Ftec 121 Food Chemistry

1. Do some researches work to describe further the rate of chemical reactions, enzyme and non-
enzymatic activity, microbial growth and food deterioration as influenced by water activity.
Summarize the gathered information and have them written or encoded in at least three sheets of an
A4 size bond paper.

Chapter 3 Deterioration factors and their control

Contents -  Previous - Next

A summary of overall deterioration reactions in fruits and vegetables is presented below.

3.1 Enzymic changes

Enzymes which are endogenous to plant tissues can have undesirable or desirable consequences.
Examples involving endogenous enzymes include a) the post-harvest senescence and spoilage of
fruit and vegetables; b) oxidation of phenolic substances in plant tissues by phenolase (leading
to browning); c) sugar - starch conversion in plant tissues by amylases; d) post-harvest
demethylation of pectic substances in plant tissues (leading to softening of plant tissues during
ripening, and firming of plant tissues during processing).

The major factors useful in controlling enzyme activity are: temperature, water activity, pH,
chemicals which can inhibit enzyme action, alteration of substrates, alteration of products and
pre-processing control.

3.2 Chemical changes

3.2.1 Sensory quality

The two major chemical changes which occur during the processing and storage of foods and
lead to a deterioration in sensory quality are lipid oxidation and non-enzymatic browning.
Chemical reactions are also responsible for changes in the colour and flavour of foods during
processing and storage.

3.2.1.1 Lipid oxidation rate and course of reaction is influenced by light, local oxygen
concentration, high temperature, the presence of catalysts (generally transition metals such as
iron and copper) and water activity. Control of these factors can significantly reduce the extent
of lipid oxidation in foods.

3.2.1.2 Non-enzymic browning is one of the major causes of deterioration which occurs during
storage of dried and concentrated foods. The non-enzymic browning, or Maillard reaction, can
be divided into three stages: a) early Maillard reactions which are chemically well-defined steps
without browning; b) advanced Maillard reactions which lead to the formation of volatile or
soluble substances; and c) final Maillard reactions leading to insoluble brown polymers.

3.2.1.3 Colour changes

Chlorophylls. Almost any type of food processing or storage causes some deterioration of the
chlorophyll pigments. Phenophytinisation (with consequent formation of a dull olivebrown
phenophytin) is the major change; this reaction is accelerated by heat and is acid catalysed.

Other reactions are also possible. For example, dehydrated products such as green peas and
beans packed in clear glass containers undergo photo-oxidation and loss of desirable colour.

Anthocyanins. These are a group of more than 150 reddish water-soluble pigments that are very
widespread in the plant kingdom. The rate of anthocyanin destruction is pH dependent, being
greater at higher pH values. Of interest from a packaging point of view is the ability of some
anthocyanins to form complexes with metals such as Al, Fe, Cu and Sn.

These complexes generally result in a change in the colour of the pigment (for example, red sour
cherries react with tin to form a purple complex) and are therefore undesirable. Since metal
packaging materials such as cans could be sources of these metals, they are usually coated with
special organic linings to avoid these undesirable reactions.

Carotenoids. The carotenoids are a group of mainly lipid soluble compounds responsible for
many of the yellow and red colours of plant and animal products. The main cause of carotenoid
degradation in foods is oxidation. The mechanism of oxidation in processed foods is complex
and depends on many factors. The pigments may auto-oxidise by reaction with atmospheric
oxygen at rates dependent on light, heat and the presence of pro- and antioxidants.

3.2.1.4 Flavour changes

In fruit and vegetables, enzymically generated compounds derived from long-chain fatty acids
play an extremely important role in the formation of characteristic flavours. In addition, these
types of reactions can lead to significant off-flavours. Enzyme-induced oxidative breakdown of
unsaturated fatty acids occurs extensively in plant tissues and this yield characteristic aromas
associated with some ripening fruits and disrupted tissues.

The permeability of packaging materials is of importance in retaining desirable volatile

components within packages, or in permitting undesirable components to permeate through the
package from the ambient atmosphere.

3.2.2 Nutritional quality

The four major factors which affect nutrient degradation and can be controlled to varying
extents by packaging are light, oxygen concentration, temperature and water activity. However,
because of the diverse nature of the various nutrients as well as the chemical heterogeneity
within each class of compounds and the complex interactions of the above variables,
generalizations about nutrient degradation in foods will inevitably be broad ones.

Vitamins. Ascorbic acid is the most sensitive vitamin in foods, its stability varying markedly as
a function of environmental conditions such as pH and the concentration of trace metal ions and
oxygen. The nature of the packaging material can significantly affect the stability of ascorbic
acid in foods. The effectiveness of the material as a barrier to moisture and oxygen as well as the
chemical nature of the surface exposed to the food are important factors.
For example, problems of ascorbic acid instability in aseptically packaged fruit juices have been
encountered because of oxygen permeability of the package and the oxygen dependence of the
ascorbic acid degradation reaction.

Also, because of the preferential oxidation of metallic tin, citrus juices packaged in cans with a
tin contact surface exhibit greater stability of ascorbic acid than those in enamelled cans or glass
containers. The aerobic and anaerobic degradation reactions of ascorbic acid in reduced-
moisture foods have been shown to be highly sensitive to water activity, the reaction rate
increasing in an exponential fashion over the water activity range of 0.1-0.8.

3.3 Physical changes

One major undesirable physical change in food powders is the absorption of moisture as a
consequence of an inadequate barrier provided by the package; this results in caking. It can
occur either as a result of a poor selection of packaging material in the first place, or failure of
the package integrity during storage. In general, moisture absorption is associated with increased
cohesiveness.

Anti-caking agents are very fine powders of an inert chemical substance that are added to
powders with much larger particle size in order to inhibit caking and improve flowability.
Studies in onion powders showed that at ambient temperature, caking does not occur at water
activities of less than about 0.4.

At higher activities, however, (aw > 0.45) the observed time to caking is inversely proportional
to water activity, and at these levels anti-caking agents are completely ineffective. It appears that
while they reduce inter-particle attraction and interfere with the continuity of liquid bridges, they
are unable to cover moisture sorption sites.

3.4 Biological changes

3.4.1 Microbiological

Micro-organisms can make both desirable and undesirable changes to the quality of foods
depending on whether or not they are introduced as an essential part of the food preservation
process or arise unintentionally and subsequently grow to produce food spoilage.

The two major groups of micro-organisms found in foods are bacteria and fungi, the latter
consisting of yeasts and moulds. Bacteria are generally the fastest growing, so that in conditions
favourable to both, bacteria will usually outgrow fungi.

Foods are frequently classified on the basis of their stability as non-perishable, semi-perishable
and perishable. For example, hermetically sealed and heat processed (e.g. canned) foods are
generally regarded as non-perishable. However, they may become perishable under certain
circumstances when an opportunity for recontamination is afforded following processing.

Such an opportunity may arise if the can seams are faulty, or if there is excessive corrosion
resulting in internal gas formation and eventual bursting of the can. Spoilage may also take place
when the canned food is stored at unusually high temperatures: thermophilic spore-forming
bacteria may multiply, causing undesirable changes such as flat sour spoilage.
Low moisture content foods such as dried fruit and vegetables are classified as semi-perishable.
Frozen foods, though basically perishable, may be classified as semi-perishable provided that
they are properly stored at freezer temperatures.

The majority of foods (e.g. meat and fish, milk, eggs and most fresh fruits and vegetables) are
classified as perishable unless they have been processed in some way. Often, the only form of
processing which such foods receive is to be packaged and kept under controlled temperature
conditions.

The species of micro-organisms which cause the spoilage of particular foods are influenced by
two factors: a) the nature of the foods and b) their surroundings. These factors are referred to as
intrinsic and extrinsic parameters.

The intrinsic parameters are an inherent part of the food: pH, a w, nutrient content, antimicrobial
constituents and biological structures. The extrinsic parameters of foods are those properties of
the storage environment that affect both the foods and their microorganisms. The growth rate of
the micro-organisms responsible for spoilage primarily depends on these extrinsic parameters:
temperature, relative humidity and gas compositions of the surrounding atmosphere.

The protection of packaged food from contamination or attack by micro-organisms depends on

the mechanical integrity of the package (e.g. the absence of breaks and seal imperfections), and
on the resistance of the package to penetration by micro-organisms.

