

 
and


 AVEX AIR TRAINING

 PRIVATE PLOT LICENCE 

HUMAN
PERFORMANCE
and
LIMTATIONS
 Avex Air (Pty) Limted, 2004
(Reg N 67/91
Crer per Aveue d Zuric Rd
Aepr, Spr Ext 
Kempt Prk
SUTH AFRCA
S6° 719
E8 119
Prvte Bg X1 
EDEEN, 165
Repubic  Sut Ac
Te (1 1  97
9785
8555
F (11 976517
EMal avex@irccm
www.vexcm
Prduct Cde: AATMEDPP
Frst pubised i Sut Aca b Avex Ai Taig 
Revsed Mc 8
Revsed August 8
Revised Decembe 1
Revised
sed September 1 1
All gts eseed.  terms 
 te Cprigt Act, N 93  1 978,  pr
p r  tese tes m be
reprduced r trasmted   r b  es, electic r mecaic cludig
ptcpig, ecdg r b  irmt stge d retevl sstem, wtut te pemss
i writig  te publser

An Avex Air Training Publication

Private Pilt Licece © Avex Air Traii
Traiig
g 10/2004
10/2 004
Revi
Revisi
sio
o 12/2010
12/2 010
PRIVATE PILOT LIENE

HUMAN PERFORMANCE 
ONTENTS

HAPTER PAGES SUET

i)
i) - iv)
iv) INDEX
INDEX

Gl Gl  G GOSSARY 

   1  THE AVIATION ENVIRONMET

1Q1 QESTIONS
 1  7  THE HUMAN MACHINE
Q1
Q1  Q
Q QESTIONS
3 31  37  THE UNGS
3Q1
3Q1  3Q
3Q QESTIONS
 1  8  THE EARS
Q1  Q3
Q3 QESTIONS
QESTIONS
5 5  55  THE EYES
5Q1
5Q1  5Q
Q QESTIONS
6 61  63 PRESSURE
6Q1
6Q1  6Q
6Q QESTIONS
7 71  7 ACCEERATION AND VIBRATION
7Q1 QESTIONS

8 81  813 FYNG AND HEATH

8Q1 QESTIONS
9 91  9 8 HUMAN INFORMATON PROCESSING
9Q1
9Q1  9Q
9Q QESTIONS
1 11  16 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
1 Q1  1 Q QESTIONS
 ll ANSWERS

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 10/2004

Revisio 12/2010
 NDX
Page (i)

NDEX
Accmmdatn       51
Acute fatigue                   8
Acute nsmnia           85
Acute stress              81
Adaptatn               93
Alch         88
Alimentar canal                   1
Alvei                     31
Amnesia             95
Ampula                       
Anaema         7
Anaemic hpxia                           35
Angina               
Angular acceeratns              5
Anxia          3 3
Antacids                         8 9
Antidiarrheas                 89
Antihstamines                         8 8
Antispasmdics           89
Anxet         8 
Apnea           8 
Arusa                8 
Areries                    
Aspirin                         8 8
Asthma        37
Astgmatism                     5
Athersclerss      5
Atmsphere 1 1
Atitudes      1 1
Audtr neve                  
Autiness       55
Bartrauma 1
Behaviur        1 3
Bincuar vsn           53
Bilgical cntr sstem          9 
Blnd spt 5
Bld gucse                 
Bd pressure     3
Bd rhthms         8
Ble's aw              1
Brain 91
Bran stem                    91
Brnchia tree     31
Brnchitis                 37
Cafeine                              8 8
Capares              
Carbn dixide            3 1
Carbn mnxde                  3 5
Cardivascuar sstem                1
Cataracts           5 
Central nervus sstem                         1
Central vsin                 5 
Cerebrum 9 1
Cerebelum         9 1
Cerebra cex             91
Chera 81
Chrnc fatgue                8 
Chrnc nsmna                  85
Chrnc stress         81
Cia muscles    51
Crcadan dsrhhmia          8 7
Crcadan rhthms      8 
Cnca insmnia      85
Csed lp sstem      97
Cchlea        

Private Piot Licece © Avex Air raiig 10/2004

Revisio 12/2010
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Pa (iii)
Kidys 5
Kidy stos6
Kowld basd bhavior 1 
Ladi illsios 55
Ls 5 1
Liar acclratio 5
Lo trm mmory 9
Loss o cabi prssr 37
Low blood prssr 
Ls 3 1
Macla 5
Malaria 81
Mmory 93
Middl ar 1
Mirai 8 11
Mid st 97
Mooclar visio 53
Motio sickss 8
Motivatio 1 3
Motor proramm 98
Motor rvs 9
Motor skill mmory 93
Myopia  5
Narcolpsy  85
Nasa 89
Nrvos isomia 85
Nrvos systm 1
Niht visio  53
Ocloravic illsio 6
Op loop systm  98
Optic rv 5
Ohodox slp  85
Ossicls  1
Otolith oras  5
Otr ar  1
Ozo  1  1
Paikillrs  89
Paradoxical slp  8
Paraasal siss 6
Parial prssr  33
Priphral rvos systm 1
Priphral visio  5
Prsoaliy  1 1
Prsoality charactristics 1 1
Pilots, drs ad slmdicatio 87
Plasma  1
Platlts  1
Plrisy 37
Prsbyopia5
Prssr 1 
Prssr vio  9
Pls rat  
Ppil  5 1
Radial kratotomy  5 
Radiatio 1 
Rd blood clls   1
Rlxs  9
REM slp 8
Rspiratio3 
Rtia  5 
Rods5
Rl basd bhavior 1 
Saccl  5
Slctiv attio 95
Smatic mmory  9
Smi-circlar caals 
Ssitivity 9
Ssory thrshold 93
Shorttrm mmory  93
Sitatioal awarss 1 5

Private Pilot Licece © AvexAir Traiig 10/2004

Revisio 12/2010
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Pa (iv
Siainal insmnia . 8.5
Skil-basd bavi 1 3
Slp 8.
Slp manamnt  8.6
Slp pans .  85
Slpin pbms  8.5
Sla Radiatin  1 .
Smnambism.  86
Snd  .3
Spaia disinatn ..6
Spaia inain .   6
Spina cd  . 9 .
Stas  slp  8
Stas  stss  8
Stanan ypxia  3.5
Ssss  81
Sk  .6
Sy  5
Sddn incapacitan  8.11
Sviva   8.1
Syslc pss  3
T  6 1
Th ans  .6
Tim  s cnscsnss  35
Tbacc  8 8
Txic matals   81 
Taca  3.1
Typd . 81
tic  ..5
Vins  
Vntiatin  3 1
Vti...............................................................................9
Vstibla appaas   ..
Vsbla sysm . 
Vsbl  .5
Visal acy  5
W Bd clls    . 1
Wkin mmy. 93
Yw v .  81
Zitbs  86

Private Pilot icece © AvexAir Traiig 02004

Revisio 2200
 GLOSSARY
Pae G1

GLOSSARY
ALVEOLI
emna, mnute a sacs n the uns throuh whch oxyen passes nto the bood.
ARTERY 
A tube of musce and connecte tssue fbes whch dstrbutes blood from the hea to the
caplaes.
ANTIHISTAMINES
A oup of drus used to teat allerc condtons, such as hayfeer, a sde efect of whch s
dowsness.
BAROTRAUMA
Damae/pan caused by the expanson or contacton of a as tapped wthn the body, own to
pessue chanes
CAPILLARY 
A mnute essel nework connectn an atey and a en
CARDIOVASCULAR
oncernn the hea and bood esses.
CELL
A mcroscopc mass of potoplasm (oranc compound ncudn a nucleus, of whch tssues are
made
COCHLEA
The spa cana of the nner ea (Hearn oran.
CYANOSIS
A blush appearance of the skn and mucous membanes caused by defcent oxyenaton of the
bood.
EXPIRAON
Breathn out
HAEMOGLOBIN
The cooun mater of the red bood copusces It conssts of proten and ron and has a stron
anty fo oxyen
HYPERTENSION
Rased blood pressure.
HYPOTENSION
Low bood pessure.
INSPIRAON
Beathn n.
LEFT ATRIUM
The lef upper chambe of the hear

Private Piot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 O
Pae G
LEFT VENTRICLE 
The lef lowe chambe of the heat.
LUMEN
The space iside a tube o oa.
MUCUS
A sticky secetio fom mucus membaes
OSSICLE 
A small boe such as those i the middle ea kow as the malleus, icus ad stapes
OTOLITH
A had stuctue at the base of the semicicula caals cotaii delicate sacs kow as the
uticle ad the saccule
PATHOLOY 
Disease, ad the chae i stuctue ad fuctio it causes
PHYSIOLOY 
he fuctios of livi bodies o oas
RESPIRATION
he aseous itechae betwee the blood ad the tissues
ISSUE 
A mass of cells a coective tissue fomi oe of the oas of which the body is composed
TRACHEA
The wid pipe; a tube exedi fom the layx (voice oa) ad sepaati ito two baches
kow as bochi befoe etei the lus.
VASCULAR
Relati to, o cosisti of vessels
VEIN
A vessel cayi blood fom the capillaies back to the hea
VENTILTION
The aseous itechae bewee the lus ad the atmosphee
VERTIO
A feeli of otatio associated with the vestibula fuctio of the ea
VESTIBULR
he fuctio of the semicicula caals coceed with balace ad equilibium

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
HAPTER 1 THE AVIATION ENVIRONMENT 
Page 11

THE AVIATION ENVRONMENT 

A. INTRODUTION
Dig  e peiod of ma evolo, biologcal developme eabled e ma beig o adap o a
variety of eviomeal varables sc as emperare midty ad lad based alde were e ar
s relaively dese ad ere is sfcie oxyge o ssa lfe W e adve of avaio, ad  pa
 icla g alide ad ig speed flg, e ma body ow as o adap faly qickly o a apidly
cagig evirome ad oe were deceased ar desty meas less oxyge ad lower empera
 es. I is  eec a ale evirome Fom e pilos po of view, e, i becomes mpoa o
dersad e limaos of e ma body ad e meods ad pocedres sed o peve dam
age o wa is a farly delicae macie

 THE ATMOSPH ERE

Te amospee as a sbjec s coveed i geaer deail i Meeoology. oweve a bef smmary s
pee ee as a pelde o is efect o e ma body.
1  STRUCTURE OF TE ATMOSPERE
Te amospere comprises ree mai secos, i ascedig oder ese ae e Tropospere
 e Sraospere ad e Ioospere. Of ese, e ropospee is e more impoa sce  s
wi s area, wic exeds from sea level o appoxmaely 6  f a weaer occs ad
mas lve ad ow fly.
 COMPOSITION
Te amospere is made p of may gases, e two mos predomia beg Oxyge
approxmaely 1 % ad Noge appoximaely 7%. From e ma perspecive  is oxyge
wic is e esseial eleme, sce i s lfe ssaiig Oxyge s absobed og e lgs
ad disbed by e blood o e varos orgas of e body wee i is sed o br glcose
ad elease eegy
3. TEMPERATURE
Oe of e caacersics of e amospere s e decrease  emperare w alde, wc
averages abo C per 1   Variaos  s lapse ae ae paly resposibe fo e ceao
of weaer A very ig aldes e a is vey cold, arod 5°C Tis varaio i emperare,
from warm o extemely cold s of sgficace o e pilo wo, beig ma, reqires a iteal
 empeare of arod 36C o 9F o be able o opeae omally.
 UMIDI
Waer vapo is prese i varable amos rogo e amospee I s variable as a resl
of emperare: wam ar ca old more wae vapor a cold ar. A ig alides e cold dy
ar s compessed as a fcio of e je egie o provde ai for mas o breae Despie
some wamg i e pocess, e ai emais faily dy As pat of e beaig process waer
vapo is expelled fom e body, wic, i e dy ar of e acra may resl  a local dyig
of mcos membaes ad pese sympoms of deydrao A ormally ydraed peso saig
a flig wll oly eqie a slgly creased fld ae  sold be oed a alcoolc
beverages ae o e deal flids sice alcool as a dieic efec, ie  ecorages e deys
 o lose excessive waer
5 OONE
Ozoe , a cemically alered form of oxyge ), is ceaed we oxyge is sbjeced o
elecical dscarges sc as ligig I is vey poisoos ad eve if very low coceraios
ae aled  ca damage e vey delcae lgs of e lgs ad ai passages
Below   f ere s vey litle ozoe pese b i iceases sigificaly owards e lower
sraospere Coceraios of ozoe also cease  e pola egos I is o cosidered a
seios ea o cew or passeges i pressised aicaf. Greaes exposre wold occ i
flgs over e poles, or i spersoic arcra wc operae ger a omal commecal je
aica owever drig e compesso process for presssaio exeral ar is warmed wic
beas dow e ozoe io oxyge Caalytc flers may also be isalled  aicaf wic
coially operae i a ozoe evrome

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Revisio 2/200
 TH AVIATION NVIRONMNT 
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Te pesece of ozoe  e amospee seves as a barer preveig a lage propoo of e
damagg la viole adaio of e s fom reacg e eas sace.
6 PRESSURE
Air pessre is e foce exeed per  area by a colm of a as g as e amospere I
ca be expessed i a mber of ways for example  pods pe sqare ic (lb/sq ic or 
ces of mercy (g. Te meic sysem more ofe beg sed i avao expresses pesse
 grams per cbc cemee, o moe commoly i ecopascals (Pa
ea level pesse s expessed as 1 1 35 Pa, or 1 7 lb/sq c o r 99" g
As alde is gaied e leg of e colm of ar redces ad, logically, so does e pressre i
exers a a parcla alde. U der sadard codiios (ISA, a laye of a 1 a i dep eqals
79 fee a mea sea level. Tadiioally s is roded of o 3 fee. oweve, a   f 1
Pa eqals 7 fee a   fee  eqals 991 fee, wls a 6  fee i eqals 1 6 fee Ts
redcio i pessre wi alide ca ave dire coseqeces for e ma body. Wo
oxyge  e body cao svive pesse cases oxyge  e lgs o dse io e
bloodseam A edco i presse meas a fewe oxyge molecles ae able o ee e
bloodseam, a problem wic is compoded by e fac a a alde e ar is less dese.
Wo pressrsao or spplemeary oxyge e body cao svive a alde. See l
hpe 3, The ug  hpe , Peue.
7 RADIAION
Radaio  e form of X ays, as log bee sed for e diagoss of boe ad oe jres
as well as e eecive reame of some ypes of cace oweve e egave efecs of
adiaio are possble damage o e geec maerial (e blepri of lvig cells wc may
case replcaed cells o be abormal I oder o deermie e advisably of radaio eame
ad e pobable eecs of radao damage as opposed o e beefis of e reame, cera
sadards ave bee esablsed, kow as e rad ad e rem
A rad s a mease of e acal amo of osg radiao absorbed by livg sses Expose
 o  or moe ads is faal o mas. Expose o 5 ads cases e deas of rogly alf of
 e people exposed A few people ae able o svive expose o  ads A doses of 5
rads or less ee are o mmedae owad sigs of lless b some pas of e body sc as
germ cells, vial o sexal repodcio, ae geecally damaged.
A rem s e amo of adiao ecessay o case e same biological eec  mas as oe
rad of X rays Mos people are og o eceve abo 3 em of aral radaio eac year,
wls e eaoal Commiee o Radiaio Poeco recommeds a maxmm of 5 rem pe
year fo e geeal pblc well below e acceped maxmm of 5 rem per year fo adaio
wokers.
Cosmic radao comprses wo pas
GALACTIC RADIATON
Tis comprses so wave elecromageic waves origiag from osde e sola sysem Tese
ig eergy paicles are defleced by e eas magec field povidg maxmm poeco i
 e eqaoral egios ad mimm a e poles. Addiioal proecio s aceved og
saospec absopo, so a o e grod e radaio is mc less a a alde
Logically e e ige we fly e geae e expose o adiao. I e early days of e
spersoic Cocode, wic operaes a aldes far  excess of sbsoic je arcra, cab crew
wore dosmeer badges o measre e amo of radiao ad e aicra was also fed w
adiaio alarm sigals. Wls e dosmeer badges ave bee doe away wi, e acra sll
coa radiaio wag devces. Te So Afica Civl Avaio Reglaios (CAR eqie a
ay arcra opeag i excess of 9  f be eqipped w a cosmc radiaio deecio device
SOLAR RADATION/ULTRAVOLET (UV LIGT RAYS
Ts loger waveleg radao ogiaes from e s ad s ecessary for e prodco of
vami D esseial fo e maieace of boe developme  e ma body Exposre o UV
adiaio prodces mela i ski cells ceaig a dakeg  sk color, or e sa. Ove
exposre ca case a geec mao  ski cells ad sk cacer Naal proecio from UV
ays s povded by e ozoe laye, wls people wo sped a gea deal of ime  dec
slg ae ecoaged o se sa loios coaig g UV blockg ages

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 THE AVIATIO EVIROMET   QUESTIOS
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QUESTIONS
ANSWERS ON PAGE 1-1)

 .  % of the vole of the atosphee s ade p of:

a) oxyge,
b) toge,
c) cabo dioxide,
d) ozoe

 7% of the voe of the atosphere is ade p of:

a) cabo doxde
b) oxyge,
c) water vapo,
d) itroge.

3 he pecetage coposito of the gases whch ae p the atosphere s costat
a) oly at sea eve,
b) oy whe ISA stadads prevail,
c) thoghot the atosphere irrespectve of attde,
d) oly at sea level aog the eqato.

