Structural Theory |1

Module 2: Analysis of
and must, therefore, be analyzed as three-dimensional
structures subjected to three-dimensional force systems.
Determinate Structures Assumptions for Truss Analysis
The following assumptions are made to simplify the
2.1 Analysis of Determinate Trusses analysis of trusses:
1. Truss members are connected with frictionless pins.
2. Truss members are straight.
Truss 3. The displacement of the truss is small.
A truss is a structure composed of slender members 4. Loads are applied on the joints only.
joined together at their end points.

Types of Trusses
A. Simple Truss
A simple truss is formed by enlarging the basic
truss element, which contains three members and three
joints, by adding two additional members for each
additional joint.
B. Compound Truss
Compound trusses are constructed by connecting Simple Truss Compound Truss
two or more simple trusses to form a single rigid body.
To prevent any relative movement between the simple
trusses, each truss must be connected to the other(s) by
means of connections capable of transmitting at least
three force components, all of which are neither parallel
nor concurrent.
C. Complex Truss
Trusses that can be classified neither as simple
trusses nor as compound trusses are referred to as
complex trusses.
D. Space Truss
Space trusses, because of their shape,
arrangement of members, or applied loading, cannot be
Complex Truss Space Truss
subdivided into plane trusses for the purposes of analysis
 Structural Theory |2

2.1.1 Zero-Truss Members We can see from the

figure that since there is
Because trusses are usually designed to support several no external load or
different loading conditions, it is not uncommon to find reaction applied to the
members with zero forces in them when a truss is being analyzed joint to balance the y
for a particular loading condition. Zero-force members are also component of FAC, the
added to trusses to brace compression members against buckling equilibrium equation
and slender tension members against vibrating. The analysis of Ʃ𝐹𝑌 = 0 can be satisfied
trusses can be expedited if we can identify the zero-force
only if FAC is zero.
members by inspection. Two common types of member
arrangements that result in zero-force members are the
following:
Example 2.1 Identify all zero-force members in the
Case 1. Two Forces at a Joint Fink roof truss subjected to an unbalanced snow
If only two noncollinear members are connected load, as shown.
to a joint that has no external loads or reactions applied
to it, then the force in both members is zero.

From this figure we

can see that in order
to satisfy the
equilibrium
equations Ʃ𝐹𝑌 = 0
and Ʃ𝐹𝑋 = 0 , FAB Example 2.2 Identify all ten (10) zero-force members
and FAC must be in the truss shown.
equal to zero.
H I
E N
Case 2. Three Forces at a Joint C
If three members, two of which are collinear, are N G
connected to a joint that has no external loads or G U
reactions applied to it, then the force in the member that
R
is not collinear is zero.
 Structural Theory |3

2.1.2 Simple Truss

Example 2.3 Identify all five (5) zero-force members
in the truss shown. Method of Joints Procedure
C
The following procedure provides a means for analyzing
a truss using the method of joints.
1. Determinacy (m + r ? 2j)
2. Reactions (if applicable)
I 3. Zero-force members identification (by inspection)
L 4. Select a joint with at most 2 unknown forces.
5. Draw the FBD of the selected joint (assume all bar
Forces in tension) and determine the unknown forces
by applying the 2 equilibrium equations, ΣFH = 0 and
V I
ΣFV = 0. A positive answer means assumed direction
is correct (the member is in tension), while a negative
answer means wrong assumed direction (compression
since all members were assumed to be in tension).
6. Repeat procedures 4 and 5 until all member forces are
determined.
Example 2.4 Identify all thirteen (13) zero-force 7. Analyze the untouched joint to check calculations.
members in the truss shown. This joint must be in equilibrium.

B B Method of Sections Procedure

The following procedure provides a means for applying
the method of sections to determine the forces in the members
I B
O of a truss.
O I B 1. Determinacy (m + r ? 2j)
2. Reactions (if applicable)
G
3. Zero-force members identification (by inspection)
4. Select a cut section that passes through the desired
N S E member forces. The section should cut the truss into
G two parts and should preferably not pass through
members with more than 3 unknown forces.
A 5. Select the portion of the truss that will require the least
 Structural Theory |4

