt cane adalat sai The importance of high strength material, whether designing for aero jaw conditions shen extremely high presure ate sed Ths is the prime aveate of approsch that is pretty Te len to cope with the ring presure requirement n= reine he ving submarines, and space exploration vehicles 3. The Busing Sveath of Thich-Wall Cylindrical Vents Predicting the waxinnam or bursting pressare that a thickewalley= Timteat ueeel can withstand ie an important consideration in its ane ere hae been a multude of fornia used or proposed for aes ng birting strength These have ranged fom entirely era: coat ones wo completely theoretical ones based o8 theories of Pettit apa the true strain behavior of the materia eee forma for determining busing pressure can be derived fhe Bee 109, This equation gives che preanre inthe cylinder wie veo gre actos the entre thickness has reached the shearing aan [he aaaumption ie snade that upon reaching the bursting secre th Shearng sees are unflorns over he ene thickest and reat the uftmate searing sreagth ofthe mare the Bursting prestre given Dy Prat 1013) Ii the value 2 i asnumed equal to and replaced by the ultimate eine rvengtv of the material, ea sinoe the former value is dificult to ascertain this becomes ra loge fr = tan, lng K 20.18) A more accurate value of the bursting presure lias been developed by Svensson as ¥ STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 75 -[(-SiK)}e tee 2 “This era embodies the sain hardening exponen,» ofthe ma tea and gives predictions in exellent agrcment with experimental srs te “Tae term in brakes on the right hand side of Bq 210.15 aries ofthe bse Eq, 210.14 to account for Us specie material mopar) Table 22 cows how tis nodber vases with» This shows attor gen verel made from materials having the same ulate tele sch, the bursting preure decrees athe ater sin fardening exponent «incense, This deren in burg presure duct the ester reduction inthe vend wall heknem and accom panynginteave in venel ameter over which the premire at before {be bunting prewire isreached. An indcation of te variation of a3 fone of trea of yi eng folate ene meng foe Tow and interneditetenalesength carbon and fw alloy sel i thon in Fig, 226 Tquation 2.10.16 by Faupel which directly incoportes the vied ‘and ute tena stent, lo ves ood ngecmet ih Epesiment. bs x2 = EL Jog, 0.16 ran BE ( 21019) uations 21034, 230.15 and 21016 gv abo ealshing samtoy aragh a otal enka tees ti set replion ef ebay cle tape ten ee Papas ch Bn ed fey yn Societe esting, tw loot ohana the muclear and other high prooure cite services fo « complete See Sate Cerpsacanta stmumeat me Saeed egy bed un pea tou ue nm Bete ofmtegr ef Liz beast of in fey of scum Pe Te omen etiam lca ‘TABLE 22. EFFECT OF STRAIN HARDENING EXPONENT GN BURSTING STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS” * 0 010 020 030 aw OW Moder (Bracketed Tome @i0i3) 110 105 099 0g aa———— 14 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS i i 7 an ira A ig. 226. Variaion of Strain Hadening Exponent a La an oceans : ‘Pesate Suength Carton and Low Alloy Stes! the bursting pressure of built cylinders, Par. 2.9, neither does the roves autttetage residual sess” The busting pressure remains ‘eet to that of asold wall ylindr of thesame overall ameter ratio. 2.41 Thermal Streses and Their Significance ‘Streses which ceslt froma reticting the natural growth oF contrac, sin Gis material due to a temperature change are called thermal Jeter. I the bar in Fig. 2.272 is uniformly heated from an initial ‘Sopetature 7: to anew temperature Ts the unit changein dimension femperaturs where wis the confcient of thermal expansion, and 29 ‘hehual strcass are produced since itis free to expand: Ii, however, the arr estrited from expanding in the y direction, Fig. 2.275, bu fee (Sapand laterally due to the Poisson effec, the resulting uniaxial ‘ermal stress becomes: $2 To) o= -Fa(he-T) ena) 1 the bar i further restricted in the x dicection also, Fig. 2.27 the Principal scans are equal, q.