. With regad to the stctre of the atosphee:

a) the statosphee exteds fo sea evel to appoxatey 6  
b) the toposphere exeds fo sea evel to appoxatey 6  
c) the ascedig ode is stratosphere toposphee ad ioosphere
d) the ascedig order s toposphee, ioosphee ad stratosphere

5 he sybol for oxyge s:

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
HAPTER 2 THE HUMN MCHINE
Page -1

THE HUMAN MACHINE 

A INTODUTON
Te uman body lie a compex macine as a numbe o componens wic combine o mae i
wo Fo e macine o uncion a is bes al componens mus be in good condion Te same ap
plies  o e uman body Te pupose o is cape is o give e suden an ovevew o e pats o
 e body wic elae o e woing o ose sysems wic ae peaps moe peinen o e pio
and wic ae coveed moe ully in e vaious capes o is boo

 THE NEVOUS SYSTEM

Te neous sysem is e eeconics o e macine and e bain is e compe sending mes
sages o and eceiving em om e vaious componens Te uman nevous sysem consiss o wo
disinc pats
  Te Cenal Nevous Sysem compising e bain and e spina cod
 Te Peipea Nevous Sysem wic connecs e cenal nevous sysem o e body ogan sys
 ems.
No a o e bodys componens need o be consciousy od wa o do Te neous sysem allows
o volntary acion ie e bain eing muscles and imbs o move, and involntary acion ie e
ea ae bining o e eyes sweaing and woing o e gasoinesina ac ae accompised
auomaicaly oug e auonomic nevous sysem

 THE ARDIOVASULAR SYSTEM

1  BLOOD
In ode o e body o wo i equies bo nuiens and oxygen Tese ae anspoed aound
 e body by e blood wic aso emoves ceain wase maeia eg. cabon dioxide Blood
compises wo pats pasma and bood cels Te aveage maue adul wi ave beween 35  5
ies o bood
PASMA
Tis is e medium oug wic e ces ae anspoed aound e body I is a yeowis
cooued uid compising appoximaey 9% wae I aso conains ousands o dieen
subsances including poeins viamins gucose sas omones anibodies and wases
BLOOD CELLS
a) RED BLOOD CELLS
Tese conain e ionic poein haemoglobin wic is a complex and vey eicien sysem
used o anspo oxygen aound e body I is capable o absobing age quaniies o oxygen
olding e moecues uni i eaces an aea o low oxygen levels wee e oxygen is en
eeased ino e issues Cabon dioxide is also ataced by e ed blood cels o
 anspotaion o e ungs and emova om e body ee e 3 e ug Red blood
cels ae omed in e ed maow o a bones suc as e ibs veebae and su as well as
 e ends o ong bones ound o example in e egs Te nomal coun in an adul is
5,, ed bood cels pe cubic milimee (c.mm) o woe blood
(b) WITE BLOOD CELLS
Tese ae e pa o e bodys deence sysem wic poduce bood poei anibodies wic
in un ae anspoed aound e body o ig inection and disease Tee ae vaious ypes
o wie cels, some o wic ae omed in e bone maow, oes by e spleen and lymp
gands Te noma coun pe adu is beween 5 and  pe cmm o wole bood
(c) PTELETS
Tese ae e ey ingedien in e omaion o bood clos Wee a bood vessel as been cu
o damaged paees sic o e edges o e wound oming a co o plug wic wil peven
ue bood loss Tese ae also omed in e bone maow Te nomal coun pe adu is
, pe cmm o woe blood

Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air raining 0/2004

Revision 2/200
 THE HUMAN MACHINE
Page 
BLOOD SUGAR Bood Glcose
The bk of he eegy eqied by he body fo eveyday acives is obaied fm cabohydaes
 he soce of whch icldes bead ceeals ce, poaoes pasa ad sga These cabohydaes
ae digesed ad coveed o glcose by he dgesve ezymes  he gaso-esia ac The
amo of glcose pese i he blood is ciica sce he ba s paticay sesive o
icoec amos Gcose s soed i he body - i he live ad msces  as a sbsace
called Glycoge whch s easly ecoveed o glcose as ad whe eqed by he body
Becase des vay ad ca iclde faly age amos of sga i s ecessa fo he body o
be able o cool he evels of blood glcose This s acheved hogh wo homoes called
Isli ad Glcago. Is which is seceed by he paceas, is he moe impoa of he
 wo sice is fco is o chemcaly ae glcose io he fom  whch  s soed i he ive
As blood glcose levels fall gcago s eleased whch aows he soed gcose o be eeased
back o he boodseam Thee ae wo codos whch ae of impoace o s
a GLYCAEMIA EXCESS BLOOD GLUCOSE
A deficiecy of si eads o a disease caled diabetes, a saio whee excess gcose is
o soed b bds p  he blood il a ceai level is eached a which po he kdeys
wil sat o ve he excess gcose io he ie This fco voves he elmiao of moe
wae fom he body ha is omal, ad excessve his is aso a idicaio of diabees The
pesece of gcose i he e, beg as i s a clea idcao of dabees ad, heefoe
coec blood gcose leves expas he impoace of he ie es i avao medical
examaios Ijecios of sl ae abe o maia he blood glcose a he coec eve
Cossey high bood gcose evels may imaey efec body isses b he moe
mmediae efec o he ba s of sigifca impoace gh bood glcose levels ca ead o
behavoal chages whch ca be misake fo ace alcohoism
b GLYCAEMIA LOW BLOOD GLUCOSE
This s a empoay codo whch ca be fod  diabeics ad odiabeics I he case of
dabeics  cod be as a esl of a ovedose of s de o a edecy o ovedo ahe
 ha eglec he medcao The sympoms of low blood glcose icde dzzess, headache
somach pas ad shakg Ths sao ca be easly esoved by esog he bood glcose
level by akg gcose o sga hogh he moh I he eve ha he peso has aleady
eeed a coma, glcago ca be ijeced decy o he bloodseam o egise he glcose
eseves fom he ve By ot eatig well or reglarly, odiabecs may expose hemselves
 o he same sympoms Recovey s easily achieved simpy by eag somehig  Ths
emphasses he impotace of ot fyg o a empy somach
 TE EART
The cicaio of he bood hogho he body va a sysem of bood vesses compisg aeies
veis ad caplaes, is acheved by a fssized holow, mscla pmp kow as he heart The
hea compses fo chambes two sco chambes o atrim ad wo dischage chambes
kow as vetricles Oxyge ich bood s daw fom he lgs hogh he plmoa ves by
 he sckg aco of he e atrim fom he lef aim  passes hogh a oeway vave, called
 he bicspid o mitral vave, o he e vetricle Fom hee  is pmped hog aohe oe-way
vave - he aotic valve - o he mai aey o aorta which caies he blood o he ppe ad
lowe body Alog he way, oxyge s dischaged ad epaced by carbo dioxde The blood s
 he oed via ppe body ves speo vea cava ad lowe body veis ifeo vea cava o
 he right atrim of he hea whee  passes hogh a oeway valve caled he ricspid valve, o
 he right vetricle which pmps  hogh aohe oeway vave - he plmoary valve - back o
 he lgs via he plmoa artery

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Revisio 2/200
 THE HUMA MACHIE
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Aota
Supeio
Vena Pulmona
ava Vein

Aotic
Rigt Valve
Atium

Valve
Vena
ef
Venticle

Ticupi
Valve - Deoygenate bloo
Rigt
Venticle - Ogenate bloo

Figre 2 The Heart

Wt regad to nomal ear operaton, tee items may e consdeed
a BLOOD PRESSURE
Ts force, exeed y te lood against te walls of te man areies, s wat keeps te lood
cclatng aond te ody Blood pressre as a ig and a low pont As te lef and rigt
ventcle contact, te pressre wll e at it's highest and ts is efered to as te systoic
pessre As te cames elax and efll wt lood te pesse s at t's lowest and tis s
known as te diastolic pessre Tese pessres vay fom ndvidal to ndvdal, t a typical
fgre fo a easonaly ealty yong adlt wold e  20 mm g millmetes of Mercry 
systolic, and 70 mm g  dastolic In medcal tems ts s wten as 120/70 Blood pressre
can e sed as a mease of a pesons ealt and as most plots already kow, foms a vey
imporant par of te aviaton medcal examnaton Danges ae nerent n ot g and low
lood pessre Nomal lood pesse s dependant on seveal tems sc as te strengt of
te ear elastcty of te arery walls volme and consstency of te lood and te efcency of
te eart valves no leaks
G BLOOD PRESSURE YTENSION
ig lood presse yperenson may e nflenced y te following factors
i ovewegt  a large mass reqres a geater circlaton placng a geate rden
on te ea to deliver lood togot te ody
ii smokng  eavy smokng cases te lood vessels to ecome consticted forcing
te eat to pmp ade to get te lood trog See a/o Hypoxia (apte 4) ;
ii eing nft
iv emotional state of mnd
v kidney or ear dsease
v genetc
v det  paclaly wit regard to an excessive ntake of salt, wc s tlsed y te
ody to reglate wate etenton n te tsses Too lile salt wll not allow te ody to retain
water and it will e exceted Excessve salt ntake wll reslt in too mc wate eing etaned
in ot te tsses and te lood, n te case of te latte te ea will ave to wok arde to
move te greate volme
Contned longtem g lood presse may ceate a sitation were a weak point n an
aery alloons ot Tis s known as an aesm, a potentally lifeteatening condition
sold te artery wall reak, eleasng large amonts of lood into te sonding tsse
and casing sc a sstantal drop in lood presse, tat deat eslts Oter eactons

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 THE HMAN MACHINE
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o ssaed g blood pressre iclde ea aacks, srokes ad damaged blood vessels
i e eyes ad kdeys
LOW BLOOD PRESSURE (YENSON
Ulike g blood presse, low blood pressre (ypoeso s exremely rae ad is seldom a
seos o life reaeg cocer I may lead o dizzess or eve faig.
(b PULSE RAE
Blood pressre sold o be cofsed w plse rate e plse ae s e ae a wc e
ea beas - a fco of pysical codio. e sysemac coacio ad elaxaio of e
ea mscle creaes a presse plse wc may be expereced a vaos places o e body
ad s commoly sed by medical pesoel o assess e well-beig of a paie I is mos
oceable i e ws ad e side of e eck. A omal plse rae for a perso a res wold
be bewee 6 ad  beas pe me Rig, bisk walkg or fo a mater ay form of
exercse ca empoarly icease e plse rae wc will rer o omal fe a res perod.
A vey fi perso may ave a vey low plse ae becase regla exercise as made e ea
moe eficie omoes, fever ad emooal disrbaces may also icrease e plse ae.
Some medcaos may crease or decrease e plse rae, wc  r ca advesely afec
pilo pefomace
(c RYM
e regla bea of e ea o e rhythm is acieved by small elecrical mplses wic
case e mscle fbes of e ppe ea cambes (lef ad ig am o coac s
acio foces blood o e lowe cambers (lef ad rig vericles were e same elecical
implse, ow slgly delayed, cases ese cambers o coac, sqeezig e blood ad
ceasg is pessre fo discarge o e aeral sysem For e rym o emai cosa
e elecrcal mplses ms ema cosise I sold be emembered a e brai moitors
ese elecrical mplses rog e aoomic evos sysem b  does o geerate em
e ear coas a specal area of isse  e pper camber wc acs as a aal
pacemaker Falre of is aal pacemake ca be coolled by varios dgs o a arfcal
pacemaker, ee sered by a srgeo, or wor exeally. e vey fac a elecrcal
mplses cool e ym of e ea makes i very easy for mode scece o moio is
corec fcog. A elecrocardiograp deecs ese mplses ad prodces a racig kow
as a electrocardiogram or EG.
3 CIRCUION
BLOOD VESSELS
e vasclar sysem is e erm give o e ework of aeries, veis ad capillaes wc
aspos blood ogo e body
ARERIES
Areres ae fairly ck walled, elasc vessels wc aspor blood der pessre away
fom e ea e mai aey s kow as e aorta ad leads drecly away fom e lef
vericle fomg pa of e systemic circlatio  e delivey of oxygelade blood o
e isses O s rer io e ig vercle, e blood is pmped back o e lgs via
e plmoary arte pa of a secod sysem  the plmoa system  wic delivers
e blood io capillaries i e lgs. I is ee a e excage of carbo dioxide
(exaled ad oxyge (ialed akes place ee e 
VEINS
e veis ave e, less flexble walls a ose of e areries de o e fac a e
blood pesse i em is less ey also coa a sysem of oe way valves o peve a
reverse flow of blood ey ae esposble fo raspoig e blood back o e ea
CAPILARES
ese are e smalles of e blood vessels ad ae prese  e isses e vey fie
composio s sc a oxyge is able o pass rog e membrae io e sse ad
wase mae  e opposie drecio o be raspoed away fo emoval from e body
eier rog e bladde as e, o rog e lgs as carbo dioxide

Private Pilot icece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE HUMAN MACHINE
Page 2-
TE KDNEYS
Te kneys are a pair f beansape rgans lcae a e rear f e abina caviy a
ff an essenia re in e circay syse Tey are b excreto an eglato rgans
in a ey fier e bl revng fr  any wase aerial a e sae e regaing e
bys fli balance B eners e kineys rg e real arte wic vies n
saer brances ening in a icrscpc srcre cale a ephro a par f wic cnans
a fier Tere are apprxaey ne illn f e in eac kiney Win e neprn arf
r wase sbsances are separae an re va e reter   e blaer fr reval fr
 e by Usefl an nw balance sbsances are reabsrbe in e capillares an veins
an rerne  e by via e rena vein Te al vle f e bys bl is ceane n
 is way evey 0 ines wic eans a between 1 0 an 1 80 lres f b pass rg
 e kneys evey ay

Rel Vei

Rel e

Uee

Figre 22 he Kidey

D DISORDERS, DISEASE AND ILLNESS

  CORONARY ARTERY DSEASE
ear sease is crrenly e s kely case f ea r isably in e re insrialse
cnres, w crnay arey isease beng e s cn ne
Te crnay aeries are w aeries a branc f fr e aa  prve e ea scle wi
xygenae b S ne f ese aeres bece blcke pat f e eat wll be eprive
f b an e resing n a ear atack, r ycaral nfarcn
Crnay aey sease s s fen case by atheroscerosis, a cnn in wc faty
epsis cale plaqe, bece atace  e inner ning f e aey casng i  bece
narrwer an less flexble an  was As s ass grws i ay bece ar an caky,
narrwng e aery an resricng e ve f bl i can cary Tese cgge areas bece
ea sies fr e frain f sanary bl cs, wc ay aey s f e fw f bl
cpeely a cnin cale a coroa thrombosis A cnin in wic e bckage is case
by a bl cl wc ves rg e atey an beces ge in an area areay narrwe
is cae a coroa emboism See igue 23

Private Pilot icece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE HUMAN MACHINE
Page 2-6

hrosclrosis
Figre 2 Coroary Arte Disease
Syptos of a coronay trooss are sudden and sevee cest pans followed y collapse and
possle eat arest (deat. Cosdeed te cuse of civlised society coronay aey disease ca
also e eedta is ifluenced y age diet ad aits Conic g lood pessue oesity lac
of exercise stess ad daetes will cotute as will foods ig in aal fats ad soing
2 EART FAILURE
Peraps te ost ipotat eat cae is te left veticle It as cosideale uscle ass as
it as to pup ewly oxygenated lood to te rest of te ody If te lef vetcle s daaged it wll
e unale to eet tese deands ad will egin to fal. No loge ale to coe wit te lood
eng puped to it fo te lungs va te lef atiu pessure egns to uld up ac troug te
pulonary ve nto te lungs were it causes congestion Tis ca esult in eatlessness ad
cougng te sputu ejected in te pocess ay e pin fo lood staiig.
3 ANGNA
As a uscle te ea ust ave its ow supply of lood n oder to fuction eficietly. As te
cooay ateries gadually ecoe loced te ea ay well cope i oal circustaces ut if
peaps troug exeton oe is efot is deaded fro te ea te lood supply ay e
sufcient esulting in oxyge stavato ad a esultat pain i te cest called agia (uscle
cap}. Unlie te coonay tooss te aey is ot copletely loced it is just suficetly
esticted to pevet a full flow of lood. Also unlie te coonay toosis te pai coes on
slowly ad not suddely ad wilst orally felt in te cest it ca occur aywere fro te lowe
jaw to te ris spreadig to te ars or te ac ad is ofen accopaied y dizziness
eatlessess ad a pale coplexio. Regular sufeers use glyceryl tiitate talets to relieve te
pole.
4 STROKE
A stroe is te te used to descre te efects of a sudden inteupto i te supply of lood to
te ai as a esult of a uptued lood vessel or a loced arery. Bran cells wic ae tus
depived of oxygen eter stop fuctoning o if depved for a polonged perod actually die
resultg in te failure of tose pas of te ody controlled y te afected ain cells. Te seveity
of stoes vay depedig o te legt of lood deprivation A sor peiod of educed low flow
ay result i slured speec weaness of a ad o foot ad lured or doule ision all of wic
disappea witn a few ous. Longer iteruptions of lood flow poduce a sudden eadace
followed y laout ad so pat ut ild dysfutio. A svee stoe esults i loss of
eoy deteoratio of alace paralyss o oe o even ot sides of te ody ad canges i
eotonal eaviou. Te causes of a stroe iclude ig lood pessue oesty diaetes eavy
song ad stress.
 KIDNEY STONES
Kidney stones wic ae cystals usually derived fro calciu i te uine can vary in size fo
inute eoug to pass toug te uiay syste to as lage as 2  in daete. Gout sufeers
ay also for stoes ade of uric acd. Te causes vary fo ereditary to deydation ad lac of
execse. Te predoiat sypto is pai in te afected idney wic y ecoe patcularly
sevee. Te cue ay vay dependig o te type of stoe Tose ade fo uic acd ca e
dssolved wit a soluto of sodiu icaoate a etod wic does ot wo wt stones ade
fo calciu. Tese can e oen dow nto saller paticles usig ulta-sonic waves ad easily

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Revisio 2/200
 HE HUMA MACHIE
Page 27
passed n he rne n exeme cases rgen sgey wl be necessary o remove he sone before 
can damage he kidney. Prevenon is mos simply acheved by scen nae of fids
6 ANAEMA
hs is no scly a dsease, b aher a condon I descrbes a defcency n he nmber of red
blood cels o he amon of haemogobn ha hey conan and as sch s consdered a sympom
of one of several pobems, some of which may be common and heefoe easly eaed whs
ohes may be ae and even faa. he end es is ha he body does no oban sficien oxygen
fom he blood whch redces s eficiency and may esl in a feeing of weakess o redness,
beahless and even faning folowing exercise. he mos common form s ron defcency anaema
a condon n whch he body is nabe o podce sfcen haemogobn Remeber ha  is hs
ronch poein ha s responsible for absorbing oxygen fom he lngs and anspoing  aond
 he body. hs condion is easly eaed wh ion sppemens.  lso ptr 3 nmic
ypoxi

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Revisio 2/200
 THE HUMA MACHIE  QUESTIOS
Page 1

QUESTIONS
ANSWERS ON PAGE 1 1  

1  aemogobn a proein molece ond in he ed bood cels:

(a s a anspo molece or oxygen rom he lngs o he isse cels,
(b acs as a beahing dive or he bran
(c acs as a moece spe, by beakng down carbon doxide n he bood o cabon and oxygen,
(d pays a key ole in he ormaion o bood clos

 Anaemia is a condon in whch:

(a  here is a decrease n he amon o haemoglobin in he ed bood cels,
(b  he hea is nabe o pmp sicien bood o he ngs o colec oxygen,
(c here is a rescon n he orm o a bood clo n a coonay aey
(d hee is a decease n he amon o haemogobn n he whe bood cels

3 he pa o he body's deence sysem which podces bood proein anbodes which ae
 anspoed arond he body o gh necon and dsease are caed
(a plaeles,
(b whe blood ces,
(c ed blood ces,
(d haemogobin

4 he  erm sysoc s sed o indicae ha:

(a bood pressre is a s lowes level,
(b blood pressre is a s highes level
(c bood pressre s nomal,
(d he pse rae is very ow

 Long erm high bood pesse may lead o:

(a a decrease n he plse rae
(b an nceased plse rae
(c an incease in he hear rhyhm
(d an anerysm

6 Sdden and severe ches pans olowing whch he vicim collapses are sympoms o:
(a angina,
(b coronay hombosis
(c an aneysm,
(d anaema

7 Low blood pressre o hypoension, may lead o:

(a a ha aack,
(b an aneysm,
(c dizzness o aning
(d an ncease n he hea rhyhm

8 Bood pesse is:

(a he oce exeed by he bood agains he wals o he main aeries,
(b  he ae a whch he hea beas,
(c esponsibe or he regla beaing o he hea,
(d meased by he nmbe o beas pe mine

Private Piot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE HUMAN MACHINE - QUESTIONS
Page 
9 Plateets are the bood cels which:
(a) ght inecton and disease,
(b) pay a key role in the ormation o blood clots,
(c) mae up the buk o blood pasma,
(d) cay oxygen around the body.

 0 Glucose is stored
(a) in the lver as insulin,
(b) in the lve as glucagon,
(c) in the ive as glycogen,
(d) in the pancreas as nsuln.

   Non-diabetcs can also sue om low blood gucose. The symptoms, which nclude dzzness and
shaing, can be corected
(a) by not eating beore ying,
(b) by eating eguay,
(c) ony by having an insuln njection,
(d) by dining more water.

. Fainting s a conditon whch causes a loss o consciousness due to:

(a) a eduction in the suppy o bood to the bain,
(b) high blood sugar,
(c) high blood pessure,
(d) a high pulse ate.