Joint B
amount of computation. Draw the FBD of the selected
portion of the truss (assume all bar forces are in Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
2
tension). 8− 𝐴𝐵 = 0
6. Determine the unknown forces by applying the three √5
equations of equilibrium (ƩFH = 0, ƩFV = 0, and 𝑨𝑩 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟒 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)
ƩMO = 0). A positive answer means assumed direction Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
is correct (the member is in tension), while a negative 1
answer means wrong assumed direction (compression 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐴𝐵 − 10 = 0
since all members were assumed to be in tension). √5
7. Apply unused equilibrium equation to check 𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟒 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)
calculations.
Joint C
Example 2.5 Analyze completely the truss shown by Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
method of joints. 4 2
− 𝐴𝐶 − 𝐶𝐷 + 8 = 0
√41 √5
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
5 1
− 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 − 14 = 0
√41 √5
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
Solve Equations 1 and 2
simultaneously,
𝑨𝑪 = −9.15 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟓 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟑 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)

Joint D
Draw the FBD of joints 𝐵, 𝐶, and 𝐷, where axial bar Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
forces are assumed in tension. Always assume bar forces 1
−𝐴𝐷 − 𝐶𝐷 = 0
in tension (T) so that when the results are negative, it √5
means the bar forces are in compression C. 𝑨𝑫 = −6.86 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟔 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)

The summary of bar forces is best expressed when they are
written correspondingly on the whole truss as shown below.
Take note that the negative bar forces are wrongly assumed in
tension, which indicate that they are in compression.
Example 2.6 Determine the forces in members 𝑋, 𝑌,
and 𝑍 of the given K-truss of an antenna tower.
Structural Theory |5
Using method of joints, the process starts from the top
joints down to the joint with the unknown bar forces x, y, and z,
or starts from the bottom up to the joint with the unknown bar
forces. This are long and tedious approach to the given truss.
Thus, method of sections is recommended to analyze the given
K-truss. Using the method of sections, the cutting plane is passed
as shown where the upper FBD is to be considered because it is
simpler. (The lower FBD is more complicated in which the
reactions are needed to be solved first prior to the solution of the
unknown bar forces. See FBD 1 on the next page.)
But with this cut section, there are 4 unknown bar forces
including bar force 𝑧′ in addition to bar forces 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧. This
means that bar force z must be identified first before applying
summation of moments and summation of forces to solve for the
bar forces 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧.
To solve for bar force z’, another cut section is passed as shown
in FBD 2 where the horizontal bar forces pass through point o
intersecting the line of action of bar force z’. Summation of
forces at this point of intersection O, eliminates the 3 unknown
bar forces, and making the bar force z as the only unknown that
can be readily solved.
Joint O
Ʃ𝑀𝑂 = 0
10(4) − 𝑧(6) = 0
𝒛 = −6.67 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)
Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
−𝑧′ − 𝑧 = 0
−𝑧′ − (−6.67) = 0
𝑧′ = 6.67 𝐾𝑁 (𝑇)
 Structural Theory |6

When the direction of the solved bar force is not yet corrected, Interpretation:
its negative sign is included in substituting this bar force in the The cutting plane can pass 𝑛 number of unknown bar
equations. forces as long as (𝑛 − 1) unknown bar forces can be eliminated.

Knowing the values of bar forces z and z’, the remaining

unknown bar forces x and y can then be solved by summation of Example 2.8 Analyze completely the truss tower
horizontal and vertical forces in FBD 1. shown, when it is loaded by 100KN force to the
right.
Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
4 4
−𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ − 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0
5 5
4 4
−(−6.67) − 6.67 − 𝑥 − 𝑦
5 5
=0
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
3 3
10 + 20 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0
𝑂 5 5
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
By inspection, bar force BC is
Solve Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously, equal to zero because at joint B
𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻) is no load and has collinear
𝒚 = −25 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟐𝟓 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪) members AB and BD. When
BC is equal to zero, at joint C
To check, with no load are collinear
Using FBD 1, summation of moments at O must members AC and CE making
be equal to zero. Otherwise, the solution has error in member CD equal to zero as
itself. well. In the same manner,
Ʃ𝑀𝑂 = 0 when CD is zero, at joint D is
3 4 member DE equal to zero, and
𝑧(6) + 20(4) + 10(8) + 𝑦(4) + 𝑦(3) = 0
5 5 at joint E member EF is equal
3 4 to zero. These are examples of
(−6.67)(6) + 20(4) + 10(8) + (−25)(4) + (−25)(3) = 0
5 5 type I zero bar forces, which
0 = 0, 𝑜𝑘 are illustrated below.
 Structural Theory |7

