I O Psychology 1 9 Notes PDF

INTRODUCTION TO
I/O PSYCHOLOGY
Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 1

Lecture 1
“Definitions & History”
Main Source:
Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY – Ronald Riggio

Lecture Overview
At the end of this lecture you

should know:
 Definition of I/O Psychology
 Objectives of I/O Psychology
 What do I/O Psychologists do?
 Founding fathers
 History of I/O
 Current issues and factors that pose

challenges to organisations today
What is I/O Psychology?
Definition
“The branch of psychology that is
concerned with the study of
behaviour in work settings and the
application of psychology principles
to change work behaviour” (Riggio
2013)

What is I/O Psychology?
 Two important considerations
- The study of work behaviour is a
multidisciplinary, cooperative venture
- I/O Psychology is an applied field.

Objectives of I/O Psychology
 To conduct research in an effort to
increase knowledge and understanding of
human behaviour in the workplace setting
 To apply the knowledge in order to change

or improve work behaviour; work
environment and the psychological
conditions of workers.
(Riggio)

What does an I/O Psychologist do?
I/O Psychologists work in the broad areas
of:
 Research
 Consultancy
 Teaching
 HumanResource Development/
Management

Research
 The work of the I/O psychologist involves
designing, developing and executing the entire
research process (research process to be covered
next lecture)
 Studies focus on the attitudes, behaviours and
motivations of people in the organisation
 Usually of an applied nature, i.e., research is
carried out in order to understand and or/solve
issues & problems

Consultancy
 Organisational consultants help organisations to
identify problems and create solutions in order to
become more efficient & effective
 Their work involves research &/or change and/or
organisational development interventions
 Various areas of consultancy are: Strategic
Planning; Team Building; Leadership
Development; Organisation Design &/or
Reengineering; Change management
Checkout this local consultancy firm: http://www.ltsemaj.com/

Teaching
 The I/O psychologist may teach courses in the
broad areas of Psychology; HRM/HRD;
Management; Organisational Behaviour
(Secondary, Undergraduate; Post Graduate levels)

Human Resource Development/Management
The I/O psychologist may operate in a generalist
HR Management role, or may operate as a
specialist in any of the following areas:
Performance
Training
Employee Appraisal &
Recruitment Management
&
Selection
Compensation
&
Benefits
Labour
Relations Job
Employee Design &
Welfare Analysis
&
Security
Founding Fathers
 Hugh Munsterberg (1863 – 1916)
- Experimental psychologist
- Design of Work
- Personnel Selection (First Psychology Text in
this area)
 Walter Dill Scott (1869 – 1965)
- Psychology of Advertising (1908)
- Personnel Selection, Management,
Assessment
(Human efficiency in the workplace)

Founding Fathers
Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)
- Scientific Management Movement
- Known for Time and Motion Studies
Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949)
- Known for the Hawthorne Experiments
- Developed the Human Relations Movement
- His work highlighted the importance of social
factors in influencing work performance

History/Background of I/O
Psychology
 Early 1900
1. I/O Psychology during World War I
Period
- Intelligence test for placement of army
recruits (Army Alpha and Beta Tests)
2. Greater recognition of the field with
new industrial development
3. World War II – Development of
screening and assessment tests

Psychology
 Hawthorn Studies (Elton Mayo)
What are the effects of the physical work
environment on worker productivity?
- Lighting experiment
- Human relations movement (the
importance of social factors in
improving productivity)

Psychology
Post World War II
- Publication of New Journal in 1948
(Personnel Psychology)
- 1960-1990s – research in the area
flourished
- Labour relations laws
Civil Rights Act in the – U.S. (1964)
LRIDA – Jamaica (1975)
- OD Interventions

Psychology
 Other Developments
- Holistic approach to employee
welfare
- Development of new methods and
techniques for employee recruitment
and selection (Increased usage of sophisticated
statistical tools)
- Overlap with related fields (HRM/HRD,
Organisational Behaviour, Industrial Relations)

CURRENT ISSUES AND FEATURES THAT
POSE CHALLENGES TO ORGANISATIONS
I/O Psychology has to relate to the

emerging and shifting nature of
organisation life
 The Changing Nature of Work (Change and

Adaptation)
 Expanding focus on Human Resources (Enhancing
Performance/Motivation)
 Globalization & Competitiveness
 Attention to Diversity in the Workplace
Change and Adaptation
 Organisation Structure & Culture
 Downsizing, reengineering etc
 Work structure/systems
 Knowledge Worker
 New Technology
 Leadership

Enhancing Performance/Motivation
 Teams and/vs Individuals

- compensation; job design etc
 Effective performance management
systems
 Employee Development and Training

Globalization &
Competitiveness
Two Major I/O Psychology Concerns
 Branding - Organisational
Identity/Culture
 Efficiency - Organisational Learning

Diversity
 Age - Younger vs Older Employees
 Race/Class/colour issues
 Gender issues

Characteristics of Different Generations
Traditionalists Baby Boomers Generation X Generation Y
Pre 1945 1945–1964 1965–1980 1981–Present
Age 63– Age 43–62 Age 27–42 Age 1–27
Formative Great Depression Post war Globalization Networking

Events
World Wars Prosperity Downsizing 9-11, World
Tech Boom terrorism
Internet
Qualities Loyal Competitive Independent Diverse
Self-sacrificing Optimistic Individualistic Skilled
Entrepreneurial Demanding
Lack loyalty Sophisticated
Assets Wisdom Social skills Tech skills Multi-tasking skills
Experience Educated Work ethic
Persistence
Lack Technology skills Technology skills Social skills Direction
Focus
Interpersonal skills
Lecturer:Y,”Sophia
Source: Adapted from Susan P. Eisner, “Managing Generation S. Morgan
SAM Advanced 23
Management Journal 70, Autumn, 2005, v. 70, pp 4–13.
Characteristics of Different Generations
Traditionalists Baby Boomers Generation X Generation Y

Pre 1945 1945–1964 1965–1980 1981–Present
Age 63– Age 43–62 Age 27–42 Age 1–27
Value Family Material success Skills more than Patriotism
Patriotism Free expression titles Family
Equity Work-life balance Respect
Style Directive Respect authority Skeptical Plunge right in
Take charge Micromanage Reluctant to Negotiate
Do what’s right Proactive network Blend work/play
Work hard Outcome focused Measure own
Bend rules as success
needed
Strategies Respect their Give important Provide autonomy Train/upgrade
For experience roles Give quick Assign meaningful
Managing
Value their loyalty Value their feedbacks work
Use their contributions Update their tech Use in teams
knowledge/ Show respect skills Promote positive,
experience to help Minimize conflict Give credit for open environment.
others results
Lecturer:Y,”Sophia
Source: Adapted from Susan P. Eisner, “Managing Generation S. Morgan
SAM Advanced 24
Management Journal 70, Autumn, 2005, v. 70, pp 4–13.
End
Next …
Research In I/O
Psychology

PS10C
Introduction to I/O Psychology

JOB ANALYSIS

Personnel
Psychology
Job
Analysis
Training Recruitment
& Selection
Performance
Management
Compensation

Lecture Overview
• At the end of this lecture you should:

- Define and explain Job Analysis
- Explain the relationship between Job Analysis
and other personnel processes
- Outline the various Job Analysis Methods
- Describe specific Job Analysis Techniques

Time & Motion Studies
(Setting the Framework)

What is Job Analysis?
• The core or starting point for all

other personnel functions and
activities
• Provide data about task and duties
in an organization to be performed
by workers
The systematic study of the tasks, duties
and responsibilities of a job and the
qualities needed to perform it!
6
Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan
Job Analysis Outputs
Job Descriptions
Detailed description of the job
tasks, procedures, and
Responsibilities; the tools and
equipment used; and the end
product or service
Job Specification
Job
A statement of the human
Analysis Characteristics required to
perform a job
Job Evaluation
An assessment of the relative
value of a job to determine
appropriate compensation
7

Why Job Analysis?
To obtain full understanding of a particular job

or task and its’ relationship to a number of
important organisational/HR processes.
Training
Recruitment
Compensation
& Job Analysis
Selection
Performance
Management 8

Why Job Analysis?
(Relationship to other organisational/HR
processes)
Training – Developing
the Workforce!
• What knowledge, skills,
abilities and other
characteristics (KSAO) are
required for the job?
• Is there a gap between the

standards to be attained and
the KSAOs of the staff
member?
Why Job Analysis?
(Relationship to other
organisational/HR processes)
Recruit & Place Employees in Jobs

where they are most effective
• How important is the job?
• What are the

specifications of the job?
• What are the required

qualifications (KSAs)?
Why Job Analysis?
Performance Management
• Are the elements and

specifications of the job
clear?
• What are the standards
necessary for the
achievement of the
performance goals?
Why Job Analysis
.
Compensation
• How can we assess

the comparable worth
of the job?