Metal cans which are retorted after filling can leak during cooling, admitting any
microorganisms which may be present in the cooling water, even when the double seam is of a
high quality. This fact is widely known in the canning industry and is the reason for the
mandatory chlorination of cannery cooling water.

Extensive studies on a variety of plastic films and metal foils have shown that microorganisms
(including mounds, yeasts and bacteria) cannot penetrate these materials in the absence of
pinholes.

In practice, however, thin sheets of packaging materials such as aluminium and plastic do
contain pinholes. There are several safeguards against the passage of micro-organisms through
pinholes in films:

 because of surface tension effects, micro-organisms cannot pass through very small
pinholes unless the micro-organisms are suspended in solutions containing wetting agents
and the pressure outside the package is greater than that within;
 materials of packaging are generally used in thicknesses such that pinholes are very
infrequent and small;
 for applications in which package integrity is essential (such as sterilisation of food in
pouches), adequate test methods are available to assure freedom from bacterial
recontamination.

3.4.2 Macrobiological

3.4.2.1 Insect Pests

Warm humid environments promote insect growth, although most insects will not breed if the
temperature exceeds about 35 C° or falls below 10 C°. Also many insects cannot reproduce
satisfactorily unless the moisture content of their food is greater than about 11%.

The main categories of foods subject to pest attack are cereal grains and products derived from
cereal grains, other seeds used as food (especially legumes), dairy products such as cheese and
milk powders, dried fruits, dried and smoked meats and nuts.

As well as their possible health significance, the presence of insects and insect excrete in
packaged foods may render products unsaleable, causing considerable economic loss, as well as
reduction in nutritional quality, production of off-flavours and acceleration of decay processes
due to creation of higher temperatures and moisture levels.

Early stages of infestation are often difficult to detect; however, infestation can generally be
spotted not only by the presence of the insects themselves but also by the products of their
activities such as webbing, clumped-together food particles and holes in packaging materials.

Unless plastic films are laminated with foil or paper, insects are able to penetrate most of them
quite easily, the rate of penetration usually being directly related to film thickness. In general,
thicker films are more resistant than thinner films, and oriented films tend to be more effective
than cast films. The looseness of the film has also been reported to be an important factor, loose
films being more easily penetrated than tightly fitted films.

Generally, the penetration varies depending on the basic resin from which the film is made, on
the combination of materials, on the package structure, and of the species and stage of insects
involved. The relative resistance to insect penetration of some flexible packaging materials is as
follows:

 excellent resistance: polycarbonate; poly-ethylene-terephthalate;

 good resistance: cellulose acetate; polyamide; polyethylene (0.254 mm); polypropylene
(biaxially oriented); poly-vinyl-chloride (unplasticised);
 fair resistance: acrylonitrile; poly-tetra-fluoro-ethylene; polyethylene (0.123 mm);
 poor resistance: regenerated cellulose; corrugated paper board; kraft paper; polyethylene
(0.0254 - 0.100 mm); paper/foil/polyethylene laminate pouch; poly-vinylchloride
(plasticised).

Some simple methods for obtaining insect resistance of packaging materials are as following:

 select a film and a film thickness that are inherently resistant to insect penetration;
 use shrink film over-wraps to provide an additional barrier;
 seal carton flaps completely.

3.4.2.2 Rodents

Rats and mice carry disease-producing organisms on their feet and/or in their intestinal tracts
and are known to harbour salmonella of serotypes frequently associated with food-borne
infections in humans. In addition to the public health consequences of rodent populations in
close proximity to humans, these animals also compete intensively with humans for food.
Rats and mice gnaw to reach sources of food and drink and to keep their teeth short. Their
incisor teeth are so strong that rats have been known to gnaw through lead pipes and unhardened
concrete, as well as sacks, wood and flexible packaging materials.

Proper sanitation in food processing and storage areas is the most effective weapon in the fight
against rodents, since all packaging materials apart from metal and glass containers can be
attacked by rats and mice.

Summary

Major causes of food deterioration include the following:

a. growth and activities of micro-organisms, principally bacteria, yeasts and moulds;

b. activities of natural food enzymes;
c. insects, parasites and rodents;
d. temperature, both heat and cold;
e. moisture and dryness;
f. air and in particular oxygen;
g. light;
h. time.

Extrinsic factors controlling the rate of food DETERIORATION reactions are mainly:

a. Effect of temperature;
b. Effect of water activity (aw);
c. Effect of gas atmosphere;
d. Effect of light.

ITG SUBJECT: WATER ACTIVITY (a w) IN FOODS

DEFINITION

The water activity (a w) of a food is the ratio between the vapor pressure of the food itself, when in
a completely undisturbed balance with the surrounding air media, and the vapor pressure of
distilled water under identical conditions. A water activity of 0.80 means the vapor pressure is 80
percent of that of pure water. The water activity increases with temperature. The moisture
condition of a product can be measured as the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) expressed in
percentage or as the water activity expressed as a decimal.

Most foods have a water activity above 0.95 and that will provide sufficient moisture to support the
growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold. The amount of available moisture can be reduced to a point
which will inhibit the growth of the organisms. If the water activity of food is controlled to 0.85 or
less in the finished product, it is not subject to the regulations of 21 CFR Parts 108, 113, and 114.

SORPTION BEHAVIOR

The bacterial cell can only transfer nutrients in and waste materials out through the cell wall. The
materials, therefore, must be in soluble form to permeate the cell wall. A portion of the total water
content present in food is strongly bound to specific sites and does not act as a solvent. These sites
include the hydroxyl groups of polysaccharides, the carbonyl and amino groups of proteins, and
others on which water can be held by hydrogen bonding, by ion-dipole bonds, or by other strong
interactions. The binding action is referred to as the sorption behavior of the food. The most
successful method for studying the sorption properties of water in food products has been the
preparation of "Sorption Isotherms," or curves relating the partial pressure of water in the food to
its water content at constant temperature. The same practice is followed to study curves relating
water activity under equilibrium conditions to water content.

Two basic methods can be used to obtain the constant temperature sorption curves. In the first
method, food of known moisture content is allowed to come to equilibrium with a small headspace
in a tight enclosure and partial pressure of water activity is measured manometrically, or relative
humidity is measured using a hyqrometer. Water activity is equal to equilibrium relative humidity
divided by 100: (a w = ERH/100) where ERH is the equilibrium relative humidity (%). Relative
humidity sensors of great variety are available for this purpose, including electric hygrometers,
dewpoint cells, psychrometers, and others.

A second basic method for preparing isotherms is the exposure of a small sample of food to various
constant humidity atmospheres. After equilibrium is reached, the moisture content is determined
gravimetrically or by other methods. A number of saturated salt solutions are available for this
purpose. Saturated salt solutions have the advantage of maintaining a constant humidity as long as
the amount of salt present is above saturation level. Salt slushes and solutions of glycerol or
sulfuric acid are among those commonly used.

Knowledge of sorption behavior of food is useful in concentration and dehydration processes for
two reasons:

1. It is of importance in design of the processes themselves; because it has an important

impact on the ease or difficulty of water removal, which depends on the partial pressure of
water over the food and on the energy of binding of the water in the food.
2. Water activity affects food stability and therefore it must be brought to a suitable level at the
conclusion of drying and maintained within an acceptable range of activity values during
storage.

Products containing free water give off moisture in vapor form to the air in the environment, only
when the vapor pressure in the air is below that of the product. The vapor pressure of a salt or
sugar solution is reduced in comparison to that of pure water. The amount of vapor in the
surrounding air generally is measured as relative humidity. At the equilibrium point, water is
neither given off nor absorbed. The vapor pressure of the food product then becomes identical to
that of the surrounding air.

MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT

The equipment suitable for the measurement of water activity can be the same as that used for the
measurement of relative humidity provided that the sensing element used can be made captive or
otherwise isolated with a sample of the product to be measured. A basic measuring technique
utilizes a sealed dish or container with the sensor mounted above the test sample.