To solve for the other bar forces, we can start at joint A because Since bar forces BC, CD, CE, and EF are zero, members BD and
only two bar forces AB and AC are unknown. By method of DF are equal to AB by summation of forces at joints B and D
joints, members AB and AC are equal (but oppositely directed). respectively. And relatively, members CE and EG are equal to
See FBD of joint A. AC by summation of forces at joints C and E respectively.
Joint A
Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
−𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛75° − 𝐴𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛75° = 0
2.1.3 Compound Truss
𝐴𝐵 = −𝐴𝐶
Occasionally, compound trusses are best analyzed by
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 applying both the method of joints and the method of sections or
Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0 isolating the simple truss (with load) to analyze its connectors.
−𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠75° + ACcos75° + 100
=0 Example 2.7 Determine the bar forces on the member
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 connectors X, Y, and Z of the given compound
truss.
Solve Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously,
𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟑. 𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)
𝑨𝑪 = −193.185 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟏𝟗𝟑. 𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)

Summarizing,

The member connectors can be solved by passing section

as given in the drawing below. Then apply summation of
vertical and horizontal forces, and sum up moments
about point o equal to zero.
 Structural Theory |8

𝐶 𝐷
Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
3 1 1
𝑋− Y− 𝑍 − 10 = 0 𝐸
√10 √17 √2
𝐵
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0 𝐴
−1 4 1 𝐹
𝑋+ Y− 𝑍=0
√10 √17 √2
𝑂 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
The FBD of the whole structure is shown below where
Ʃ𝑀𝑂 = 0
−1 3 1 AH, AV, and FV are the component reactions at the hinge
𝑋(2) − X(1) − 𝑍(1) and roller supports respectively. The joint designations
√10 √10 √2 are A, B, C, D, E, and F.
1
− 𝑍(2) = 0
√2
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3

Solve Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously,

𝑿 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝟒 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)
𝒀 = −1.42 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)
𝒁 = −4.88 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟖 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)

Example 2.8 The FBD of the whole structure is shown

Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0
below where AH, AV, and FV are the component
reactions at the hinge and roller supports 24(5) − 𝐹𝑉 (12) = 0
respectively. The joint designations are A, B, C, 𝐹𝑉 = 10 𝐾𝑁 ↑
D, E, and F. Determine the bar forces of the
connectors. Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
−𝐴𝑉 + 𝐹𝑉 = 0 −𝐴𝐻 + 24 = 0
𝐴𝑉 = 10 𝐾𝑁 ↓ 𝐴𝐻 = 24 𝐾𝑁 ←
 Structural Theory |9

Since the two simple trusses are ADE and BCF, the member
connectors then are AB, CD, and EF. Therefore, pass a cutting
plane passing through these member connectors so that the FBD
of truss ADE is given below.

Reactions at hinge A and roller G are solved using

summation of moments and forces. See FBD below.

Ʃ𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝐸𝐹(12) + 𝐴𝐻 (5) = 0
𝐸𝐹(12) + 24(5) = 0
𝑬𝑭 = −10 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)

Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝐸𝐹 == 0−10 𝐾𝑁 = 10
𝐴𝐵 − 𝐴𝑉 − EF −𝐴𝐾𝑁
𝐻 (𝐶)
+ 24 − CD = 0
𝐴𝐵 − 10 − (−10) = 0 −24 + 24 − 𝐶𝐷 = 0
𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎 𝑪𝑫 = 𝟎

Example 2.9 The K-truss below is designed for a

frame of a residential house in Russia. Solve for
the bar forces in the first floor using the shortest
possible solution.