= ce = o(7e— i) = aT, and the Fig. 227, Thermal Serine principal stress from Bqs. 2.34 and 2.3.5 are ‘When a third restraint is imponed, perpendicular to the x pl: Fig 22%, the sre becomes Ga _ 28Te-T) 1=% ‘These sales of her sent ae fr lla and henge ae the "mun ht conbe ened i248 ges Hal senna be coctat tee pe gts Enso apes Hates urs Te secloret apes enon tony aed es eg of rain Mat oem ved compas involve two Streniond wean, Bq 2113 and pote at th ae Hh than th fr epic ural rsanint in erate CU nya 8 Perce ior tel ting = 03 The me gn tne ove equtona inate the bar ia om, protontie ntpnioas tener fe ps fom coat. ¢ enh oes prod Figure 227 hs dope ednendon efor Sang: teoperatire wih coats fon iain ia. tad tagelgcrel gem to ‘uoghowt Thenral arenes co a ec ond bya erepera ‘arnten wide the member creating © een expanon mach36 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS nt / Fig. 228, Thermal Sve Wao, Carbon Sie hat the natural growth of one fiber is iafweced by the dlerent ta at of atacent fen The ros hat Bes at Feat enue of once and tne a lee emperatrt ugh seme isthe Fancarnenta ference betwee thera arched, a he ileal expason seer ol OAL sed mechani eer be ssid, the scopy IS a pri a pe eirst rez fe pater nod ony my ag produces resin of the thea seal fey ne J enemies loaded mahal nh Se ee ae es bear yl regi ye wl co ae ea een lined by ain bard Sun Dea one er The internal ares mut Be #8 sue een al od ll sein constant bene the Sa i rela Accor, thermal ee are ena es Gans yes iting hoy wi ot ate seconde ss? cr upon el hr apeton fae oy supe a, bur iey m case are by repeated Sept oe a ld Thy nay a pce cue eran Caran napeative dt large deflections xe erg cnt a of rota devices sch 38 oe ier onan to recom i dsinton in appa ABER igieane of ermal ses i Bae eons or dieing the mast oe UO ae er fr the eral re th various ape the ath arouse tenn gradients sought he STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 77 ember are snulpliees of these basic equations. The value ofthese fnulkiplers range from 1 fora totaly restrained condition 4 Tor a Condition in which the restraining material ia of the same vgidity at the material being retrained as discussed inthe following paragraph 2.12 Theemal Stresses in Long Hollow Cylinders {i she wall of long hollow eylinder is heated nonusilormly through lis thieness, i elements do” no1 expand uniformly and. thermal ‘trees ate et up de to this mutual isterference. When the tempera- ture distribution is syoumetrical with respect tothe asi aed constant “long its length, 4 slition similar to that developed in paragraph 2 {or sections a short distance fom the ends* gives the following eae tons forthe principal srenes"*™ on i Tri] (2.12.1) one hee] ens IF the thermal gradient over the thickness of the wall is known, the Integrals in these equations can be evaluated and the thermal steses for the particular ease determined. 1, Step Ste Thermal Stes, Lgeridemis Thermal Grade One ofthe most prevalent cass of thermal stress occur in the elin~ drical vessel when heat is wing through the sides in a steady state causing the equilibrium cemperature difference between the inner and tuter surfaces to eiain constant, Under these conditions the ow is Fadial through a flow cros settion proportional to the radius which {ves rise to a logarithmic temperature distribution throughout the ‘wall thickness* paragraph 7.3.2. The temperaure at any point is ten {ven as a funetion ofthe temperature ofthe inaee wall 7, by vl loge ¢ te ftnte 15 ors demon of the ae he ed of de Teh"The temperature cistibution is dependent only upon the ratio ofthe Gates ad inner radi, and, although its independent ofthe thickness Pee be mentioned that normaly greater total tecuperature die ‘Cas are amociated with increased thickness. Hence, thick wall vesels crete re uncepible to failure de to thermal stresses than are thin are aiefs the tomperatare drop through te vessel thickness tha gives ip tothe thermal srest, and it converdent to cll the temperate at ‘AE Suter surface evo, realizing that any other surface temperature (Ghditions may be obtained by supecposing on this condition a un SaraNeatiag or cooling which produces no streses, Fig, 2.29, Sub- Mhatng Eq’ 2124 into Bqs. 2121, 2.122 and 2.123 gives aan ~ a a al | enn When Tis positive, the racial