 3 Aer donating bood a plot may not ly o a period o
(a) 8 hous,
(b) 36 hous,
(c)  hous,
(d) 7 hous

4 The term diastolc s used to ndcate that

(a) bood pessue is at its owest evel,
(b) blood pessure s at its highest level,
(c) bood pessue is normal,
(d) the puse ate is vey hgh

1  Oxygen ch bood s drawn rom the lungs through the pulmonary veins by a chmbe in the
hear caled the
(a) le ventrcle,
(b) right ventrce,
(c) right atium,
(d) e atrium

 6 The le ventcle o the hea s responsible o

(a) pumpng deoxygenated blood bac to the lungs,
(b) drawng oxygenated blood om the ungs to the heart,
(c) pumpng oxygenated blood around the body,
(d) drawng deoxygenated blood bac to the hear,

Private Piot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 10/004

Revisio 1/010
HAPTER 3 THE UNGS
Page 3-

THE LUNGS
A. INTRODUTION
I oder to uderstad the efects of flyg o ou peformace, t s fst ecessary to evew vaous
aspects of the opeato mtato ad requemets of the huma ody Not the least of whch s ts
requemet for oxyge

 OGEN AND ITS UTILIZATION

Fom the study of Meteorology, we are awae of the stucture ad composto of the atmosphee 
respect of the varous gases preset Of prme mporace to the huma eg s te volume of oxy
ge, approxmatey 21% wthout whch we caot lve Of sgfcace to the piot s the chagg
pressre wth atitde ad ts efect o our alty to reathe ad thus exract the requred amout of
oxyge I ths egad, the gas aws whch are petet to the plot are oye's aw whch states that
for a fxed mass of gas at costat temperature, the pressue s vesely popooa to the volume,
ad Dato's Law of Paia Pressre whch states that  a mxture of gases, the pessue exered y
oe of the gases s the same as t would exer f t aloe occuped the same volume From ths state
met t s possle to deteme the para pessue of oxyge at ay alttude smpy ecause the pres
sure at a pacua attude ca e measured ad the propoo of oxyge  the atmosphere s co
stat he sgfcace of ths aw wl ecome apparet later
he chemca reacto ewee the food we eat, ad the oxyge we eathe ceates the eegy we re
qure to lve The ypoduct of ths pocess s carbo dioxide ad whlst the huma ody s ale to
reta age amouts of t t s capale of storg arge quattes of oxyge Thus, thee s ot oly a
costat demad for suppes of oxyge ut also a eed to remove the caro doxde Ths gaseous
exchage s acheved y vetiatio o reathg The traspoato of these gases s acheved va the
lood ad the exchage s caed out  the lugs (respiratio)

 THE LUNGS
he fucto of the lugs s to allow oxyge to ete, ad caro doxde to ext, the ood stream A
comato of the otward movemet of the chest wal ad the dowward movemet of the dia
phragm creates a decease  pessure sde the chest, wth the result that ar s the sucked to the
lugs By reaxg the chest wall ad daphagm, ar s expeled fom the lugs

ub

e un

ibs

phrm

igre 3-: he Lgs

he haed ar fows though the trachea to the brochia tree whch cossts of ever dvdg
raches smla  fact to a tee At the ed of these passageways are mute sace stuctures
caled aveoi It s here that lood s rought to cose cotact wth the oxyge molecules ad ude
the fuece of pressure the oxyge dfuses, or passes through, the caplary memrae ad to the
ood Here t ataches tsef to a pote moecule, wth the ed ood cels caled haemogobi for
ts traspoato aoud the ody he oxyge wl rema atached to the haemoglo utl t eters
a aea whee the oxyge cotet s low whereupo the haemogo eeases the oxyge aowg t
to dffuse to the tssues Cao doxde s dssoved  the ood whch caes t to the lugs wth
ay used oxyge fo exprato  iu .

Private Piot Licece © AvexAir Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE LUGS
Pae 32

ch 

t! onchus

lvoi covd wih inu

bood-id cplis

onchol
uns
Figre _2 Lg Brochial Tree ad Alveoli
Breati is a atmatic prcess irecte y te rai As te ee t icrease xye itake, r
car ixie elimiati fctates, s te rai ctrls te rate a ept f reati.
Oxye ric l takes  a rit re cr wist xye eficiet l as a is clr.

D THE EFFETS OF REDUED PRESSURE

As metie earlier, te xyeati f l i te s is epeet  presse T e precise,
a pressre gradiet ie reater pressre  te tsie frces xye it a area f wer parial
pressre i te  It ecmes vis w wy te erstai f tis prcess is imprat t
pilts As we ai atite we kw tat pressre decreases terefre te rivi pressre fr xye
asrpti wil as ecrease reslti i a redced fw f xye it te l Tere is sme
cmpesati as a reslt f te str atracti etwee aemli a xye, t tis reaces a
critica pit ave  0 000  I mre scietific terms, t empasise tis fact at sea level te partial
pressre f xye i te aveli is  03 mm Mercry H), t at 1 0 000  it is  mm H!
Te recti i te amt f xye ca a es ea t a ecrease i ma perrmace

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE UNGS
Pge 33
PARAL PRESSURE
OF AIR - OF OGEN - OF OGEN
IN ALVEOLI
ALTUDE ATMOSPHERES (P A ) (PO) (POA)
mm Hg mm H g mm Hg
 cc 5 < 8 7

,   3

3 6 7

, 39 73 8

, 53  55

5, 63  3 76
1  Se Lee  76  6  3

5 3 

33cc -6 3

Figre   Alide-pressre relaioship

Volme
A  cc bbbe of i t se-leel wil icrease to  c t 5   decrease to 33cc t 6 
below se-eel (NB Scb es)
Pressre
Atmoshe  il esse eese wth icreasig tte  ese below se-eel
NOE See so um p 

 YOX
  DINITIONS
HYPOXIA s the oitio e whih the oge oettio t the tsse eel s ess th
om
ANOXIA is the coto whee thee is  oa absece o oge

Privae Pilo Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 TE UNS
Page 3
. AUSE AD SYMPTOMS
Tere ae many cases of ypoxia, bt in te aiation contex te greatest isk occs as a est of
an incease in altitde, wit its atendant dop in paia pesse Te fist symptos of ypoxia ae
saly associated wit menta fnctions owing to te fact tat brain tisses are te most sensitie to
a ac of oxygen. Obiosly, te ate at wic te obseed effects occ wi depend pon te
atitde. Ealie, te fige of 10 000  was mentioned bt it is possible een at 8000  to obsere
signs of mental impaiment atog generaly ealty persons sod not be noticeably affected p
to 10 000  From 10 000  pwards owee te effects become moe noticeable and te
symptoms simia to te efects of acoo can be smmaised as folows
JUDGEMET
Redced perfomance as a reslt of te oss of sef-citicism.
HAGE I PERSOALY
Beaior canges as a est of epoia, aggression or oss of inibitions
MUSULAR OTROL
Mental impairment ests in poo msclar conto and ncoordinated moements.
REDUED MEMOR/OETRATIO
Te loss of so term memoy can est in difficlty in caying ot normal operating
procedres
EFFET O SESES
Peipeal ision and nigt ision ae fist aected, folowed by day ision coor ision, toc
and eaing
REDUED OSIOUSESS
f ypoxia contines, te lee of consciosness redces esting initialy in ligteadedness,
diiness and confsion ten semiconsciosness, nconsciosness and timatey deat
3 FATORS AFFETG SUSEPTBILIT TO HPOXA
Te effects of ypoxia may ary fom indiida to indiida and altog no one can esist its
efects, ssceptibiity to ypoxia can be increased by arios factors, incding:
FATIGUE/STRESS
Tiredness peaps from exended figt dty can incease te onset of ypoxia.
ALTTUDE
Te geate te atitde te geate te effects
OLD
More energy mst be geneated to conteact cold, reslting in an inceased demand fo
oxygen wie cication is slowed and conseqently increases te adance of ypoxia
EXPOSURE TIME/RATE OF ASET
Te onge te expose to ypoxia and te faster te rate of ascent, te greate te effect wil
be.
ILLESS/HEAT
Een mid ilness o eat expose maes demands on te energy sppy of te body and
teefoe te oxygen reqiement, inceasing te onset of ypoxia
EXERSE
As wit cod and ilness tis makes demands on te bodys enegy sppy and terefoe
oxygen, increasing te degree of ypoxia

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE LUNGS
Pg 35
ALCOHOL, DRUGS AND TOBACCO
h intk of lcohol hs smil fcts to thos of hypoxi incudng  ducd tolnc of
ltitud. Mny dugs dpss bin functon nd slow th t of bthing which cn fuh
ggvt hypoxi Smokng cts carbo mooxide s  bypoduct fo which hmogobin
hs  gt finy thn it hs fo oxygn with th sult tht th s lss hmoglobin
vilbl to tnspo oxygn though th systm, thus nhncing th ffcts o hypoxi
PHYSCALLY
h skin bcoms pl nd  bluish tint my bcom notcbl, picuy th fng tps ps
s nd nos, (ths s cld Cyaosis s wl s i hung ccompnid by ywning
G FORCE EPOSURE
hs fcts ficint oxygn uptk fom th ungs.
Som of th fctos mntiond bov  unvodb to th pilot, whlst oths  sfnducd
by pson hbts. Howv th mponc of undstnding nd cognisig th sgns nd
symptoms of hypox nd th coctiv cton to b tkn cnnot b ov mphsisd
Fo thos intstd n fcts nd fgus, th folowng my b intstng f not nightning!
Hving cqud n undstnding of th physioogy, fcts nd symptoms of hypoxi t
qustion ss s to wht to do bout it. n picu, th time tkn to do somthng bout it n
ths gd th tm TME OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS is significnt
h tm of usfu consciousnss is gny gdd s bng th mxmum lngth of tim,
aer n individul hs bn dpivd of hs oxygn suppy, duing which h is bl to cy out
som usfu o mningfu tsk, wthout supplmnt oxygn nd bfo h o sh oss
consciousnss t is so considd to b th tm vlb to cognis th onst of hypox nd
do somthing bout it. hs tim is vb not only ccoding to titud, but fom ndvdu to
ndvdul t wl so b shond by physic ctvty nd oth fctos. h folowng figus 
fily psnttiv of th vious tms fo  nom hthy pson
  f   8 mnuts 5     3 mnuts
3  f 3 sconds to on minut 35  f 1 5  3 sconds
  ft 1    sconds
 HYPOA CLASSFCAON
HYPOC HYPOA
This s  condition wh th is isiciet oxygntion of th blood in th ngs his cn b
s  sut of  decreased pi pssu of oxygn (PO) in th Avoli thus t blood tuning
to th h fom th lungs contins ss oxygn nd thfo th tissus gt lss n viton this
sitution dvops with  hght bov 8 . t cn so b cusd by ung diss nd vn
smoking
ANAEMC HYPOA
This condton is found n css of bood loss fom sv bding o dontion o dcsd
mounts of hmogobin fom mnstution, chonic infction o n on dficincy possibly owng
to dit, wth th sult tht th is  dcs in th tot cculting hmogobin t cn lso
occu n css wh th is n bnomlly high cbon monoxid psnc n th blood,
ducing hmogobin vilbiy. t should b notd tht th South Aficn Cv Aviton
Rgutons, 1997 (P 91 qui  pod of 7 hous following bood donton bfo  fght
cw mmb my fy
STAGNANT HYPOA
hs condition cn occu wh th  ht o cicultoy pobms. Th bood gny hs
nom hmogobin nd oxygn vs, but poo ccution suts n lss oxyg thn is quid
ching th tissus his cn b found in css of shock, wh th is  dop in th totl
fctiv cicutng bood voum (th muscul wlls of th is lx, which ffctvy wdns
thm) s w s cn ntomic nd function distubncs of th bood cction
HYSTOTOC HYPOA
This cn occu s  sut of th posoning of cells o tisses, nding thm unb to utilis
th oxygn suppd in th blood his cn so occ whn  pson is und th infunc of
cohol o dugs

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE LUGS
Pag 36
5 METHODS TO COMBAT HYPOXIA
Carly, t prbms ivlvd wt mbatig ypxa ar twfd
a) Prvdg a adqat spply f xyg.
b) Mataiig a adqat prssr gradt
Dpdg  t divda, t bdy is ab t mpsat t a dgr by irasg t
ar rat ad bratig rat Gd pysa dt, a ag vr 5 yars ad pits w fy
rglarly xpsd t md ypxa, av a igr tra t t fts f ypxia
I mdr airraf wi rly  ig alttd prati fr gd prma, ts is prvidd
by abi prssrisati A arra flyig at 3  f may, by prssriati, prvid a
virmt qivat t apprxmatly 6 
I arraf wtt prssrsati, bratig a gas mxr xyg ad trg) via fa
asks, s ssay As attd is gad, a irasg prtag f xyg s addd til
t pit s rad wr  % xyg is bg bratd Ts saly rs at
apprximatly   f Abv tis gt, bas f t prssr gradt rqirmt,
xyg wd av t b divrd dr prssr, a tq kw as Psitv Prssr
Bratg PPB)

F HYPERVENTITION
1  DEFINITON
Hypvtat tivly mas over breathig r bratig at a rat i excess f tat rqird
fr rmal pysigial prpss Its as s t rstritd t ypxia, bt a b t rst f
mti sikss, axity, at, vibrat r pai
. CAUSE
T rat ad dpt f bratg s say trld t matai stat lvs f arb dixd i
t bdy It sd b rmmbrd tat i trms f t tratmt fr ypxia,  rfr was
mad t irasig t bratig rat as a aswr t rdd xyg prssr i t gs T
bratg driv s a fti f icreased arb dxid ad ot drasd bdy xyg A
ssary ig bratg rat wil rmv arb dxid at a abrmally g rat rstg i
ags i t irat, mst sgifiaty i t brai. Ts ag  irat ass a
rdt i t damtr f t artrs t t bra, w t rivs a rdd spply f
xyg A vday xamp f tis is t bw p a bal rapidly, y w s fl igtadd
Primary yptati asd by mtal rspss rs mst mmy amgst axis,
ixprd yg pts drig strssf sitatis Otr ass ild pa, vbrati ad
mt skss f a pilt sspts ypxa ad ittialy stas t yprvtat i t mstak
bif tat tis will sv t prbm, t a sta a vis yl wi a pysigaly vry
rapdly ad t ss f ssss
3. SYMPTOMS
T symptms ar vy similar t ts f ypxa ad, trfr, yprvtiat s  fsd
wt ypxa T assi symptms f ypvtati ar
a) Lgtaddss r dizziss
b) A tigig, r mbss f t fgrs, ads, ts ad lips.
) A stiig f t figrs, ads, ts ad ips
d) Axty ad st pas
) Rdd pfrma
) Tlig r ldig f visi
g) Stfig/spasm f pripra limb msls
) Claps ad ssss, drg wi bratg rtrs t rma ad t sbjt wil
rvr.

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/200

Revisio 2/200
 THE UNGS
Page 3-7
4 TREATMENT  HYPERVENTIATIN
Becase he syos of hyoxa ad hyeveiao are slar  s iora for reae
roses o o ake he sake of assig he oe ad o he oher. Boh codios ay be
rese a he sae ie. A sile re is o asse he wors. I oher words f he lo s a a
alide a whch  s ossibe for hyoxia o occr, he shold ake ses o se oyge if avaiabe,
or redce ade. If, however, he aide s ess ha 10 000 fee, he syos shod be
regarded as hose of hyerveao ad he folowg ses shold be ake
a) Redce breahig, boh i rae ad deh.
b) The dea is o breah io a aer bag. Ths rebreahig of exred air a ixre of carbo
doxide ad oxyge wll saly c sho he aack.
NTE  ay be dificl b he sbec shold be ecoraged o o icrease he rae ad
deh of breahig, as his wl oy exacerbae he sao

G. LOSS OF AIN PRESSURE

The rocedres o be foowed  he eve of cab decoresso wll be eesvey covered drig
he echcal ad raccal asecs of coverso o aircraf ye. However i he coex of hyoxia i
is ioa o cosider he foowg
Efecvely here are wo siaos volved.
 . A grada oss of ressre,  whch case he io or crew wod ake he ecessay ses o
redce aide o avod exosg assegers o hyoxia Use of oxyge asks ay have o be
cosdered i oaos erra
 A sdde ad raid oss of cabi ressre wih a resla abr exosre o yoxia, cod ad
eve decoressio sickess see Chaer 6, Pressre). The aircraf wod have o desced
rapidly o a lower ade ad assegers ad crew wod eed o se oxyge asks
iedaey.
The dager of rad decoresso s ha he aircra acs ike a ver, he aerodyaic efec of
which wold be o sck air o of he arcraf creag a cabi aide, owig o he redced
ressre hgher ha he acal aide The eed for raid crew resose  boh corog he
arcraf ad esrig eergecy oxyge for assegers, goes who sayig.

. DISORDERS, DISEASE AND ILLNESS

1  HYPXIA ad HYPERVENTITIN
Boh of hese have aready bee covered  deai cosie he os obvios obes for os
ad ca be cosidered eorary codos
. ASTHMA
This is a edca codiio reslg  he arrowg of he aiways of he gs de o ifaao
ad sclar coraco The case is geeray kow, b ossibe coribig facors clde
sress alergy ad eerare The codio ress i iadeqae veilaio of he gs
breahig  (siraio) is reavey ora b breahg o (exraio) s resriced wih
exhasio ad hyoxia reslig Relef ay be achieved hrogh he se of brocho dilaors. I ca
afec ayoe a ay e
3 BRNCHITIS
Ths s a flaao/feco of he cos ebrae ha e he aiways ad s saly a
colcao of oher diseases sch as he coo cod or fleza. Syos are a heg
rodcig cogh ad d fever. I s reaed wh ai-boics ad ass abo e days
4 PEURSY
Ths is a localised area of fecve ifaao o he oer sace of he lg which cases a
shar ches a aggravaed by dee breahg. I s reaed by aibiocs ad ai flaaories.
The ore serios ad lastig llesses assocaed wih he lgs wod i al robabiiy recde
he io fro flyg aga

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE UNGS - QUESTIONS
Pge 3-1

QUESTIONS
(ANSWERS ON PAGE 111)

1  As liude s cresed ove se leve

() e pl pessue exeed y oxyge n e mospere rems cosn, wile s pecege
composio o e mospere decreses
() e p pressure o oxyge n e mospee decreses, wle  o con dioxide
creses,
(c) e pi pessure o oxyge s well s l e oer gses in e mospere decreses,
(d) o e pl pessue exeed y oxyge i e mospee d s pecege composon o
e mospere decrese.
2 Hypoxi s
()  regur occuece in pessursed ircr   liude o moe  10 000 f ove se level,
()  mesure o e ood's oxygen suion,
(c) drecy reled o e re o scen nd o e in cuse lude,
(d) e immede resul wen  peson ees   re  excess o  nomy reuied.
3 Te s sympoms o ypox usuly s occurng  iudes ove 1 0 000  nd
() re very esy d mmediely deeced plos,
() e usuy ssoced wi decesed men ucios,
(c) loss o muscu cono s one o e eles mesons,
(d) c e ressed y educing e e o eng.
 Suscepiy o ypox:
() c e educed y reng very sowly
() creses pidy i pesons over e ge o 2 yes,
(c) inceses in pios wo ly regurly exposed o mild ypox,
(d) increses wi e use o cool drugs nd occo
 Ressce o ypoxi c e cresed y
() dugs wc sow down e crculion d eeore e re o oxyge consupo
() e vsv mnoeuvre wic oces moe oxyge o e ood,
(c) eg   good pysicl condiio nd 2 yers o ge d ove,
(d) reducing e reg e
6 Hypoxc ypoxi is deied s
()  codiion were ere is insuicie oxygeion o e lood in e lungs owig o decesed
pl pessue o oxygen  e lveoi,
()  codion were owig o lood oss, ee is  decrese  e ol cicug emogo,
(c)  codio wee ee e e or ciculoy proems,
(d)  codio wen  peso ees   e i excess o  omly requred
7. Te ime o useu conscousness  30 000  is pproximely:
() 30 - 60 seconds,
() 1  - 20 seconds,
(c) 2  3 miues
(d) 1   30 econd.
8 Hypeveon, or overeg, occurs mos commonly:
() s  resul o cresed ody cro dioxide,
() we ere is  decrese i e ol circulig emogo
(c) in pios ove e ge o 2 yes wo ly reguly exposed o mid ypoxi
(d) i codiions o nxey

Prvate Pilot Licece © Avex Air rag 0/2004

Revso 2/200
 TE LUNGS - QUESTIONS
Pa 3-2
9 Symptoms of hypvntiation nlud
(a loss of al musl ton
(b a lihthaddnss with a tnlin o numbnss of th finrs, hands, tos and lps,
( a pa sin with a bluish tnt of th fin tips ips as and nos,
(d drasd mnta funtions

 Th xprsson "tim of usful onsiousnss" fs to th tim tan at a spfid attud
(a to arry out a spifi tas,
(b to dal with an mny stuation suh as an nin failur,
( to ronis th onst of hypoxa and do somthin about it,
(d to opat wthout oxyn bfor bomn unonsous

   Th immdiat tratmnt for hypntiation shoud b to

(a inas th rat and dpth of brathin,
(b brath pur oxyn throuh a mas,
( du th at and dpth of bathin,
(d assum a position whih wl noua blood to flow to th had.

