CONCRETE

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At the end of class student can…
• EXPLAIN type of concrete used in construction industry.
• PREPARE concrete mix design.
• EXPLAIN preparation of concrete mix from material selection, batching,
mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and curing.
• ASSESS the physical and mechanical properties of fresh concrete.
• EXPLAIN setting and hardening of concrete.
• EXPLAIN stress strain curve and modulus of elasticity.
• DESCRIBE admixture used in concrete mix.

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3
What is Concrete?
• CONCRETE is made by mixing:
❖ CEMENT
❖ WATER Water
❖ COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATES
Cement
❖ ADMIXTURES (if required). Aggreg
ates
60 –
70%

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What is Concrete?
• The aim is to mix these materials in measured amounts to make
concrete that is easy to:
➢ TRANSPORT
➢ PLACE
➢ COMPACT
➢ FINISH

• and which will set, and harden, to give a strong and durable product.
• The amount of each material (ex: cement, water and aggregates)
affects the properties of hardened concrete.
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Definition of Concrete
• An artificial stone-like material used for various
structural purposes. It is made by mixing cement and
various aggregates, such as sand, pebbles, gravel,
shale, etc., with water and allowing the mixture to
harden by hydration.

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 Types of
Concrete

Normal weight Lightweight Heavyweight

concrete concrete concrete

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Normal Weight Concrete
• ρ = 2400 kg/m³
• Contains natural sand and gravel or crushed-rock
aggregates

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Lightweight Concrete
• ρ < 1800 kg/m³
• Unit weight reduce by using certain natural
lightweight aggregates such as processed igneous
rocks or specially produced lightweight aggregates
such as expended clay (LECA).
• Used primarily for making lightweight concrete for
structures, also used for its insulating properties.
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Heavyweight Concrete
• ρ > 3200 kg/m³
• Purposed: nuclear radiating shield
• Produced from high density aggregates such steel
aggregates and ferrophosphorus.

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Basic Characteristic of Concrete
• Relatively cheap
• Posses very strong compressive strength
• Low tensile strength
• Very durable
• Easily mouldable into almost any form and shape

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Uses of Concrete
• Structural components/elements of a structure
▪ Column
▪ Beam
▪ Slab
• Foundation
• Retaining structures & Dams
• Precast Element
• Other
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Water
• Needed for two purposes:
– chemical reaction with cement (hydration)
– Workability (fresh concrete)
• Only 1/3 of the water is needed for chemical reaction
• Extra water remains in pores and holes
• Results in porosity
• Good for preventing plastic shrinkage and cracking, improved
workability
• Bad for permeability, strength, durability.
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Requirement for Water
• Requirement: the quality of water is specified based on
portability of water and the water should be fit for drinking.
• In general, tap water from domestic water supply should be
suitable for mixing concrete; pH 6 – 8.
• Contains dissolves solids of less than 2000 ppm.
• Chloride and sulphate ions content lower than 500 ppm and
1000 ppm.
• Alkali carbonates and bicarbonates content of less than 1000
ppm.
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Mix Design for Concrete
• Purpose: determine the proportion of concrete constituents
to produce workable and an economical concrete with the
required strength and durability.
• The ratios may be expressed by volume or weight, but mixing
by volume is more practical in the field.

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Mix Design for Concrete
• Specified Mix method (Kaedah Campuran Ditetapkan) - based on British
CP 110: 1972. More depends on concrete grade, limit of dimensions,
maximum size of aggregate and grading. Quantity of ingredients set for 1
m³
• Weight-Mixing Method (Kaedah Kadaran Berat) is based on the weight of
cement, sand and coarse aggregates. Example 1: 2: 4 @ 1: 3: 6.
(Specification of JKR)
• Design of Experiment (Kaedah Reka Bentuk) - British Standard

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JKR Standard
Campuran Kekuatan Mampatan Saiz Kandungan
Namaan Minima (N/mm2) maksima Minima simen
7 Hari 28 Hari Agregat (mm) (kg/m3)