Job Evaluation &
Comparable Worth
• Job Evaluation – Process of assessing the
relative value of the job to determine appropriate
compensation (It is one of the products of a job
analysis)
• A number of factors may determine the

compensation for a job – such as KSAOs,
supply of potential workers, the value of the job
to the company, etc – these are called
compensable factors.

Job Evaluation &
Comparable Worth
• The issue of how jobs are to be compensated is
very important and there are legislations that
guide this process. One such issue concern the
pay differentials between men and women.
• Jobs therefore are required to be of

comparable worth – that is, the notion that jobs
that require equivalent KSAOs should be
compensated equally.

Job Analysis Methods
Observations
- Observe the job incumbent at work for a
period of time
- Take detailed notes on the exact task and
duties being performed.
Advantages Disadvantages
1.Useful in repetitious jobs and 1. Some jobs may not have
job requiring physical work Observable elements
2. Reduces bias 2. Workers may perform
3. Helpful in setting standards differently when they know
As best practices can be easily that they are being observe
Observed. 3. Slow and costly
Participation
- Performing the job or an aspect of the job in
order to obtain firsthand understanding
- It provides thorough knowledge and
understanding of the job but the process
may be time consuming, technical, or
tedious.
Existing Data
- Secondary source of information about the
job
- These should be checked properly to
ensureLecturer:
thatSophia
they are similar to the job
S. Morgan 16
currently being performed
• Interviews
- Open-ended or structured questioning in
relation to the job
- a number of persons may be involved in
the interviewing process.
• Surveys/Questionnaires
- Quick, easy, efficient and cost effective
method of obtaining information from
both individuals and large numbers of
persons.
• Job Diaries
- log of incumbent’s daily activities on the

job. This can be burdensome and
time consuming and may detract from the
work performance.

Some Job Analysis
Techniques
• Job Element Method - A “person

oriented” method that analyses jobs in
terms of the KSAOs required to perform
the job.
• Functional Job Analysis – structured

examination of the sequence of tasks in
a job and the processes by which they
are completed.
Some Job Analysis
Techniques
Position Analysis Questionnaire
Use of a structured questionnaire to analyse
and group jobs. Analysis is done in relation to
187 statements grouped into six categories.
These categories are:
• information input;
• mental processes;
• work output;
• relationships with other persons;
• job context;
• other job characteristics
Some Job Analysis
Techniques
Critical Incidents Technique –
• This technique focuses on job
performance. The incumbent is asked
to identify specific incidents which have
impacted negatively or positively on
performance.
• This technique also helps to determine

the particular KSAOs required for the
job Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 21
Which Technique is Best?
1. It depends on the objective of

the Job Analysis
2. No one method or technique
is superior
3. A combination of methods
should lead to more detailed
and reliable outcomes.
Activity I
• Write a job description and a job

specification of your present job or
your desired job!

Activity II – Job Evaluation Exercise
Job Title – Forklift Operator
Compensable Substantiating Points Maximum

Factor Data Awarded Points
Education
Experience
Physical
Demand
Mental Demand
Responsibility
for Equipment &
Materials
Hazards

PSYC1002 Lecturer: Sophia Morgan
(PS10C) E-mail: sophia.morgan@uwimona.edu.jm
Research Methods in
Industrial/Organizational
Psychology
At the end of this lecture students should
know:
◦ Why research important to the I/O Psychologist
and how they use research in their work
◦ The steps in the research process and what’s
involved in each step
◦ How variables are operationalised
◦ Some major research designs
◦ Some issues in the research process for
consideration.
The Hawthorne Studies – A classic
in I/O Psychology
Please read all you can on the

Hawthorne studies for this class
 GOAL OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
- Describe, explain, predict situations/
human behaviour
- Solve problems/challenges
- Improve/Enhance work behaviour
(alter/change or control behaviours)
Research in I/O Psychology
.
Generation Choosing
of an Collection Interpretation
Formulation Analysis of results and
of the hypotheses appropriate of drawing of
of data
problem or research research data conclusions
questions design
Recommendations
For
Actions
- Prior Research
- Existing problem in the workplace
- Researcher's interest
 Hypothesis is a statement that tells what is being
studied/investigated
 This statement proposes the nature of the
relationship between two variables (A variable is
the ‘thing’ being investigated)
 Hypothesis must be testable, i.e., they may be

proven or disproven. They are mostly used in
quantitative research designs
Hypothesis - “Statement about the

supposed relationship between or
among variables”
 Research questions also serve as guiding posts in
the investigation. They identify clearly the
phenomenon that is being studied. They are
mostly used in qualitative research designs
 Testing hypotheses and investigating research

questions can lead to the development of new
theories about a particular phenomenon
What discipline?
What type/ format
of exam? What kind
of school?
Broad Study Topic: Taking Exams at School
H1: Students who experience anxiety before an exam will get higher
scores on the exam than students who do not experience anxiety
H2: The experience of anxiety will affect a student’s score on an
examination
Q: How does anxiety affect a student’s score on an examination?
Broad Topic: The Impact of Worker Stress on

Work Performance Performance
on ….
H1: Work Performance of persons who experience high stress levels on

the job is lower than those who do not experience high stress levels
H2: Work performance is impacted by worker stress levels
Q: How does stress levels impact work performance?
Some considerations for the selection
of the appropriate design are:
 Research setting (laboratory vs field)

 The degree of control that the research has
over the setting
 The purpose of the research/investigation
 Quantitative – e.g. Surveys/questionnaires
 Qualitative - e.g. Interviews and focus

groups
 Mixed Methods
Experimental – Cause & Effect
 Setting –Laboratory & Field
 Measurement of - Independent variables;

dependent variables
(extraneous variables)
 Participants - treatment group; control group

Quasi Experiment
 Measures ‘effectiveness’ vs cause and effect
 Setting –Field – Researcher does not have control
over the setting so a ‘true’ experiment cannot be
performed
 Lacks features of experimental method such as
random assignment of participants to groups and
manipulation of the independent variable
 Measurement of - Independent variables;
dependent variables & extraneous variables
2. Correlational (Observational)
- Examines relationships among or between
variables as they occur naturally
- No manipulation of the variables
- Does not determine cause-and-effect
(causal statements are made however)
Meta Analysis
- Utilized when we want to draw conclusions
about the relationship between variables from
the examination of a number of research
studies
- Indicators include the “effect size” and the
participants
- One measure of the effect size is the
correlation coefficient that describes the
relationship between the variables
Effect Size - “The estimate of the
magnitude of a relationship or effect
found in a research investigation”
Meta Analysis- “A technique that allows
results from several different research
studies to be combined and
summarized”
Case study
- Observational study involving a single
activity, event, organisation, or behavioural
assessment
- No firm conclusions may be drawn
- Usually descriptive
 Data collection considerations are guided by
the research design
 Some considerations are:

- Sampling methods (The selection of
participants for the study)
- Data collection methods – e.g., interviews;
focus groups; surveys etc.
 Data collected may be analysed using
statistical techniques or non-statistical
techniques
 Both techniques help the research to make

sense of data that was collected
 Levels of analysis may include; individual,

group; and the organisation as a whole
 In quantitative research designs, statistics is the primary
tool used in data analysis
 The results of statistical analyses help us to understand
the relationship between variables and also the strength
of the relationship
 The type of statistical analysis used in a study depends
on factors such as:
◦ - The variables of interest and the way they are measured
◦ - The design of the study
◦ - The research questions
 Data may be classified as categorical or measurement
(measurement data is more frequently used in I/O
psychology
 Two procedures used to analyse measurement data are
descriptive statistics & inferential statistics
 Descriptive statistics are helpful in representing and
organising data – the statistical technique is called a
frequency distribution.
 Descriptive statistics include measures of central
tendency (mean; mode; median) and variability
(standard deviation)
 Inferential statistics are use to test hypotheses in the
analysis of the data. One of the objectives is test for
statistical significance, i.e. the probability of chance
occurrence is very low
 Some non-statistical techniques are: (used in
qualitative research designs)
- Grounded theory
- Content analysis
- Narrative analysis
- Phenomenology
- The meaning of the findings is explored
- Conclusions are drawn
- Limitations are identified
 Depending on the purpose of the research, (gaining
knowledge vs problem solving) the researcher may
need to make recommendations for:
- Improving the functioning of the organisation
- Addressing employee behavioural issues.
 The I/O psychologist may also participate as a

consultant in the implementation and evaluation of
the initiatives taken based on the recommendations
made.
 Difficult aspect of research process
 Before the variables can be measured, they
must be operationalised , i.e. clearly defined
 Two techniques used in the operationalised

of variables are:
- Observational Techniques (obtrusive;

unobtrusive)
- Self Report Techniques (surveys;
interviews)
Variables - The elements measured in
research investigation
Observational Techniques
- Must be direct and systematic (e.g. Recording
behaviours)
- May be done in an obtrusive or unobtrusive
manner
Self Report Techniques