For initial screening purposes, all FDA district laboratories are equipped with the Abbeon a w-
Value Analyzer (a hair hygrometer). Samples can be tested in duplicate. The instruments are used
to set up a reference chart with data obtained from checks of reliable humidity generators. Salt
slushes of known a w values such as sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, and potassium sulfate can
be used. These salts will give a range of water activity (at 25 C) from 0.758 to 0.969. The results of
this test are an approximation which should then be confirmed by measurement, using pressure
equilibrium techniques in which the sample is allowed to come to equilibrium with a reference
standard, such as a microcrystalline cellulose (MC). Electronic instruments suitable for
confirmation tests are:

1. Beckman Hygroline Moisture Meter; Nova Sina/Rotronic Moisture-Humidity Meters

 2. Hygrodynamic Hygrometer
3. WeatherMeasure Relative Humidity System

The critical factors in the control of water activity as an adjuvant in preservation are the
ingredients in the final product and their effect on water binding capacity which is measured by
the ERH (water activity, a w).

In determining the ERH (a w) several hours are required for the water vapor (relative humidity) to
reach equilibrium in the headspace above the food in the closed container. Therefore, the
formulation of the product to give the required a w must be predetermined and very accurately
compounded at the time of packing. It is necessary for the analyst to ensure that the temperature
of the supernatant air above the sample be closely controlled, as even a slight difference in
temperature in this area can result in a significant change in water activity reading. Stoloff (1978)
states that at 25 C, a 0.1 C difference between the solid or liquid sample and the supernatant air
will result in an approximate 0.005 difference in water activity measurement.

Allowing the temperature between the sample air interface and the supernatant air to vary, for
example, by 1 C (approximately 1.8 F) could result in a difference in a w reading of 0.05.
Considering that the minimum a w for the growth of C. botulinum is approximately 0.93, such a
temperature differential could result in an erroneous reading for the sample of less than 0.93.
Thus, the necessity of ensuring a suitable temperature control mechanism for the containment
vessel (air cabinet or water bath) in which the testing chambers (e.g. glass jars) contain the sample
repose.

REGULATIONS

The water activity level of 0.85 is used as a point of definition for determining whether a low-acid
canned food or an acidified food is covered by the regulations. Low-acid canned foods can be
preserved by controlling water activity at levels above 0.85. The minimum a w level for the growth
of C. botulinum is approximately 0.93. Depending on various product characteristics this
minimum level can be as high as 0.96. The regulations (21 CFR 113.3(e) (1) (ii)) state that
commercial sterility can be achieved by the control of water activity and the application of heat.
The heat is generally necessary at a w levels above 0.85 to destroy vegetative cells of
microorganisms of public health significance (e.g., staphylococci) and spoilage microorganisms
which can grow in a reduced a w environment. (See also the following other sections of the
regulations which deal with a w controlled products:

21 CFR 113.10 - Attendance at an approved school giving instruction appropriate to the

preservation technology involved.

21 CFR 113.40(i) - Equipment and procedures for thermal processing of foods where critical
factors such as water activity are used.

21 CFR 113.81(f) - Additional factors to be controlled to prevent the growth of microoganisms not
destroyed by the thermal process.

21 CFR 113.100(a) (6) - Record keeping requirements for a w determinations.

Some examples of water activity controlled low-acid canned foods, that may have an a w of greater
than 0.85, are: canned cake, bread, bean paste, some chutney, salted vegetables, salted fish, guava
paste, lupini beans, syrup, toppings, puddings, and some oriental specialty sauces. Water activity is
usually controlled by the use of salt or sugar. There are situations where routine a w
determinations need not be made during production. For example, if salt is the preservative,
percent salt determinations alone may be sufficient to document control of water activity and
commercial sterility. However, the processor or the processing authority would need to have data
which consistently relates salt levels in the particular product to a w levels. Water activity could
also be controlled by formulation as long as the formulation is related to a given a w level by
sufficient data. Since changes in ingredients suppliers may change the a w of the finished product,
periodic a w determinations by the processor would be appropriate.

WATER ACTIVITY (a w) OF SOME COMMON FOODS

Liverwurst
0.96
Cheese Spread
0.95
Red Bean Paste
0.93
Caviar
0.92
Fudge Sauce
0.83
Soft Moist Pet Food
0.83
Salami
0.82
Soy Sauce
0.80
Peanut Butter 15% total moisture
0.70
Dry Milk 8% total moisture
0.70

2. Research on ways of reducing the water activity of food. Make sure to discuss a bit of the principle
or mechanism.
Heating, freeze drying, freeze concentration, and osmotic concentration methods are used to reduce water
activity of foods. Dried or low‐moisture foods do not contain more than 25% moisture.

Water is one of the most important factors controlling the rate of deterioration of food, by either microbial or
nonmicrobial effects. Water activity (aw) is used for the preservation of food, stabilization of the food supply,
and developing different types of shelf‐stable foods. Heating, freeze drying, freeze concentration, and
osmotic concentration methods are used to reduce water activity of foods. Dried or low‐moisture foods do
not contain more than 25% moisture. Reduction of water activity in foods prevents the growth of vegetative
microbial cells, germination of spores, and toxin production by molds and bacteria. A decrease in water
activity increases the lag phase of microorganisms and decreases the growth rate. The water activity can
also be reduced by using three basic methods, namely dehydration, crystallization, and addition of solutes.
Inadequate hygienic conditions during drying, transport, and storage can cause contamination by molds,
which can result in the formation of mycotoxins.

3. Is the water activity of sodium chloride higher than sucrose? Why or why not?
How does salt affect water activity?

Salt is effective as a preservative because it reduces the water activity of foods.

The water activity of a food is the amount of unbound water available for microbial growth
and chemical reactions.
Preservation and Physical Property Roles of Sodium in Foods
Historically, the main reason for the addition of salt to food was for preservation. Because of the emergence
of refrigeration and other methods of food preservation, the need for salt as a preservative has decreased (He
and MacGregor, 2007), but sodium levels, especially in processed foods, remain high. As discussed
in Chapter 3, the tastes and flavors associated with historical salt use have come to be expected, and the
relatively low cost of enhancing the palatability of processed foods has become a key rationale for the use of
salt in food (Van der Veer, 1985). However, taste is not the only reason for the continued use of high levels
of sodium in foods. For some foods, sodium still plays a role in reducing the growth of pathogens and
organisms that spoil products and reduce their shelf life. In other applications, sodium levels remain high
because salt plays additional functional roles, such as improving texture. A number of other sodium-
containing compounds are also used for increasing the safety and shelf life of foods or creating physical
properties.
This chapter begins with a review of the non-taste or flavor-related roles of salt and other sodium-containing
compounds in food. The second part of the chapter briefly discusses the role that sodium plays in various
food categories and provides examples of the sodium content of various foods.
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FOOD SAFETY AND PRESERVATION

As mentioned previously, the first major addition of sodium to foods was as salt, which acted to prevent
spoilage. Prior to refrigeration, salt was one of the best methods for inhibiting the growth and survival of
undesirable microorganisms. Although modern-day advances in food storage and packaging techniques and
the speed of transportation have largely diminished this role, salt does remain in widespread use for
preventing rapid spoilage (and thus extending product shelf life), creating an inhospitable environment for
pathogens, and promoting the growth of desirable micro-organisms in various fermented foods and other
products. Other sodium-containing compounds with preservative effects are also used in the food supply.

Salt’s Role in the Prevention of Microbial Growth

Salt is effective as a preservative because it reduces the water activity of foods. The water activity of a food
is the amount of unbound water available for microbial growth and chemical reactions. Salt’s ability to
decrease water activity is thought to be due to the ability of sodium and chloride ions to associate with water
molecules (Fennema, 1996; Potter and Hotchkiss, 1995).
Adding salt to foods can also cause microbial cells to undergo osmotic shock, resulting in the loss of water
from the cell and thereby causing cell death or retarded growth (Davidson, 2001). It has also been suggested
that for some microorganisms, salt may limit oxygen solubility, interfere with cellular enzymes, or force
cells to expend energy to exclude sodium ions from the cell, all of which can reduce the rate of growth
(Shelef and Seiter, 2005).
Today, few foods are preserved solely by the addition of salt. However, salt remains a commonly used
component for creating an environment resistant to spoilage and inhospitable for the survival of pathogenic
organisms in foods. Products in the modern food supply are often preserved by multiple hurdles that control
microbial growth (Leistner, 2000), increase food safety, and extend product shelf life. Salt, high- or low-
temperature processing and storage, pH, redox potential, and other additives are examples of hurdles that
can be used for preservation. As shown in Figure 4-1, no single preservation method alone would create a
stable product; when combined, however, these methods result in a desirable, stable, and safe product. For
example, a food might be protected by a combination of salt, refrigeration, pH, and a chemical preservative.
FIGURE 4-1
Examples of the multiple-hurdle method for reducing microbial activity in foods. At the level employed in
many foods, individual hurdles may not provide adequate protection from spoilage or pathogenic
microorganisms. When multiple hurdles are combined, (more...)
Multiple-hurdle methods offer the additional benefit of improving other qualities of some foods. For
example, hurdle methods can be used to reduce the severity of processing needed, allow for environmentally
friendly packaging, improve the nutritional quality of foods (by achieving microbiological safety with less
salt, sugar, etc.), and reduce the use of preservatives that are undesirable to some consumers (Leistner and
Gould, 2005).