1:1:2 20 30.0 20 380

1:1.5:3 17 25.5 20 361
1:2:4 14 21.0 20 321
1:3:6 8 12.5 25 @38 -

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Water/Cement (W/C) Ratio
• The ratio of weight of water to weight of cement used in
the mix
• Weight of water = water added + free water
• Water-cement ratio will have an effect on strength and
durability of concrete

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Water/Cement (W/C) Ratio
• At a given degree of hydration, the water cement ratio
regulates the porosity of the cement paste (gel pores,
capillary pores and entrapped air)
• Lower w/c ratio will increase concrete strength due to
lower porosity
• With an increase in age, the degree of hydration generally
increases so that strength increases

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Water/Cement (W/C) Ratio
• One of the most important factors affecting the strength
and durability of concrete
– W/C ratio for normal strength concrete : 0.45-0.6
– W/C ratio for high strength concrete: less than 0.45
• W/C ratio will also affect the workability of concrete

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Water/Cement (W/C) Ratio
• Increased w/c ratio also adversely affects the capillary voids in
concrete.
• As the hydration of cement progresses, the hydration
products calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel fills up the
capillary voids.
• Concrete with higher w/c ratio have higher capillary voids and
in such concretes the volume of hydrated cement gel may not
be sufficient to completely block the capillary pores.

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Water/Cement (W/C) Ratio
• Selection of appropriate water- cement ratio (w/c)
• The w/c must be the lowest value and the selected value must
fulfill the following design considerations:
• Strength
• Durability
• Impermeability

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Video 1 Hydration OPC

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Normal Concrete Mix Design
• Design is based on the assumption of certain minimum
properties of concrete such as strength.
• Necessary to design a mix to have a target mean strength
greater than the specified characteristic strength by an
amount termed the margin.
• Target mean strength = characteristic strength + margin

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Example 1
Specification of the mix:
• Characteristic compressive strength: 30 N/mm² at 28 days
• Defective rate: 2.5%
• No previous control data
• Cement: OPC class 42.5
• Slump required: 10 – 30 mm
• Maximum free w/c ratio: 0.55
• Minimum cement content: 290 kg/m³
• Coarse agg.: uncrushed single sized 10mm and 20mm (1:2) by weight
• Fine agg. : uncrushed with 70% passing 600 µm sieve
• Relative density of agg. : 2.6 (assumed)
• Volume of trial mix: 0.05 m³
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Solution

30 28
2.5

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Step 2

Step 1
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Solution

30 28
2.5
8

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Constant, K

Defective rate Constant, K

1% 2.33
2.5% 1.96
5% 1.64

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Solution

30 28
2.5
8
1.96 1.96 8 16

30 16 46

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 Step 2
Step 1

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Step 5: use value Step 6: use value that
target mean strength touch the new curve line

Step 3: draw the 46 Step 4: draw the curve line

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straight line until that touch 0.5
touch line 0.5 (use
value from Table 2)

0.47 32
Solution

30 28
2.5
8
1.96 1.96 8 16

30 16 46

0.47
0.55 0.47
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10-30
20

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 Step 1

Step 3

Step 2

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 10-30
20
160
160 0.47 340

290
340

2.6

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Step 2

Step 1
37
 10-30
20
160
160 0.47 340

290
340

2.6
2400
2400 340 160 1900
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70

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 Step 2 Step 1

Step 3 : 70%

27

Step 4: refer w/c ratio 0.47

(refer item 1.7 @ 1.8) 40
 70
25 to 30, say 27
1900 0.27 515
1900 515 1385

340 160 515 460 925

0.05 17 8 25.7 23 46.2

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Example 2
Specification of the mix:
• Characteristic compressive strength: 25 N/mm² at 28 days
• No previous control data but a margin of 10 N/mm² is specified
• Cement: OPC class 42.5
• Slump required: 30 – 60 mm
• Maximum free w/c ratio: 0.5
• Minimum cement content: 290 kg/m³
• Coarse agg.: uncrushed single sized 10mm, 20mm and 40mm
(1:1.5:3) by weight
• Fine agg. : uncrushed with 90% passing 600 µm sieve
• Relative density of agg. : 2.5 (assumed)
• Volume of trial mix: 0.08 m³
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Solution

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Solution

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Mixing
• The cement and aggregate should first be mixed dry in a small pile until a
uniform color and density is achieved.