- Less costly and more easily obtained than
observational techniques
- May be done by surveys and/or interviews
Self Report Techniques – Measurement
methods relying on research participants’
report of their own behaviour and
attitudes.
Obtrusive Observation– “research
observation in which the presence of the
observer is known to the participants”
 Objectivity – limit personal biases and value judgement
 Validity – the accuracy of inferences drawn from a

measurement
 Reliability – the extent to which the same result is
achieved (consistency) when a measure is applied repeatedly
 External Validity – the extent to which the findings of

your research can be generalised
 Confidentiality – information from research
should not be disclosed to unauthorised individuals
 Ethical Considerations – Rights and
responsibilities of the researched and the
researcher
End of Presentation
Next …
Job Analysis
(Personnel Issues)
PSYC1002 Lecturer: Sophia S Morgan
E-mail:sophia.morgan@uwimona.edu.jm
(PS10C)
1
Lecture Topic:
EMPLOYEE RECRUITMENT,
SELECTION & PLACEMENT
Chapter 4
Introduction to I/O Psychology –
Ronald Riggio
2
At the end of this lecture you should be able to
recall and discuss:
1. The HR Planning Process

2. A simple model for recruiting and hiring effective &
productive workers
3. Steps in the Employee Recruitment & Selection Process
- Recruitment
- Screening
- Selection
- Placement
3
Pre-recruitment Questions
1. What does the organisation do?
2. End process
Why is the job needed? ------
3.
Why at given level? Recruitment and Selection
4. Job Analysis
5. Job Analysis Outcomes
6.
Recruitment
7. Screening
8. Selection & Placement
4
HR Planning Model - Processes
- Talent Inventory – (KSAO’s)
- Workforce Forecast – (plan for future HR
requirements – eg. # of positions, skills
required, market)
- Action Plans – (Plan to guide the recruitment,
selection, training & compensation of the
future hires)
- Control and Evaluation – (How well is the HR
System working; how well is the HR plan
met?)
5
1. Recruitment of
Applicants
2. Employee Screening &
Testing Procedures
3. Selection decisions
4. Placement of employees
in appropriate jobs
6
 Employee recruitment may be defined as
the process by which companies attract
qualified applicants –
Recall: Pre-recruitment - Important question to
consider: what kind of work characteristics are
required for the job?
Job analysis
- Job description
- Job specifications
- Job evaluation
A successful recruitment programme
will attract a large pool of qualified
applicants
7
Which of these methods
yield higher quality
workers or workers who
are more likely to remain
Ads with the company?
Hmmmm
Referrals
Transfers
Recruitment centres
Walk-ins
http://www.caribbeanjobs.com/
jamaicaobserver.com
8
 Recruitment is a two-way process
We are looking
for the best
person for our
organisation
9
 Two important considerations in the
recruitment process
1. Avoid ‘overselling’ the organisation
(Realistic Job Review – RJP)
A Realistic Job Preview is an accurate presentation of the prospective job and
organization made to applicants” Riggio
2. Avoid intentional or unintentional

discrimination against
underrepresented groups
10
STEP 2 - Employee Screening
The process of reviewing

information about job applicants
to select individuals for jobs
11
◦ Job applications
◦ Resumes
◦ References and letters of
recommendation
◦ Work samples
◦ Employment tests
◦ Assessment Centres
◦ Hiring interviews
12
EMPLOYEE
SELECTION
13
 Employee selection:
◦ The process of choosing applicants for
employment
 Multiple regression model

 Multiple cutoff model
 Multiple hurdle model
14
Criteria Variables Measures of job What is the performance criteria
success usually for the job of “a student” ?
related to
performance - The # of courses passed?
- The # of A’s received
Predictor Variables about the What should prospective students

Variables candidates that are possess in order to ensure
related to (and success in their “job”?
predictive of) the -Knowledge/Education related to
criteria their course of study
NB - The success of an employee selection programme requires the

appropriate pairing of criteria and predictors
15
Goals:
- To maximise the probability of accurate
decisions in selecting job applicants and to
ensure that the decisions are made in a
way that is free from both intentional and
unintentional discrimination against the
applicants.
- To avoid decision errors
a. False-positive errors – erroneously accepting applicants who
would have been unsuccessful
b. False-negative errors – erroneously rejecting applicants who
would have be successful
16
Decision Approaches
 Clinical Approach (subjective)
 Statistical Approach (objective)

- Multiple Regression Model - an employee
selection method that combines separate predictors of
a job success in a statistical procedure
-Multiple Cutoff Model – a minimum cutoff
score is used on each of the various predictors of job
performance
-Multiple hurdled Model – this strategy
requires that an acceptance or rejection decision at each
of the several stages in a screening process
17
18
The process of assigning workers
to appropriate jobs
19
 The role of personnel specialists (i.e.,
researchers & specialists) is to find the fit
between the person’s attribute and the job.
 Consideration
- KSAOs
- LRIDA (Labour Relations and Industrial
Disputes Act), 1975 (as amended)
http://www.moj.gov.jm/laws/statutes/The%20Laboour%20Relations%20and%20Industri
al%20Disputes%20Act%20.pdf
20
Protecting against discrimination in
employment
 Protected groups - groups including wonent
and certain ethnic and racial minorities that have
been identified as targets of employment
discrimination
 Adverse impact – when members f a protected

group are treated unfairly by an employer’s
personnel action
 Affirmative action – the voluntary

development of policies that try to ensure that jobs
are made available to qualified individuals
regardless of sex age or ethnic background
21
End of Presentation
22
PSYC1002 Lecturer: Sophia S Morgan
(PS10C) E-mail: sophia.morgan@uwimona.edu.jm
1
Lecture Topic:
METHODS FOR ASSESSING AND
SELECTING EMPLOYEES
2
Employee Screening
(STEP 2)
The process of reviewing

information about job applicants
to select individuals for jobs
3
At the end of this lecture you should be able to
recall and discuss:
- Types of employee screening and assessment
methods
- Important considerations for the use of
screening and assessment methods
- There basic test formats
4
1. Methodological Issues
- Validity
- Reliability
2. Cost
3. Utility/Ease of Use
5
◦ Job applications
◦ Resumes
◦ References and letters of
recommendation
◦ Work samples
◦ Employment tests
◦ Assessment Centres
◦ Hiring interviews
6
7
 The main purpose of these sources is to provide
biographical data – which are usually the best
predictors of job performance
 Application forms may be weighted
 Resumes may be translated into numerical values
 Work Sample - written sample of your work; your

portfolio
Weighted Application Form

Form that assign different weights
to the various pieces of information
provided on a job application
8
These provide information about applicant’s
character, educational history, employment
history, & job performance
- Tend of be of least value to the employee selection
- Used mostly in applications to graduate school and
certain professional positions
Background checks are also becoming more widely

used for screening, particularly for certain types of
jobs (e.g. jobs working with children an other
vulnerable populations)
9
 Employee testing is widely carried out in
organisations today.
 Tests measure a wide range of characteristics that
are predictive of successful job performance
 Some of these tests are:
- Cognitive Ability Tests
- Personality Tests
- Mechanical Ability Tests
- Motor and Sensory Ability Tests
- Job Skills and Knowledge Tests
(these, and others will be discussed in detail in later slides)
10
1. 1. Reliability of tests and results
Reliability refers to the consistency of a
measurement instrument or its stability over time
Methods of Estimating Reliability

a. Test-retest reliability – administer the same test
to the same people at two different times and
then correlate the scores
b. Parallel form – correlate the scores on two
different but equivalent version of the same
instrument
c. Internal consistency – examine how the various
items on the instrument inter-correlate
11
2. Validity of tests and results
Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement
instrument and its ability to make accurate
inferences about a criterion
Methods of Estimating Validity
a. Content validity – the items (questions) on an
instrument must measure adequately the
characteristics needed to perform the job
b. Construct validity – the test must measure what it is
supposed to measure and yield accurate predictions
of job performance
c. Criterion-related validity - looks at the relationship
between test scores and some measurable criterion
for job success
12
3. Effectiveness – use of a combination of
tests (Test Battery)
4. Validity generalisation – the ability of a