 2 Mthods of ombatin hypoxia nud

(a bathin into a pap ba,
(b inrasin th at and dpth of bathin,
( mantainin an adquat oxyn pssu radnt
(d dras th at and dpth of brathin

1 3 Anam hypoxia an our as a rsult of:

(a motona strss,
(b an xssiv at and dpth of bathin,
( a low body tmpatur,
(d bood loss fom svr bdn

 yanoss is iy to sut from

(a hyprvntation
(b hh lvls of arbon dioxd in th blood,
( hypoxa,
(d hh bood pssur

 Bood whh s biht d in oour

(a is h in oxyn
(b s dfint in oxyn,
( has a hih luos ontnt,
(d has a hih v of abon dioxid

6 As altitud inass

(a th paia pssu of oxyn inrass,
(b th tim of usfu onsiousnss nass,
( th possibiity of hypvntilation dass,
(d th tim of usfu onsiousnss dass

 7 Th bathn driv is a funton of

(a a das in th amount of oxyn in th body,
(b th lvl of arbon dioxd in th body,
( th bodys tmpratur
(d th pus at.

Privae Pilo Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
HAPTER  THE ERS
Page 41

THE EARS
A INTRODUTION
Te ea a tw ey impat, ut deet uti eaig ad aae Tee ee ut i
depedety  ea te, ad wit it i uy impat  a pt t e ale t ea it wuld
t e et t ay tat ae ii, aae i te ed mt mptat ee. It llw, te
tat a gd udetadig  t ut i  deae alue  pit

 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR

Te ea mpe tee ealy deied pat: te ute ea mddle ea ad ie ea.
udo
cl nee
ocl

ccul

udto
cnl

 du utcn

tu
Figre 4 Aaomy of he ear
1  TE OUTER EAR
Te ute ea  impy a ud gateg deie t mpe a ap  aiage, me etly
kw a te pia  auie, te pupe  w i t let ud wae wi ae te
paed tug a eguay aped aa alled te eea audty aa, t te eadum 
tympa memae w m te dde etwee te ute ad mdde ea Te aal, 
paageway tai ai ad wa pduig glad, te pupe  wi  t tap eea
mate tu peetig it m eag ad piy ietg, te eaig meam A uid up
 wa i ti paageway a,  ue, eut  me eaig  e t wi peet ud
wae m eag te ea dum.
 THE IDLE EAR
Te middle ea  a ey ma a led ame wi tai te ampliig eqipme; tee
iked e, letey kw a ossices Tee e ae tal t te meaa tami
 ud wae ad ae ddualy amed adig t te ape te malleu,  amme te

Privae Pilo Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 TH AS
Pa 4-2
ius, or av; ad  saps, or sirrup wi also apps o   smals o i  uma
ody.

us us
mm v

Figre 42 The Ossices

T pross of ar omms w  soud wavs sr  ardrum as i o vra.
Tis virao is pid up y  malus, wi is siuad x o  ardrum ad is passd y a
vr aio o  adjo ius, wi  ur rasms  viraio o  saps Ts iy o
is i a opi ald  oval widow, load o  r wall of  middl ar from wr
 viraio passs o  ir ar. Dur s pross ampifiaio of  oriial soud wav
as pla, so a y  im i ras  r ar  viraos av om far mor
orad T air prssur   middl ar amr is p  sam as amospr prssur
y a v or u ald  Eusaa u wi lis  irior of  midd ar wi  asal
passas
S i s o possil, or sould o  for ar o pass rou  ardrum,  oly mas of
v prssur is rou  Eusaa u a fuio wi oms ssay w
lim or dsdi Tis pross a  drd y a old or or simlar fo wr 
rsula swlli or ifammao a lo  Eusaa u rdr i impossl or vy
dffiu o quals  prssur Ts prom is mor prooud dur dsdi fl,
spaly a i ras of ds, w  rasi xral prssur puss  ardrum
iwards. Normally s will  paraly alad y  Eusaia u, xp a  flow of air
io  us dos o our as asly as  fow ou of m. Cary  prolm s xarad
y a rduo   diamr of  u as a rsul of ifo. I oms ovious, , a
pos sould avod flyi f y ar xpri ay form of uppr rspraoy ra ifio for
xampl  ommo od. Apa from  svr pai w wil  xprd  midd ar
may also  damad rsui i som ar loss, w may om prma I vry
xrm ass v  aa maisms of  ar may  affd a odo wi s
alld prssur vo.  so hp  ssu a -2
3 HE INNER EAR
T ir ar omprss wo pauarly impoa pis of quipm  cochlea for ari ad
 vestiblar apparats for ala. T mpora of is dual ro possily xplas wy i s
o of  mos prod pars of  ody Cusod y fud, i is load wi  rid su.
I is w  oa a soud wavs ar fialy ovrd io v impulss wi ar 
rasmd via  adito ee o  rai for irpraio as soud. T ola, a small
oy sruur, oais as may as 2  miu airl ls arrad ao a mmra a
ols aroud islf rsml a sal sll T soud wavs rasmd y  saps o  oval
widow ra prssur wavs i  fuid of  ola ausi  ssoy lls o vira ad
ra v impulss wi ar rasmid o  rai Exssv ois, parularly ovr lo
priods a dama  vy fral arli ls aus prma ar loss.

 HEARING LOSS
Hari oss a  divdd io wo aras
 . CONDUCTIVE LOSS
T oduv sysm ors  our ad midd ar,  ompos of w ar  ar
drum ad  ossls Har oss i s aras may  summarsd as folows:
(a Coa aormalis  dformao of  ar aa
() Wax wi a uild up ad omply lo  aa;
( fos   aal a aus swl, w may paaly or omplly lo  aa;

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE EARS
Pag 3
(d Bony otgowh rom th kl can potrd into and otrct th a cana;
( Incton o th midd ar phap om a throat o no cold
( Poation o th a dm may occr a a rt o ry lod ond or chronc nction o
th midd a. Th acta haring lo i dtrmind y th iz and potion o th
poation;
(g Alrg can ca wling and nammation o th a dm;
(h  Diordr
(h Diordr i thckning an d on o  th ony organ o th m idd  a wi ca
ca p oor tan-
tan-
mon o ond h can occ throgh an inhtd dord and with ag.
In many ca condcti o is rri Cold and  pa alrg can  contod;
rgry can pai a poatd ardrm, mo gowth tc. Th impoant apct o pilot i to
 awar o th prolm, to tat t and not aggraat it ntil th prom com prmannt
. NONCONDUCTIVE LOSS
Th yp o haring o i aly aocatd with nn ar pathology and i motly non-rrl.
It can  mmard a olow
(a Maormation d to incton  o harm drg or tamin dcincy pcally dring
prgnancy;
( Jandc o anoxa t ar ih
(c Untratd middl ar inction
(d Pyc a natra lo o hang with ag. A th mid twnti thr i a grada
hang lo, acting itly th hghr rnc and only lat th ow rnci Thi
can  rhr aggaatd y toacco, alcoho, copp, chronc nction and acar
pom.
NOISE INDUCED EARING LOSS
Expo to no o icnty hgh intnity may rlt n tmpoay o prmannt lo o haing
Th haring lo may occr in wo dirnt way
(a ROM A CONSTANT, OR LONG TERM EXPOSURE TO A AZARDOUS NOISE ENVIRONMENT.
h xnt o th damag n th ca may  tmpoay, t poongd xpor may rlt n
pmannt o Initiay tmporary hang o may  accompanid y a high ptchd inging
ond (rrd to a tiits a ng o n within th a and md hang Rcoy
may occ within a w hor o a w day
( A SUDDEN EXPLOSIVE NOISE
In thi ca prmannt damag may rt, with poiy a rptrd a dm, damag to th
di cat oicl and timaty rrl damag to th ry nit mmran n th
dicat
cochla.

D. SOUND
Sond wa a mad p o wo ditinct pat
 . Th odn o intn
intniy
iy o th ond, which i mar
mard
d n
 n dci;
dci ;
 Th ptch o ncy whch  mard in z (z
It i th dcil ll which, in trm o hang lo,  th mor igniicant. Examp o dci
l incd
(a Whip dB
( Norma con
consati
sation
on  -?dB
-?dB
(c
(c Typical
Typical no 
 in
i n th cocpit o a lght
lgh t air
airc
ca
a  95dB
95d B
A th dc  incra, th dcomo o od no g way to r pain
Contant xpor to no  ao 85 dB may ca tmpoary or prmannt haing o.
A indcatd ao th no l in a ight aicra can  a high a 95 dB. Piot hold,
tho  awa o th noi nironmnt in which thy oprat and  ita haring
protcton

Pri
Private Pilot Licece
L icece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004
Revisio 2/200
 TH ARS
Pa 

E. VESTBUR SYSTEM
Th sod uio o h ir ar is ala. hs is ahvd y h vestiblar ss, orsi
h Si-rular Caals ad h oh ras, whih ar al o d auar ad lar accelera·
tios u o voiy.

ostror ntror
mrur m-rur
n th  n o

tr stbu ontnn th

mrur tr nd u
n w
Figre 4·  Vestiblar apparats
  SEMI-CIRC
SEMI- CIRCUL
ULAR
AR CANAL
CANALS
S
hs ors hr sirular us, ild wh a luid ad edolymph, whh ar load
a rih als o ah ohr ad ar aal o ss alraos as ow as 5/sod. A
lard oio o ah aa, ald h ampla, oais a aous ass, alld a cpla
oai u hairs roj ro har ls a h as o ah aua Ths s ar
od o ssory v rs whih i ur ass io h vsiuar rv. Mov o h
ud ds h uua whh sulas is v lls, ad h rsula ria sials whih
ar rasd o h ra ar rrd as aglar or rota araios h orao o
h sirular aas s alos xay h sa as h hr as o ov o a airra
ad hy ar hus a o d alraios i ih, ro ad yaw  ur 44

n
n  fd
fd wth ndoymph

mpu
mpu

nso hrs

� 
Figre 4·4 Cross sectio
sectio of a Semicirclar Caal
Ca al
For uross o xlaaio rardi aular alraios, l us assu ha h airra rolls o
a ur o h rih a aio whih wl  dd y h aterior si-rular aa. Th aal
rols o h rih, aus h luid o a hd vy ovi  i h oos dro ad
ausi h uula o ov i h dro o h roll sia h aular arao o h
rai
ra i 
  h al
alrao
rao has
h as so
sod,
d, wh h airra ra   a sad
sady
y ur or so -
 - 5
sods, h uid sos ov, h uula rurs o h oral oso ad h sesatio o rol
sos v houh h ur ous  ur 45.

Private Pilot icece ©A vex Air raiig 0/2004

©Avex
Revisio 2/200
 THE ERS
ge 5

 ee h b o o rh c d u

Figre  Agar Acceeratio

Acceeratio
 OOLIH ORANS
ese organs comrsng te trice and te sacce, are stmated y iear accelerations,
greter tn 01 m/second,
m/second, in te orizontal
or izontal and verca anes.
ane s. ey are located wtin
wt in te
vestibe
vestibe at te ase of te semi-crclr canls, on eiter sde of te ed. W te ead n an
pright oston te trcle es in te horizota ane and te sacce in te vertica ane. ac
organ contans a maca smlr to te cla, comrsng a gelatnos layer wtin wc small
cacfied ricles caed otoiths ie on to of gros of sensoy airs exendig from ar ces
wic are tced to te vestir neve.
Wen te ead leans fowrd, otolt ressre cases te ars to end fowrd ad wen te ead
leans ackward tey case te airs
a irs to end ackward.
ackward. Simiary
Sim iary f te ead moves to one sde
sd e te
ars wil e forced to end towards tat sde. e ar cels are oriented n diferent drectons so
tat te vryng ostons of te ead stimate dferent air ces and in so dong aer te rn, va
te nervos system, of te oston of te ead reative to te force of gravty. For norml,
grond-ased, eveyday oeratons sc as rnning, walkng or trnng te ead, te system s
adeate. From te lots ersective, owever, te otolit organs cnnot dstings etween te
force of gravty and oter linear acceerations wic afect te ilot in te ar. e otoits ossess
greater nea tan te fid wc srronds tem, so f te ody s moved sddenly foward te
otoits effectvely reman eind, moving ckwards over te airs. e rain receives two sensory
nts one tellng it tat te ody s acceertng foward and te oter tt grviy is contnng to
work in te normal directon. ese wo vectors re resoved y te ran into a erceved sensation
of te ody tilting ackwards, or an assmtion tat te aeroane s tced . e reverse
aens in te case of a sdden deceeration. See 1  on te nex age.

Private Piot icece Avex Air Traiig 0/200

© Avex
Revisio 2/200
 THE EAS
Pa 6

ao  o
aao

a o o
o o a
a
o  a
   a a
a
a a
a a 
 b o
Figre 4 iear
iear Acceleraio
Accele raio
Aai, i is impora o rmmbr ha h vsiblar sysm is only abl o dc h iniial
acceleraio, onc his has soppd ihr a a sady or v zro spd h sysm rrs o
ormal
Th vsiblar sysm alon is o rsponsibl for balac; informaio from h sysm is sd
ohr wih cs from h visal and posral sysms o mainain spaial oreaio Nasa
ca rsl from massiv simlaio of h sysm pailarly hr dimnsioal simlaion

F SPATIAL DISORIENTATION
This condiion rfrs o on i which h sbjc is nabl o prciv his posio, atid ad
moion rlaiv o h ah Th codiion can b atribd boh o vsiblar ad non-vsiblar
ass
1  VESBR
Th vsiblar sysm is mor ha adqa for ormal rond opraios sch as ri,
wali or rin h had For flyin, howvr i is inadqa Th rspos im of h
smicirlar canals o alar acclraios nonrd i flih, is oo slow Also, h oolih
oras ar no abl o disinish btwn h forc of ravity and ohr linar acclraions whih
ac pon h pilo Errors hrfor occr in h vsiblar sysm ladi o spial disorinaion
In flih i is possibl for h smiirlar caals o allow som alar acclraios, hos blow
h hrsold of dcion, o rmain nprcivd y as h prcpion of ohrs which
aally do no xis
(a) HE LEANS
Th lassi xampl of his ocrs dri h arly sas of insrmn flyin raii If h
pilo iadvly oll io a r a a ra belo h dcion hrhold of h micirclar
canals h may prciv his wins o b lvl If h pilo now raliss is siaio from
insrm idicaions and rolls o of h rn a a ra which does simla h smi-cirlar
canals h may idd roll h wins lvl b fl as hoh h has bad away from h
wis lvl siaion will fl complld o alin his body wih h privd vical ad will
acally la in h dirio of h oriial sbhrshold roll This illsio is own as h
lans
(b) OCLOGRAVC/SOMAOGRAVC LLUSON
Th scond typ of vs
vsibla
iblarr illsi
ill sion
on is ha
ha casd by linar
li nar acclra
acclraion
io n In  v
vll flih
fli h a a
consa spd h only forc xpricd by a pilo is ha of his ow wih downward
Dri an acceleraio a irial forc is prodcd in h lonidial axis of h airraf
bacwards Th rsla vcor, doards ad backards cass h oolihs o irpr

Privae Plo icece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE EARS
Page 4-7
4-7
tis aeleatio as a pit p Deeleratio ases a pit do ilsio Tis ilsio is
ommoly experiee soy ae takeoff at igt over igte teai or ate ee e
4
() COROS EFFECT
Te aragemet of te semiiar aals is s tat ea oe lies i a ifeet axis of
motio ie oe ea i te xes of pit ya a roll Agla aeleratio i ay of tese
axes ill ase te eolymp to move ts stimatig te vestibar appaats a reatig
te aaeess of movemet i tat paila axis As soo as a ostat fo of eoymp
as bee aieve te stimls fom te aal eases atog te eoymp oties to
flo f te ea is move ig tis motio, for exampe if te pilot ee to look p te
origia sesig aa ill be move ot of te axis of motio to be replae by aote aa
movig ito te e axis of motio Te eoymp flo i te origial aal il slo o
ts reatig a sesatio of motio i te opposite iretio to tat of te araf Eolymp
fo il o i te ely alige aa ts reatig te sesatio of motio i its paiar
axis Te efet of tis ombie stimlatio is to ase a tmbig sesatio
() GRAEYARD SPN
Wilst te semi-irla aas ae able to etermie aglar acceleratios, tey ae abe to
pereive aglar veloci Te resltat efet pesets itself ig a spi it o extera
efeee We te piot eters te spi, e ergoes a iitia aga aeeratio a
oties to pereive te aglar motio of te spi aer te aglar aeleatio as ease
Tis may ast for p to 20 seos ig i time te eolymp veoiy relative to te
aa reaes zeo, estig i te pereptio tat motio as ease f te pilot o iitiates
a eovey from te spi e ill ergo a eeeratio iterpete by te semi-irar aals
as a spi i te opposite ietio Retae to believe a obey te airrafs istrmets
a epive of exea refeee, te piot is tempte to make a oretio i te opposite
iretio to te peeive spi tereby paig te airraf frer ito te oigia spi Tis is
ko as te gaveyar spi, fo obvios reasos
(e GRAEYARD SPRA
Te graveya spira is simia i efet to te gaveya spi, exept tat it folos a
ooriate t at ostat ate Agai te eolymp veoity reative to e aal eaes
zero, o motio is peeive a te pilot loses te sesatio of tig Te iexpeiee
piot, it o visa es ill alo te airaf to lose eigt a i a aempt to orret tis
may be tempte to apply eevato a eve poer it te est tat te t beomes
tigter a te airaf ill ete a spial ive Oe tis appes te pilot i peeive a tr
i te opposite iretio a if e oes ot follo is istmets bt tsts is sesatio il
te to tigte te tr stil fe i a atempt to ol ot of te tr it te ogial
osio
(f) NERSON SON
f a abpt age from a limb to straigt a evel is mae, tis may eate te ilsio of
tmbig bakars A pilot so isoietate may eat by psig te aiaf ito a ose lo
atite it a esltat iease i te illsio
at
(g) EEATOR USON
We a airaf is sbjete to a abpt par verial aeleatio perps by a paf,
te ilsio of beig i a limb a be reate  respose te isorietate piot il eat by
psig te aiaf ito a ose lo attite Similarly, a abrpt oa veria aeleratio
il eate te ilsio of beig i a eset it te piot reatig by plig te airaf ito a
ose p atite

2 MOTON SCKNESS
Te ombiatio of vestiba a visal sigas sppie to te brai eabe it to establis
spatial oietatio  a sitatio ee te ipts of tese sigals to ot or isorietatio
ors i may lea to motio sikess, te symptoms of i ie asea a seatig
Te pimary ase of motio sikess a best be esribe as a ovestimatio of te
vestiblar o balae system of te ea most pobaby e to te repeate veria motio of te
aira i trbet ai Some psyologial fators, s as evosess or stress, may aso
iflee te oset of motio sikess For te majoiy of people it is a temporay oitio
i il timatey isappea oe te aviatio eviromet beomes more famiiar Metos
i may be se to ee te efet o passeges ae:

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* y ad avoid areas o exected tubulece
* Icease the suly o esh ai
* void sudde o raid cotrol movemets.
* Closig the eyes will emove oe o the mismatched sigals to the brai.
* ixig the eyes o the atural hoizo
light crew who suer om this coditio should avoid taig motio sickess drugs because
i most cases they oduce side eects which ted to aect eomace
3 VERIG
his ca best be descibed as a sesatio o otatio whe i act o such rotatio is occuig
o a sese o dizziess as a result o the vestibular system beig uable to adat to a abut o
uexected motio Its cause ca also be ascibed to iectio o the uer esiatory tact,
atigue, discomot selmedicatio ad ressue chages withi the ie ea It ca occu uder
coditios o high gloadig i stee tus or sial dive recoveies where thee is a absece o
a visual hoizo reeece ad the ilot is ot taied, or ot curet i the se o the aircra
istumets
Pressre ertigo o alteobaric veigo, ca occu as a esult o the iability o the eustachia
tube to equalise ressue betwee the ear ad the outside esecially whee the ressue chage
aectig both eas is uequal
Flicker ertigo ca be caused by a lashig light, such as a aircra strobe liht beig relected
om cloud or og o the su a or a bright light shiig o a otatig roeller blade or through
helicote otors
CNCLUSIN
By ow it will have become aaet that the huma body was ot desiged or light the
stucture ad comoets are seciic or a goudbased lie style rom bih, gravity the
atual horizo, the eyes ad ie eas have bee the rimay reeeces o ou satial
orietatio. Satial disorietatio occus whe these eviously eliable ogas o oietatio are
aected by the vayig acceleative orces o light ad illusios ad alse sesatios result whe
our atural cues have eithe bee emoved o chaged
he dage or the ilot is to base the cotol o a aica o these alse ercetios
Most ilots are aected by disoietatio at some time ad are usually able to esolve the
roblem as soo as atual cues are obtaied or examle the atual horizo It is whe we
ae totally isolated rom these atural cues erhas whe lyig i cloud, that we ace the
greatest is t becomes obvious why so much istumet lyig time is equied o the issue o
a istumet ratig. at rom beig taught to cotrol the aicra by reerece to these
istumets it is the belief i these istrumets that is equally as imortat I  oy hous o
istumet taiig we ae tyig to overcome a lietime o trustig what we see ad eel

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Revisio 2/20 o
 HE EAS  QUESIOS
Page 41

QUESTIONS
(ANSWERS ON PAGE 1   1 

1 No-codctive heaig o i ally aociated with the ier ea ad
(a) middle ea ifectio ae a commo cae
() age pay o ol i ocodctive hearig lo,
(c) alergie are a commo cae of o-codctive hearig o,
(d) i eaily everie thogh medicatio.