• Once all the dry materials are mixed, water should be added slowly by
sprinkling instead of pouring.

• Due to the many factors that affect the water content (humidity,
absorption etc.), it is best to add approximately 90% of the water to start.

• Then add water until the proper consistency (slump) is reached.

• Remember that more water can always be added, but not removed
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Formwork
• If formwork is used to form structural
items such as walls, columns, beams,
it should be left in-place for at least 2
days.

• Formwork reduces the rate of water

evaporating from the concrete mix
and provides a more thorough curing
process.

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Formwork for concrete should be
1. Strong enough to resists the pressure or the weight
of the fresh concrete plus any constructional live
loads
2. Rigid enough to retain the shape without undue
deformation
3. Economical in terms of the total cost of the forms
and the concrete surface finishing when required
4. Sufficiently watertight to avoid leakage at the joint
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Formwork Materials

1. Timber

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Formwork Materials

2. Metal

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Formwork Materials

3. Plastic

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Placing
• Concrete should be carefully placed, not dropped, to prevent the
segregation of the cement and sand from the larger gravel aggregate.
• Typically, concrete should not free-fall more than a few feet, and workers
should be prevented from throwing concrete with shovels or buckets.
• Immediately after placing, it should be rodded with spare rebar. This
reduces strength-reducing air voids. This is especially important around
reinforcement.
• Before mixing large amounts of concrete, it is important to coordinate
efforts on how the concrete will be placed.
• And once concrete has begun to set, it should not be moved, as this will
weaken the final structure

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Curing
• In order to obtain good quality of concrete in term of strength
and durability aspects, concrete must be subjected to curing
during the early stage of hardening.
• Curing: practice or procedure of preventing loss of moisture
from concrete at early age.
• Purpose: promote hydration process of cement, which in turn
will promote the development of strength, reduction of
porosity as well as permeability.

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Curing
• necessary to ensure the availability of water to sustain continuous
hydration reaction until concrete has developed necessary degree of
impermeability and strength.
• The hydration process and the formation of the hydration product (CSH
and CH) which will fill up the capillary voids in concrete ceases when the
relative humidity within the concrete has falls below 80%. (Lack of curing)

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Curing
• The minimum time required for preventing loss of moisture from the
surface of concrete depends upon a number of factors including:
❖ Types of cement
❖ Cement content and w/c ratio
❖ Types and quantity of mineral admixture
❖ The ambient condition (temperature, direct exposure to sun, wind)
❖ The intended use of concrete

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Methods of Curing
• Classified into 2 groups:
❖ Those which keep water or moisture in close contact with
the surface of concrete, such as ponding, spraying,
sprinkling, damp hessian
❖ Those which prevent the loss of moisture from the
concrete such as plastic sheeting, leaving formwork in place
and sprayed on curing membranes

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61
Properties of Fresh
Concrete

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Introduction
• The plastic state of the concrete starting from the time that
the concrete making materials are mixed until the concrete
gains rigidity is called fresh concrete; the state of the concrete
starting from the time that it gains rigidity is called hardened
concrete.

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Fresh Concrete
• There are two sets of criteria that we must consider when
making concrete;
❖ Long-term requirements of hardened concrete, such as,
strength, durability, and volume stability.
❖ Short-term requirements, like workability.

• However, these two requirements are not necessarily

complementary.

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Fresh Concrete
For fresh concrete to be acceptable, it should:
• Be easily mixed and transported.
• Be uniform throughout a given batch and between batches.
• Be of a consistency so that it can fill completely the forms for
which it was designed.
• Have the ability to be compacted without excessive loss of
energy.
• Not segregate during placing and consolidation.
• Have good finishing characteristics.

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Properties at Early Ages
• Workability/Slump Loss
• Segregation
• Bleeding
• Plastic Shrinkage
• Time of Set
• Temperature

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Properties at Early Ages

1.
Workability

Properties
of Fresh 2.
4. Bleeding
Concrete Cohesiveness

3. Segregation

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1. Workability
• Definition: The amount of work required in mixing, placing,
and compacting the fresh concrete without segregation.

• This is important since the final strength is a function of

compaction.