stress, is compresive throughout ee Tibia ae becomes zero at the faner and outer surfaces, The ‘tential sree and longitudinal stress . have thir langest ner sarees atthe inner and outer surfaces ofthe cylinder which can be Guay tutadeaning 1 = a and 7 = b into Pgs. 2126 and 2.12.7 tecbtain uae 7 |! au - pied) wr, 2a tml) | STRESSES IN PRESSURE. VESSELS Fig, 229, Thermal Gradient in Hollow Cylinder {) Fig 2.90, Stcdy-Sine Thermal Stet in a Cylinder of + Toganthme Thermal Gratien$0. THEORY AND DESION OF PRESSURE VESSFIS “The thermal stress bution forthe ase Bo = 20a Ti pote ikea ia Pig, 230. Thestremes sand , ae compresive athe inner aap the materia in this Feion "wants 10 grow” Dut is re Bae adlcent terial a lower crperatue, and gradually srt fala treme at tne outer surface asthe reverse situation ca ce When metals which ace weak i tension, sash a8 re FeseeeSonerete, cast irony ety ae used under ¢his condition, ere ely to start atte cuter sac Tice fale from rae fhe oor prove a tisocation when the vse sees {ate Pa) peste tnd the resulting ten sess Become av, ragraph 5.1 Parton 2.128 and 2.12.9 can be simplified when the thickens of the da sain comupaion withthe Sane radius of the eyliner treating hla fom and expreing log (a) a theses wl Considering ma. small quantity and dropping terms of higher order ves nett mem tM. QUO (| a5 *@ uz.) areal 3] ‘A farther sisplifcation forthe case of wery thin walls. can be rmade by ect the tron min caparison sith unity in Eqs. 2.12.01 ang 12, ging aETs om e219) er) om (ani) fromm whieh i is een thatthe maxieaun stress tone half dat for fll Festesnt ofthe materia; i. the multiplier of the basic full cestrant Thermal sess equation, Eq, 211.1 is for this ease 2, Stay State Thermal Seer, Lier Thermal Gradient Ifthe thicket ofthe ven wall seal in comparton withthe onside radi, the logarithmic temperature gradient E224, c3 ‘be replaced by a linear one, . - (210.13) and submitting the value of T fom Eq, 2.1215 into Eqs 22 2.12.2, and 2.12.3 gives tia ~ 7 - eae Sie i °-T-a 3 @u2i9) a ie gente _ Me ie _ a T-wal oe + a) b= a) ma 217) 2ETy [b4 24 b=9] woqenbiss iad areas) ‘The tangential stress, and longitudinal tres ¢, again, a8 for a logarithmic thermal gradient have thelr greatest numerical value at the inner and outer surfaces ofthe cylinder which can be found by sub~ situtingr = aand r= into Eqs 212.17 and 21218 w give (a Few) e219) 2.12.20) fied to = oH = 20-0 sd the thermal stress the sare a for alogarituni ternal ran, igs 21219 and 21244. The thermal sues dauibuton oer te ‘Nine othe walls the ne hata Bat plate mith clasped$2 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS ‘edges, s that bending ofthis plate is prevented when itis subjected to Tifnear thermal gradient through is thickness ‘When the vesel wall isnot thin, the exact shape of the thermal rodent becomes more influencing; Figure 2.31 i plot ofthe logs: Benin, Ea, 2 ld.t, and linear, F4. 2.12.15, temperature gradients ‘Which shows that or a valve of 6/4 = 1.2, the Linear assumption is Wihin 7 percent of the logarithmic gradient; whereas for an appre. TUbiy tgter wall vesel of #/2 = 20, the diference is as high a8 23, Gereent The shape of the temperature gradient i correspondingly re Petia in the magnitude ofthe thera stresses it causes although to = Teaser eatets nite the steeper gracent giving ise to che higher stress. ‘Triscan be verified by comparing the values ofa maximum stress 0b- ‘hined from iq, 2128 fora logarithmic gradient 0 that obtained from Ea, 2 12.19 fr linear one. For a value ofb/e = 2.0, the steeper loga Ehmic gradient gives a 10 percent higher stress than the Tinear vara ‘Hon with i constant miizaam slope throughout che entixe wal; it.» fhe mutual Interference of one fiber on the natural expansion of an {Bjaceat one has been suinimized by distributing the total temperature Sieg AT equally over the entire wall thicknest, ‘Tiss a major pressure earl design consideration emphasizing the importance of avoiding : oH STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 583 constgetion shapes or contours whic nts Chapter 6 troduce steep thermal grad 2.413 Graphic Determination of Thermal Stres