Salt’s Role in Fermentation to Preserve Foods

Salt commonly plays a central role in the fermentation of foods. Fermentation is a common process for
preserving foods, in which fresh foods are transformed to desirable foods that can be preserved for longer
periods of time than their fresh counterparts due to the actions of particular types of microbes (Potter and
Hotchkiss, 1995). Products such as pickles, sauerkraut, cheeses, and fermented sausages owe many of their
characteristics to the action of lactic acid bacteria. Salt favors the growth of these more salt-tolerant,
beneficial organisms while inhibiting the growth of undesirable spoilage bacteria and fungi naturally present
in these foods (Doyle et al., 2001). Salt also helps to draw water and sugars out of plant tissues during
fermentation of vegetables. This water aids fermentation by filling any air pockets present in fermentation
vats, resulting in reduced oxygen conditions that favor growth of lactic acid bacteria. The release of water
and sugars also promotes fermentation reactions in the resulting brine, increasing the rate of the fermentation
process (Doyle et al., 2001; Potter and Hotchkiss, 1995).

Role of Other Sodium Compounds

A number of other sodium-containing compounds provide preservative effects in foods. There is a wide
variety of these preservatives with various product uses. Preservatives can act to reduce microbial activity
and also may, like salt, act as a hurdle to microbial growth and survival. Some additives may also play a role
in preserving food quality by reducing undesirable chemical reactions, such as lipid oxidation and enzymatic
browning. In some cases, the compounds can have more than one function in a food product, with
preservative effects being one of several reasons for use.
A brief listing of common sodium-containing compounds used for food preservation and the foods with
which they are associated can be found in Table 4-1.

TABLE 4-1
Common Sodium-Containing Compounds Used for Food Preservation.

Challenges and Innovations for Lowering Sodium While Maintaining Safety and Shelf Life
For many foods, reducing the sodium content of the product should not create food safety or spoilage
concerns. Such foods include frozen products, products that are sufficiently thermally processed to kill
pathogenic organisms (e.g., canned foods), acidic foods (pH < 3.8), and foods in which water activity
remains low when sodium is removed (e.g., foods with low water activity due to high sugar content) (Reddy
and Marth, 1991; Stringer and Pin, 2005). For other foods, reducing sodium content has the potential to
increase food spoilage rates and the presence of pathogens. For these foods, product reformulation, changes
in processing, and changes in handling may be required to ensure that the product has an adequate shelf life
and to prevent pathogen growth. Such efforts do incur additional costs and require careful attention to ensure
that new formulations and processes are sufficient to ensure product safety. These issues are discussed
further in Chapters 6 and 8.
Foods using sodium as a hurdle to retard microbial growth and survival present a reformulation challenge,
since changing the sodium content alters the impact (or height) of the water activity hurdle. Changing this
single hurdle may impact the safety and quality of the food because other hurdles that are present (pH,
temperature, etc.) may work only in combination with the original sodium level. To maintain a safe, good-
quality product, reformulation may have to include the introduction of additional hurdles or an increase in
the impact of existing hurdles. If such additional measures are not taken during sodium reduction efforts, the
remaining products may not be stable. For example, in cured meats, reducing the sodium content (by
removing both salt and sodium nitrite) could allow for rapid growth of lactic acid bacteria and action by
proteolytic microorganisms, resulting in a product that spoils more rapidly (Roberts and McClure,
1990; Stringer and Pin, 2005). In some foods, pathogen growth, rather than spoilage, may become a concern.
There is speculation that some past salt reduction efforts may not have adequately accounted for the need to
adjust additional hurdles to microbial growth. In the United Kingdom, salt reduction efforts in chilled,
ready-to-eat foods were cited as one factor that may have contributed to an increase in the incidence of
listeriosis from 2001 to 2005 (Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food, 2008).
Listeriosis is caused by Listeria monocytogenes, which has a high thermal stability and is able to grow and
survive at refrigeration temperatures and elevated salt levels (Zaika and Fanelli, 2003). To decrease the risk
of listeriosis, a draft report of the United Kingdom’s Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of
Food called on the Food Standards Agency to work closely with food manufacturers to ensure that the
microbial safety of food products would not decrease with changes in formulation to reduce salt (Advisory
Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food, 2008).
There is also evidence suggesting that reductions in salt might result in greater risk of toxin formation
by Clostridium botulinum (the organism responsible for botulism) in certain foods if additional hurdles are
not incorporated. This is particularly the case for foods that have not been heated sufficiently to inactivate C.
botulinum spores and have little oxygen present. Processed cheese (Glass and Doyle, 2005; Karahadian et
al., 1985), meat products (Barbut et al., 1986), and sous vide products (products that are prepared in
vacuum-sealed plastic pouches and heated at low temperatures for long times1) have been recognized as
having potential for C. botulinum control problems when sodium is reduced (Simpson et al., 1995). For
example, decreases in salt content from 1.5 to 1.0 percent by weight greatly reduced the time needed for C.
botulinum type A and B spores to produce toxins in sous vide spaghetti and meat sauce products when
stored at typical refrigeration temperatures. At salt concentrations at or above 1.5 percent, no toxin
production was detected from the inoculated products during the 42-day storage period, while at 1.0 percent
salt addition, toxins were produced within 21 days (Simpson et al., 1995). Similarly, turkey frankfurters
inoculated with C. botulinum and held at 27°C showed more rapid toxin production when salt content was
2.5 percent than when it was 4.0 percent (Barbut et al., 1986).
In addition to C. botulinum and L. monocytogenes, the growth of other foodborne pathogens may be more
rapid in foods with reduced contents of salt and other sodium-containing preservatives. These pathogens
include Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Aeromonas
hydrophila, Clostridium perfringens, and Arcobacter (D’Sa and Harrison, 2005; Reddy and Marth,
1991; Stringer and Pin, 2005).
While the pathogens described above must be taken into account, product developers and researchers have
been able to accomplish sodium reductions even in products such as processed cheese and processed meats
(Reddy and Marth, 1991). A number of hurdles can be added or increased when sodium is reduced to ensure
that a product’s safety is maintained. Examples of additional hurdles are listed in Table 4-2. This list
includes a number of emerging technologies (e.g., high-pressure processing, electron beam irradiation) that
may have wider applications in the future.