. A pero who i feig fom verigo wi

(a) expeiece cotat rigig i the ea
() e ale to eqalie the the pee i the midde ea,
(c) have a tempoay lo of hearig,
(d) e ected to a fae ee of otatio

3 The vetilar ytem compie

(a) the emi-circlar caa oy
() the emicica caa the otolith orga ad the eye,
(c) the emi-cica caa ad the otolith orga
(d) the otolith oga oly

4 Becae a pilot' eviomet i oe of cotatly chagig pee he or he

a) hold ot fy with a head cold, thoat, ear or i ifectio,
) hod ot alow thei teeth to e x-rayed, a thi ca cae the fomatio of mall pocket of air
i the filig,
c) hod ot tae pa i ay fom of ca divig.

 he Etachia te i ed to:

a) codct od wave from the oter to the ie ea,
) eqalie prere o oth ide of the ea drm,
c) pevet decompeio ice i dive who have to fly oo afe a dive eceedig 30 f,
d) ee liea acceleratio

6 The fctio of the Etachia te i to

a) eqaie pere i the middle ear,
) eqaie pree i the ier ear,
c) pevet chage i pere i the middle ear,
d) ee aga acceeatio

7 The primay fctio of the emi-cicla caa i to

(a) ee iear acceeratio,
() ee g cctio,
c) ee gravitatioa acceleratio,
d) eqaie prere ewee the middle ad ote ea.

8 The fctio of the oicle i the hma ea i to:

(a) ee agar acceleatio,
() eqaie the pree etwee the midde ear ad the ote ear,
(c) cove od wave ito erve imple efore they are tramited to the ai,
(d) pa od wave fom the ear drm to the ier ear

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9 The nto o the ohlea in the hma ear s
(a) to pass sod waves rom the ear drm to the iner ear
(b) to sense lear aeleratios,
() to onve sod waves to neve implses beore they are trasmted to the brain
(d) balane

1  Spatal orientaton s maintaned

(a) only by the vestiblar system,
(b) only throgh visal es,
() oly by a om biation o the semi-irlar aals ad visal es
(d) by a ombnation o the vestblar system and vsal es

 1  Presbysis s
(a) a temporary loss o hearig ased by hages in pressre,
(b) a natral loss o hearing with age,
() a loss o hearing whih an be orreted throgh medatio,
(d) a persstet riging in oe or both ears

 e o the tos o the ner ear is that o balane whh s ahieved throgh
(a) the vestiblar system whh omprses the sem-irlar anals and the otolith organs
(b) the vestiblar system whih omprses the ohlea ad the otolith orgas
() the vestiblar system whih omprises the otolth orgas and the ossiles,
(d) the vestiblar system whih omprises the ohlea ad the ossiles

13. he pat o the vestiblar system whih senses lear aeleratons s alled
(a) the ohlea,
(b) the semi-irlar aals,
() the otolith organs
(d) estahan tbe

1  I a plot is lyng wth a head old or simlar eto the sbseqent nlammatio may ase the
estahian tbe to beome bloed and the pilot may be sbjeted to
(a) a temporary loss o hearing
(b) veigo,
() a lod and persistent rigig n the ears,
(d) severe pan dring a deset

1  ver-stmlatio o the vestblar system may reslt n

(a) motio siess,
(b) a temporay loss o hearig,
() a bloked estahia tbe,
(d) ringng  the ears.

1 6. Dring a sdden deeleratio a plot may experiee a pthig down sensato. hs s nown as
(a) the inverson llso
(b) the ologravi or somatogravi llso
() the elevator llso,
(d) the leans

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Revision 2/20 o
 THE EAS - QUESTIOS
Pge -3
7 Duig  udde cceetio  iot my exeiece  itchig u etio. Thi i kow 
() the iveio iuio,
() the e
(c) the eevto iuio
(d) the ocuogvic o omtogvic iuio.

 8 The etio, which my e et y  iot tht  ic i tuig whe the wg e i ct
eve i ced
() the iveio iuio
() the e
(c) the eevto iuio,
(d) the ocuogvic o omtogvic iuio.

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
HAPTER 5 THE EYES
Page 5-1

THE EYES
A INTRODUTION
Of e five senses vsn is e ms cmmnly used and alug, fm e pls pin f view pe
fec vsn is n necessay gd funcnal vsn s ee ae vaius aspecs cncenng visn a
ae impan  pils and s a basc undesanding f e pysilgy and lmans f e eye s m
pan.

 PHYSIOLOGY
e eyeball s appximaely 3 mm in diamee and s peced n a bny sce in e sull Six
small muscles aaced  e skull and e eyeball, mve e eye up and dwn, fm side  sde
and als allw i a small wsing mvemen. e man cmpnens ae:
Fovea
Iris

Bind spot

Pupil

Coea

Lens

Optic nee
Retina

Figre  Aatomy of the eye

1 . HE CORNEA
is s a anspaen windw f abu   - 1  mm wc seals e fn f e eye and allws lig
 pass ug i e suace f e cnea is cuved and s sme efacin  bending, f e
lg ays akes place, bu snce e sape is fixed and n muscles ae aaced  i e efacive
abiles cann be aleed Pecin f e cnea s acieved by e eyelds e mvemen f
wc aids e lubcan pcess.
 HE RIS
e iris, a pigmened  clued muscula membane s siuaed bend e cnea and cnains
an apeue knwn as e ppil e is s e fis means f enabling e eye  adap  canging
lg cndins In e case f p lg cndins e is cnacs eeby inceasng e sie f
e pupil and allwing me lg ug e evese ccus in vey big lg cndiin
3 HE LENS
e lens, lcaed mmedaely bend e is, s supped by e cliay muscles wic ae used 
cange s sape us enabling i  fcus e lig ays. e lens is cuved n b sides muc
lie e lens f a magnfying glass and as e muscles elax e lens flaens us educng e
cuvaue f is suface esuling in less efacin,  fcusing f e lg ays. e ppsie ccus
wen e muscles cnac and squeee e lens wc inceases is cuvaue eeby nceasing
e amun f fcusng s wuld ccu wen fcusing n an bjec clse a and.
s mecanism is nwn as accommodatio, a funcn wc ends  decease w age as e
lens becmes less flexble a pblem a can f cuse be ceced by weang glasses edness
 fague wll als influence e abily  accmmdae esulng in blued mages.

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig  0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE EYE
Pag 5
5. THE RETNA
T a, a so aspar lay o lig-ssv rvos ss, s locad a  ra o  y.
I coais wo dir yps o poo-rcpo clls ow as rods ad coes Nv rs l
s poocpo clls comig  a small aa o  ia as  optic erve.  s ara
r a o poocpors ad i is ow as  bid spot.
CONES
Ts a cocad aod a small cal ara o  ia, wc s dircly oppos 
ls calld  fovea. T cos wic ar gly ssv o colo ad or dig small
dail as wll as disa ocs, povid  s visal acy or accracy Ty acv
maximm iccy i codos o good llm ao, comg lss civ i poo lig ad
dass Sc or dirc visio s ocsd   oval go, cos ar mpoa o or
cetral visio.
RODS
T prmay co o  ods s o di movm,  o  dail ad avig o
pcpio o color oly i sads varyg rom lac o wi. Ty ar locad i aas away
om  ova, ar al o co i dm lg ad a s srmal  or periphera
vso,  cio o wc s ssial or o oao ad ig visio.

. VISUAL AUTY
Visal acy s  masr o a psos aliy o s. I is xpssd as  dsa a wc a p
so ca clarly s a oc rlaiv o  dsac a wc a prso wi omal vso ca clarly
s  sam ojc T m 6/6 (m), / () vso mas a a pso ca a disac o 6
ms  ), claly s  sam s o caacr a a ormal osv ca also s a a dis
ac o 6 ms ( ) Gras vsal aciy occs w  ial mag s ocsd o 
ova ad dcs ssaially owads  ppry Pysologcal acos wic wll ac vsal ac
y icld  qaliy o  cora  iccy o  ls ad  ssiivy o  ra, wils
o ilcs cld  si o  oc, o  dco ad lvl o illmaio as wll as 
coras w  oc g osrvd ad  acgod. Alog pipal viso s ssi
v o movm a oc ms  lood a dicly i odr o disgs dail

D REFRATIVE ERRORS
Raco is  ailiy o  cora ad  ls o d lg rays i ord o ocs m o  r
a o podc a mag. Raciv ors coss o
HYPERMETROPIA (Log sigdss)
Ts occrs w  racv powr o  y s oo wa As a rsl  coa ad ls ar
al o ocs a imag o  a T acal po o ocs wold occ yod  a.
Ts ca  a aal dc  ca also  xpcd o occ  old popl Foaly  ca
 corcd y wag covex lss
MYOPA (So sigdss)
I s cas  racv pow o  y s oo srog ad lg ays a ocsd  o o 
ra Ts ca also  corcd,  i s cas cocave lss wll d o  wo
ASTIGMATSM
Ts is a opcal c casd y vss o  car o  cor ad o a lss
x,  ls rslg  dsod mags. Ts ro ca  corcd y  s o varos
lss
PRESBYOPIA (Ag cags)
I mos popl, ar vsio dioras w ag d o cags i  ls maig i lss plial
ad or dcg  pocss o accommodao. T s sg o s codo s dcly 
radig  p  poor lig. I ca  mprovd w  s o corcv lss.

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 THE EYES
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E MONOULAR AND INOULAR VISION

These tems ree to the use o oe eye (moocua) as opposed to the use o two eyes biocua) by
the same peso Whst ot ecessaily cosideed essetal or lyg there ae distict advatages i
havig both eyes availabe o vsio other tha just havg oe
By ocusg both eyes o the same object at the same tme ght rays wi eter the eyes at deet
agles resutg  deet images  both eyes. Ths s due ve smply to the act that the eyes are
located some dstace apa rom each othe ad ca be easily expereced by ooig at a object
with each eye i tur Far om beig a poblem the ba uses ths omatio to estimate the dis
tace o objects; the greater the dieece betwee the two images the coser the object is.
At the same tme the pobem o the bd spot is eased due to the act that ght ays rom the same
souce caot al smutaeousy o each blid spot. The object wi be see by oe eye ad the 
ormatio passed to the bai

F. VISUAL FATORS AFFETING THE PILOT

1  OLOUR VSION
Athough omal coou vsio is ot ecessarily essetia o a pilot the abty to distguish
betwee ed whte ad gee is especiay i espect o compiace wth ght lyig egulatios
Total coour bidess is ute rae curret estimates have t occurig  less tha 1 % o the
populatio but betwee 5% ad 1% o males have dcuty  dstguishg betwee ed gee
ad whte whlst up to % may have a degree o coou dececy Iceasig age may cause
yeowg o the corea ad es ad may decease the itesty o bue lght. t is ow that
smoig ad acoho also have a advese eect o colour viso. There s o cure o this
deicecy.
. NIGHT VSION
Physiologicaly ght vso s achieved through the rods because o their geater sestivty
Geatest ght visua acuity s achieved by oog sightly o-cetre at a object due to the act
that rods ae cocetated away rom the cete o the reta. Maximum ght eiciecy o the ods
may tae as much as 3 miutes to acheve ad thereore a peod o dar adaptatio may be
ecessay to acquire good ight vsio A vey bie exposure to bright lght eques a urhe period
o adaptato ad a good poicy o plots s to cose oe eye beore exposue to brght lght 
order to retai good ght visio i that eye Factors whch ca adversey aect ight visio cude
mid hypoxa smoig acohol stimuats mor ailmets ad iceasig age
3 GARE
Gae ca be caused by high atitude ight lyig just above a aye o cloud o diecty to a ow
su The cotrast  the evels o brightess outsde ad isde the cocpit may mae t dicult o
the pot to ead the istrumets or dspays ad esut  hm yg bid without realsg t. Good
quality sugasses ae a ecessa equiremet  ths id o evromet.
 DEPTH PEREPTON
Depth peceptio o the abity to judge dstace eures may cues The textue o a object
becomes moe obvous as t comes coser whch asssts  judgg height; the caty o a object
provdes cues as to its dstace -  hazy or misty codtos a object becomes bured mag t
more dicult to judge ts dstace ad the relative movemet o a object which appears to move
aster the cose it becomes aso plays a pat So too does biocula viso with athough beeca
is ot ecessarly esseta sice a perso with oe eye ca also use the cues metioed to assst
i detemg distace.
5 EMPY FIELD MYOPIA
Myopia meas shorsghtedess ad ths case is caused by ight at high atitude o at ight whe
thee s othig to loo at The eyes ted to adopt a restg ocus at a pot approximately two
metes away wth the esut that a dstat object has to be ary large i ode to be see a
obvousy dagerous stuato Ths ca be overcome by actively reocusg the eyes o dstat
objects such as the goud couds o stas.
6 ONTAT LENSES
These are oe used  peerece to taditioal spectacles ad have cetai advatages  that
they provide beter periphera vso ad are ot subject to mistg Howeve or the pilot there are
ceai associated poblems o sigiicace The corea ot havg its ow blood supply obtais

Private Pilot Licece ©Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 H YS
Page 5
oxygen o the aent a. Contat lenses an edue ths and ause ild hypoxia and oneal
daage as a esut Dehydation in the eye an aso ou as a esut o ow hudty in the
okpit uthe daagng the onea. Can deopesson an also ause a le etween the
ontat lens and the onea.
7 RADIAL KERATOTOMY
This s a ino sugia poedue on the eye y whih ean eative eos, paulay yopa
an e oeted y aking shalow nsions nto the onea. It does esult in a sustantal
weakenng o the eyeall stutue and ay aso gve ise to unstale eaton. It s theeoe, not
aeptae n ane tanspot plots and ay esult in the goundng o even a pvate plot o
seveal yeas.

G I N FETIONS AND DISEASE

Gven the potane o vson o the pot a knowedge o and teatent o, netions and dsease
o the eyes s useu. Soe o the oe ovous nude:
CONJUNCTIVITIS
The onjuntva s the ining o the inne suae o the eyelds and the exposed suae o the eye
an eoe itated and inlaed y exposue to ateal o va inetons and tants suh as
soke and dust The syptos ae a painu uning o stnging sensation and oodshot eyes,
whh an e exaeated in the dy ai o an aa okpit. Eyesght an e aeted and the
eyes eoe oe senstve to light Ths inetve o o this dsease (ateial o via s vey
ontagous and pilots shoud eain o lyng whist sueng o t Teatent is usualy y
antiots and the poe shoud lea withn a ew days.
CATARACTS
A ataat s the slow and paness loudng o the ea lens o the eye. As suh t wl aet vision
eause t pevents lght o eahing the etna Moe oen t s a podut o te ageing poess
and an suessuly e teated y sugey oowing whh speial glasses will hae to e won.
STY
Ths is a aily oon pole espeally n hiden. t s aused y an neton ong a yst n
the tea duts o ha olles whh an ause a swelng and eddening o the entie eyeld 
neessay t an e sugialy eoved
GLAUCOMA
This aly oon dsode s a esut o ineased pessue wthin the eyeal due to the
inadequate dainage o exess aqueous luid, whh  unteated an daage the opt neve and
lead to a paa o oplete oss o vson. It tends to ou oe oen n edey people and an
e heedtay. Teatent s usually n the o o eyedops athough sugey ay e neessay n
soe ases. Syptos nlude eye pan headahe and ued vson.

H OPTIAL ILLUSIONS
A piot opeatng in an envonent whih povdes iited visal ues ie ul o patal IMC o at nght,
and at the sae te s sueted to stess, owng pehaps to atigue o the natue o the ondtons
he enountes wil e apt to peeive what he wishes to peeive even to the exet o suppyng an
lusoy peepton. Ths ondtion anests tse in a nue o ways
(a FALSE HORZON
Coon duing light n paal IMC the pilot oseves sopng oud oations, an osued
hozon o at night, a oination o stas and gound ghts, and geoeti gond ght patens
al o whih pesent an lusion to a dsoentated pot o not eng oety agned wth the tue
hoion. As a esult the piot ay plae the aa in an noet, and thus potentally dangeous,
atitude.
( GROUND LIGHTING
Many plots, espeay n unalia aeas have staken ights along a staight oad o on a
ovng tain, as appoah o unway ghts. The judgeent o dstane ay also e aeted y
ght unway and appoah ight systes. The uson s that o ess dstane t the unway and
the natua esult s a hgh appoah. Silay, when ying ove a elatively unt aea, the ak o
ights edues height ues and the piot ay ly a ow appoah

Private Piot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE EYES
Page 55
() AUTOINESIS
Ts s a lus peme tat maes a statc lgt appea t mve we staed at f a
perd f 8 t 1 0 secds  a da evrmet Te cause  ts peme s as yet, t
w
(d) LANING ILLUSIONS
Mst plts ave at sme tme r ter bee expsed t tese uss, w a be dvded t
tree areas f ccer
1  Te tal judgemet  te apprac slpe
 Mateace f te appa spe
3. udgemet f grud pxmty pr t tucdw
Setg up te tal appa spe a be geatly asssted by te use f ads suc as PAP ad
VASIS gtg systems Hwever, tere wl be may ccass we te ads are t avalabe
ad te pt must rely  s w udgemet Ts bvusly mpves wt experee, altug
expereed plts may st be caugt ut Te fllwg cmm luss are desrbed
() RUNWAY WITH
A vey aw uway may create te lus tat te arcraf s  act ger ta t s Ts
a resut  te ususpetg plt lyg a lwer appa wt te pssbty f tg
bstales  te appac pat, r eve adg st Te ppste a u wt a vey wde
uway, wt te esult tat te plt may flare t s ad ad ard,  vest mpletey
Bt stuats are exacebated at gt
() RUNWAY OR TERRAIN SLOPE
A uway,  tera, tat spes up may eate te lus tat te arraf s ge ta t s
Ts ca esut  te pt aga fyg a we appa wt ts eret rss A dw slpg
ruway, r tera, wl eate te ppste efect resultg  a g apprac
() FEATURELESS TERRAIN
Te absece  gud featues, su as da areas water et a create te lus f beg
ger ta te aa atualy s esutg  a w apprac
(v) ATMOSPHRIC
Ra  te arafs wdscee dsts te plts vs, creatg te lus f beg ge
Hae may esult  te plt tg e s fute away ta e actualy s Bt f tese
uss may esut  flyg a wer appa Flyg tug fg eates a lus 
ptcg up ad  ts ges uecgsed te pt may steepe te appa qute
dramatcaly wt pssble dsastrus csequeces

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE EYES - QUESTOS
· Pae -

QUESTIONS
(ANWER ON PAGE 
  he bes nih vision is achieved by
(a lookin diecy a an obec o ensue maximum exosue o he objec o he cones, which ae
moe eicien o nih vision,
(b ookin sihly o cene a an obec, which will alow he ods eae exosue due o hei
concenaion away om he cene o he eina (ovea,
(c eula, bie exosue o lih
(d ookin diecly a an objec o ensue maximum exosue o he objec o he ods, which ae
moe eicien o nih vision.