• A concrete mix that cannot be placed easily and cannot be

compacted fully will not yield the expected strength and
durability characteristic.

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Factors Affecting Workability
1. Water content of concrete mix
2. Aggregates (Size/shape/surface texture/grading)
3. Aggregate/cement ratio
4. Presence of admixture
5. Fineness of cement
6. Weather/temperature

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Factors Affecting Workability
1. Water Content of the Concrete Mix:
➢ the more water content per unit volume of concrete, the higher will be
the fluidity of concrete
➢Water requirement mainly associated with absorption of aggregates
surface & filling up the voids between aggregates.
➢Adding extra water to concrete can be disadvantageous:
• Reduced the strength
• Bleeding of concrete
• Segregation of concrete

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Factors Affecting Workability
2. Aggregate size/shape/surface
texture/grading
a) Size
• Influence by the maximum size of aggregates
• Agg. with smaller particle sizes will have
greater surface area than agg. with larger
particle size and therefore require more water
per unit volume to achieve the same
workability

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Factors Affecting Workability

2. Aggregate size/shape/surface texture/grading

b) Shape
• Shape of agg. Seriously influence the workability of concrete
• Angular, flaky & elongated agg. reduce the workability of
concrete
• Rounded or sub-rounded agg. Increase the workability due to
reduction of surface area for a given volume or weight.
• Rounded shape agg. has less frictional resistance and give high
workability as compared to angular, flaky or elongated agg.
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Factors Affecting Workability

2. Aggregate size/shape/surface texture/grading

c) Surface texture
• Rough textured agg. have more surface area than smooth rounded agg.
of same volume
• Smooth rounded or glassy agg. will give better workability that rough
texture aggregate
• A reduction of inter particle frictional resistance offered by smooth agg.
also contributes to higher workability

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Factors Affecting Workability

2. Aggregate size/shape/surface texture/grading

d) Grading
• The better the grading, the less is the amount of void in concrete so
well graded agg. should be used.
• When the total voids are less in concrete, excess paste is available to
give better lubricating effect.
• With excessive amount of concrete paste in concrete mixture, it
becomes cohesive that prevents segregation of particles & less
amount of compacting effort is required to compact the concrete.

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Factors Affecting Workability
3. Aggregate/cement ratio:
➢ The more cement is used, concrete becomes richer and agg. will have
proper lubrication for easy mobility or flow of agg.
➢ For a constant w/c ratio, workability increase with the reduction in
agg./cement ratio because the amount of water relative to the total
surface of solids is increased.

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Factors Affecting Workability
4. Presence of admixture:
➢ The use of chemical admixture such as superplasticizer is normally
associated with enhancement in workability.
➢ Superplasticiser enable the w/c ratio of concrete mix to be reduced while
maintaining the same workability.
➢ Use of superplasticizer for 2 purposes: to reduce water content while
maintaining acceptable workability in the production of high strength
concrete; significantly increase workability in the production of flowing
concrete which is normally used in concreting work involving heavily
congested steel reinforcement
➢ Mineral admixture like pozzolanic materials are also used to improve
workability
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Factors Affecting Workability
5. Fineness of cement:
➢ The cement with increase in fineness will require more water for same
workability than comparatively less fine cement

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Factors Affecting Workability
6. Weather/temperature:
➢ High ambient temperature, direct exposure to sun and strong wind
will result in faster loss of workability (slump lost)
➢ This phenomena affects the flow ability of concrete and due to fast
hydration of concrete, it will gain strength earlier which decrease the
workability of fresh concrete

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2. Cohesiveness
• Fresh concrete should not segregate during transporting,
placing and compacting works (adequately cohesive and less
prone to segregation)
• Concrete mix with sufficient cohesiveness, it able to hold
together the aggregate particle during transporting, placing
and compacting operation.

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3. Segregation
• Segregation: the separation of the constituents
materials of concrete.
• Good concrete is when all the ingredients are
properly distributed to make homogeneous mixture.
• In concrete due to different particle size and density
of constituent materials, there is tendency for the
coarser & heavier particles to settle and for finer and
lighter materials, particularly cement paste & water
to rise to the surface.