in a Cylindeical ‘Vessel for Any Thermal Gradient Frequently the thermal gradient throughout the cylindrical vessel wall eannot be simply expresed, and an analyteal solution of Eqs 212.1, 2.122, and 2.12.3 3 not readily obtainable. Under these ci teustances the tegration ean be done graphically by observing, for ia, tha the tangeia woes: ren Dy Ea. E122 may be SE [SEES irre fitdr—T] as “Te Fist integral can be expresed as since 14 it = 2 (ewok that ar § band b— 6 sali Commparizn 107) and ite mean value ofthe temperature doug the env wall thcknet, The secon integral canbe writen d " verde Trér = 2 fit = Of eco) [re cere ones range of integration. ‘The tangential stress at any point can then be ‘Mean temperature ofthe entire Jehe mean trn-\ perature within a} < o= FS] ( ostndncatwan ] + heesinder ‘| L case radi CCC “Temperature } of deared an | sxtest location 134) cea eel Fg. 231, Steady-State Thermal Gradient in Cyndi! Vel Wall Tie may be farther simplified by noting that, when the wall thicksess fs small compared with the inside radius of the cvlinger, the nea34 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS value integral of Eq, 2.19.3 i considerably smaller than dhat of ia. 35132 a for an approximate solution may be dropped giving the ‘approximation: Mean temperature [Temperature of xe |(~ ofthe entice desired sts, Toa] |) cptindsica watt Tocation thickness (2135) “The significance of Eq, 2.19.5 is that isan algebraic expresion show ing that the ternal stesso, at any zadivsr isthe value ofthis tres for full restraint, «£/(1 ~ 3), sultipied by a factor proportional 0 the Aiference between the mean temperature of tne whole cylinder and ‘fata locaton 7 This factor ranges frm } to | which isin agreement with the discussion of paragraphs 2.11 and 2.12, For instance, when he temperature ditritution i lineae, Eq. 2.12.5 gives aval of for this factor, whereas ithe temperature distribution isa sharp one [Mftcting the mean temperature of the entre cylindrical wall very iis a Zaluc of 1 for this factor ie given by Eq, 2.13.5. Expresed in Dpracical working terms, Eq, 213.8 sates that, in order to find the {hermalsrem vin. eylinder fora given thermal gradient, Fig. 2.32, the following should be done: |. Plot the temperature distribution a a funetion of the square of the radius and determine the mean value ofthe plot. B, ‘Trandate the abscissa axis tothe mes temperature value deter mined in 4 , Invert the ordinate scale and multiply the ordinate scale by AEV(L ~ p), averting the scale gives the correct sign to the in- AIiced sits. ‘That temperature below the minimum tempera ture occursing throughout te wall produces no str sine iti Uniform throughout the entice wall thickness “This curve isthe approximate stress distribution in the new co- ordinate syatem. The evoler material will be in tension, and at least ne aurface wl be in tension. A similar procedure can be fllowed (0 Setcrmine graphically the radial and longitudinal sees, ‘Norlear reactor veils ae subject wo internal heat generation within their walls caused by the absorption of gamma radiation from the n= TIE tore The conversion of such energy to heat behaves as a decay fg exponential function through the wall ofthe cylindrical vessel." STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 85 motte pee Fig. 2.32, Nature of the Thermal Gradient in Cslinial Vesel Due to Tneral Heat Geaeratiog aod the Graphieal Sexe Evaluation Procedure ‘When the outside of the cylindrical reactor vessel is insulated, the emperature gradient is much like that shown in Fig. 232 which adapt elf well tothe graphic integration solution above. A abun tion of many thermal gradients and resulting stress distribution equ tions for various heat generating geometries is given by Hankel ® 2.14 Thermal Strewes Due to Thermal Transients In the preceding cases the thermal gradient wat that which existed under steady-state conditions; Le, it was indepeadeat of time OF ‘course, in onder to reach this equilibrium thermal condition from an initial ‘uniform temperature, a transient thermal gradient, or one hanging with time, first occurs For instance, ithe cylinder had an Initial