 In ode o alow moe ih o ene he eye

(a he iis conacs, which inceases he size o he uil,
(b he iis exands, which inceases he size o he uil
(c he ciiay muscles conac, which imoves accommodaion
(d he ciiay musces exand which inceases he sie o he ui.

3 Lon sihedness o hyemeoia

(a can be coeced only by suey,
(b can be coeced by weain convex lenses
(c can be coeced by weain concave enses,
(d can be comensaed o by he iis which conacs alowin moe lih o ene he eye

. Rods in he human eye ae

(a unable o uncion in dim lih
(b used o cena vision,
(c used o he eceion o colou,
(d used in eihea vision.

5 Good nih vision is deendan uon

(a cones which ae eecive in oo ih,
(b ods which ae abe o uncion in dim ih,
(c accommodaion, which inceases he size o he uil,
(d he iis which exands o incease he size o he ui

6 aial disoienaion, a condiion in which he subjec is unable o eceive his osiion, aiude
and moion eaive o he eah:
(a is mos commony caused by on em exosue o a hazadous noise envionmen,
(b can be immediaey evesed by eein o he aica ih insumens,
(c is caused by middle ea inecions invovin he cochea,
(d is easily cued by cosin he eyes and alowin he vesibua sysem o coec ise

7 A educion in h suy o bood o he eina may eul in

(a hyemeoia
(b myoia,
(c emy ield myoia
(d unne vision.
8 Emy ied myoia ees o
(a a condiion whee he eyes ado a esin ocus a a oin aoximaey  mees away,
(b a condiion caused by a educion in he suly o bood o he eina,
(c on sihedness,
(d a condiion in which he subec is unabe o eceive his osiion, aiude and moion eaive o
he eah

Privae Pilo Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 THE EYES  QUESTIOS
Page 5-
. A concave ens is se to
a) correc or long sigteness,
b) compensae or nnel vision,
c) correc or sor sigteness
) correc or empty ie myopia.

. A convex ens is se to

a) correc or long sigteness,
b) compensae or nnel vision,
c) correct or sort sigteness,
) correc or empy iel myopia.

  . e term accommoation" is se o escribe

a) te contraction or expansion o e iris in controling te amont o lig enerig te eye
b) te conracion or expansion o te ciiary mscles wic canges te sape  te lens
c) a coniion were te eyes aopt a resing ocs a a point approximately  meres away,
) a conition case by a recion in te spply o boo o te reina

. en ying an approac to an namiiar rnway a piot may ninenionay:

a) ly a low approac on a ownwar soping rnway
b) y a ig approac on an pwar sloping rnway
c) y a ig approac on a narrow rnway,
) y a ig approac on a ownwar soping rnway

13 en lying an approac o an namiliar rnway a pilot may nintentionally

a) ly a low approac on a ownwar sloping rnway,
b) ly a ig approac on an pwar soping rnway,
c) y a low approac on a narrow rnway
) ly a ig approac on a narrow rnway.

1 . en lying an approac o an namiiar rnway were tere is an absence o gon eares a
pilot may nintenionaly:
a) y a low approac,
b) ly a ig approac on an pwar sloping rnway,
c) y a ig approac,
) ly a ig approac on a narrow rnway

1 5. A nigt wen a stationary ig appears o move i i is stare a i is known as

a) an inversion ision,
b) aoinesis,
c) e oclogravic illsion,
) ypermeropia

Privae Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
HAPTER 6 PRESSURE
Page 61

PRESSURE 
A. INTRODUTION
he redcio of pressre wih alide ad is effecs o respiraio have bee discssed here are,
howeve, oher efecs ha he decrease o icrease for ha maer have o he hma body ad i a
professio ha eqies cosa chages i alide ad heefore presse, i is impora ha he pi
o be famiia wih hem

. THE GAS LAWS

he gas aws wih which we are cocered are he followig
1  BYLE'S AW
A a cosa emperare, he vome of a give mass of gas is iversey ropoioa o he
pessre o which i is sbjeced I ohe words as the pressre redces the gas expads
 DALN'S AW
he pressre exeed by a mixre of gases is eqal o he sm of he presses which each
wold sepaaely exer if i aoe occpied he space filed by he mixre
P aoher way presse is exered by a he gases i a mixe Partia pressre is he erm
sed o describe he pessre exered by ay oe of he gases i he mixre r cocer is
wih he paia pressre of oxyge P), as i afecs oxyge pake by he body e e
3.

 EFFETS OF PR ESSURE HAN GE

Esseialy, here ae hee efecs o he body brogh abo by pressre chage wih alide hese
are Hypoxia Barorama ad Decompessio Sickess Hypoxia has bee coveed i e 3
1  BARRAUMA
he body coais a mbe of gas filed caviies ha ca be described as eier closed ie o
commicaio wih he oside eviome sch as he gasroiesia rac, or semi-cosed, ie
commicaig direcly o idirecy wih he oside evirome, eg lgs, eas ad paraasa
sises
EFFECS F CHANGING PRESSURE N CLSED CAVIIES
a) HE ALIMENARY CANAL
I ormal, healhy idividas, he somach ad iesies coai bewee  ad  m of
gas his is mosly deived from swalowed air, from he acio of baceria wihi he bowe
ad from exchage wih he gases i he isses ad he blood Drig asce, he gas
coaied wihi he somach expads ad saly escapes pwards ad o of he moh
Gas bbbles wihi he large bowel say combie o form arge bbbes which are veed
hrogh he as Some discomfo ad eve severe pai may be experieced Usay i
oy becomes a probem a ove 5  f ad o damage de o expaso has ever bee
ecorded Passegers who have had rece bowel srgery shold o fy il a eas e
days afer he opeaio
b) HE EEH
iy pockes of air behid filligs especialy i lied filligs, may expad drig asce
leadig o severe pai kow as aeo/baodoalgia
EFFECS F CHANGING PRESSURE N SEM-CLSED CAVIIES
Accodig o Boyes Law as he pessre o a gas decreases, so he volme icreases Drig
asce i a aircraf, he pressre o he hma body decreases d he gas rapped i he
varios caviies wi expad Whee hee is resiced commicaio bewee a gas filled
caviy ad he oside amosphere gas expasio wil occr wiho dificly or discomfor ie
wid is passed ears pop ec If however he gas emais rapped i a caviy he expasio
ca case cosideable discomfor ad pai which may case damage o isses or orgas

Private Piot icece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 PREURE
Page 6-
and even incapacitate te individua. One f te st cn exapes is tat f te iddle
ear.
a) MIDDE EAR
Te idde ear cavity cunicates wit te utside atspere trug te Estachia
tbe t te trat. As altitude is gained te expanding air in te idde ear escapes
trug te Eustacian tue tus equaising te pressure n eiter side f te ear dru. On
descent te prcess is reversed ut it is ere tat pres fen ccur. Te wer r
inner tw tirds f te Eustacian tue is sf waed and tis akes it act ike a ne way
valve. If air is prevented fr entering te idde ear te unequal pressure can cause a
distin f te ear dru leading t pain and pssie injury Tis is knwn as otic
barotrama An active pening f te tue is terefre required t alw air t flw int te
iddle ear and tis can e acieved y swawing and aw veents Te
prle is exacerated y an upper respiratry tract wic ay cause te luen
f te tue t narrw. Assistance in pening te tue ay e accpised y a Vasava
r equalising aneuvre ie lwing air ut wit te ut csed and nse pinced
wever in se cases even tis fais t equalise pressure and artraua resuts wit
wat can ny e descried as excruciating pain wic can result in daage t te ear
dru. It is interesting t nte tat st prles in tis case ccur as te 9 f ark is
passed.
PREVENTION
Tis can e est e acieved y nt flying wen te pit as a ead cd r at east
aving a dctr ceck tat te Eustacian tue is functinal Te side efects f
decngestants and antiistaines ake tese unsuitae fr use y active pits
) TE PARANASA SINUSES
Tese are cavities in te nes tat fr te upper par f te face.
During ascent and descent te expanding and cntracting gas witin te sinuses is free t
cunicate wit te gas in te nasa cavity If wever te ucus erane ining te
cnnecting passages eces infaed and swlen as a result f ilness r infectin te
nra ventilatin f te sinus ay e prevented especially during descet causing severe
pain wic is fen accpanied y watering f te eyes. Tis is caled sinus artraua
Daage t te lining ay ccur wit susequent eeding int te cavity. Nasa
decngestants ay elp wit ventiatin f te sinus caviy.
EECTS O CANGING PRESSURE ON TE UNGS
arge vlues f gas in te aveli te reativey narrw passages wic cnect te alvei t
te exerna envirnent and te susceptiiiy f te lung tissue t daage cine t ake
te lungs a vunerae pa f te dy. wever te decpressin as t e extreely rapid
efre daage ccurs and prvided te individua reates ut during te decpressin is
quite rare
2 DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
Atug decpressin sickness is a rare ccurrence in pits nw it was nt ncn in te
days f ig atitude peratin witut pressurisatin It is painfu can e dangerus and even fata

At sea evel te dy is saturated wit ine gases 8% f wic is nitrgen Wen atitude is
increased se f tis nitrgen ces ut f sutin as ues. Te sypts f tis cnditin
ay vay depending n te site invlved ie te lungs dstrea rain/spina crd r ints In
te case f te aer ules fring in te jints cause an acing pain cny referred t as
te ends. Te st cnly affected ints in aviatin are te suder te ew te wrist
te knee and te ankle Any veent even ruing f te jint aggravates te pain wereas
descent wil usually resve te prle Oter indicatins include:
a) Te creeps wic is caused y nitrgen ues in te skin and is accpanied y
itcing
) Te ckes wic creates pain in te cest and a dy cug
c) Te staggers wic effects te neus syste and results in lss f uscular
crdinatin paia ss f visin r paraysis f a i
d) Clapse wic ay ccur even afer descent prgressing t uncnsciusess and deat.
actrs wic ay ead t decpressin sickness ay incude

Private Pilot icece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 PREURE
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(a) Alie Geealy a pressrse alie i excess of 5  f s eie ahogh i
ca occ a ess.
(b) Daio The loger he expose, he geaer he rs.
(c) Age Thee is a greae is i ole people.
() egh a people are moe sscepble
(e) Divg Thas o pressise aicraf, ecompessio scess s ae whils fyg
Howeve fyig shoy afer vg ca be faa Desceg 3 f  wae is eivale o a
icease of 1 amosphere of pessre. ih scba ivg compresse ar is se a hs foces
more ioge io he boy. O asce hs may come o of solo a res i ecompesso
scess he siaio is rasicaly wosee sho he ivial clmb io a arcraf a ga
sbsaal aie.
he oh Afca Civil Aviaio Regaios, 1 997, Pa 91 , rere a perio of  hos o elapse
before fyig followig scba ivig by flgh crew membes

Private Plot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 PRESSURE  QUESTOS
Page 6-

QUESTIONS
ANSWERS ON PAGE -)

 I orde o avoid deompessio siess:

a) pios may fly i upessuised aiaf immediaely aer suba divig provided he fligh remais
below    f,
b) pios may y i pessuised airraf immediaey afer suba divig
) pios should o y wihi  hours of suba divig
d) pios should o fy wihi  hous o suba divig.

. he valsalva maoueve is a poedue whih a be used o

a) eieve he ees o veigo,
b) equalise he pressue bewee he ie ea ad he ouer ea,
) preve spaia disorieaio,
d) equalise he pressue o eihe side o he ear drum

3. Boyles Law saes ha a a osa emperaure:

a) as he pressure o a gas redues he gas expads,
b) as he pessue of a gas ieases, he gas expads,
) pessure is exered by all he gases i a mixue,
d) gas expasio ours oy wih a derease i aliude

4 Dalos Law saes ha

a) as he pressue of a gas edues, he gas expads,
b) as he pressue of a gas ireases he gas expads,
) pressue is exeed by a he gases i a mixure,
d) gas expasio ous oly wih a derease i aiude.

5 Daos Law saes ha

a) as he pessure o a gas redues he gas expads
b) he pessue exered by a mixue o gases is equa o he sum of he pessures whih eah
woud sepaaey exe i i aoe oupied he spae iled by he mixure,
) as he pessue of a gas ieases he gas expads
d) a a osa empeaue, he voume o a give mass o gas is iversey propoioa o he
pessue o whih i is subjeed.

6 he beds" is a sympom o deompessio siess whih is haraerised by

a) a ahig pai i he jois,
b) a ihig ski
) pai i he hes,
d) diiuy i musuar oodiaio.

7 he "eeps" is a sympom of deompressio sikess whih is haaerised by

a) a ahig pai i he jois,
b) a ihig si,
) pai i he hes,
d) difiuly i musuar oodiaio

 he saggers" is a sympom o deompessio sikess whih is haraerised by

a) a ahig pai i he ois,
b) a ihig si,
) pai i he hes,
d) diffiuly i musua o-ordiaio.

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 PRESSURE • QUESTIOS
Page 6
9 The chkes is a sympm  decmpressi sickess which is characerised by:
a) a achig pai i he is
b) a ichig ski,
c) pai i he ches
d) dificuy i muscula cdiai

1  Blwig ai u wih he muh clsed ad he se piched:
a) is  recmmeded as a meas f equaisig pressue bewee he middle ad ier ear
because i may damage he ea drum
b) is a prcedue called ic Barrauma ad wil assis i equaisig pessue betwee he ie
ad midde ea,
c) is caled he valsalva maeuvre ad will assis i equalisig pessue bewee he ie
ad midde ea,
d) is called he vasava maeuvre ad wi assis i equaisig pessure bewee he uer
ad midde ea

1   Decmpressi sickess is caused by:

a) ige gas bubbles fmig i he bdies issues,
b) a excess f carb dixide i he bd seam,
c) vebeahig
d) a decrease i he paial pressure f xyge.

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
HAPTER 7 ACCLRATION AND VIBRATION 
Page 71

ACCELERATION AND VBRATION

A NTRODUTION
e pilot i aaile y ot of tee fator in varying egree an form trougout i fying areer
an apat from te nuiane efet tey ave a onierae if not eriou efe on i perormane

 AELERATON
Spee even vey ig pee a no eet on te uman oy erea aeeration or eeleration
(rate of ange of veoity) may proue vey onierale efet. Prinipaly, four ierent tiue are
afete namey te of upporing tiue te ony keleton te organ upene in oy avitie
an te oy fui. l are uet to pyial la an efet an vary from ompete olape of te
ariovauar ytem to a impe inreae in te fatiguing arateriti of figt Man i generay
il-equippe to ittan evere aeleration tree an a goo knoege of tee fore an teir
efet i neeay to unertan te eet tey proue.
1  PYSICL CONSIDERION
In aviation aeeration i uuay expree in multiple of te aeeration of gravity or G, or
981 m/e• u if e talk of  G, it i in fat  x 981 = 1 961 m/e
. MOION ND FORCE
NEWONS FIRS W
Unle ate upon y a fore a oy at ret il remain at ret an a oy in motion ill move at
a ontant pee in a traigt line.
NEWONS SECOND W
eleration i iretly proportiona to te fore applie if ma i ontant
NEWONS IRD W
o evey ation tere i an equal an oppoite reation.
For exampe en an airraf ueny aeerate foar it i te inetial fore (oppoite equa
fore) i fore te pilot ak into i eat In evey ae in i man i aelerate (exept
gravity), te enation of inreae eigt an te reitriution of te loo an iplaement of
organ, our in te iretion of te inerial fore.
3. WEIG
Weigt i te fore exee y te ma of an aeerating oy e impoae in aviation of
eigt i tat en a ma of one kiogram i ate upon y a fore i proue an
aeeration of 9.3 metre/eon tat i an aeeration of 3 G it eig 3 Kiogram.
 YPES OF CCELERION
(a) LINER CCELERION
Example: take-of an laning i.e ontant iretion it inreaing or ereang pee
() RDIL CCELERION
Exampe airraft manoeuvre u a fixe rate turn, tat i a ontant ange of iretion
it a ontant pee
() NGULR CCELERION
Example: pin; tat i ere tere i a ontinuou ange in iretion an pee.

Private Plot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 ACCELERATIO AD VIBRATIO
Pae 7
5. EFFECTS OF ACCEERATION ON THE ODY
(a) CARDO-VASCR
A disubance in he disibuion o bood voume and peusion esus. The immediae eec o
posiive acceeraion is heeore an accenuaion o he pressue adiens which nomal
exis (owin o ravi) in he ssem in an eec man. Thus, pessures above hear leve
decrease and pressures below hea leve icrease reaive o wha he nomal ae. This
hdauic eec on he bood esus in an accumuaion o bood in he ower pars o he
bod paicuarl in he abdomina eion leadin o reduced eun o he hea and aso
educed low o he bain.
(b) VISION
The visua ssem is he mos sensiive as bood pessue in he eina ae mus exceed 
mm Mercur beore blood wil low houh he einal vesses. Visua disubances produced
b posiive acceeraion ae caused b deceased blood low o he eina. Te various derees
o grey o ae due o proessive deceases in he low o bood o he reina. Te Visio
esus when he blood suppl o he peripher o he reina ais. Black o occus when he
bood pressure a ee level als beow  mm Mecur and bood ow in he reinal arer
(and hence bood low o he reina) ceases
(c) LIMS AND ORGANS
Posiive acceeraion is perceived as an incease in weih and i becomes more dificul o
move he limbs whils orans ma be dispaced om hei nomal posiions.
(d) RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Exposue o posiive acceeaion o up o  G causes lite respiaor problems.
6 NEGATIVE ACCELERATION
This is unpeasan and daneous. The eein o heaviness and inererence wih limb movemen
are simia o hose o posiive acceeraion. he speciic efecs occur primaril in he head and
neck. Exposue produces a sense o ulness and pessure in he head which ma ead o a
severe hobbin headache There is maked conesion o head and neck. Exposue o some
seconds poduces swein o he eeids and small haemohaes in he ski o he ace and
neck. The lowe eeids ma be moved upwads coverin he ees and causin a condiion known
as red o Conesion o he inin o he air passaes ma cause dificu in beahin and
nose- beeds ma occu. The conjunciva o he ees become suused and eddened and blurrin
o vision can occur. Exposue exceedin 4- G or lone han 6 seconds causes mena conusion
and unconsciousness. The incease in aeria pressure can cause a slowin or chane in hhm
o he hear ae. Exposue o neaive acceleraion poduces an upwad displacemen o he
diaphram and educes un voume and veniaion.