TABLE 4-2
Hurdles That Could Be Added to Counteract Microbial Activity in Sodium-Reduced Foods.
Compounds, such as potassium chloride (Barbut et al., 1986) and mixtures of potassium lactate and sodium
diacetate (Devlieghere et al., 2009), that might be used to replace salt and other sodium-containing
preservatives have been shown to be somewhat effective at retarding growth and toxin production by
pathogens. The effectiveness of alternative salts relative to sodium chloride seems to vary based on the
pathogen of interest (Barbut et al., 1986).
Partially replacing salt with other compounds, such as potassium chloride and calcium chloride, may also be
possible in fermented products (Bautista-Gallego et al., 2008; Reddy and Marth, 1991; Yumani et al., 1999).
However, these alternatives may be less effective than salt so higher concentrations may be needed in
formulations to achieve the same functionality (Bautista-Gallego et al., 2008).
Some predictive models have been developed that may be promising methods of screening new product
formulations for their potential to grow pathogenic microorganisms. A large study conducted by Kraft foods
(Legan et al., 2004) modeled the impact of salt on the growth of L. monocytogenes and used this modeling
technique to establish no-growth formulations of cured meat products that contain lactate and diacetate to
prevent growth of L. monocytogenes.
Go to:

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FOOD

Salt can play a role in the development of physical properties of foods that are beneficial for processing or
developing final product qualities. For example, salt levels play an important role in controlling the
stickiness of some doughs, easing the processing of some baked goods (Hutton, 2002; Vetter, 1981). In
meats, cheeses, and extruded snack products (e.g., cheese balls, shaped potato snacks), salt can help develop
the characteristic texture expected by consumers (Desmond, 2007; Guinee and Fox, 2004; Guinee and
O’Kennedy, 2007; Hedrick et al., 1994). For example, in cheeses, salt acts to remove excess water, creating
a firmer texture and, in some cases, a rind (Guinee and Fox, 2004). Salt also contributes to characteristics
such as meltability, shredding, stretching, and flow (Reddy and Marth, 1991).
Other sodium-containing compounds are also used to establish physical properties of food products. Some
of the more common sodium-containing compounds are used in baked goods (e.g., sodium bicarbonate, also
known as baking soda) for leavening and to condition dough for easier processing. For a variety of products,
such as sauces and dressings, emulsification and thickening agents may contain sodium. Examples of
sodium-containing compounds that impact the physical properties of foods, along with their functions, are
provided in Box 4-1.

BOX 4-1
Common Sodium-Containing Compounds and Their Functions in Food. Emulsifying Agents: Sodium
pyrophosphate
The practice of enhancing raw poultry, beef, pork (Baublits et al., 2006; Brashear et al., 2002), and seafood
products (Rattanasatheirn et al., 2008; Thorarinsdottir et al., 2004) with solutions that contain sodium is also
worth noting. Typically, these enhancement solutions include salt and sodium phosphates. One reason for
the use of this processing technique is to improve the tenderness (which consumers may perceive as
juiciness) of leaner cuts of meat. Such cuts of meat can become tough due to their low fat content, which, in
the case of beef and pork, is a result of genetic advances made to produce leaner animals (Detienne and
Wicker, 1999). Increasing product yield may be another driver for the use of this technique (Detienne and
Wicker, 1999). Clearly, salt and sodium phosphates increase the sodium content of the overall product. For
example, a regular serving of meat (114 g, reference amount commonly consumed) without enhancement
contains 68 mg of sodium, but that same serving of meat injected up to 10 percent of its weight with brine
containing 4.5 percent sodium tripolyphosphate and 3.6 percent salt results in 384 mg sodium per serving
(DeWitt, 2007).
Challenges and Innovations for Lowering Sodium While Maintaining Physical Properties
The difficulty of reducing sodium without losing desirable physical properties is dependent on the specific
food application and the availability of other ingredients that can fulfill similar functions. In some foods
(e.g., certain cheeses and processed meats), the salt used to create special physical properties may be
impossible to remove, given current technologies. As previously mentioned in the discussion of challenges
to reduce sodium while maintaining food safety, reformulation has a number of costs that are described
further in Chapter 6.
Still, for many products, more salt may be added than is truly needed for the desired physical property. In
these cases, research to determine critical salt levels may be necessary to quantify the amount of salt that can
be removed. For example, attempts to reduce sodium in natural and processed cheese products while
maintaining desirable textures and achieving a safe product have been successful using new technologies,
such as ultrafiltration (Reddy and Marth, 1991; Van der Veer, 1985). Similarly, in enhanced meat, some
brine injection may be desirable to increase the palatability of leaner cuts of meat (Detienne and Wicker,
1999) and help consumers avoid fattier meats that are naturally more tender. However, it is likely that, for
many of these products, additional brine is added to further reduce moisture loss (or purge) that normally
occurs in the product during its retail shelf life. The benefit that may result from additional brine at that point
may be more for economic than sensory reasons, and the brine may not be needed to create acceptable
products. In other products, additional salt may be added for enhanced taste and flavor.
Table 4-3 shows the difference in sodium content of similar foods in which sodium plays a role in creating a
physical property or in preservation. The varied sodium levels suggest that the sodium levels in some
products may be greater than those needed for these functions. Cases such as these may provide
opportunities to lower the sodium content of some foods. A similar conclusion was reached by researchers
who surveyed the sodium content of processed foods in Australia and found variation in the salt
concentration of comparable foods, frequently ≥ 50 percent between the highest- and lowest-salt foods
within a category (Webster et al., 2010). Another survey2 found differences in the salt content of the same
brand name foods, including fast food restaurant items, among different countries. Many branded food
manufacturers operate internationally and may participate in sodium reduction programs in other countries.

TABLE 4-3
Differences in Sodium Content of Similar Foods.
Alternatives that can replace the texture development functions of sodium are limited. However, advances in
ingredient technologies have made it possible to replace some salt. Restructured and emulsified items (e.g.,
sausages, deli meats), for example, are products for which lower-sodium ingredient options have been
identified. In these products, functional proteins (e.g., soy or milk), hydrocolloids (e.g., gums or alginates),
and starches have replaced some of the functionality of the salt-soluble proteins that form a gel network and
“glue” the meat pieces together in higher-salt products (Desmond, 2006). In addition, sodium
tripolyphosphate, potassium phosphates, and transglutaminase have been used to improve the stability of
reduced-salt emulsified meats in which there may be less salt-soluble protein available to coat and stabilize
fat particles (Ruusunen et al., 2002). In their review on sodium reduction, Reddy and Marth
(1991) described several studies successfully demonstrating that sodium reduction in meats could result in
products evaluated to have acceptable functionality and flavor. In pork, they described a modified
processing procedure referred to as emulsion coating that reduced the salt content by 50 percent in chunked
and formed ham products. Successful reductions in sodium were also reported for fresh pork sausage,
frankfurters, bologna, and comminuted meat batters.
Another method of reducing sodium in foods is to find alternatives to other (non-salt) sodium-containing
additives. A number of alternatives have been developed. Table 4-4 provides examples (although not an
exhaustive list) of alternatives to sodium-containing compounds that are often used for leavening, dough
conditioning, and emulsifying.
 TABLE 4-4
Alternatives to Sodium-Containing Compounds.
Some industries are conducting their own research or funding universities to research alternative processing
methods as another strategy to reduce sodium. For example, these approaches include use of pre-rigor mortis
muscle in emulsified and restructured meat products (Desmond, 2006) and the elimination of sodium-
containing emulsifying salts in certain processed cheeses (Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). These and other
changes in processing techniques may have the potential to allow significant sodium reduction, but more
research is needed to further develop and implement these technologies.
Go to:

FUNCTIONS OF SODIUM IN SPECIFIC FOOD CATEGORIES

Since sodium plays different roles in specific food types, it is helpful to discuss the functions of sodium in
the context of food categories. This section integrates the role of sodium in preservation and physical
properties with its role in taste and flavor (described in Chapter 3) to provide a more complete picture of the
multifunctional roles of sodium.
For each of the nine categories described below, data are provided on the average sodium content for
representative items from that category (Tables 4-5 to 4-14). These data are derived from the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) Total Diet Study, which samples approximately 280 foods that are major
components of the U.S. diet from four geographic locations around the country. The foods are sampled four
times per year and tested for various contaminants and nutrients, including sodium (FDA, 2007). From the
Total Diet Study data, both the number of milligrams of sodium per 100 g of food and the number of
milligrams of sodium per reference amount customarily consumed (RACC) have been computed
(HHS/FDA, 1993).

4. How do water activity and moisture content differ?

Moisture content defines the amount of water in your food and ingredients, but water activity explains
how the water in your food will react with microorganisms. The higher the water activity, the faster
microorganisms like bacteria, yeast, and mold will be able to grow – resulting in higher standards of food
storage.

Moisture Content vs Water Activity: Use Both to

Optimize Food Safety and Quality
Posted by John Bogart on Thu, Apr 26, 2018

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When it comes to food safety and quality, there are two critical measurements that all food manufacturers should
take: moisture content and water activity. While these measurements might sound similar, they are NOT the
same—nor are they interchangeable.
Moisture content and water activity are measured for two different purposes. Each test reveals their own insights
about the yield, quality, and safety of your foods. Even if water activity is your primary concern, accurate
moisture content analysis is essential in meeting the established standard, and it’s crucial that you understand
the measurements for each.
If you’re not sure why you need to measure both moisture content and water activity, we can help. This post will
explain the differences between and the importance of each measurement.