screening instrument to predict
performance on a job or a situation
different from which the test was validated
13
5. Test Utility – contribution to
organisational objectives and outcomes
6. The issues of faking – purposely distorting

one’s responses to a test to try to “beat”
the test
14
 Individual vs Group Tests
 Speed vs Power Tests
 Paper-and-pencil vs performance tests
15
 Biodata Instruments
 Cognitive Ability Tests
 Mechanical Ability Tests
 Motor and Sensory Ability Tests
 Job Skills and Knowledge Tests
 Personality Tests
 Honesty & Integrity Tests – e.g. Polygraphs, etc.
 Other Tests – Hygiene; Drugs; Medical; Graphology
 Assessment Centres
 Hiring Interviews
16
17
1. A physical education class has three times as
many girls as boys. During a class basketball
game, the girls average 18 points each, and
the class as a whole averages 17 points per
person. How many points does each boy score
on average?
2. Randolph has 8 ties, 6 pairs of pants, and 4

dress shirts. How many days could he possibly
go without wearing the same combination of
these three items?
3. John is a mechanic. He makes $8.50 an hour,

plus $3 extra for every oil change he performs.
Last week he worked 36 hours and performed
17 oil changes. How much money did he make?
4. A box of staples has a length of 6 cm, a width of

7 cm, and a volume of 378 cm cubed. What is
the height of the box?
18
19
Sample – Personality Inventory
20
21
 Tests Formats
◦ Individual vs. group tests
◦ Paper & pencil vs. performance
tests
◦ Speed vs. power tests
22
 Offer a detailed, structured
evaluation of job applicants using
a variety of instruments and
techniques.
 For high-level managerial

positions– selection, promotion,
training
 Situational Exercises are common

in assessment centres – these are
assessment tools that require the
performance of tasks that
approximate actual work tasks
23
24
Hiring interviews
◦ Most commonly used method of
selection
◦ Two types
 Experience-based question
 Situational (futuristic) question
25
Hiring Interviews cont’d
Effective Interviewing
- Use structured approach
- Make sure the questions are related to the job
- Consider using a panel or multiple interviews
- Develop a scoring or rating system
- Interview questions should be job related
- Limit prompting and follow-up questions
- USE TRAINED INTERVIEWERS
26
Hiring Interviews cont’d
Important issues to be considered in job interviewing

 Personal
- First impressions (snap judgment)
- Halo effect
 Procedural
- No. of interviewers
- Time
- Questioning the interviewee
27
 Move from paper-and-pencil
testing to online computer
testing
 Move towards situational

exercises
◦ Family of tests but assess
only part of the job
 Problem-solving ability
 In-basket techniques
28
 APA code of professional
ethics
 Test user qualifications
 Invasion of privacy
 Confidentiality
 Retention of records
29
End of Presentation
30
PSYC1002 Lecturer:Sophia S Morgan
(PS10C)
E-mail: sophia.morgan@uwimona.edu,jm
Evaluating Employee
Performance
Overview & Learning Expectations
At the end of this lecture you should be able to recall &
discuss fully …
 What is a performance appraisal?
 The performance appraisal process
 The importance of performance appraisals
 Objective & subjective performance criteria
 Methods of rating performance
 Problems and pitfalls in performance appraisals
 Guidelines for effective feedback in the

performance appraisal process
 Current & future trends in performance appraisals
What is Performance Appraisal?
“The formalised means of

assessing worker performance
in comparison to certain
established organisational
standards”
Riggio 2013
Performance Appraisal Process
.•Acquiring Information
about worker’s
Performance
•Organising and storing Performance

Information about worker’s Feedback
Performance behaviours
•Retrieving and translating

stored information to the
actual performance
appraisal
Why Performance Appraisals?
For the Worker

 Source of feedback
- to improve performance
- for pay increase/positive
reinforcement
- career advancement
- goal attainment
For the Supervisor:

 Make informed decisions (pay
increase; firing)
 Assessment of workers’ goal attainment
 Provide constructive feedback
 Interact with subordinate

For the Organisation:

 Recognising and motivating workers
 Validation of personnel selection and
placement method
 Source of information for personal training
needs
 Assessment of productivity of individuals and
work units
 Evaluation of the effectiveness of
organisational interventions
For the Organization cont’d
 Personnel Training
 Wage & Salary Administration
 Placement
 Promotions
 Discharge
Measuring Job Performance
Performance Criteria
 Performance Criteria – measure of job
performance or means of determining
successful or unsuccessful performance
 Performance criteria may be objective or

subjective
Objective Performance Criteria

These are measures of job performance
that are easily quantifiable – e.g.
Job Title Measure
Student Number of Courses Passed in Examinations
Loans Officer Number of loans processed per week

Subjective Performance Criteria

These are measures of job performance
that typically consist of ratings or
judgements of performance– e.g.
Job Title Measure
Branch Manager Increase moral of staff at the branch
Software Developer New Programme for improving student/lecturer

at UWI interaction
Performance Criteria
Objective Performance Criteria Subjective Performance

Criteria
Quantifiable
Judgements of Performance
Less prone to bias and Prone to bias and distortion
distortion Not easily tied to bottom-line
Usually tied to bottom-line assessment of organisation’s
assessment of an organisation’s goals
goals
Objective criteriamay be Appropriate for complex jobs
impossible for some jobs Less Costly
Inappropriate for complex jobs
May be costly
Criterion Concerns
Criterion concerns
 Criterion Relevance – is the means of appraising
performance pertinent to job success?
(KSAO’s for the job are important here!)
 Criterion Contamination – Are there identifiable

factors that detract the accurate assessment of job
effectiveness?
Criterion Concerns Cont’d
 Criterion Deficiency – Is the measurement

of performance criteria complete?
 Criterion Usefulness – Is the performance

criterion usable in appraising a particular job?
Sources of Performance Ratings
 Supervisors appraisal
 Self Appraisal
 Peer Appraisal
 Subordinate Appraisal
 Customer Appraisal
 360-degree Feedback
Methods of Rating Performance
 Comparative Methods –
Performance Appraisal Methods involving
comparisons of one worker’s performance against
that of another worker’s performance
- Rankings
- Paired Comparisons
- Forced distributions
Methods of Rating Performance
Individual Methods
Performance appriaisl methods that evaluate an employee by
himself or herself without explicit reference to other workers
- Graphic rating scales – uses predetermined scales to

rate the worker on important dimensions
- Behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS)– uses
rating scales with labels reflecting examples of poor, average
and good behavioral incidents
- Behavioural observation scales – requires appraisers to
recall how often a worker has been observed performing key
work behaviours
- Checklists – uses series of statements about the job
performance
- Narratives – Open-ended written accounts of a worker’s
Problems and Pitfalls
 Leniency/Severity
errors
Leniency
The tendency to give workers very
positive performance appraisals
Severity
The tendency to give workers very
negative performance appraisals
 CentralTendency Errors – The

tendency to give mid-point rating in
performance appraisals
 HaloEffects – overall positive

evaluation of a worker based on one
known positive characteristic or action.
 Recency Effects – Tendency to give

greater weight to recent performance
and lesser weight to earlier
performance
 Causal attribution errors

- Actor-observer bias
The tendency for observers to
overattribute cause to characteristics of
the actor and for the actor to
overattribute cause to situational
characteristics
- Personal biases (sex, age, race,
physical characteristics. Etc.)
Improving Performance Appraisals
 1. Improve Performance Appraisal

Techniques
 2. Train the appraisers
 3. Obtain multiple evaluations
 4. Appraise the appraisers
 5. Conduct performance appraisals regularly