 VIRATION
Vibraion in an environmen can a bes be consideed a nuisance. Vibraion and acra ae snon
mous. I occus in various orms, ofen a reuencies o which he peson is unaware bu coud ad
versel aec bod uncions. The euenc o vibraion is measued in Hez (Hz). In aicra vibraion
is usua ceaed b he propusion ssem as well as he airame dnamics. The efecs o vibraion
on he human bod ae summarised in he ollowin abe
HERT EFFECT
 o 1 H Moion sicness
1   Seep inducin
3  4 Proressive aiue and discomor
5  8 Speech and espiaion become dificu
8  9 Vibraion is e as uterin
9  1 Difficul wih speech and vision
1    The eec esembles he esponse o execise  inceased effor in beahin, ches pains
and backache.

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 AC C LRATIO AD VIBRATIO - QUSTIOS
Page -

QUESTIONS
(ANWER ON PAGE    )

. Positive acceeao may podce vey cosdeable efects o te body

(a) oy if it eceeds 5 G,
(b) most otaby o e espiatoy system,  ecess of  G
(c) especally o te eyes, wee edced vsio may occ owig to a edctio i bood
pesse
(d) especiay o e lgs if  eceeds  G.

 A pogessve decease i te fow of bood to e eia of te eye as a es of positive g wil
ialy case
(a) gey o,
(b) ed o,
(c) back ot
(d) moo scess

3. e codiio "ed ot i te ma eye is likely o occ

(a) as a es of positive g maoeves,
(b) as a es of egaive g maoeves,
(c) as a eslt of epose to coios vibatio,
(d) if te fow of bood to e peipey of te eta edces.

4 aie i te fow of bood o e peipey of e ea of te eye as a es of postve g will ead
o:
(a) gey ot,
(b) ed ot
(c) dizzess,
(d) te vso.

5 Te tem "gey ot" is appled o

(a) e gadal oss of coscosess dg g g maoeves,
(b) te feelig of eavess i te lmbs dg posve g maoeves,
(c) te iiia codto wc ests fom a decease i blood fow o e eta of e eye,
(d) te pogessive fatige ad dscomfo associated wit cosa vibatio

6 e efec of sstaed egave g o te ma body s tat:

(a)  cases a dowwad dspacemet of e dapagm iceasig te volme of e gs,
(b) e owe eyeids may be moved pwads coveg te eyes casig a codo kow as ed
o,
(c) tee is a decease i te fow of bood to te eyes,
(d) ee is a cease i te fow of bood to te etia casg el vsio

 e efect of positive acceleao o te ma body is tat

(a) tee s a decease  e fow of blood to e ba,
(b) blood pesse beow ea leve deceases,
(c) ee is a cease i te flow of bood to te eta esltg  e vsio
(d) i cases a pwad dspaceme of te diapagm deceasig te vome of te lgs.

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HAPTER  FLYG AD HEALTH
Pag 8-1

FLYING AND HEALTH

A. STRESS
 DEINTION
Stss is th ogical st of an ovload of mea and/o physica pss and can b dvdd
into th physica o emoioa stss Physica stss can b casd by poongd physica
dscomfo sch as flyng an aopan thogh tbnc fo any ngth of tim With gad to
fying motiona stss is consdd to b th mo mpoant of th two and can b boady
catgoisd as th ace o chroic Stss indcng factos a fd to as sressors
2 CEGORIES O SRESS
Ace stss is considd to b ativy shor-erm and occs as a slt of immdiat dmands
pacd on th body sch as n th aviation contxt nxpctd wath conditions ncsstating an
npannd divsion to an atnat aipot o in oth wods som fom of flght dc ciss Onc
yo hav andd it sally disappas Chroic stss s mo sios, s ong asting and may b
boght abot by both positiv and ngativ vnts, sch as a bith maag, dath of a clos
find o family mmb divoc o concn ov mpoymnt scity o hath, o in oth wods
th podct of an nt lfsyl Whst both of ths stss condtons will mpact on yo fyng
pomanc, f thy a psnt simltanosly yo abilty to hand a sitation wil b aggavatd
3 SRESSORS
hs a gnay pacd in th catgos
(a Physical
This compss nvionmnta condtions sch as xms of both tmpat and hmdity
lac of oxygn, nois and vbation
(b Physoogcal
Ths inclds sp dpivation (fatg} hng whch may st in low bood sga th
dscomfot of a fl bladd o bowl a mild infction, fo xampl f, o pan, fo xamp
chonic bac ach
(c Emotiona
hs a say assocatd wth socal intacton pobms atd to th hom and wo
nvionmnt
. STIMUTION ND STRESS
It is a gnally accptd pincip that in od to act w nd a stimls and ths ofn tas th
fom of pss w tnd to act to dmands h dang s not so mch th dmand bt ath
how w cope with t O ablity to handl stss vais fom pson to pson, bt th a a
nmb of factos whch dtmn o spons
(a Hath
Is th pson w std, wl noishd n good physical condtion with a happy and lxd
psona lif
(b Psonaty
Is th pson otgong confidnt and abl to ma dcsions asily
(c Ppaaton
Has adqat p-fight ppaaton bn comptd
(d ntlignc and aptitd
Is th pson ght fo th job

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 FLYING A ND HEALTH
Page 8-
5. THE STAGES OF STRESS
The ha respose o sdde deads is aos isiive ad is ofe refeed o as he figh
o fligh respose The eaio oprises hee sages
a) The Alar Sage
The iediae reaio o a sresso is o eihe ofo i o flee fo i Silaio of he
piiay glad by he bai ases he eease of horoes whih i r igger he adeal
gads io eeasig adeaie io he bood sea The efe of adealie is o iease he
hearbea, he rae of beahig ad blood sgar levels A he sae ie i is oo o
expeiee ipoved visio, hearig ad sar segh - al of whih ay be eessay
eqiees for he solio o he alar
b) The Resisae Sage
The body ees a reovey ye ad sars o repai he daage eihe phsiologialy or by
adapig o he ew siaio learig o ope) o bease i os ases physia ad
eoioa sess is oly shor e No dob yo wil aeady have reogised hese fis wo
sages siply bease yo wi experiee he ay ies dig yor life The hid sage is
where higs a sa o go wog
) Exhasio
If he body is oialy sbjeed o a sesso i wil reai i he ala sage fo a prologed
peiod of ie Aviaio eaed exapes ide bad weahe experiees wio a ise
aig, oer ove he reliabiiy of he powe pa ad isfiie fe A prologed aa
odiio eas ha he body ay eveally be abe o keep p wih he deads plaed
o i ad exhasio resls  his odiio ool is os bease he id is abe o keep
a ore pespeive of aers ad i really exee ases he vii ay sipy give p
fhe aeps a a soio ad abado heseves o fae
Fo he pilo, he abiliy o eogise ad aage sess is via
6. AROUSAL
or abiiy o ope wih a paia ask depeds aiy o yo sae of aosa The poi was
ade ealie ha i orde o ea we eed a sis, fo exape a sdde figh o a rge
eed o respod Faos whih oibe o a low eve of aosa ilde boredo seep
depivaio faige) ad eve low body epeare Sypos of de-arosal sh as apahy
ad beig oo asal es i poor perforae Faors whih are assoiaed wih a high evel of
aosa ilde fear pai ad ak of ofidee This overarosa a esl of beig oo ese
a also ead o poor peoae Opi aosa ad heefoe yo abiliy o ope ies
soewhee bewee he wo wih a odiio of lower aosal beig ore sied fo oplex asks
whih by hei ae, eqire a al appoah A sae of highe aosal wold be sied fo
siple, ore eegei asks
7 ANXET
This is a odiio whih saly esls fo exessive wory Sypos vay fo a sese of
ease o appehesio ad eve fear The e res is poor peoae, dig whih he
folowig sigs ay be displayed
a) Physia
espiaio, beahig difilies evos wihes dy oh soah pais, headahe ad a
ieased hear ae
b) Behavioa
plsiveess ood hages fro beig igh-heaed o depressed sdde hages i
eoio laghig whe i is iappropriae beig ove ooperaive ipaiee warraed
age beig de, sokig, drikig ad eve eaig exessivey
) Faige
Beig extreey ied fro ak of seep ad/or ovewoked ad/o hroialy sressed
d) Mea
Poor oeaio ad jdgee iore hogh proess, forgeess

Private Plot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 FLYIN AND HEALTH
Pae 8-3
Ths condiion brouh abou by a chronc sress overoad is danerous for pos for al he
obvous reasons and shoud no be aen on board he aircraf f i s no possibe o address he
cause yourself see medca asssance Bt do ot fly
8 RECOGNISING AND MANAGING STRESS
The physical and behavioura sympoms of sress manifes hemselves n anxiey Once you have
reconsed hem i s mpoan o confirm wheher hey are actal sns or merey perceved
because of an unexpeced suaon Evaluaion of hese pressures may revea ha hey are no as
exreme as orinay houh and ha you can in fac hande hem confdeny In erms of sress
manaemen  is perhaps bes o dscuss he wo ypes of sress separaey
ACUTE STRESS
Ths s he easier of he wo o address The smpes souion o a feein of sress s o ae a shor
brea and reax From he pilo's poin of vew his s no always possibe whis flyn n whch case
slow deep breahn may help you o reax, ae soc and view hns from a dferen perspecve
Very smply, mae me I would be foolish, f no unnecessary, o commi o an approach in IMC if
you are no ready for i Say n he hod where aude and me are on your sde To hs end you
can aso prepare n advance o handle a sressfu suaon If he fh s on o erminae wih an
approach in IMC, pan ahead Sen he arcraf up, revewn he arrval and approach chas wel
in advance are procedures whch shoud be auh o you as par of your insrumen rain
preparaion no merely as ood armanshp aspecs bu aso so ha you wll no be shoced no
he approach, ryin o do everyhin a once and subjecin yourself o an unnecessary amoun of
sress Ben prepared in advance in hs manner wl aso hep you should an emerency also arise
CHRONIC STRESS
Ths is a far more serous suaon arisn from more on-erm ssues Treamen wi mos probably
be lon-erm and may incude a subsania chane n fesyle and possbly even employmen They
ey is no o nore he suaion un  becomes serious bu o approach i in a dedcaed and
serious manner n consulaon wih your marrae parner, famly members, a docor counseor,
employer or pries Tan abou he probem wih people who can ofer advce and suppor is he
frs sep A common approach o chronc sress is he oa body approach which aes ino
consderaon sx aspecs of wel-bein physoloca nuriional envronmenal, emoona spirua
and ifesyle vaues a of which are inerreaed n erms of boh crean sress (neaive) and
copn wih  (posive) For example a bad die or poor eain habs can ead o weh probems
and ac of enery which n urn can increase your sress eves Reduced enery resus in low
producvy eves a boh wor and home whch n urn increases he pressure o acheve cerain
ass (more sress) whs he nabiy o acheve hem can ead o a reducion n self-eseem whch
may uimaey lead o an mbaance n your fesyle I now becomes a vcous spral as he sress
increases he appeie declines and so he cycle connues Once a posiive approach o copin
wh sress has commenced a sow reversal process commences and one posiive efor wi have a
posve efec on ohers The bies problem s o summon he wil o mae he chane
Physioloca and nurona aspecs presen an deal sarn poin Exercse reaxaon and a ood
de (avodin acohol and drus) wl revalise he body ivin i he enery requred o sar o dea
wh he sress Envronmenal acion ncudes examnin he paces where you wor and ive and
he peope invoved n boh Vacaons and more ime of are mehods which are suiabe for
reievn sress As a as resor chanin jobs movn o anoher area or ermnain a reaionshp
may have o be considered Emoional acon basicay means adopin a more posive approach o
ife and insead of neaive aiudes, e compainin, become more pro-acive For many peope an
acve sprua nvovemen provdes he peace of mind necessary for sress manaemen and asy
sow down, do hins in moderaion, reax and ae ime for yourself
9 INCORRECT STRESS MANAGEMENT
Eo can be our bes enemy We are al subec o sress  s a necessary caalys for acon
The person who cams hey are ess afeced by hypoxa han anyone ese s probaby he same
person who beeves hey do no sufer from sress This same person may ry o avoid sress by
norin , or resorn o acohol drus or medcaion - whch may releve he sympoms bu
no he cause hey are unaccepable mehods of dealin wih sress These are referred o
as defece mechasms and may be joined by oher sbcoscos acions desined o remove
unwaned or panfu maers from our consciousness Generay hey incude
  A lac or awareness a condon where he bran subconsciousy refuses o reconise a sressor
 Aner, whch may incude bad lanuae and even voen behavour
3 Imainay scness as a means of avodin reaiy
. Daydreamn, where he mnd wanders of no a more comfoabe ream o avod realiy
5 Tryn o raonase or usify ncorrec acons, more ofen hese are excuses
6 Givin up, accepin whaever oucome presens sef

Prvate Plot Lcece © Avex Ar Trag 0/2004

Revso 2/200
 FLYING AND HALTH
Page 8-
By teir very ature, tese will ot sove or educe stess moe poay tey will exaceate it.

 FATIGUE
1 DEFINITIN
Fatigue ca est e descied as a vey deep tiedess. t ca e caused y te same factors
wic lead to stess ad ca also e divided ito two ypes.
2 TYPES
a) Acute Fatigue
Tis coditio ca occur as a esult of itese ad udivided metal cocetatio o pysical
activity, ove a pooged peiod. Te cure is relatively staigt foward a restul ad
uiteupted atral sleep uiflueced y alcool or drugs
) Coic Fatigue
Tis coditio occurs over a loger peiod as a esult of lack of seep, excessive workoad
stress ad eve jet lag It caot e as easiy cured as acute fatigue, equirig a prooged
recovey period ad i some cases te remova of te root cause. Te laws regadig fligt ad
duy time ae egarded as a pevetative measure.
3. SYMPTMS
e of te worst features of fatigue is te iaility to recogise it proaly due to te symptoms.
Some of te more ovious sigs iclude
a) vious tiredess slow ad frequet yawig, doopig ead
) Decreases awaeess esultig i a ack of espose
c) Muc slower reactios
d) ritaility
e) Poo cocetratio paicularly oticeale i istumet fyig
f) Fogetfuess.
g) Beig uae to sleep
) Reduced sor-term memory fogeig clearaces
i) Makig moe mistakes.
) Loss of appetite ad icreased reliace o alcool ad drugs suc as cafeie.
k) Mood cages erratic eaviour ad aggessio.
 PREVENTIN AND TREATMENT
Te most ovious metod of prevetio is adequate rest ad sleep comied wit a prope
alace ewee work ad rest  oe of te uderlyig priciples of fligt ad duty time reguatios.
Howeve a pope, aaced diet ad exercise also play a importat ole You sould avoid
excessive cafeie, alcool ad cigaretes as a meas of eiter reaxatio or as a pick-meup.

C. SLEEP
1  INTRDUCTIN
Seep is te ody's metod of recargig ad e-vitalisig itself ad te amout ad quaity teeof
ultimatey detemies ow well we ca perorm ot metaly ad pysicay Te aveage peso
requies eigt ous of resfu seep o if you like a ratio of oe ou of seep is equired for two
ours of activity altoug it soud e oted as a fact tat wome equie more sleep ta me
2 STAGES F SLEEP
Studies of seepig sujects duig wic te eectica activity of te sujects rais was
moitoed y a eectoecepaogram EEG) ave sow tat sleep peiods are made up of wo
types of seep. e type is caled rapid eye movemet (RM) sleep or paradoxical seep ad te
ote o-RM or orthodox sleep
a) REM Sleep.
Tis commeces some 9 miutes afer falig aseep ad is caacterised y te sleepe's eyes
movig rapidly ack ad for eeat te cosed eyeids REM seep is cosely reated to
wakefuess, due to te ig fequecy electrical waves wic occu duig tis coditio were,

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althugh the dy is elaxed, the ain actiity is simila t a pesn wh is awake REM sleep is
elieed t e the sleep peid which euenates the ain
) NnREMOrhdx Sleep
This cmpises fu distinct stages
Stage  is the tansitin etween waking and sleeping and is chaacteised y deceasing ain
wae actiity, slw lling eye mements and can last fm 1 t 1  minutes Stage  sleep
cntinues f appximately   minutes duing which ain wae actiity declines still fuhe
Stages 3 and  ae efeed t as slow wave sleep which is chaacteised y ery lw fequency
ain waes and is thught t e assciated with physical estatin
hese ypes f sleep ccu in cycles which hae een defined y electnically mniting ain
actiity, eye mement, muscle tensin and hea ate The sleep cycle is epeated up t 3 times
thughut a lng sleep peid, with the REM stage ecuing appximately nce eery 9 minutes
inceasing in length as the peid f sleep pgesses.
 SLEEP PATTERNS
Sleep patens and equiements ay fm indiidual t indiidual as well as accding t age. Olde
peple tend t equie less sleep, ut usually n a me egula asis Oeall the eight hu ule
applies  duing a twenty fu hu peid we equie eight hus f sleep, althugh it is a
that sme peple equie nly six, thes ten Night is usually the time duing which we sleep,
ut the dy can cnditin itself t sleeping egulaly at any time f day  night It is, f cuse,
nt always pssile t eceie the full quta f sleep, pehaps due t shif  wk duties In this
case the dy is ale t functin n less sleep, ut unless the deficit is made up permance will
educe Distued sleep patens, caused y whatee easn, esult in a deficiecy f REM sleep
symptmised y mental tiedness Hwee, duing the nex sleep peid the dy will change the
sleep cycle t incease the pin f REM sleep A full sleep peid f, say, eight hus will pide
what is called sleep credits f sixteen hus f actiity, afe which time the cedits ae nw ze,
yu will feel tied and yu enegy leels lw - the dy is telling yu t sleep If the sleep peid is
delayed yu will nw ente a sleep deficit esulting in a decease in alertness and pemance
This deficit can e cunteed y a lnge sleep peid than the nmal eight hus It is nt
pssile t sleep exa in de t uild up additinal sleep cedits f an exteded peid f
actiity, afe eight hus the dy will tend t wake up. Shte than nmal sleep peids esult in
less sleep cedits and althugh this may e cunteed t sme exent y a shrt nap, the ecey
ate f sleep cedits is slwe
. SLEEPING PROBLEMS
hee ae seeal sleep disdes which may afect the human dy, the mst cmmn eing
isomia,  the inaility t sleep hee ae difeent types f insmnia
a) Nerus nsmnia
he mst cmmn f all and paly ne t which we ae all suected at sme time  the.
Its cause is ased in the anticipatin f sme nea-futue eent, pehaps an exciting ne in the
case f childen,  in the case f aicew pehaps a ma flight test Sufees will expeience
disupted sleep f a few nights and ecey fm any tiedness is faily quick
) Situatinal  Acute Insmnia
This is the esult f a distuance in dy cicadian) hyhms, als efeed t as et lag, as a
esult f tael  een shif wk Again ecery is elatiely easy and achieed natually within
a few days
c) linical  hnic nsmnia
This is dificulty in sleeping in nmal cicumstances when the dy equies sleep The ictim
can e afected f weeks  een mnths and will mst paly equie medical atentin
Othe disdes assciated with sleep include
Naclepsy
A cnditin in which the sufee falls asleep at any time, een duing a situatin which equies
thei full atentin Natually this wuld peclude the sufee fm pusuing flying as a caee

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Sleep Apnoea
his condition causes a temporay cessation in beathing esuting in the sfee waking up
freuently and being deprived of meaningful sleep
Somnambulism
Sleep walking
5 SLEEPING DRUGS AND ALCOHOL
he use of dugs, with egad to sleeping habits is confined to two aeas eithe to stay awake
delay the onset of sleep) o to go to seep advance the onset of seep)
he most common and easily obtainabe sleepdelaying dug is cafeine which is pesent in cofee
and to a lesse etent tea
Sleep inducing drugs come fom a goup known as benzodiazepines eamples of which incude
alium Mgadn Libium and Nomason As with all dugs, thee ae wo chaacteistics which ae
impoant to its use; the dug's haflife the time taken fo the drug level in the blood steam to fal
to half of its peak value) and its efect on peomance which is paiculay impoant in the case of
piots
Acoho being a centa nervous system depressant, gives the impession of gving one a deep
sleep when in fact it does not Both the REM sleep and mental euvenation will be etaded you
may awake earlier than nomal and wil most pobably not fee too fresh! As such it is not an idea
method to rea and induce sleep afe a flight
6 SLEEP MANAGEMEN
Clearly, sleep is a vita pat of our wellbeing and should be managed caefuly with the emphasis
on natual sleep athe than on dug-induced sleep his wil involve pope rosteing in both nomal
and long distance fight opeations Fom the personal point of view cetain methods of seep
hygiene should be adopted to ensue a good and meaningful sleep
a) Be elaed Avoid stenuous physical o menta, eercise alcoho cafeine and age meas
befoe going to bed
b) Environment A comforabe bed in a dak, uiet oom at a pleasant tempeatue with fresh ai
ae ideal
c) Maintain a egula sleep schedule