Moisture content— AKA water content— is a measurement of the total amount of water contained in a food,
usually expressed as a percentage of the total weight (see calculation). It’s a useful measurement for
determining the dry weight of your food and ingredients and it helps calculate your total yield. It can also be used
to confirm whether the drying process of your foods is finished. 
Most raw materials’ cost is based upon weight, so manufacturers
Foods % Moisture typically try to use as much water as possible while staying within the
legal limits. By performing a simple moisture content test on incoming
Apple 84 raw ingredients, you can ensure that you aren’t overpaying for free
water.
Orange 87 Likewise, your food’s moisture content will have a direct effect on the
way your food is processed, mixed, and dried, as well as the
Grapes 81 mouthfeel, appearance, and texture of the final product. Excess
moisture can make your product runnier than desired and create
Strawberry 92 clumping in dry mixes, neither of which is appealing to your
consumers. To help give you a better idea of the moisture content of
Broccoli 91 your ingredients, here’s a short list of the approximate moisture
content of some common foods:
Cucumber 96
 
Peppers 92
 
Potato 79

Beef (raw) 73

Chicken (raw) 69

Beef (cooked) 62

Chicken (cooked) 62

Salami, beef 60

Bread (commercially prepared) 36

Moisture content defines the amount of water in your food and
Dried fruit 31 ingredients, but water activity explains how the water in your food will
react with microorganisms. The higher the water activity, the faster
Jams/preserves 30 microorganisms like bacteria, yeast, and mold will be able to grow –
resulting in higher standards of food storage.
Beef Jerky 23
Water activity is calculated by finding the ratio of the vapor pressure
in food to the vapor pressure of pure water (see calculation below),
Wheat Flour 11 and is primarily used to determine the necessary food storage
requirements and shelf life of your products.
Cookies/biscuits 6

Peanut Butter 2
When you calculate water activity, you aren’t measuring the amount of water in a food; you’re actually measuring
the “excess” amount of water that’s available for microorganisms to use. Every microorganism has a minimum
and optimal water activity for growth, and it’s important that food manufacturers understand those cutoffs in
order to control the growth of pathogens— thus preventing spoilage. Looking at the chart below, you’ll see the
different types of microorganisms that are able to grow in a given water activity range:
 
Range Microorganisms Generally Inhibited by Lowest In This Range Foods Generally With This Range

1.00 - Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Proteus, Shigells, Klebsiella, Bacillus, Highly perishable (fresh) foods and canned
0.95 Clostridium perfringens, some yeasts fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, and milk

Salmonella, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, C. botulinum, Serratia,

0.95 - Some cheeses (Cheddar, Swiss, Muenster,
Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, some molds, yeasts (Rhodotorula,
0.91 Provolone), cured meat (ham)
Pichia)

0.91 - Fermented sausage (salami), sponge

Many yeasts (Candida, Torulopsis, Hansenula), Micrococcus
0.87 cakes, dry cheeses, margarine

0.87 - Most molds (mycotoxigenic penicillia), Staphyloccocus aureus, Fruit juice concentrates, sweetened
0.80 most Saccharomyces (bailii) spp., Debaryomyces condensed milk, syrups

0.80 -
Most halophilic bacteria, mycotoxigenic aspergilli Jam, marmalade
0.75

0.75 - Xerophilic molds (Aspergillus chevalieri, A. candidus, Wallemia Jelly, molasses, raw cane sugar, some
0.65 sebi), Saccharomyces bisporus dried fruits, nuts

0.65 - Osmophilic yeasts (Saccharomyces rouxil), few molds (Aspergillus Dried fruits containing 15-20% moisture,
0.60 echinulatus, Monascus bisporus) some toffees and caramels, honey

< 0.60 No microbial proliferation  

 
If your food has a water activity range above .85, it will have to be refrigerated or use another barrier in order to
control the growth of pathogens. If your food has a water activity range between .60 and .85, it won’t require
refrigeration, but will have a limited shelf-life due to yeasts and molds.
Finally, if your food has a water activity below .60, it will have an extended shelf-life, even without refrigeration.
Food manufacturers can employ several tactics, including drying, freezing, or adding solutes like salt or sugar, to
help reduce their products’ water activity levels and extend their shelf life.

Measuring Moisture Content and Water Activity

With both measurements being critical to your foods’ safety and quality, it’s important for food manufacturers to
have accurate, reliable calculations for each. Unfortunately, there aren’t many instruments that can multi-task,
taking these two very necessary measurements simultaneously. 
In order to make sure that your products have the optimal levels of moisture content and water activity, food
manufacturers should use a Kett moisture meter and a separate water activity analyzer to ensure that your foods
are within their established specs. You can even use our moisture meter to identify the end point of your drying
method to help reach your desired water activity levels. As many customers have told us, when they use an
instant analyzer, they are able to always maximize their moisture content (yield) and avoid failing a water activity
test.

5. How can water activity help overcome moisture-related challenges?

Water activity influences deteriorative chemical reaction rates because water acts as a solvent,
can be a reactant itself, or can change the mobility of reactants through viscosity. One or a
 combination of any of these factors can lead to faster deterioration and a shortened product shelf
life.

Refer to PDF water moisture and water activity

6. Is there any difference between the water activity of 25g soil in 50g water and water activity of 25g
sucrose in 50g water? Explain you answer.

Refer to “WATER ACTIVITY (a w) IN FOODS” above

7. Research on papers about moisture sorption isotherm studies. Select two studies or research papers
(one local and one international). Read through the papers then write your reflection on the
importance of moisture sorption isotherm as a future food scientist and technologist.
Moisture sorption isotherms, i.e., the relationship between moisture content and aw at constant pressure
and temperature describing the sorption process of water molecules into a specific material, are useful
when identifying optimal food dehydration and storage conditions.

Knowledge of MSI is extremely important for modeling, designing, and optimizing food processing unit

and procedure, such as drying, baking, mixing, storing, and packaging (Bazardeh and Esmaiili, 2014.
(2014).

Knowledge of the sorption properties of foods is of great importance in food

dehydration, especially in the quantitative approach to the prediction of the shelf life of
dried foods. Equations for modelling water sorption isotherms are of special interest for
many aspects of food preservation by dehydration, including evaluation of the
thermodynamic functions of the water sorbed in foods. Knowledge of the
thermodynamic properties associated with sorption behaviour of water in foods is
important to dehydration in several respects, especially in the design and optimization
of unit operation.

The moisture sorption isotherm is a powerful tool for predicting and extending the shelf life of a product.
It allows you to: Find critical water activity values where changes like caking, clumping, and loss of texture
occur. Predict how the product will respond to ingredient and formulation changes.

8. Research and learn further on the classifications of carbohydrates. Then, in a table form, write as
many carbohydrates you’ve research, classify each and draw their corresponding molecular structure.

Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Structure and Function of Carbohydrates

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides

 Identify several major functions of carbohydrates
Most people are familiar with carbohydrates, one type of macromolecule, especially when it comes
to what we eat. To lose weight, some individuals adhere to “low-carb” diets. Athletes, in contrast,
often “carb-load” before important competitions to ensure that they have enough energy to
compete at a high level. Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and
vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy to the body,
particularly through glucose, a simple sugar that is a component of starch and an ingredient in
many staple foods. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans, animals, and
plants.