Guidelines for Effective
Feedback
 Feedback should be descriptive rather than

evaluative
 Feedback should be specific rather than
general
 Feedback should be appropriate, taking into
account the needs of the employer, the
worker, and the situation
 Feedback should be directed towards
behaviour the worker can do something about
or is able to change
Guidelines for Effective
Feedback
 Feedback should be well timed. More

immediate feedback is usually more
effective.
 Feedback should be honest rather than
manipulative or self-serving
 Feedback should be understood by
both parties. If necessary, additional
input should be sought to enhance and
clarify the feedback process.
Current & Future Trends in
Performance Appraisal
 The changing nature of the work & it’s

consequences in performance appraisals
eg virtual situations, part time, teams
 Constant review & revision of performance

appraisal procedure
End of Presentation
TRAINING IN ORGANISATIONS
• At the end of this lecture you should be
able to:
1. Define employee training
2. Identify various areas of employee training
3. Identify and discuss the fundamental issues in
employee training
4. Outline a model of a successful training
programme
What is employee training?
Planned organizational efforts
to help employees learn job-
related skills and other
characteristics
Why Train
Employees?
Who benefits?
- Career & Personal
Development
a. Managers/
- Job Enrichment and
Supervisors
Satisfaction;
b. Employees
- Improve KSAOs
c. Organization
- Retention of Valued
Employees
Broad areas of Employee Training
New Employee Orientation & Training
Continuing education programmers
Retirement planning and preparation
Career development
Diversity and Culture issues
Team building
Are there distinctions…?
Education
Training
Learning
Training & the Learning
Theories
Employee training should be rooted in
basic theories of learning!
 What are the theories? Theories (Examples)

 What are the general assumptions? a. Social Learning
 What area/s do you hope to Theory
b. Cognitive theories of
effect change? Learning
 How is the theory useful? c. Behavioural theories
of learning
Training & the Learning
Theories
- Social Learning Theory – Theory that emphasizes the

observational learning of behaviour
- Modeling – Learning that occurs through the observation and

imitation of the behaviour of others
- Cognitive theories of Learning – Theories that emphasize that humans

are information processors
Other important issues to consider
for a successful training
programme
Trainee readiness – the individual’s
potential for successful training
Transfer of training – will/can the training

be actually applied in the work setting?
Training programme structure – details

of the training programme.
A model of a successful training
programme (Riggio)
5
Evaluate
Training
4 programme
Implement
Training
3 programme
Develop and
test training
2 materials
Establish
training
1 objectives
Assess
training
needs
Step 1
Assessing the training needs
In what way can/should workers’
performance be improved?
Different levels of analysis are required

- Organizational Analysis
- Task analysis
- Person analysis
Step 2
Establish the training objectives
Training objectives should specify what

the trainee should be able to accomplish
on completion of the training programme.
Use a SMART approach

Step 2
Establish the training objectives
The SMART Approach
1. Specific – Objectives should specify what you want to
achieve from the training
2. Measurable – You should be able to measure whether

you are meeting the objectives or not.
3. Achievable - Are the objectives you set, achievable and

attainable?
4. Realistic – Can you realistically achieve the objectives

with the resources you have?
5. Time – When do you want to achieve the set objectives?

Step 3
Developing & Testing Training
Material
It is important to pilot test all training
materials
Consider the methods you will be using

– On-site methods (On-the-job training;
apprenticeship; vestibule training; job rotation)
Step 3
Developing & Testing Training
Material
- Off-site methods (seminars; audiovisual
instruction; behaviour modeling training;
simulation techniques; programmed
instructions; computer assisted instructions)
- Special management training methods

(problem solving case study; role playing;
management games; conference; action
learning; mentoring)
Step 4
Implementation of the Training
Programme
Factors to consider in the implementation
process
- Training readiness; expectations and
climate
- Preparation of venue, materials and
refreshments
- Opportunities for feedback
Step 5
Evaluation of the Training
Programme
Outline the criteria that indicate the
programme’s success
Develop means for measuring these

criteria
Step 5
Evaluation of the Training
Programme
Four types of criteria for measuring
training programme success:
- Reaction Criteria
- Learning Criteria
- Behavioural Criteria
- Results Criteria
Can you now design a training
programme?
Overview
• WORK MOTIVATION: Theories of Work

Motivation; Definitions; Elements
• JOB SATISFACTION: Factors that influence

job satisfaction; Increasing job satisfaction
and organisational behaviours; Desirable
organisational behaviour
• WORKER STRESS: Definitions; sources of

worker stress; coping strategies
At The End Of This Section on Motivation You
Should Be Able To:
1. Fully define the concept of motivation
2. Identify and define the various categories of
motivation theories
3. Fully explain at least one theory within each
category outlining the elements of the theory and
the implications and/or application of the theories
for work behaviour
4. Critique the theories of Motivation
5. Discuss the relationship between motivation and
performance
What is motivation?
The force that:
• Energizes Behaviour
• Directs Behaviour; and
• Sustains Behaviour
(Steers and Porter 1991)
Theories of Motivation
• Needs theories – emphasize the role that
individual differences play in the interaction
among various types of needs and drives to
satisfy those needs. Theories include:
1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (Maslow, 1965; 1970)
2. McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory
(McClelland 1961; 1975)
2. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Behaviour-based theories – focus on

behavioural outcomes . Theories include:
1. Reinforcement Theory
2. Goal Setting Theory (Locke & Latham;
1984; 1990)
Theories of Motivation
• Job design theories – the structure and design
of jobs are key motivators . Theories include:
1. Herzberg’s Two-Factory Theory (Herzberg, 1966)
2. Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham;
1976; 1980)
• Rational Theories - view workers as rational

beings who rationally assess costs and benefits
before taking action. Theories include:
1. Equity Theory (Adams, 1965)
2. Expectancy (VIE) Theory (Vroom, 1964)
NB – We will focus on the ones highlighted in RED

Needs Theory - Maslow
Maslow’s need hierarchy Theory - needs

that play a role in motivation are classified
into five distinct categories – ranging from
basic human needs to more complex high-
order needs
Classification of Needs
SELF
ACTUALIZATION
ESTEEM NEEDS
SOCIAL NEEDS
SAFETY NEEDS
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
More Details…
IMPLICATION FOR WORK MOTIVATION
• Physiological needs: Minimum wage to

cover basic necessities; lunch subsidies
• Safety Needs: Worker need safe working

environment; assurance that jobs are
secure and retirement plans
• Social Needs: Foster positive

interpersonal climate in the workplace
• Esteem Needs: Recognition for

performance and other important
contributions
• Self-Actualization: Provide career

development opportunities
Needs Theory-McClelland
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY –

emphasizes the importance of three
needs; achievement, power and affiliation
in determining worker motivation.
• Need for Achievement – Persons with a Need
for Achievement (nAch) has a compelling drive
to excel and succeed in their jobs
• Need for Power – People with a need for
power (nPow) seeks to direct others and control
the activities of others.
• Need for Affiliation – People with a Need for
Affiliation (nAff) seeks harmony in their
relationships with others. Their desire is to be
liked and accepted by others.

• nAch – challenging and attainable goals;
feedback
• nPow – leadership opportunities; status

recognition
• nAff – cooperative tasks; positive

interpersonal climate
Behaviour Theory-Goal Setting
• Goal Setting Theory – Locke & Latham

(1968, 1984, 1990) – This theory explores
the cognitive processes that are involved
in setting goals and achieving them.
• BASIC TENETS
1. Individuals rationally set work-related
goals
2. Goals must be clear, specific, challenging,

attainable and quantified where possible
3. Feedback is important
Application – Management By Objectives (MBO)
– Peter Drucker (1954)
Principles
 Employees must participate in setting of performance goals
 Feedback concerning goal attainment must be provided
 Guideline for improvement must be provided
 Goals must be realistic
 The upper levels of management must support the
programme
 Individual, work group and organisational goals must be
equally emphasised
Job Design Theory - Herzberg
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory – two

factors, motivators and hygiene are
important in determining worker
satisfaction
Motivators – These are elements that are related to
the content of the job. When present, these increase
job satisfaction
ACHIEVEMENT
RESPONSIBILITY
GROWTH ON
THE JOB
ADVANCEMENT
CONTENT OF
WORK
RECOGNITION
• Hygiene Factors - These are elements that are
related to the context of the job. The absence of these
can create job dissatisfaction
Source: http://www.tutor2u.net/business/people/motivation_theory_herzberg.asp
APPLICATION – Job Enrichment –

a motivational programme that involves
redesigning jobs to give workers a greater
role in planning, execution and evaluation of
their work.
Elements of Job Enrichment Programmes

– Increased level of job responsibility
– Worker autonomy and independence
– Feedback
Change of task structure -

- complete job/work process rather than
segments of a larger task
- challenging task
- improve expertise in jobs
Rational - Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory – Also known as the VIE

Theory
VIE – Refers to the core components of the
theory
- Valence – the desirability of an outcome to the
individual
- Instrumentality – the perceived relationship between
the performance of a particular behaviour and the
likelihood of receiving a particular outcome
- Expectancy – the perceived relationship between the
individual’s effort and performance of a behaviour
Factors that Influence Motivation to Perform