Ʃ𝑀𝐻 = 0
−𝐴𝐵(16) − 100(8) = 0
𝑨𝑩 = −50 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)
Ʃ𝑀𝐵 = 0
𝐻𝐺(16) − 100(8) = 0
𝑯𝑮 = −50 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)
The first FBD of joint A is equivalent to the second FBD because
bar force 𝐴𝐵 and vertical reaction 𝐴𝑣 cancel out. Considering
2nd FBD of joint A now, member 𝐴𝐶 is a type I zero-force. And
of 𝐴𝐶 is equal to zero, then it follows that member 𝐴𝐷 becomes
zero by summation of horizontal forces.
At joint C, member 𝐶𝐷 becomes type I zero-force because
member 𝐴𝐷 is equal to zero. And at joint D, member 𝐷𝐹
becomes type I zero-force because member 𝐶𝐷 is equal to zero.
As a consequence, members 𝐷𝐹 and 𝐺𝐹 are zero.
𝐀𝐂 = 𝐂𝐃 = 𝐃𝐄 = 𝐄𝐆 = 𝟎
S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 10
2.1.4 Complex Truss
The member forces in a complex truss can be determined
using the method of joints; however, the solution will require
writing the two equilibrium equations for each of the j joints of
the truss and then solving the complete set of 2j equations
simultaneously. * This approach may be impractical for hand
calculations, especially in the case of large trusses. Therefore, a
more direct method for analyzing a complex truss, referred to as
the method of substitute members, will be presented here.
Method of Substitute Members Procedure
The following procedure provides a means for applying
the method of substitute member to determine the forces in the
members of a truss.
1. Determinacy (m + r ? 2j)
2. Reduce complex truss to a stable and determinate
simple truss by removing one member and replacing
it with an imaginary member.
3. This truss can now be analyzed by the method of joints
for the two types of loading that follow:
A. Load the simple truss with the actual loading
P, then determine the force in each member i.
B. Consider the simple truss without the external
load P. Place equal but opposite collinear unit
loads on the truss (always in tension) at the two
joints from which the member was removed.
4. By superposition, the effects of the above two loadings
are combined, then force in the ith member of the truss
will be
𝑆𝑖 = 𝑆𝑖′ + 𝑥𝑠𝑖
𝑆𝑖′
x=
𝑠𝑖
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 11

Where:
𝑆𝑖 = Bar forces in the complex truss Example2.10 Analyze the complex truss(solve the bar
𝑆𝑖 ′ = Bar forces in the simple truss under forces and reactions of the complex truss) below
actual loading by the method of substitution. Remove member
𝑠𝑖 = Bar forces in the simple truss under ad and substitute member ac.
opposite collinear unit loading
4. Once the value of x has been determined, the force in
the other members i of the complex truss can be
determined.

The purpose of method of substitution in the analysis of

𝑆𝑖 forces complex trusses is to come up with a first joint with only
two unknown bar forces and apply summation of forces.
Equipped with the initial joint of only two unknowns, the
other bar forces can be solved by analyzing the
remaining joints. The process then is to remove one
member and introduce a substitute member. As a result
of the removal of one member, one joint now has only
two unknowns which serves as the first joint to analyze
until all bar forces are solved. Afterwards, the new truss
is resolved but now in terms of a unit load. Thus, this
truss is analyzed twice. Firstly, it is analyzed in terms of
the real loads. And secondly the truss is analyzed in
𝑆𝑖 ′ forces 𝑠𝑖 forces terms of the unit load. This process is illustrated below.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 12

The truss is redrawn, but now with U as the only load instead of
the real loads. See FBD of truss due to unit load U below.
Resolve all bar forces and tabulate results in column 3 of the
succeeding table.

The value of the substitute member ac is equal to zero because

it is only fictitious (non- existent) in the actual truss. And from
here, the axial force 𝑈 of the member being substituted can be
solved as illustrated below.
−53.75 + 3.42(𝑈) = 0
𝑈 = 15.71637 𝐾𝑁

Therefore, the axial force 𝐴 of each member of the truss is given

by the general equation below where 𝐴𝑅 is the bar force due to
real loads, and 𝐴𝑈 is the bar force due to unit load.
With member ac substituting member ad, analyze the truss due 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑅 + 𝐴𝑈(𝑈)
to real loads starting from joint d, where only two bar forces cd
and de as the unknowns. Joint e is then analyzed next, then joint
f, a, and b until all bar forces are solved. The results are tabulated
in column 2 of the succeeding table.

Note: Regarding sign convention, positive mean it’s in tension

while negative means it’s in compression since we always
assume the unit load to be in tension.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 13

CD; then joint F, where it is seen that FA and FE are zero-force

Example 2.11 Determine the force in each member of
the complex truss shown using method of
substitute member. Assume joints B, F, and D are
on the same horizontal line. State whether the
members are in tension or compression. Remove
member CF and substitute member BD.
members; then joint E to determine the forces in members EB
and ED; then joint D to determine the forces in DA and DB; then
finally joint B to determine the force in BA. Considering tension
as positive and compression as negative, these forces are
recorded in column 2 of Table 1.