Carbohydrates can be represented by the stoichiometric formula (CH 2O)n, where n is the number
of carbons in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in
carbohydrate molecules. This formula also explains the origin of the term “carbohydrate”: the
components are carbon (“carbo”) and the components of water (hence, “hydrate”). Carbohydrates
are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides (mono– = “one”; sacchar– = “sweet”) are simple sugars, the most common of
which is glucose. In monosaccharides, the number of carbons usually ranges from three to seven.
Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix –ose. If the sugar has an aldehyde group (the
functional group with the structure R-CHO), it is known as an aldose, and if it has a ketone group
(the functional group with the structure RC(=O)R′), it is known as a ketose. Depending on the
number of carbons in the sugar, they also may be known as trioses (three carbons), pentoses (five
carbons), and or hexoses (six carbons). See Figure 1 for an illustration of the monosaccharides.
Figure 1. Monosaccharides are classified based on the position of their carbonyl group and the number of carbons in the
backbone. Aldoses have a carbonyl group (indicated in green) at the end of the carbon chain, and ketoses have a carbonyl
group in the middle of the carbon chain. Trioses, pentoses, and hexoses have three, five, and six carbon backbones,
respectively.
The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In humans, glucose is an important source of energy.
During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and that energy is used to help make
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water, and
glucose in turn is used for energy requirements for the plant. Excess glucose is often stored as
starch that is catabolized (the breakdown of larger molecules by cells) by humans and other
animals that feed on plants.
Galactose and fructose are other common monosaccharides — galactose is found in milk sugars
and fructose is found in fruit sugars. Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same
chemical formula (C6H12O6), they differ structurally and chemically (and are known as isomers)
because of the different arrangement of functional groups around the asymmetric carbon; all of
these monosaccharides have more than one asymmetric carbon (Figure 2).
PRACTICE QUESTION

Figure 2. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are all hexoses. They are structural isomers, meaning they have the same chemical
formula (C6H12O6) but a different arrangement of atoms.
 
What kind of sugars are these, aldose or ketose?
Show Answer

Monosaccharides can exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions

they are usually found in ring forms (Figure 3). Glucose in a ring form can have two different
arrangements of the hydroxyl group (−OH) around the anomeric carbon (carbon 1 that becomes
asymmetric in the process of ring formation). If the hydroxyl group is below carbon number 1 in the
sugar, it is said to be in the alpha (α) position, and if it is above the plane, it is said to be in the
beta (β) position.
Figure 3. Five and six carbon monosaccharides exist in equilibrium between linear and ring forms. When the ring forms, the
side chain it closes on is locked into an α or β position. Fructose and ribose also form rings, although they form five-
membered rings as opposed to the six-membered ring of glucose.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides (di– = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction
(also known as a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis). During this process, the
hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of another monosaccharide,
releasing a molecule of water and forming a covalent bond. A covalent bond formed between a
carbohydrate molecule and another molecule (in this case, between two monosaccharides) is
known as a glycosidic bond (Figure 4). Glycosidic bonds (also called glycosidic linkages) can be
of the alpha or the beta type. An alpha bond is formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 of the
first glucose is below the ring plane, and a beta bond is formed when the OH group on the carbon-
1 is above the ring plane.

Figure 4. Sucrose is formed when a monomer of glucose and a monomer of fructose are joined in a dehydration reaction to
form a glycosidic bond. In the process, a water molecule is lost. By convention, the carbon atoms in a monosaccharide are
numbered from the terminal carbon closest to the carbonyl group. In sucrose, a glycosidic linkage is formed between carbon
1 in glucose and carbon 2 in fructose.

Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose (Figure 5). Lactose is a

disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk.
Maltose, or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed by a dehydration reaction between two glucose
molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the
monomers glucose and fructose.

Figure 5. Common disaccharides include maltose (grain sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and sucrose (table sugar).

Polysaccharides
A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is known as a polysaccharide (poly–
= “many”). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of
monosaccharides. The molecular weight may be 100,000 daltons or more depending on the
number of monomers joined. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are primary examples of
polysaccharides.

Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of a mixture of amylose and
amylopectin (both polymers of glucose). Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess
glucose, beyond the plant’s immediate energy needs, is stored as starch in different plant parts,
including roots and seeds. The starch in the seeds provides food for the embryo as it germinates
and can also act as a source of food for humans and animals. The starch that is consumed by
humans is broken down by enzymes, such as salivary amylases, into smaller molecules, such as
maltose and glucose. The cells can then absorb the glucose.

Starch is made up of glucose monomers that are joined by α 1-4 or α 1-6 glycosidic bonds. The
numbers 1-4 and 1-6 refer to the carbon number of the two residues that have joined to form the
bond. As illustrated in Figure 6, amylose is starch formed by unbranched chains of glucose
monomers (only α 1-4 linkages), whereas amylopectin is a branched polysaccharide (α 1-6
linkages at the branch points).
Figure 6. Amylose and amylopectin are two different forms of starch. Amylose is composed of unbranched chains of glucose
monomers connected by α 1,4 glycosidic linkages. Amylopectin is composed of branched chains of glucose monomers
connected by α 1,4 and α 1,6 glycosidic linkages. Because of the way the subunits are joined, the glucose chains have a
helical structure. Glycogen (not shown) is similar in structure to amylopectin but more highly branched.
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates and is made up of
monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched
molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever blood glucose levels decrease,
glycogen is broken down to release glucose in a process known as glycogenolysis.
Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer. The cell wall of plants is mostly made of
cellulose; this provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in
nature. Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds
(Figure 7).

Figure 7. In cellulose, glucose monomers are linked in unbranched chains by β 1-4 glycosidic linkages. Because of the way
the glucose subunits are joined, every glucose monomer is flipped relative to the next one resulting in a linear, fibrous
structure.
As shown in Figure 7, every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over, and the
monomers are packed tightly as extended long chains. This gives cellulose its rigidity and high
tensile strength—which is so important to plant cells. While the β 1-4 linkage cannot be broken
down by human digestive enzymes, herbivores such as cows, koalas, buffalos, and horses are
able, with the help of the specialized flora in their stomach, to digest plant material that is rich in
cellulose and use it as a food source. In these animals, certain species of bacteria and protists
reside in the rumen (part of the digestive system of herbivores) and secrete the enzyme cellulase.
The appendix of grazing animals also contains bacteria that digest cellulose, giving it an important
role in the digestive systems of ruminants. Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose
monomers that can be used as an energy source by the animal. Termites are also able to break
down cellulose because of the presence of other organisms in their bodies that secrete cellulases.
Carbohydrates serve various functions in different animals. Arthropods (insects, crustaceans, and
others) have an outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts (as
seen in the bee in Figure 8).

This exoskeleton is made of the biological macromolecule chitin, which is a polysaccharide-

containing nitrogen. It is made of repeating units of N-acetyl-β-d-glucosamine, a modified sugar.
Chitin is also a major component of fungal cell walls; fungi are neither animals nor plants and form
a kingdom of their own in the domain Eukarya.

N SUMMARY: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are a group of macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the cell and
provide structural support to plant cells, fungi, and all of the arthropods that include lobsters,
crabs, shrimp, insects, and spiders. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on the number of monomers in the molecule.
Monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds that are formed as a result of dehydration
reactions, forming disaccharides and polysaccharides with the elimination of a water molecule for
each bond formed. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are common monosaccharides, whereas
common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Starch and glycogen, examples of
polysaccharides, are the storage forms of glucose in plants and animals, respectively. The long
polysaccharide chains may be branched or unbranched. Cellulose is an example of an
unbranched polysaccharide, whereas amylopectin, a constituent of starch, is a highly branched
molecule. Storage of glucose, in the form of polymers like starch of glycogen, makes it slightly less
accessible for metabolism; however, this prevents it from leaking out of the cell or creating a high
osmotic pressure that could cause excessive water uptake by the cell.

9. Explain how disaccharides and polysaccharides are formed.

Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (a condensation
reaction); they are held together by a covalent bond. ... A polysaccharide is a long chain of
monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds; the chain may be branched or unbranched and can contain
many types of monosaccharides.

A disaccharide (also called a double sugar or biose) is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides

(simple sugars) are joined by glycosidic linkage. Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are soluble in
water. Three common examples are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Three

important polysaccharides, starch, glycogen, and cellulose, are composed of glucose. ... The enzymes
that build up and break down glycogen and starch act on the free ends of the polysaccharides.

10. Do comprehensive research on the classifications of polysaccharides. Then, in a table form, write as
many polysaccharides you’ve researched, classify each, give their respective uses or functions, and
draw their corresponding molecular structure.

Types of Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides can be broadly classified into two classes:
  Homo-polysaccharides – are made up of one type of monosaccharide
units. ex: cellulose, starch, glycogen.
 Hetero-polysaccharides – are made up of two or more types of
monosaccharide units. ex. hyaluronic acid and they provide extracellular
support for organisms.