uniform temperature of ero, and beginning with time = 0 the inside surface it maintained at a temperature Ta, the transient thermal gradient throughout the wall ater various tine intervals 6 fre represented by the dotted curves of Fig. 2.33 as they approach the steady-state condition. From such carves the mean temperature of tie ‘ole cylindrical wall and aso that ofan inner portion of radius cas be determined. Then from Eq. 2.13.5, having these temperatures, the thermal stress can be found for any time interval. For a very smal tine interval t 0, the mean temperature approaches zero, and at6 THRORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS the surface okt cr ay “Thin isthe numerical maximom thermal sees produced in heating Gplinder. It is equal t0 the sess necestary to restrict completely the ‘ermal expansion of the suface. ‘The stes i compressive during heating. Iitis subjected to a cooling cycle, itis necessary only t9 fitute 7. for 7 in the above equations and the resultant sre fs tensile ‘Aran example consider a hollow cylinder which is surrounded on the ouside by 2 cooling media, and is suddenly contacted by a con- lant temperature heat source on the ieside such a8 to raise is inside tnetal temperature by an amount 3 = SO°F. Tt i required w deter- fine the thermal strest at the inside and outside surfoces when the Inaterial i steel with F = 30,000,000 pi,» = 0.000007 in. per in. per Spr and w= 0.3,A "skin effect” i created on che inside surface at time ‘zero when this transient is just started, because there has been insu ‘zn time for heat conduction to take place, and a simple exentilly, ersical thermal gradient is awumed, Fig. 2.33 (¢—= 0). Using Eq, % Ls shay = ye Fig, 238, Tralent Thermal Gradients in Oylindscal Vowel Wall, STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 7 2.18.5, and noting that the mean temperature ofthe entire eyindrical wall thicknes i+ substantially unchanged, the thermal sess at the aside wall surface is een ho ~~ 8 4a) ao the outside surface i w= th p-a-0 (243) substitating the values of 4) Band 7; gives — 200007 90,000,000 59 15,000 px “The shape of the thermal gradient progresses from one having a ver seep slope toa logarthae one after stfieient me elapses for a steal sate condition of hea foto prevail, Fig. 233. Approximating th logarithmic gradient by linear one, the thermal stess atthe inside wwall surface f again found from Eq. 213.5, ting thatthe tean Temperature ofthe entre eylindrical wal thickness 7.2 ET. br nn lE- 1 ]--Baen ac atthe oui mice no Ea Subtiating the values of «mE and T. gives 000007 30,000,000 « 50 = — Snead sn 7.500 pai sg = 200007 % 3,000,000 39 5509 yi - m3) “ “Maximum thermal sreses are asociated with the maximum slope o the thermal gradient; hence, a linear Uaermal gradient will give ni mum thermal strewes throughout since it has the minimusn possible88 THEORY AND DESION OF PRESSURE VESSELS thermal gradient. When the transit thermal gradient can be ex ‘prewe by simple analytical equations, the transient chermal tester ie readily evaluated from Eqs. 2.12.1, 2.122, and 2.12.33 how. Sate hen they cannot be so expreved it is more Convenient to solve fr thems by Bq, 2.13.4 and Bq, 2.135, Ty order to reduce these vaso steses in boiler drm, torbine rotor, process equipment, and niceae vessels itis customary practice Teeter cool them gradually to redce the thermal graent by be- ‘Goning with a temperature suich lower than the fal temperate, Ft vey slowly increasing the temperature when starting wp, and re ‘ersng the procedure whes shutting down, 2.15 Ultra-High Presure Vessel Design Principles Hydraulic and extrusion prenes uilize very high uid pressures to produce lange forces, whic i torn cequire extgemely thickowalled PrfindereT ach eylinders the hoop nest atthe ouside of the wall ‘Reker i appreciably Tes than that atthe inside sutface; hence, the Wall material not used uniformly to its fllest stress and economic Potential, Fig, 2.22 and Ea, 2.19, Several design principles that have een suecely ued to overcome this situation follow 1, Wdee Price Cylinders to withstand inthe order of 200,000 pai are required in the synthetic