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3. Segregation (cont.)
Types of segregation:
1. Too dry mixes – the coarse agg. separating out or settling down from the
rest of the matrix.
2. Too wet mixes – the paste or matrix separating away from coarse agg.
3. Some amount of water is isolating from the entire concrete paste being a
material of the lowest specific gravity.

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3. Segregation (cont.)
• Segregation occurs due to:
▪ Badly proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to
bind the agg.Ex: Using too much mixing water
▪ Transporting concrete mixes for long distance
▪ Vibrating concrete for long time
▪ Dropping concrete from high places
▪ Badly graded agg. in particular those with deficient in fineness
• Segregation one of the causes of pores and honeycombed surface

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4. Bleeding
• Bleeding: water gain is form of segregation where some of mixing water
tend to rise to the surface of freshly placed and compacted concrete mix.
• Mostly observed in highly wet mix, badly proportioned and insufficiently
mixed concrete.
• Occurs due to inability of the solid constituents of the concrete mix to hold
all the mixing water when they settle downward.
• Consequence: top of every layer of concrete placed could become too wet
(high amount of water)

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4. Bleeding (cont.)
• In thin structure member such as roof slab or road slabs and when
concrete is placed in sunny weather show excessive bleeding where water
comes up and accumulate at the surface.
• Sometimes, certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface.
• Bleeding also responsible for the permeability of the concrete
• While the mixing water is in the process of coming up, it may be
intercepted by agg.
• The bleeding water is likely to accumulate below the agg.

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4. Bleeding (cont.)
• The accumulation of water creates water voids
and reduces the bond between the agg. and the
paste (mostly occurred in the case of flaky agg.).
• Water accumulated below the reinforcing bars,
reduces the bond between the reinforcement and
the concrete
• The poor bond between the agg. and the paste or
the reinforcement and the paste due to bleeding
can be remedied by re-vibration of concrete.
• The bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate
of evaporation of water from the surface is equal
to the rate of bleeding which increase strength.
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4. Bleeding (cont.)
• How to reduce bleeding:
❖ Proper proportioning and uniform and complete mixing
❖ Use air-entraining admixture and finely divided pozzolanic
materials
❖ Proper compaction
❖ Use of finer cement
❖ Delaying the finishing operation until the bleeding water
has evaporated
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Method of Measuring Workability
Workability, a term applied to many concrete properties, can be
adequately measured by three characteristics:
– Compatibility, the ease with which the concrete can be
compacted and air void removed.
– Mobility, ease with which concrete can flow into forms and
around reinforcement.
– Stability, ability for concrete to remain stable and
homogeneous during handling and vibration without
excessive segregation.

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Method of Measuring Workability
1. Slump test
2. Compacting Factor test
3. Vebe Time test
4. Flow Table

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1. Slump Test
• Carried out to measure the workability
and consistency of concrete in the
plastic condition.
• Definition of slump: the reduction in
the height of the free - standing
concrete from that of its constrained
height in the cone.

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Slump Test
• The mould for the slump test is a frustum of a cone, 300 mm high. The
base of 200 mm diameter is placed on a smooth surface with the smaller
opening of 100 mm diameter at the top.
• The container is filled with concrete in three layers
• Each layer is tapped 25 times with a standard 16 mm diameter steel rod,
rounded at the end
• The top surface is levelled using trowel
• The mould must be firmly held against its base during the entire operation

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Slump Test
• The cone is slowly lifted upward, and the unsupported concrete will
slump
• The decrease in the height of the centre of the slump concrete is called
SLUMP (measured in mm)

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 Types of Concrete Slump Test Results

True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test. The measurement
is taken between the top of the cone and the top of the concrete after the cone has been
removed.
Zero Slump – Zero slump is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which results in dry
mixes. These type of concrete is generally used for road construction.
Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high, i.e. concrete mix
is too wet or it is a high workability mix, for which a slump test is not appropriate.
Shear Slump – The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and concrete to be
retested.
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Video 2 Slump Test

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Compacting Factor Test
• The degree of compaction, called the
compacting factor, is measured by the
density ratio.
• Density ratio – The ratio of the density
actually achieved in the test to the
density of the same concrete fully
compacted
• This test suitable for concrete with
maximum size of agg. up to 40mm.