Structure of Polysaccharides

All polysaccharides are formed by the same basic process where

monosaccharides are connected via glycosidic bonds. These glycosidic bonds
consist of an oxygen molecule bridging two carbon rings. The bond is formed
when a hydroxyl group is lost from the carbon of one molecule, while
the hydrogen is lost by the hydroxyl group of another monosaccharide. Because
two molecules of hydrogen and one of oxygen are expelled, the reaction is a
dehydration reaction. The structure of the molecules being combined determines
the structures and properties of the resulting polysaccharide.  A polysaccharide
used for energy storage will give easy access to the constituent monosaccharides
whereas a polysaccharide used for support is usually a long chain of
monosaccharides that form fibrous structures.

Quick summarywith stories

Polysaccharides - Starch
3 mins read
Polysaccharides- Cellulose and Glycogen
3 mins read

Browse more Topics under Biomolecules

 Biomacromolecules
 Bond linking Monomers
 Enzymes
 Metabolic Basis For Living
 Nucleic Acids
 Proteins

Functions of Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides form a crucial part of cell function and structure.

 Storage polysaccharides: Polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen are

called storage polysaccharides because they are stored in the liver and
muscles to be converted to energy later for body functions. Starch is found in
plants whereas glycogen is found in animals.
 Structural polysaccharides: Polysaccharides such as cellulose are structural
polysaccharides which are found in the cell walls of plants. Another structural
polysaccharide is chitin.
Read about Bond Linking Monomers here.

Important polysaccharides
Homopolysaccharides

(Source: Wikipedia)

 Starch: It is the storage polysaccharide found in plant cells and exists in two
forms: amylose is the helical form of starch comprised only of alpha-1,4
linkages and amylopectin that has a structure like glycogen except that the
branched alpha-1,6 linkages are present on only about one in 30 monomers.

(Source: Wikipedia)

 Glycogen: This polysaccharide is the polysaccharide found in animals to

store energy and is composed of alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds with branched
alpha-1,6 bonds present at about every tenth monomer. It is mainly
produced by the liver and muscles, but it can also be made during a process
called glycogenesis.
 Cellulose: Is a structural polysaccharide that is found in the cell wall of
plants and when consumed, it acts as a dietary fibre. Cellulose is said to be
the most abundant organic molecule on earth. Wood, paper, and cotton are
common forms of cellulose.
Heteropolysaccharides
These are found in different structural and functional roles in the human body.
  Hyaluronic Acid: Acts as a lubricant in the synovial fluid of joints
 Chondroitin Sulfate: It contributes to tensile strength and elasticity of
cartilages, tendons, ligaments, and walls of the aorta.
 Dermatan sulfate: It is found mainly in the skin, and also is in vessels,
heart, lungs. It may be related to coagulation and vascular diseases and other
conditions.
 Keratan sulfate: Present in the cornea, cartilage bone and a variety of
other structures as nails and hair.
 Heparin: Is present as an anticoagulant in the blood.
Another type of polysaccharides that are found in the human body is
glycosaminoglycans or mucopolysaccharides that are formed by the
endoplasmic reticulum. These mature in the Golgi apparatus. They form
important components of connective tissues and are found in collagen and
elastin.

11. Research and elaborate the effect of temperature, time, water activity, pH, size of the granule, and
plant source on starch gelatinization process.

Larger starch molecules need more gelatinization time compared to smaller starch molecules. showed

that the temperature needed for gelatinization decreases when increasing the amylopectin content.
Retrogradation occurs spontaneously when starch solutions are stored at low temperatures at neutral pH.

Gelatinized starch, when cooled for a long enough period (hours or days), will thicken (or gel) and
rearrange itself again to a more crystalline structure; this process is called retrogradation. During
cooling, starch molecules gradually aggregate to form a gel.

he mechanism of starch gelatinization, the break up of starch's structure by heat and water treatment,
has been studied for a long time. During gelatinization in excess water the granules swell, absorb water,
lose crystallinity, and leach amylose.

The effect of organic acids on the rheological properties of starch is dependent on the degree
of pH adjustment. ... By contrast, pH values lower than 3.5 promotes hydrolysis of amylose and
amylopectin polymers resulting to decreased paste viscosity (Hirashima et al., 2005) .

Starch Gelatinization
What is Starch Gelatinization?
Starch gelatinization is the irreversible loss of the molecular order of starch granules (crystallinity). It is considered a
glass transition from an ordered initial state to a disordered final state, usually resembling a “melting” process, that
requires water and heat.1,2
In the cooking or baking process, it’s the stage where starch granules swell and absorb water, becoming functional.

How does it work?

Native starch is partially crystalline and highly organized, a result of interactions between amylose and amylopectin
fractions which also reduce its water solubility.  When dispersed in excess water at room temperature, starch granules
only take up about 30–40% of their dry weight as moisture, causing them to swell slightly and settle to the bottom.
However, this process can be reversed.

Starch in hot water

During heating and in the presence of excess water, starch granules initially imbibe (bind) water  causing them to
gradually swell and form a viscous slurry. As heating continues and temperature increases, the granules start losing
their crystallinity becoming amorphous as evidenced in the disappearance of the Maltese cross (birefringence)
observed via light microscopy.3

Subsequent heating causes the granules size to increase until they can no longer absorb more water and burst.
Rheologically, this is accompanied by maximum viscosity build up followed by a drop to a plateau. As molecules
making up the granule start to leach out from the swollen granules and disperse/solubilize in the aqueous medium,
yield a gel or paste whose properties depend on the concentration and type of starch in the slurry. 1,2

The amylose and amylopectin fractions start to solubilize at 158°F (70°C) and 194°F (90°C), respectively. These
fractions become loose and eventually become more reactive and prone to enzyme attack (especially
amylases).1,2 The following schematic representation shows how the mode of starch granules swelling and loss of
birefringence.

Application
During baking, gelatinized starch absorbs free water in the dough. As gas bubbles in the dough expand and eventually
burst to form an air-continuous or porous structure. The starch gel/coagulated protein matrix surrounding these
bubbles increase in viscosity to form a firm structure, essential for setting bread structure and crumb texture.

Extent of starch gelatinization varies with:

 Temperature
 Heating rate and extent of heating
 Available water (aw)
 pH
 Type of starch (source)

Impact of water activity on gelatinization

The presence of dissolved solids and low molecular weight compounds such as salts, sugars, amino acids and
alcohols (e.g. polyols and glycerol) lowers the amount of free or unbound water, thus necessitating higher
temperatures for the starch to gelatinize. This is the reason why bakery formulas rich in sugar and fat and low in
water, such as pie crusts and cookies, never attain complete starch gelatinization.

Such formulations delay the set of crumb (firming) in doughs and batters during baking. Therefore, for optimum
expansion volume build up during oven spring, the dough/batter needs to remain somewhat flexible or viscous to allow
leavening gases to expand.

Gelatinization temperature of starches from select plants

The following table summarizes the gelatinization temperature of various starch sources: 4,5

Source Gelatinization temperature

Wheat 124–140°F (51–60°C)

Barley 124–140°F (51–60°C)

Corn 144–162°F (62–72°C)

Triticale 131–144°F (55–62°C)

Rice 154–172°F (68–78°C)

Rye 124–140°F (51–60°C)

Sorghum 154–172°F (68–78°C)

Potato 140–149°F (60–65°C)

Tapioca 153–158°F (67–70°C)

12. How are the different polysaccharides important in the food industry?

Due to diversity in structure and physicochemical characteristics, microbial polysaccharides have

found a wide range of applications as emulsifiers, stabilizers, binders, gelling agents, coagulants,
and suspending agents in food industry.

13. Give an example of the amazing process of starch gelatinization. Explain the process and principle
behind.
The most common examples of starch gelatinization are found in sauce and pasta preparations and
baked goods. In sauces, starches are added to liquids, usually while heating. The starch will absorb liquid
and swell, resulting in the liquid becoming thicker.
Sa sunod napud

14. Give an example of starch retrogradation. Explain the process and principle behind.
 Sa sunod na pud

Math109n Integral Calculus (sa sunod napud)

1. The product rule gives the formula for the derivative of the product uv of two differentiable functions
of x in the form: Dx(u.v)=uv’vu’ Give the analogous formula for the derivative of the product of uvw
of three differentiable functions of x.
2. Give an example of Simple Power Function then illustrate how to obtain its derivative using the
General Power Rule.
3. Discuss what is Chain Rule.