The unit load acting on the truss is shown below. These equal
but opposite forces create no external reactions on the truss. The
joint analysis follows the same sequence as discussed
By inspection, each joint has three unknown member
previously, namely, joints C, F, E, D, and B. The results of the
forces. A joint analysis can be performed by hand if, for
force analysis are recorded in column 3 of Table 1.
example, member CF is removed and member DB
substituted. The resulting truss is stable and will not
collapse.

In the following figure, the simple truss is loaded with

the real loadings. The support reactions on the truss have
been determined. Using the method of joints, we can first
analyze joint C to find the forces in members CB and
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 14

By superposition, we require The method of joints essentially remains the same,

′
𝑆𝐷𝐵 = 𝑆𝐷𝐵 + 𝑥𝑠𝐷𝐵 except that three equilibrium equations
′ ′
Substituting the data for 𝑆𝐷𝐵 and 𝑠𝐷𝐵 where 𝑆𝐷𝐵 is negative Ʃ𝐹𝑋 = 0, Ʃ𝐹𝑌 = 0, and Ʃ𝐹𝑍 = 0
since the force is compressive, we have must now be satisfied at each joint of the space truss. In solving
−2.50 + 𝑥(1.167) = 0 these trusses, the following formulas will be used.
𝑥 = 2.143
The values of 𝑥𝑠𝑖 are recorded in column 4 of Table 1, and the 𝑑 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
actual member forces 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑆𝑖 ′ + 𝑥𝑠𝑖 are listed in column 4. d = member length or distance
x, y, and z = projections of the member
length in the x, y, and z
directions or simply the distance
components
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑃𝑇𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑃𝑇𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
*Starting point is always the point of intersection.
𝐹
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = (𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠)
𝑑
𝐹
= force multiplier
𝑑

Example 2.11 Determine the force acting on each bar

of the space truss as shown. The coordinates of
the points are tabulated below. The 10KN load
is directed to the negative z axis. B, C, and D
Note: Regarding sign convention, positive mean it’s in tension are adequate supports.
while negative means it’s in compression since we always
assume the unit load to be in tension.
Point Coordinates
𝑨 (0,4,0)
2.1.5 Space Truss 𝑩 (−3,0,0)
𝑪 (3,0,0)
A space truss consists of members joined together at their 𝑫 (0,0, −4)
ends to form a stable three-dimensional structure.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 15

Assume the bar forces are in tension as shown below.

Note that the distances are measured from the original Ʃ𝐹𝑌 = 0
point to the final point. For example, bar force AB is the −0.8𝐴𝐵 − 0.8𝐴𝐶 − 0.707𝐴𝐷 = 0
difference of the coordinates of final point B and initial 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
point A. See table for the distance components,
distances, and force components. Ʃ𝐹𝑍 = 0
0𝐴𝐵 + 0𝐴𝐶 − 0.707𝐴𝐷 − 10 = 0
𝑨𝑫 = −14.14 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟒 𝑲𝑵 (𝑪)

Substitute the value of AD to Equation 2 so that AC can

be solved, where 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 from Equation 1.
−0.8𝐴𝐵 − 0.8𝐴𝐶 − 0.707𝐴𝐷 = 0
−0.8𝐴𝐶 − 0.8𝐴𝐶 − 0.707𝐴𝐷 = 0
𝑨𝑪 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)
From equation 1, the value of bar force AB then can be
solved.
𝑨𝑩 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)

Note: Bar force AD is in compression, while bar force

AC and AB are in tension. See corrected FBD
below.

Apply summation of forces along the x, y, and z

directions. The three equations are the following:
Ʃ𝐹𝑋 = 0
−0.6𝐴𝐵 + 0.6𝐴𝐶 + 0𝐴𝐷 = 0
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
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Example 2.12 Determine the force acting on each bar

of the space truss as shown. The coordinates of
the points are tabulated below. The 200KN load
is directed to the negative y axis.

Apply summation of forces along the x, y, and z directions. The

three equations are the following:
Ʃ𝐹𝑋 = 0
6 3
− 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 + 0𝐴𝐷 = 0
9 7
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
Ʃ𝐹𝑌 = 0
6 6
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 + 0𝐴𝐷 − 200 = 0
9 7
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2

Ʃ𝐹𝑍 = 0
Tabulate the distance and force components, where d is 3 2 5
the total distance, f/d is the force multiplier. − 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐷 = 0
9 7 5
𝑑 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3
𝐹
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠) Solve Equations 1, 2, and 3 simultaneously,
𝑑
𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)
𝑨𝑪 = 𝟏𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝟓𝟔 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)
𝑨𝑫 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟕𝟕𝟖 𝑲𝑵 (𝑻)
Note: The tensile force on member AB is 100 KN, on member
AC is 155.556 KN, and on member AD 77.778 KN.
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2.2 Analysis of Flexible Cables

Cables provide a very effective means of supporting the
dead weight of girders or bridge decks having very long spans.
A suspension bridge is a typical example, in which the deck is
suspended from the cable using a series of close and equally
spaced hangers.