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Compacting Factor Test
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
• Compacting factor =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒

Advantages of Compaction Factor Test:

• Suitable for testing workability in laboratories
• Suitable for concrete of low workability
• Suitable to detect the variation in workability over a wide range
• Its results are more precise and sensitive

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Video 3 Compacting Factor Test

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Vebe Time Test
• Slump test is performed inside the container
• The disc rider is placed on top of the unsupported
concrete
• The vibrating machine is switch on and the concrete
will be compacted inside the container
• Compaction is complete when the transparent rider is
totally covered with concrete
• The time taken for the whole process is known as VEBE
TIME
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Flow Table Test
• To determine consistence and flow value of fresh concrete
• Used for high workability concrete

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Video 4 Flow Table Test

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100
Properties of Hardened
Concrete

101
 Strength

Deformation
Durability
under Load
Properties of
Hardened Concrete

Shrinkage Permeability

102
1. Strength
• Strength of concrete can be defined as ability to resists stress without
failure.
• Compressive strength taken as the maximum compression load it can carry
per unit area.
• Flexural tensile test is used to estimate the load at which the concrete
members may crack.
• Concrete is weak in tension. Tensile strength of concrete is about 10% of
its compressive strength.

103
Strength of concrete with Aging Period

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Strength of concrete with Aging Period
Strength of concrete according to aging period:

Ex: Concrete Grade 30 Days Expected Strength

1 16% 4.8 Mpa
3 40% 12 Mpa
7 65% 19.5 Mpa
14 90% 27 Mpa
28 99% 29.7 Mpa

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Factors Influencing Strength of Concrete
1. Influence of constituent materials:
a) Cement
➢ Fineness of cement increase strength
➢ Chemical composition
➢ Type of cement
b) Water
➢ W/c ratio required for hydration process
➢ the lower w/c ratio, the greater compressive strength
and vice versa
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Factors Influencing Strength of Concrete
c) Aggregate
➢ Bond strength between agg. influence by surface texture,
shape and cleanliness.
➢ The comp. strength of concrete tends to increase with the
decrease in the size of coarse agg. Due to the facts that
smaller size agg. provide larger surface area for bonding
with the mortar matrix.
➢ Agg. surface roughness has a considerable affect on bond
strength (greater the roughness, higher the bond strength)
due to improvement in mechanical interlocking.
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Factors Influencing Strength of Concrete
d) Admixture
➢ Effect of particular admixture (ex: accelerator, retarder,
plasticizer, etc.) depend on the precise nature of the
admixture themselves.

108
Factors Influencing Strength of Concrete
2. Degree of Compaction
➢ Proper impaction increase strength
➢ When concrete compacts, it has a very low porosity, thus
result in a very high strength
➢ The increase in strength of concrete probably influenced
by volume of voids in concrete. Ex: entrapped air, capillary
pore, gel pores or entrained air.

109
Factors Influencing Strength of Concrete
3. Curing Process
➢ Curing used for promoting hydration of cement & consists
of a control temperature and moisture movement from and
into the concrete
➢ The longer period of curing, the greater its final strength
➢ Early-age: 7 days and less
➢ Later-ages: exceeding 28 days

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2. Durability
• Durability is defined as the ability to withstand the damaging effects of the
environment over a long period of time.

• Therefore it is essential that concrete is designed in such a way that it may be

of service without deterioration over a period of years.

• The absence of durability may be caused either by the environment to which

the concrete is exposed i.e. external or by internal cause within the concrete
itself. The external causes can be:
➢ Physical, chemical or mechanical.
➢ Due to weathering occurrence of extreme temperature, abrasion,
electrolytic action, and
➢ Attack by natural or industrial liquids and gases.
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2. Durability
Internal Causes External Causes
• The alkali-aggregate • Physical, chemical &
reaction, volume changes mechanical
due to the differences in • Weathering, occurrence of
thermal properties of agg. extreme temperature,
& cement paste and the abrasion, electrolytic action
permeability of the • The common forms of
concrete. chemical attack: leaching out
of cement and action of
sulphates
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 Well compacted
concrete

Good workmanship,
Use of low W/C Recommended reduce porosity
ratio ways to have
durable
concrete
The use of aluminous
Sufficient cover sulfate resisting cement,
over Portland blastfurnace or
reinforcement Portland Pozzolana cement

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3. Permeability
• Concrete has a tendency to be porous due to the presence of voids
formed during or after placing.
• Ingress of air and moisture resulting in corrosion
• Important with regards to water tightness of liquid retaining structure.
• To produce concrete of low permeability, full compaction & proper curing
is essential
• Low permeability is important in increasing resistant to frost action &
chemical attack as well as protected embedded steel against corrosion.