gem and powder rctalurgy industries.” One method that is Bee ih the connruetion ofthese cylinders employs the wedge prin ple This ia shown in Fig. 234 and consists of placing « multitude of Teed wedges nade a thick cylinder. The wedge surfaces are ground ered with membrane gaskets 20 a8 to preclude leakage along their trating surfaces; hence, the contained media i in contact with only {he imide surface. Since the number of wedges is large the tangential tran in each one can be neglected and a contact pressure pi reated between each wedge and the unsplit integral cylinder equal t0 pe eas.) “This principle is based on these observations. In a eylinder under ingermal prestige both the tangential and radial streses are maxi Iuor at the inside surface, and fall off rapidly with distance into the llof the cylinder, Egy 28.18 and 2.8.1. Since theshearing sre (0 Fig 294, Cromarction of 4 Thi Walled Cylinder Showing Method o Sab Bheg Wl Wek Content Pople which the failure of ductile material subscribes, Pa. 5.15, i propor. tonal tothe diference of thee two arene it can be reduced by tnoving the pont where the highet tangential tres accu aay rom thatrbere the highest saa ster occur Hence, i thi constuction the manimium tangential ses occurs tradi" wheres the max tum radial ses occurs a aus" "The maxims shearing stress occurs a the inside sutace, radi fo he integral cylinder and fd by sbitaing the value of the contact prstre prom Eq 215.1 in bq. 28.2 a0 asa) ‘Tioga nena hone comnts {oehrain minima sear sues can be found by setlng the Serva ‘of this stress relative to the inside radius ““o” or the cylinder equal fo py WI ( Boe? ) ‘ beviei ‘90 THFORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS “Ths, with thi construction, x maximum strength esinder is obtained swith a ratio of outside to inside radi of 17. ‘The "*wedge™ principle. can also be used in conjunction with the cascade” principle, Pat, 2.15.5, wherein the outer thick-walled ey {ander is replaced by a thin membrane and liquid pressure 2. Segment Prise ‘This principe of design is based on eliminating the thick-wall hoop stree pet ac, and substituting for sa design giving an uniform tensile ‘reat Geroughout its thickness, Such a construction is hoven io Fig 25 and consis of dividing the cylinder crcumferensaly into a series St shore links Tis mach like a brick wall with the overlapping bricks Flsened together by link pins, The Link pins run the length of the ‘atinder throug holes in the pins. The effec is a mulisied polygon tan eveu distibution of stress throughout the thickness of the poy on tink members A thin ier ineror sel membrane Fig 2.850 cae Be unloved to prevent fuid leakage. The width of the segments snd ‘Slamseter of hinge pins are based on the shearing, tens, and bearing Giengti properties ofthe materiale used just as with the desi of TeRee el reeced joints, When closure heads are required the hinge fins are used to fasten the head (o the cylinder under this condition they also take longitudinal sre ‘Negectng the effect ofthe seal membrane liner, and equating the applitd load on the elemental area alc dc to the internal pressre p Bethe resting force in a segment uniformly spaced ow a longitudinal pitch of twice the segment width, Fig. 235h, gives arn (5) serie () 20) but since for small angles the sine, tangent and angle io radians are spprowimately equal, Ea, 2.15.0 gives = tp Dividing this force, Eq. 2.15.7, by the erosezetional area of the seg nent, Sect. AA. Fig. 2:35, gives the segment tensile stress 2urp 210 aan 133) 2p J" 2 con do = 25 2156) (2157) 15.8) STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS Fig. 285, Segmental Cylinder Cortrveson ‘This is wvice the hoop membrane sures in aeyinder of thes ‘aoa 224 Gut de the sem vor com the gene large thiknenes of material ean be used to their maximus potential “The segment pre permits cnstction of ee dan ter presure cylinder to accomplish the task usually done by 2 wl tude of small diameter cylinders acting in parallel. This spe uf con—EEEE———— ‘92 THFORY AND DESION OF PRESSURE VESSELS tremely large heavy struction also permis the field erection of extenehy wy sean ale