Example 2.13 A cable supports a 0.20KN/m

uniformly distributed load with respect to the
horizontal and is supported between two fixed
points 120m apart, one being 20m apart. The
lowest point of the cable is 10m below the lower
support. Determine the maximum and minimum
In order to analyze this problem, we will first determine values of the tension in the cable, and the total
the shape of a cable subjected to a uniform horizontally length of the cable.
distributed vertical load 𝑤𝑂 .
In Figure (a), the x and y axes have their origin located
at the lowest point on the cable, such that the slope is zero at this
point. The free-body diagram of a small segment of the cable
having a length Δs is shown in Figure (b). Since the tensile force
in the cable changes continuously in both magnitude and
direction along the cable’s length, this change is denoted on the
free-body diagram by ΔT. The distributed load is represented by
its resultant force 𝑤𝑂 Δx which acts at Δx/2 from point O.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 18

This is an example of parabolic cable. In the analysis of Solve the two simultaneous equations above to yield the
flexible cables, the key is to define the lowest point because at following.
this point is the minimum tension as well and directed 𝑥 = 43.92 𝑚
horizontally (tangent to the cable). Shown below are the 𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟐𝟗 𝑲𝑵
separated FBDs of the left and right portions.
Maximum Tension
FBD of Left Portion
Maximum tension occurs at the highest point of the
Solve for the minimum tension 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 is solved by
cable. This case it is on point B. To determine the maximum
summation of moments about point A so that only 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 and
distance 𝑥 are the unknowns. tension, consider the three forces involved in the right FBD
namely 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥, 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 0.20(120 − 𝑥) KN. The corresponding
force triangle then is drawn below.
Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑥
0.2𝑥 ( ) − 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 (10) = 0 √𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 + [0.2(120 − 𝑥)]2
2
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
(19.29)2 +
=√
[0.2(120 − 43.92)]2
FBD of Right Portion 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟓𝟕 𝑲𝑵
Express the minimum tension 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 and distance 𝑥 also
by summation of moments about point B. Length of the Parabolic Cable
The length of the parabolic cable is the sum of lengths
of the left and right lengths of the cable portions.
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2
Ʃ𝑀𝐵 = 0 For length of left cable, 𝑆1
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 (10) − 0.2(120 8 ℎ 32 ℎ
120 − 𝑥 𝑆1 = L[1 + ( )( )2 − ( )( )4 ]
− 𝑥) ( )=0 3 𝐿 5 𝐿
2 8 10 2 32 10 4
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 = 43.92[1 + ( )( ) − ( )( ) ]
3 43.92 5 43.92
𝑆1 = 49.24 m
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For length of right cable, 𝑆2 REFERENCES

8 ℎ 32 ℎ
𝑆2 = L[1 + ( )( )2 − ( )( )4 ]
3 𝐿 5 𝐿
8 30 2 32 30 4 a. Kassimali, A. (2011). Understanding
= (120 − 43.92)[1 + ( )(
3 76.08
) − ( )(
5 76.08
) ] structural analysis.Wang, C. and Eckel,
𝑆1 = 95.85 m C. (1983). Indeterminate structural
analysis. New York, USA: McGraw Hill
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 Inc.
𝑆 = 49.24 + 95.85 b. Tuma, J. (1969). Theory and problems of
𝑺 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟎𝟗 𝒎 structural analysis. New York, USA:
McGraw Hill Inc.
Notes: c. Kinney, J. (1987). Indeterminate
1. To solve for the tension acting on point A, draw the structural analysis. New Delhi, India:
force triangle of the left FBD. Narosa Publishing House and
2. To solve for the angles made by the tension at A and Applications.
maximum tension measured from the horizontal axis,
d. Engr. Crisostomo’s CE 3111 Modules
use the force triangles.

CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR

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E-mails: arjaycuhing@gmail.com,
abcuhing@slu.edu.ph ,
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S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 20