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3. Permeability
• The permeability of cement paste varies with the age of
concrete or with progress of hydration
• With the aging period, the permeability decreases because gel
gradually fill the original water filled space.
• For the same W/C ratio, the permeability of paste with
coarser cement particles is higher than those with finer
cement
• The higher the strength of cement paste, the lower will be the
permeability.
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Factors influencing Permeability
1. W/C ratio
2. Curing
3. Method of compaction
4. Workability
5. Soundness & porosity of the aggregate
6. Age (permeability decrease with age)
7. Grading of aggregate

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4. Shrinkage
• Shrinkage is a contraction deformation suffered by concrete
even under no load.
• The shrinkage of concrete is dependent on the amount of
drying that can take place.
• It is therefore influenced by the humidity and temperature of
the surrounding air, the rate of air flow over the surface and
the proportion of the surface area to volume of concrete.

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Types of Shrinkage
a) Plastic shrinkage:
➢ Takes place before concrete has set.
➢ Occurs during the first few hours after fresh concrete is
placed
➢ During this period, moisture may evaporate faster from
the concrete surface than it is replaced by bleed water from
lower layers of the concrete mass.

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Plastic cracking (Plastic Shrinkage Cracking) is cracking that occurs in the
surface of the fresh concrete soon after it is placed and while it is still
plastic.

119
Types of Shrinkage
b) Drying Shrinkage
• Drying shrinkage is shrinkage which takes place after the
concrete has set and hardened. It takes place in the first few
months. Drying shrinkage is cause due to withdrawal of water
from concrete stored in unsaturated air voids. A part of this
shrinkage can be recovered on immersion of concrete in
water.

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Factors Affecting Shrinkage
1. Aggregate: concrete with higher agg. content exhibits
smaller shrinkage. Concrete with agg. of higher modulus of
elasticity or of rougher surfaces is more resistant to the
shrinkage process.
2. W/C ratio: the higher w/c ratio, the higher the shrinkage. As
W/C ratio increase, paste strength and stiffness decrease and
as water content increases, shrinkage potential increase.

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Factors Affecting Shrinkage
3. Member size: Shrinkage decrease with an increase in the
volume of the concrete member. However, the duration of
shrinkage is longer for larger members since more time is
needed for shrinkage effects to reach the interior regions.
4. Medium ambient conditions: the rate of shrinkage is lower at
higher values of relative humidity. Shrinkage becomes
stabilized at low temperatures.

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Factors Affecting Shrinkage
5. Admixtures: effect varies from admixture to admixture. Any
material which substantially changes the pore structure of
the paste will affect the shrinkage characteristic of the
concrete. In general, as pore refinement is enhanced,
shrinkage is increased.

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5. Deformation Under Load
• It is a stress strain relationship under normal loading and
under sustained loading.
• Under normal loading: the first effect of applying a load to
concrete is to produce an elastic deformation. Ex: as the load
increases deformation increases.
• Under sustained loading: the continue application of stress
causes a slow deformation known as creep. The increase of
deformation is not proportional, as the time passes the
deformation is lesser.
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5. Deformation Under Load
• Elastic deformation:
➢ When the applied load is released, the concrete does
not fully recover its original shape.
➢ Under repeated loading and unloading, the
deformation at a given load level increases.

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5. Deformation Under Load
• Modulus of elasticity:
➢ Defined as the ratio of load per unit area (stress) to the
elastic deformation per unit length (strain)
➢ The modulus of elasticity for most concretes at 28 days,
range from 15 -40 kN/mm².

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
E=
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

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