Fe of hgh strength noelble mate forthe cylinder an pins. Sing cylinder hydraulic pecs exert ae angad tons have bees ule wing tis rin 13, Caucde Principe witty Eee wee wal thickness to obtain membrane bevos 12 nies CaaS cer mp scp alps iter ent fee eer ete epee ie ate wold FF 36, Conse Clindriat Vewe with Cseade Cantal ae . Pressure separate sources that the inner eylinde it placed in compression with Shoop stress of a e139) and the outer cylinder is placed under a hoop tension stress o 13:0) Application ofthe acting internal presure nly on the inner cylinder prtduces 8 hoop tension sree of in i" i ‘The total hoop stress inthe inner eylinder is obtained by adding Eo 215.9 and Bq. 215.11 to give ‘The total hoop sresin the outer eyinder remains the sane a given by Eq. 215.10. leis not influenced by the application ofthe internal presnce on the inner cylinder tnce the presture acting on i sco felled to value p Tf the radi of the inner and outer eyinders are substantially ea, Fig, 2.36 ite sen thatthe sum ofthe thickness ofthe two eylindees isthe same ar that fora single thcknes cylinder assumed 0 30t3 ‘membrane with ueiform ste throughout the enti wallthickuess The ‘mos efiient vessel interns Of economic material ution is one i ‘which all the material acts asa membrane and resists the pressure by Ineang of Uniform sreat through its thickness, Its important to om trl the peesture relationship pps with constructions of this eype in order to avoid subjecting the inner vesel to a collage condilon 3s ‘would occur ifthe internal pressure p was reduced below py dung operation This principle of a contalled fuid-ll presure between also helpful even when the wall thicknew is large, Fig. 2-36, sl wariaton in stress occurs acove the thicknes in accordance with Lame’ formla, Par. 28. Tt helps through reducing the variation of ‘maximum to minimum eadial and tangential stress throughout he thickness, Equations 2.8.15 and 28.16, and is particularly adva srous in lowering the shear stess, Bq. 28.17, by reducing the value94 THEORY AND DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS of the radial compressive sires ccourting at the point of maximum tangential stress. 4, Yoke Principle |A version of the eylindsical monobloe, shrinkfit, or segmented eee! i one in which the axial force is not transmicced tothe ein: Wieal towel but instead i imposed on an external yoke ina floating ‘Mndcal closure head. Tightness js accomplished by a deflection ‘SBinpeneating seal Fig. 6.50, in which the internal pressure forces See Came qo dace and follow the 1D of the veel. Hence, the Ossie gaskets do mot se a clearance and cannot extrude, Therefore, {hey fobain leakproof under pressure. The separate extermalstrctural ‘yoke may consist of 1. A series of neele beams supported by pinned tes, Fig, 2.376, 2, A series of continuous wite or strap wrappings, Fig, 2.870, the advantages daimed for thi type of construction ate its use of inexpemive structural material for the yoke, and snimam amount ‘St machining After depressurizing, quick opening of the vessel i Ghetated by siding ie owt of the yoke for access and removal of aaares lv the cae of beam tiepins, Yemoval of one set permits ang the agora rma, he yoke may be slid away fom the vessel "This prinelple has been wsed for the construction of high pressure veaels fr maalkingjeal sintering and bonding processes. 1¢ is well Taupted to high pressures and large diameters, and there are no sie fiat on the use of tis Type of end closure, "The strap wrappings, Fig. 2.97b, aein membrane tension andmast sustun te total end fou, 20 the foree inthe wrapping on one side of the eylinder i aby rot (215.19) and the average membrane sees in the wrapping is Earp, , ome =H" at (215.14) were 4 isthe cross-sectional area ofthe wrapping on one side of the Teor (Fig. 2.370). The stress n the wrapping will vary dependent STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS 95 Mig. 297, Pere Vent! with External Vote, (s) Beam and Tie (6) Contin ‘upon the sssumption made concerning fiction between the indivial ‘wrappings. If no fiction is preven for 8°

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