1. Desirability of the outcome (Valence)
2. Abilities of the individual to get the job done
(Expectancy)
3. Whether performance will lead to expected
outcome (Instrumentality)
Implication for Managers
1. Clearly define work outcomes – i.e. potential

rewards and costs associated with
performance
2. Clearly define the relationship between
performance and rewards
3. Performance goals should be achievable and
reasonable
Motivation & Performance
Is a motivated worker a
productive worker?
Motivation & Performance
Other variables may impact the relationship

between productivity and motivation:
Variables that may directly affect

productivity include:
- Systems and technology variables
- Individual differences variables
- Group Dynamics variables
- Organizational variables
At The End Of This Section on Job Satisfaction
You Should Be Able To:
1. Fully define the concept of job satisfaction
2. Discuss the factors that relate to job satisfaction
(Organizational Commitment & Employee
Attendance)
3. Fully discuss the various strategies for increasing
job satisfaction
4. Discuss the relationship between job satisfaction
and performance
What is Job Satisfaction
The positive and negative feelings about

one’s jobs.
It described the level of content a person
has with his/her job
Factors that are related to Job
Satisfaction
Organizational commitment – a worker’s

feelings and attitudes about the entire
work organization
Employee Attendance - (absenteeism;
turnover)
Increasing Job Satisfaction &
Organisational Performance
Changes in job structure

Change in pay structure
Flexible work schedules
Benefit programmes
Build positive interpersonal work climate
Increasing Job Satisfaction and
CHANGES IN JOB STRUCTURE

Techniques include:
1. Job rotation – systematic movement of
workers from one type of task to another. This
alleviates boredom and monotony
2. Job enlargement – the expansion to jobs

to include additional, more varied work tasks
3. Job enrichment – raising the responsibility

associated with a particular job.
CHANGE IN PAY STRUCTURE

Some approaches are:
Skills based pay system – paying for knowledge
and skills rather than positions in the organisation
Merit pay – employees are paid a base rate, and
additional pay based on performance
Gainsharing – a compensation system based on
effective group performance
Profit sharing – all employees receive a small
share of the organisation’s profit
FLEXIBLE WORK SCHEDULES

Compressed work week – Decreasing the
number of days worked per week and increasing
the number of hours per day
Flextime – employee is committed to working

a specified number of hours per week, but has
flexibility in relation to the beginning and ending
of time for each day
BENEFIT PROGRAMMES
These can include:
Flexible working schedules
A variety of health care options
Retirement plans
Profit sharing
Career development programmes
“cafeteria style plans”
BUILD POSITIVE INTERPERSONAL

WORK CLIMATE
Cooperative vs competitive work structure
Social activities
Staff retreats
Desirable Organisational
Behaviours
ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIOURS
Helping behaviour
Sportsmanship
Organisational Loyalty
Organisational Compliance
Individual Initiative
Civic Virtue
Self-development
The Relationship between Job Satisfaction and
• Mixed research finding on the relationship

between the two variables
• Porter-Lawler Model (1968) Provide some

explanation - Job satisfaction is not
directly linked to performance – but there
is some correlation
At The End Of This Section on Worker Stress You
Should Be Able To:
1. Fully define the concept of stress
2. Distinguish between stress in general and worker
stress
3. Identify and discuss the sources of worker stress
4. Identity and discuss the effects of worker stress
5. Outline and discuss the strategies for coping with
worker stress
What is Stress?
“The psychological reactions to events that

are perceived to be threatening or taxing”
(Riggio)
“ That which results when person/environmental
transactions lead the individual to perceive a
discrepancy between the demand of a situation
and the resources of the persons biological,
psychological or social systems” (Sarofino;
1998)
What is Stress?
Perception that the demand of a current

situation (person/environmental
transaction) either exceeds or is less
than the resources (biological,
psychological, social systems) you have,
that can aid in your dealing of the
situation.
Worker Stress
Worker stress results from the lack of a ‘fit’

between a person’s skills and abilities and
the demands of the job and the workplace
(French 1974; 1982)
Stress results from the worker’s
perception that a certain environmental
event is a threat or a challenge (Lazarus
1984; 1991)
Sources of Worker Stress
Situational – External Environment
Dispositional – Internal Environment

Sources of Worker Stress
Organisational Sources
Work Overload – occurs when a job requires
excessive speed, output or concentration
Underutilisation – occurs when workers feel
that their knowledge, skills or energy are not
being fully utilised
 Job Ambiguity – results from a lack of clearly
defined jobs and work tasks
Lack of Control – Feeling of having little input
or effect on the job
Effects of Worker Stress
Ill health – More than one-half of

physical illnesses are stress-related
(Riggio)
Adverse impact on psychological well-
being
Adverse impact on work outcomes –
absenteeism; turnover; poor
performance; etc.
Effects of Worker Stress
JOB BURNOUT – A syndrome resulting

from prolonged exposure to work
stress that leads to withdrawal from the
organization
Phases
1. Emotional exhaustion
2. Depersonalisation
3. Low personal accomplishments
Coping with Worker Stress
What does coping involves?

The individuals cognitive and behavioural
efforts to manage (reduce, minimize, master,
or tolerate) the internal and external demands
of the environment transaction that is
appraised as taxing or exceeding the
resources of that individual” (Lazarus &
Folkman; 1984)
ORGANISATIONAL COPING
STRATEGIES
Improve the person-job-fit – careful
screening and selection
Improve employee training and orientation
programmes
Increase employees’ sense of control –
greater participation; more responsibilities;
increased autonomy
ORGANISATIONAL COPING
STRATEGIES cont’d
Eliminate punitive management
Remove hazardous or dangerous working
conditions
Provide a supportive team-oriented work
environment
Improve communication
INDIVIDUAL COPING STRATEGIES

Diet and exercise
Relaxation
Time management
Removing oneself from the situation
temporarily or permanently
Cognitive restructuring
PS10C
END OF PRESENTATION
Outline/Content
• Communication
• Group Processes
- Norms
- Cohesiveness
- Roles
- Conflict
- Decision Making
• Leadership, Influence & Power
• Organizational Structure, Culture and
Developmen
Communication in the Workplace
Defining Communication
• “The transmission of information from one

person or group to another person or group”
(Riggio). It involves:
– The sender (or encoder) is the originator of the
communication; the receiver (decoder) is the
recipient
– Encoding is the process of preparing a message for
transmission by putting it into some kind of code
(language or other form)
– The channel is the vehicle through which a message
flows from sender to receiver
Defining Communication
Communication involves:
– Decoding is the processing of translating a message
so that it can be understood
– When the receiver has decoded the message, he/she
responds with feedback, an acknowledgement that a
message has been received and understood
– Different communication channels have various
advantages and disadvantages
– Noise involves any physical or psychological
distractions that disrupt the effective flow of
communication
Group Processes Model
The Communication Process Model
NOISE
Message Message
Sender Receiver
(Encoder) Channel (Decoder)
FEEDBACK
Communication Channels
Advantages Disadvantages
Communication Channels
Telephone
Face-to-Face
Meetings
Memorandum
Formal Report
Teleconference
Electronic Mail
Web-based
Communication Process Research
• Research on the Source Factors
• Research on the Channel Factors
• Research on the Audience Factors

Source factors are characteristics of the sender that

influence the effectiveness of a communication
• Source factors include organizational status, credibility, and
encoding skills
Channel factors are characteristics of the vehicle of

transmission of a message that affect communication
Semantic problems are common channel factors that can lead to
communication breakdown
Semantic problems may arise through the use of jargon, special
language developed in connection with certain jobs
Channel selection can also influence job outcomes like job
satisfaction (e.g., the frequency of face-to-face interactions with
supervisors)
– Audience factors are characteristics of the

receiver that influence effectiveness of
communication
• Audience ability and attention are crucial in
delivering effective messages
• The receiver’s relationship to the sender (e.g.,
superior or subordinate) can also affect
communication
• Decoding skills of the receiver, including listening
skills, may also affect communication effectiveness
Non Verbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication – messages sent

and received through means other than
spoken words.
Uses of Non Verbal
Communication
Sender – Two important functions
1. Substitutes for verbal communication;
2. To enhance verbal messages; to convey underlying
feelings
NB. Nonverbal communication can result in the Pygmalion effect, when
a sender communicates expectations to a receiver, thereby influencing
his/her behavior
Receivers - Two important functions:

1. They provide additional information (i.e., when
communication is limited or when the receiver
mistrusts the verbal message)
2. They are used in person perception, or making
judgments about a person’s attitudes, personality, and
competence
Flow of Communication in
Workplace
Downward Communication – messages flowing

downward in an organizational hierarchy, usually
from superiors to subordinates
Upward Communication – messages flowing
upward in an organizational hierarchy, usually
taking the form of feedback
Lateral Communication – messages between
two parties at the same level in the organization
Flow of Communication in
Workplace
Communication Barriers
Filtering – The selective presentation of the
content of a communication. Filtering includes the
“MUM effect,” when a message is not forwarded to others because
it involves bad news
Censoring – The intentional omission of
information from a message or a decision not
to transmit particular information
Exaggeration – The distortion of information
by elaborating, overestimating, or minimizing
parts of a message
Communication Networks in the
Workplace
Communication networks are systematic
lines of communication among various
senders and receivers
1. Centralized – Information is funneled directly

through certain members / to and from one
person
2. Decentralized – All available information is
distributed to all the group members. Messages
can originate at any point and need not be
directed through specific group members
Communication Networks
• Centralized networks include:

– The chain, a status hierarchy where a message
originates at the bottom or top of the chain and works
its way up or down through the different links
– The Y, a hierarchy representing different levels of
status, with the last link involving communication to
more than one person
– The wheel involves two status levels: a higher-status
member and lower-level members; the higher-status
member is the hub, through which all communication
must pass (there is no direct communication between
lower-status members)
. Centralized Communication Networks Within
Organizations
Y Wheel
Chain
Decentralized networks include:
The circle - communication occurs between members
who are immediately accessible to each other (e.g.,
workers side by side on an assembly line).
Communication within a circle network is quick, but it can
be difficult to trace the source of a message because any
member can initiate communication
The all-channel network - There is complete freedom
among communication links (each member can
communicate with any or all other members)
Examples include boards of directors, task forces,
employees working in teams. Communication is rapid with
maximum opportunity for feedback
Group Processes - Communication
Decentralized Communication Networks Within

Organizations
Circle All-Channel
Factors that determine how the
networks develop
Members perception of each other

Previously known information of others
Information provided by the individual
himself/herself
Observed behaviour
Organisation’s structure and culture
Which Network is Best? It depends on:
• Types of tasks – centralized networks are preferable for
simple task; (faster; fewer errors) decentralized networks
are better for more complex & creative tasks
• Level of cohesion necessary/desired – decentralized

networks encourage interaction and foster cohesion
among members (Hare 1976)
• Job Satisfaction - Because of communication

restrictions, noncentral workers in centralized
networks tend to have lower job satisfaction
Lines of Communication in the
Workplace
• Lines of organizational communication can
be either formal or informal
– An organigram is a diagram of an organization’s
hierarchy representing the formal lines of
communication
– The grapevine is the informal communication
network in an organization
– A sociogram is a diagram of the informal lines of
communication among organizational members
Lines of Communication in the
Workplace
Formal vs Informal Communication
Organization Chart Grapevine
Factors that Determine
Communication Links
Three factors determine the pattern of
communication links that form the grapevine (Baird,
1977):
– Friendship determines who communication with
whom
– Usage means that people who are
communication links in formal lines of
communication are also likely to be links within
the grapevine
– The grapevine often develops because it is more
efficient for sharing information than formal lines
Factors that Determine
Communication Links
– The grapevine is vital for maintaining social
relationships among employees, encouraging
unity and commitment to the work group
– Rumors, or information that is presented as fact,
but which actually may not be true, may occur
within the grapevine
– False rumors usually result when organizational
members lack information about a topic that
concerns them
Workplace Communication & Work
Outcomes
• Work Productivity/Job Performance
• Job Satisfaction
• Absenteeism
• Turnover rates
Outcomes
– Research indicates that more communication in
organizations, particularly lateral communication
within work groups, and better supervisor
communication skills are related to employee
performance (Snyder & Morris, 1984)
– Other research indicates that employees are
more productive when they are satisfied with the
amount and quality of organizational
communication (Clampitt & Downs, 1993)
Outcomes
– Lower-level workers have higher job satisfaction
with greater amounts of upward organizational
communication (Koehler et al., 1981)
– Employees who receive a great deal of
information about the organization through
downward communication have higher job
satisfaction and organizational commitment (Ng
et al., 2006)
– Serving as a communication source is also linked
to higher job satisfaction (Muchinsky, 1977)
Outcomes
– Keeping downward and upward
communication flowing is considered a
crucial best practice when effectively
managing major organizational changes
like downsizing (Marks & Mirvis, 2010)
– Open communication among employees
may result in a “snowball effect,” where
employees quit their jobs in clusters
NEW LECTURE
GROUP PROCESSES
Leadership, Influence & Power
Organizational Structure, Culture and

Development
Overview
Work Group & Organizational Issue
• Defining Work Groups
• Characteristics of Work Groups
• Group Processes
- Norms
- Cohesiveness
- Roles
- Conflict
- Decision Making
• Leadership, Influence & Power
• Organizational Structure, Culture and Development

Defining Work Groups
• “Two or more individuals engaged in
social interaction for the purpose of
achieving some goal” (Riggio)
• Two or more persons who interact with

each other, share common goals and are
somehow interdependent and recognize
that they belong to a group. (Baron and
Bryne 1997
Some Characteristics of Work
Groups
Task Activities - what ever furthers or is
concerned with furthering the propose or goal of the
group
Maintenance Activities – concerned with
establishing and maintaining a positive interpersonal
climate in the group
Cohesion – the strength of bonds linking group
members to one another and to their group (unity,
oneness; solidarity)
Norms - Definition
• “Rules that groups adopt governing

appropriate and in appropriate
behavior” (Riggio)
• “A groups common beliefs regarding

appropriate behaviour, attitudes and
perceptions for the members…”
Johnson and Johnson (1997)
Norms & Organizational
Socialization
• Organizational socialization is the process by
which new employees learn group roles and norms
and develop specific work skills and abilities
– Organizational socialization occurs in stages:
• Anticipatory socialization: new employees develop
expectations concerning the job and assess their “fit” in
the organization
• Accommodation: new employees learn about work
group roles and norms
• Role management: newcomers transition to regular
members, mastering required tasks and roles
Conformity – Adhering to
Norms
• Conformity is the process of adhering to
group norms
– Conformity is often very strong and helps
maintain order and uniformity in group
behavior
– Extreme and repeated norm violation results
in ostracism from the group
– Members who have more power (e.g., the
group leader) or who usually conform to
norms are more likely to be successful in
nonconforming behavior
Purpose of Norms
How norms contribute to the effective
functioning of the organization
1. Survival of the organization
2. Facilitate the achievement of the
organizations goals
3. Increase predictability of organizational
members’ behaviours
4. Provide group/organization identity
Group Processes -
Cohesiveness
• Cohesiveness is the degree of attraction among
group members
– Cohesiveness increases member satisfaction, but
only increases productivity when it is work-related
– Cohesiveness increases when group members have
equal status
– Cohesiveness increases with increased stability of
group membership
– Greater similarity of group members increases
cohesiveness
– The we-they feeling is cohesiveness created by the
existence of a threat to the group
Group Processes - Roles
Roles - Patterns of behaviour that are adapted
based on expectations about the
functions of a position
• role conflict – results when the expectations associated with
one role interferes with the expectations concerning another role
• role ambiguity - a sense of uncertainty over the

requirements of a particular role.
• role differentiation - the process by which group

members learn to perform various roles
• role expectation – beliefs concerning the responsibilities

and requirements of a particular role.
Functions of Roles
– Group task roles – These serve to get the job done
(e.g., leader, evaluator, coordinator)
– Group building and maintenance roles - These

server to maintain/build personal relationships among
members (e.g., encourager, compromiser)
– Self-centered roles - These serve to satisfy

personal interests/idiosyncrasies rather than group
goals (e.g., recognition seeker, aggressor)
(Benne & Sheats, 1948)
Conflict - Definition
Conflict is behavior by a person or group intended to
inhibit the attainment of goals by another person or
group
– Conflict occurs naturally within groups
– The key element in defining conflict is that conflicting
parties have incompatible goals
– While conflict can have negative consequences, it can
be constructive and lead to positive outcomes for work
groups and organizations (Wall & Callister, 1995)
Conflict & Effective Group
Functioning
• Outcomes of conflict in organizations can
be positive:
– Conflict may energize group members,
increasing work motivation
– Conflict can stimulate creativity and
innovation
– Conflict can improve the quality of decision-
making
– Conflict can increase organizational
communication
Conflict & Effective Group
Functioning
• Outcomes of conflict in organizations can
be negative:
– Conflict can reduce group cohesiveness
– Conflict can hamper effective communication
– Conflict can lower group member satisfaction
– Conflict can cause group goals to become
secondary to infighting
Levels of Conflict
Intra-individual – the individual is faced

