Apposition is a grammatical construction in which two elements, normally noun

phrases, are placed side by side, with one element serving to define or modify the
other. When this device is used, the two elements are said to be in apposition. For
example, in the phrase "my friend Alice," the name "Alice" is in apposition to "my
friend".
More traditionally, appositions were called by their Latin name appositio, although
the English form is now more commonly used. It is derived from Latin: ad (�near�)
and positio (�placement�).
Apposition is a figure of speech of the scheme type, and often results when the
verbs (particularly verbs of being) in supporting clauses are eliminated to produce
shorter descriptive phrases. This makes them often function as hyperbatons, or
figures of disorder, because they can disrupt the flow of a sentence. For example
in the phrase: "My wife, a nurse by training,...," it is necessary to pause before
the parenthetical modification "a nurse by training."
Apposition can either be restrictive, or non-restrictive, where the second element
parenthetically modifies the first.
In a non-restrictive appositive, the second element parenthetically modifies the
first without changing its scope. Non-restrictive appositives are not crucial to
the meaning of the sentence. In a restrictive appositive, the second element limits
or clarifies the foregoing one in some crucial way. For example in the phrase "my
friend Alice", "Alice" specifies to which friend the speaker is referring and is
therefore restrictive. On the other hand, in the above example: "my wife, a nurse
by training, ..." the parenthetical "a nurse by training" does not narrow down the
subject, but rather provides additional information about the first element,
namely, "my wife". While a non-restrictive appositive must be preceded or set off
by commas, a restrictive appositive is not set off by commas.
Not all restrictive clauses are appositives. For example, Alice in "Bill's friend
Alice ..." is an appositive noun; Alice in "Bill's friend, whose name is
Alice, ..." is not an appositive but, rather, the predicate of a restrictive
clause. The main difference between the two is that the second explicitly states
what an apposition would omit: that the friend in question is named Alice. If the
meaning is clear "Bill's friend, Alice" can be used ("Bill was here with his
friend. [other remarks] Bill's friend, Alice...").
The same words can change from restrictive to non-restrictive (or vice versa)
depending on the speaker and context. Consider the phrase "my brother Nathan." If
the speaker has more than one brother, the name Nathan is restrictive as it
clarifies which brother. However, if the speaker has only one brother, then the
brother's name is parenthetical and the correct way to write it is: "my brother,
Nathan,...." If it is not known which is the case, it is safer to omit the
restrictive commas: "John's brother Nathan" is acceptable whether or not John has
more brothers, unlike "John's brother, Nathan".
The direct address is no less a part of the sentence than any other word or phrase.
The direct address is a name or designation of the person or persons (or,
occasionally, thing or things) to whom the speech or writing is addressed.
The direct address may consist of one word or of a phrase. If it is one word, this
may be the person's name, or profession, or title, or it may denote a relationship
between the person addressed and the speaker. If it is a phrase, this may again be
any of the types just mentioned, or it may be some emotional address, whether
friendly, as my dear fellow, or hostile, as you swine, you old rascal, etc.
In the latter case, it is quite clear that the speaker's purpose in using a direct
address is to express his attitude towards the person spoken to, whether it be
friendly or otherwise. Jennie, darling, you're looking very pretty," he said.
(Idem) The name Jennie as such is neutral in tone, but the second part of the
direct address, darling, of course expresses the speaker's emotional attitude
toward the person addressed. he emotional range of the words and phrases used in
direct address can of course be very wide indeed, and this deserves close study
from a lexical and stylistic viewpoint, but it does not affect the grammatical
aspect of the matter.
A parenthesis should be defined as follows: words and phrases which have no
syntactical ties with the sentence, and express the speaker's attitude towards what
he says, a general assessment of the statement, or an indication of its sources,
its connection with other statements, or with a wider context in speech.
In a vast majority of cases, a parenthesis refers to the sentence or clause as a
whole. Sometimes, however, it refers only to a secondary part of the sentence. This
may be seen, for example, in the following sentences: I was deeply though doubtless
not disinterestedly anxious for more news of the old lady. (H. JAMES) Here the
parenthesis doubtless refers only to the connection between not disinterestedly and
anxious.