with two sets of incompatible goals
Inter-individual – conflict between two
persons striving to attain their own goals
Intra-group – a person or faction within a
group attempts to achieve a goal that
interferes with the group’s goal
Levels of Conflict
Inter-group – conflict between two groups

trying to attain their respective goals
Inter-organizational – conflict between
organizations with incompatible goals
Conflict Management
Strategies
– Dominating: persisting in conflict until one party
attains personal goals at the expense of the other’s
– Accommodation: making a sacrifice to resolve
conflict
– Compromise: both parties give up some part of their
goals
– Collaboration: parties cooperate to reach a solution
that satisfies both
– Avoidance: withdrawing from or avoiding the conflict
situation
– Superordinate goal: a goal that two conflicting
parties are willing to work to attain
Decision Making
The process of choosing among
various sources of action. Important
organizational decisions include:
- Establishing group goals
- Selecting new members
- Determining standards for appropriate
behaviour
Decision Making Methods
• Autocratic – A process by which group decisions
are made by the leader alone, based on information the
leader possesses.
• Democratic - A strategy by which decisions are made by

the group members based on majority rule voting
• Consensus – Decision making based on 100 percent

member agreement
Group Processes – Decision
Making
Advantages and disadvantages of decision
making
Advantages
1. Broad knowledge base
2. Decisions are accepted by members
3. Decisions are highly critiqued
Disadvantages
1. Slow and unless properly organized can be a waste of time
2. Creates intra group conflict
3. Potential for groupthink and group polarisation
Group Processes – Decision
Making
Issues and problems with decision
making
1. Groupthink – A syndrome characterized by a
concurrence-seeking tendency that overrides the ability of a
cohesive group to make critical decisions
2. Group Polarization - The tendency for groups to

make decisions that are more extreme than those made by
individuals.
NEW LECTURE
Leadership, Influence and Power
Leadership
“the ability to guide a group towards the achievement of
goals”
Influence
“the ability to use social forces to affect the behavior of
others”
Power
“the use of some aspect of work relationship to compel
another to perform a certain action despite resistance”
Organizational Politics
“Self serving actions designed to affect the behaviour of
others to achieve personal goals”
Leadership Theories
Trait – attempts to discover the traits

shared by all effective leaders
Behavioural – These focus on behaviours

common to leaders
Contingency – These look at the

interaction of both the leader and the
situation
Charismatic – These state that leaders

possess some exceptional characteristics
that cause followers to be loyal and
inspired
Influence Tactics
• Assertiveness
• Ingratiation
• Rationality
• Sanctions
• Exchanges
• Upward Appeals
• Blocking
• Coalitions
Group Processes - Leadership,
Influence and Power
Sources of Power
Organizational – power is derived from

position occupied
Individual – power is derived from

personal characteristics that are valued by
the organization
NEW LECTURE
Organizational Structure, Culture
and Development
Organizational Structure
“the arrangement of positions in an
organization and the authority and
responsibility relationships among them”
(Riggio)
and Development
Dimensions of Organizational Structure
Traditional vs Non-Traditional
Functional vs Divisional
Centralized vs Decentralized
and Development
Organisational Culture
“shared values, beliefs, assumptions and
patterns of behaviour within an
organisation” (Riggio)
and Development
Influence of Organisational Culture
Five dimensions of societal/national culture
1. Individualism vs Collectivism
2. Power Distance
3. Masculinity vs Femininity
4. Uncertainty Avoidance
5. Long-term vs Short-term orientation
and Development
Organisational Development
“the process of assisting organisations in

preparing for or managing change”
(Riggio)
and Development
Organisational Development (OD) Techniques
Survey Feedback
T-Groups
Process Consultation
Management by Objectives
Quality Circles
Team Building
and Development
Survey Feedback – An OD Consultant
develops a survey instrument and collects
data in order to ascertain worker attitude
on a number of important work-related
issues.
and Development
T-Groups– Also known as Sensitivity Training
Groups, this technique is involves unstructured
meetings of small groups of staff members.
The meetings provide participants with an

opportunity to learn about themselves, their
impact on others and how to function more
effectively while working with others in the
organisation
and Development
Process Consultation –
“A philosophy of helping, and a technology
or methodology of how to be helpful”
Schein 1999
The OD Consultant helps the Organisation

to diagnose and study its problems
objectively and learn how to solve them
and Development
How Process Consultation Works
 It may be presumed that the organization/client
is unable to define the problem and needs
special help in diagnosing their problems.
 The OD specialist is not fully equipped to solve
the problem because he/she cannot learn
enough about the culture of an organization to
suggest reliable new courses of action.
and Development
How Process Consultation Works Cont’d
Unless the organization/client learns to identify
and acknowledge the problem, there may be a
sense of unwillingness to implement the
solution. Also, the organization/client will not
learn how to effectively address the problems if
they reappear.
Decision making about the solutions must be
made by the organization/client.
and Development
Management by Objectives (MBO)
“A goal setting technique in which

supervisors and subordinates jointly set
performance goals. At the end of the goal
period, the performance is evaluated and
new goals are set” (Riggio).
and Development
MBO Principles
Employees must participate in setting of
performance goals
Feedback concerning goal attainment must be
provided
Guideline for improvement must be provided
Goals must be realistic
The upper levels of management must support the
programme
Individual, work group and organisational goals
must be equally emphasised
and Development
Quality Circles –
Small groups of workers from the same work
area meet regularly to identify, analyse
and solve work task problems
and Development
Team Building
In this technique, work teams discuss how to
improve team performance by analysing group
interaction
The OD consultant participates as a moderator
and allows the team to discuss and solve its
problems
This process allows each team member an
opportunity to present personal views and
suggestion for improvement of team
performance
and Development
Rules for making high-level decision-making
work teams effective (Galbraith, 1973, 1977)
1. Team member should perceive their

participation as important and personally
rewarding
2. The work team should include some persons
of organisational power who will be
responsible for helping to implement any
decisions made by the team
and Development
Cont’d
3. Team members should have knowledge and
information relevant to the decision (to be
taken)
4. Team members should have the authority to
commit their departments to the decision
5. Team members should represent and inform
non-team members
and Development
Cont’d
6. Influence of team members on decisions should
be based on expertise
7. Work team conflict should be managed to
maximise the problem solving process
8. Team members should have good interpersonal
skills and adequate leadership abilities.
and Development
Cont’d
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR APPLICATION
OF RULES
1. Positive interdependence - (We…instead of …ME)
Positive interdependence exists when individuals in a

group collectively perceives that each is linked with the
other in such a way so that one member cannot succeed
unless the others succeed as well. Each group member
therefore must coordinate his/her efforts with the efforts of
others to ensure the group’s success.
and Development
Cont’d
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR APPLICATION OF
RULES
2. Group Processing - This is a regular part of the team’s
activities/meeting which involves reflecting on a session in
order to:
a. Discuss what member actions were helpful and those not
helpful in relation to achieving the group’s goals;
b. Discussion what member actions were helpful in
maintaining effective working relationships;
c. Making decisions about what actions to continue or change
and Development
Cont’d
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR
APPLICATION OF RULES
3. Promotive Interaction - Promotive
interaction involves individuals encouraging
and facilitating each other’s efforts to
complete tasks and achieve in order to
reach the group’s goals.
End of Presentation

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INTRODUCTION TO

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 1

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 2

At the end of this lecture you

 What do I/O Psychologists do?

 Current issues and factors that pose

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 4

- I/O Psychology is an applied field.

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 5

 To apply the knowledge in order to change

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Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 7

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Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 14

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 15

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 16

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 17

I/O Psychology has to relate to the

 The Changing Nature of Work (Change and

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 19

 Teams and/vs Individuals

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 20

 Efficiency - Organisational Learning

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 21

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 22

Traditionalists Baby Boomers Generation X Generation Y

Pre 1945 1945–1964 1965–1980 1981–Present

Age 63– Age 43–62 Age 27–42 Age 1–27

Formative Great Depression Post war Globalization Networking

Traditionalists Baby Boomers Generation X Generation Y

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 25

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 1

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 2

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 3

• At the end of this lecture you should:

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 4

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 5

• The core or starting point for all

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

To obtain full understanding of a particular job

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

• Is there a gap between the

Recruit & Place Employees in Jobs

• How important is the job?

• What are the

• What are the required

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Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 12

• A number of factors may determine the

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• Jobs therefore are required to be of

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- log of incumbent’s daily activities on the

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 18

• Job Element Method - A “person

• Functional Job Analysis – structured