D. CIRCADAN RHHMS
  INRODUCION
Despite the ega euirements of flight and duty time, the commecial and opeationa factors of
aviation in todays wod are such that air crew ae subected to a disuption of their norma egime,
including sleep hyhms and patens, with a resultant detrimental efect on their peormance
 BOD RHHMS
he human body is eposed to univesa hhms amost fom bith Eamples iclude the eaths
otation of the sun  365 days, the moons cyce  8 days the tida cycle - 1  hous and most
significantly the eah's otation of  hours which is ou basis of timekeeping
he body has several built in bioogical cocks which conto specific physiological processes, ehibit
egula hyhmic fluctuations and ae not under voluntay contol hese rhyhms have cycles of
appoimatey  hours and are termed circadian rhythms from the Latin a
appoimatey/about) and dia day) Epeiments, duing which al time cues ae emoved have
poduced evidence that the human fee running cycle is in fact closer to 5 hous but because of
eerna factos incuding day and night socia activities, clock watching and even meal times the
body cyce has become tied to a tweny fou hou cyce hese factos which provide ou time cues
are efered to as eitgebers from the Geman e sight) and ee give) and include such
things as established wakeup times fo work alarm clock) toilet habits, set breafast and other
meal times bus tain and aeropane depaure times the time that we finish wok the continual
efeence to a watch o clock and even teevision pogamme times Al of these, pus many more
see to align the body with the  cyce stongly infuenced by the sun - daylight is time of
wakefuness, whist night and darkness are signs that it is time to seep

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3. RHYHMS AND PERFORMANE
Huma eormace  at t lowet bewee 3 ad 6 ad at it bet betwee 1  ad 
our T i a electio o te luece o te 3 mot imorat cicada ym, ie te
sleep/wake ytm, body temperature ad hormone secretion ym A idivdua abity to
erom i drectly eated to te ie ad all o tei cicada rytm O all te body' rytm,
te lee/wake rym  te eaet to cage wlt te body temeature ytm i vey dcult
to alte ad a uc  oe ued a a eerece agait wic ote cyce ca be comaed Te
body' temeatue a bee oud to ie teadiy dug dayime reacg a eak durg eay
eveg beoe alig durig te gt to it owet level at aroud 5. Temeatue ca be lked
to eormace ig temeature ecouage alee ad good eromae, wt a ow
temeatue  aocated wit dowe ad educed meta eromace It ow te tat te
lee/wake cyce i ao aociated wt te body temeatue cycle ice ow temerature
ecouage drowie ad tereore lee A te body temeatue beg to e it ecouage
te body to wake u It ould be oted tat altoug te lee/wake aer may be dtubed, te
temeratue aer ema te ame Fo exame, i you wake  te vey ealy our o te
mog o wok, te ow body temerature aocated wit t tme o day wil reult i educed
erormace Te performance cyce, aociated wit bot ee/wake ad body temeratue
cycle ca, oweve, be modiied  you ae we reted i good ealt, wel motvated ad acted
i uc ki a are to be erormed Ti a acua igicace to te igt  worke wo
a to erom wel at tme we te body temerature ad ee/wake cycle ae ot well uted
o t Ae a ew day o adatatio a ew ee/wake ymc cyce wi become etabled
atoug te eak eormace acieved may til ot be te ame a te day i worke due i
ar to dutio o te lee eriod a a eult o eal wod zeitgebe uc a daylgt ad
darke, orma amly actvite oy traic ad eigbour Druto o te ee/wake cyce
ad oter ccadia rytm i aculary gicat we crog tme zoe
 IRADIAN DYSRHYHMIA (JET AG
ircada ytm are o morace o ot we croig meida or tme zoe o log
lgt cadia deycroiatio alter te time o bet ad wot eromace dtub ee
ater tu aectg erormace eve moe, ad eve aect te omal rytm o te bowe
ad uriay ytem wic ca ue erve a a ource o lee duto Travelig weward
ad avg croed everal time zoe, you will ow d youe at a locatio were te oca tme
die giicaty om you ow ome tme Aect uc a te ig ad eg o te u ad
te beaviour o te ocal oulato ae o oca tme wc you body clock  ot ycoed
wit You may eel like lee, we everyoe ee  taig to go about teir daily buie Te
quetio a to wat to do about t ealy deed o te duatio o your tay Fo mot iot, tu
aoud time  airy or ad doe ot warat te eycroatio eo becaue mot cicada
rym wil oy e-ycroe at a ate o about  to 1  our e day Tu a time zoe cage
o, ay egt ou may equie u to egt day to e-ycroe te body cck Te act tat
dieret crcada rym eque dieet eiod o tme to cage ca exacerbate te tuato
a tee ytm ae ow deycroed wit oe aoter T eomeo  kow a
circadian dysrhythmia, ad may eult i oo ee ad metal eromace, eadace
gidde ad diuted eatig abit
Fligt om wet to eat ted to be moe detrmetal ta toe rom eat to wet due to te act
tat we tavelig eatward you are tavelig away om te u, makg a day aear oe
ta  ou Te evee i te cae we taveig wetward ice we ae ow travellg wit
te u makig a day aear to ave more ta  ou o  you like moe daygt
Te ue o dug uc a leeg tablet ad acoo to iduce lee i togly dcouaged a
tey are cetal ervou ytem deeat iduce abomal lee ad may rema  te body
o og erod o time A ar bete egme  to avod caee, dayme aig, exceive meta
timuatio, emotioa te ad teuou exece beoe etig A comoable bed  a warm
vetlated oom wit a warm mily drk ad a ltle lgt eadg i bed i oibly te bet awe

E PILOTS, DRUGS AND SELF MEDICATION

Dug are bacally dvded ito wo categoe te o-caled mid-alterig ard drug uc a cocaie
ad LSD ad toe ued o medcial uoe wc ae eiter recribed by a doto o ucaed
over-te-coute ad cude edatve, taquie dug o cold iectio ad oter almet
learly ad dug ad yig do ot mx ad oud ot be mixed - a cea ead i equied  te
cockt I te cae o ecbed dug, t i imorat tat te recrbig yca be made awae
tat e  deaig wt a ilot a te condition beg teated and te oibe ee ad side eect
o te dug may reclude te lot rom yg ayway
Pot wo self medicate, or examle cod ad u, ae coutg date Te codto requig te
medicato ad/o te medicato take o te coditio may diquay te ot om lyg Pact
caly a drug ave ide eect Tee de eect uualy ot crtcal o te average ma i te

Private Pilot Licence ©Avex Air Training 0/2004

Revision 2/200
 FLYING AN HEALTH
Pag 88
stet cold e potetially hazados to the plot g th qimt to mak splt secod decsos,
pos to hypoa aomal acclato foces, viato as wll as codtios casig distac
to omal vsio o vestla fctios Eampls of som ove th cot dgs with sid fcts o
th evos ciclatoy vestla ad othe systems a
Paiklles decogestats ad atihistamis Ths ca cas dowsiss o phoia ad impai
viso, alace ad dgemt
Apptite sppessats May of ths cotai stimlats Th withdawal ca oe case sevee
depessio i a idvidal
Ppaatos sd to avoid asa ad vomtig Thse dgs a classfid as mao taqllises
have a sdativ fct ad ca cas lood pesse polems as well as tmos ad gla
haats
Atdiahoa ppaatos Most of these cotai atope o cod a moph divatv)
Oth so calld dgs som of whch may e pchasd ove th cot ca also cas polms
of th ow
  COFFEE
Caei, fod i cofee, s a stimlat ad cssv tak ca cas tmos ad somia
 ASPIRIN
Ths ca aggavate lces ad also polog ldig
3 ANTIHISTAMNES
These ca cas dowsss, which s aggavatd y the smltaeos take of alcohol
4 SYSTEMC DECONGESTANTS
These sally cotai atihistams ad thfo may have a smila efect
5. ALCOHOL
Besides havig addctve pottal it ca slow eflees ad dce a ephoic fct emovig
hiitios Choc log tm itake ca case ievesl liv damag, as wll as damag to the
ai, ha ad so o It is also a ditic ad ca lad to dhydatio Oga damage de to
ecssve alcohol itak ca occ efoe depedece devlops ad fo oth easos alcohol s
shold  cotolled The cetly acceptd saf om of alcohol itake s cosdeed to e 
its pe wek fo me ad  ts p wk fo wome, whee oe it cotaiig
appomatly 1  gm of alcohol) s the appoimat qvalt of 5 ml of  o a sgle
mas of spiits o wie Recogitio of alcohol dpdc o alcoholsm icldes the followg
symptoms sct dkg shakig loss of mmoy, a geate take eqied fo the fcts
ae otcal Teatmt iclds ecogito ad acceptac of th illss y th sf a
positive atitd, total astic ad pofssioal cosellig
6 TOBACCO
Toacco cotas th dpdce idcig dg cote, wthdawal symptoms fom whch may
com appaet wthi as shot a pod as  mts ad sally pset as iitaily
aggessio ad v hostlity Ncot s also a stimlat which acts o th ctal vos
systm ad dpsss, o masks the efects of fatg Hamoglo cotaid  th hma
ody's ed lood clls, has a geat afiity fo cao mooid, whch s cotaid i toacco
smoke ad ths adly asos t to th lood steam i pefeece to oyg whch advsly
afects th odys podcto of egy See Hypoa Cigaete smokig s cosidd a cas of
lg cac ad cadiovascla dseases Th mode td s to a smokg i passge
cayig acaf
As a pcato t s ecommeded that plots coslt thi Aviatio Mdcal Eames AMEs) as
to the possl sdfcts of th mdcato they wsh to take ad if tak th tim dlay fo
they a aga ft to fly, ecase wth oly a few cptios th s of all dgs s acceptale
wh flyig

Prvae Plo Lcence © Aex Ar Tranng 0/2004

Revion 2/200
 FLYING AND HEALTH
Pge 89
MEDCAON IN COMMON USE
A wide ge  pescripti medicti is vile ver the cuter. Hwever just ecuse it is
t  scheduled (pescripti) drug des not ecessrily me it c sely e used y pilts Ay
peprtis r cughs cds u siusitis hy ever  llergic cditis which cti anthsta
mnes  codene shuld e vided ecuse  their pssile side efects. he wig re exm
ples  cmm d mes  prescipti d prescripti drugs vile which shuld t
e used y pits  ctive lyig duty
PAINKILLERS
Stilpe Stpye Pirite e Betcd D re Beser Betpy
DECONESANS
Actied Siut Cepc Deg Dist
COUH MEDICINES
Beyli Cepc Demzi Lictied Phesedy Vicks mu 
ANACIDS
Rurge Bismrex
ANISPASMODICS
Prthie Cc
ANIDIARRHOEALS
Lmti lmdium
NAUSEA
Stuge Avmie
EYEDROPS
Ari
CAUTION: ALL DRUS HAVE A LIMED LFE AND SHOULD NO BE USED AFTER HE EXPIRY
DAE
he lwig is  ist  sme  the medicti tht my e used y light cew

Prvate Plot cence © Ave Ar Tranng 0/2004

Revson 2/200
 FYING AND HEALTH
Pae 8-10

TPE RESTRCTIONS/LMITATIONS
1  Atihypeteive
(a Thazide duret Mut umit a /1  U+ E
( Beta lker Oly water lue
ardieletve Beta ker
may e ued
2 Atut mediat
(a Allpuri Appiat uft if ymptmati,
r ui additial mediat
3 Malara prphyaxi Applat uft if ay ide
effet ur (e auea,
malae

. Ora traeptve Aer a 3 mth tral perd, i

the aee f ay

5 Thyrid upplemetat

6 Sdum hrmlyate

7 Chetyramie Applat uft f ay de

efet ur

Fiue  Safe Medication fo Ai Cew

F TOXI MATERIALS
The ature f flht  uh that the pilt i eaily ujeted t al maer f txi hazard me f
whih at e eaily eradiated Py the mt mm  ar mxde p, whih 
preet i eie exhaut a ad iarete ad i lure ad durle Hael ha a far
reater afiity fr ar mxide tha it de fr xye ad w readily trapt ar mxide
 preferee t xye Th reut  xye tarati f the rai ad the atedat dereae 
metal fite whih a ultimately lead t death Leaki exhaut ytem, r exhaut heat
exhaer ued t prvde ai heat are ready aue f ar mxde p Symptm i
ude, headahe, auea, ethary, redued meta aiity ad ultimatey uiue Reief 
taed y remv the aue ad reath freh air r pure xye Mt maufaturer f pi
teied liht airraf remmed pei the freh ar vet whe u ai eat r wdheld
demiter f freh air i t avaiae yu huld ad immediatey Fud arred i the airraf uh
a aviati fuel  ad hydrauli ad de- fluid al emit vapur whh are th irrtat ad tx
ad termati f the fliht  the a luti Airraf iterir a wel a paeer ei
ta pati whih ve f hhly txi fume whe uri ad ihaat f thee fume i 
idered t e the mt mm aue f paeer death  airraf  the rud Carriae f tx
material  airraf  trty vered y Par 92 f the Civil Avati Reulati, 1997

G. INAPAITATON
Praly a a reut f frequet ad exeve medial examiati ad a ee  repiiity re
ardi pera health, sudden iapatat f plt i exremey umm We are, hwever, hu
ma ad therefre uet t the ame l a eveye ele ad the deree f apaitat that
may reult
1  CAUSES AND SMPTOMS
(i Card-vauar
Sudde apatat ad the unconsciousness whih may flw,  pray the reut f a
maive hea atak (ray thrmi, whih  uualy preeded y hest pains ad
numbness i the arm ad ed  uiue

Pivate Piot Licence © Avex Ai ainin 0/2004

Revision 2/200
 FLING ND HLTH
Pag 81
(ii) Gatronriti
Th ha n idntifid a on of h mor ommon a of inapaatin amongt po.
Aompanid y vomiting, v omah pan or amp, fvr, diarhoa dhydraton and
vn vion and alan ditran, hi ondition an lad o total inapaaon
(ii) Epipy
Th  a ain diordr ding whih hr i a dirption of th rial ativy in th an.
Symptom vay dpndng on h vrity of h aa, whh may  dd a Major o
Mnor. A Majo ppt aa, mad y igidy onad m and ovlon folowd
y a lo of onion, may la fom 2 o 5 mint and  folowd  a dp lp. A
Mino plpti ata ally pn a a ap of awarn and a  han a mn,
folowing whih h frr ontin wih whavr hy w doing fo h aa wihot
raling anyhing ha happnd. Th ondion an o fom a vry arly ag,  an 
rogh on y ar ti n h rain a a r of a had injy Both odition pvn a
pron from hoding a pilot in
(v) Migain
Th mor vr mmr of a famiy of hadah Hadah a h do no involv h an
ti or h on of th ll whih a, in fat, innv o pain. Rathr i i aoad wh
th n and lood v arond h rain, a wl a an faa nv, th moh and
thoat, and m in th had and n. Nv n h aa hat om ithr ov
timad, damagd or inflamd nd pain ignal o h an and h vm xpin a
hadah. Th xat a of mgrain ata i not lar, t ontng fator ind
dd ood fow o h ran, low lood ga, high lood pr, fatig, r, aloho
and fring ight. Sympom ind vr pan on th on or oh d of th had,
naa and vomiting, o of appti, an inad niviy to ght and ond and may la
fom a fw hor o a fw day Som  xprin warnng ign pior o th aa,
nding wan, mntal onfion, ingling nation in arm and g, a val nation of
flahing lin and a an po n hir viion. Thi ondiion may prvn a pon from flyng
(v) Fant
Fainting  a ondion whih a a o of onion d o a rdtion in th ppy of
lood to th rain, ofn ad y poolng of h lood in th owr lim. Hahy popl an
f fom thi a a l of ho, lo of lood, la of food and an anorma por
oad a, f th a i nown, hold no infln mda fn o fly f h ympom
ar idnfid fo h faint or, h pron hod  noagd o  wth hi had
lowd twn th n f nonio, h pon hod  aid on h loor with th g
ad.
napaaon an  atgorid a ithr sdden o nsdos (gada)
2 CATEGORES
(a) Sddn napaitation
Unonion ogh on fairy apidly a a r of th a alrady mntiond.
n h a of ngl po opraion, and provding th pilot rogni h ympom qly
nogh, th mmda ation  to n th ara  a a af high and fyng in a ontant
dirion fo ngaging h atoplot
() ndio napaaion
A h nam impi hi  mor tl and an o lowly, o mh o ta th viim and
hi flow rw may no  awar of i. Hypoxa i a a xampl.
Pan or iln an  aoad wih th ondton in th form of gatrontri, oti
arorama, migran, in pain, id f of dg and food pooning. Whr h ymptom
ar ognid for fght hn tramn  ay do not fy n th ar th am ation a fo
ddn inapaaion hold  tan.

Prvate Plot cence © vex r Tranng 0/2004

Revson 2/20 o
 FLYING AN HEALTH
Page -

H GENERAL HEALTH
  OON INOR ALENT
Tis ildes ora day to day iess s as olds ileza ad gastoitestial psets Piots
wo are seig ro ay o tese ae eetivey pelded o yig or two easos te iless
as s will aet peroae ad te ediatio wete presried o ove-e-ote (OT
dgs wil ave side eets wi ilee yo aiiy to peor. Te ors gaied, te oey
eaed or te pereived prestige is ot wor iskig yor ie o te ives o te passeges. I yo
are sik do ot ly.
. TROPAL DEAE
Te ost oo o tese eslt o iadeqate saitatio ad ygiee ad ide:
TYPHOI D - trasied y wate otaiated y saloella ateria o aees ad ie,
syptos ilde serios owe proles ad ever wi a lead to delii. I ot treated it a
e atal It a e vaiated agaist.
HEPATTI - a vial ietio o te live wi a e trasited y ieted water or ood t
oe ikely tog ody ids s as lood ad saiva. yptos ilde tiedess ad ever
wi a lead to jadie. Vaiatio a provide so ter potetio
HOLERA - a epidei disease spead y ood ad wate otaiated y aea ateria.
yptos ilde voitig aps ad diaroea I paria deydatio a e ata. Potetio
is est aieved y oilig wate ad ookig al ood Vaiatio aids eovery t is o lile se
o potetio agaist tis disease
Oter diseases to wi we ay e seted ae
AARIA  a parasiti disease spead y a ieted aopees osqito is rretly te wod's
iggest kile. yptos appea etwee te days ad wo weeks ae ietio ad ilde
eadaes, iteiet ever ad asea. ertai aeas o te Repli aely te Lowved ad
orter Kwal Nata ae kow dager aeas Pevetio a take te o o oroqie-ased
ediatio atog it sold e oted tat eai stais o alaria ave eoe esistat to tis
type o ediatio Pilots sod also e awae tat soe o te ediatios ety sed ay
ave side eets s as eadaes dizziess gastroitestia distaes s as asea
voitig ad diaroea, ad eve lrred visio. Pilots sod ost a Aviatio edial Exaier
(AE) egardig te se o alaria propylatis
YELLOW FEVER  tasited y isets ad peveted y vaiatio, wi is eetive o te
years ad is oe a preeqisite o ety ito ay oties.
Pilots wo expet to y iteratioaly, parilarly ito Aria sold oslt tei AE o
assistae egardig potetio agaist loal diseases wi ay e eotered

. SURVVAL
I te evet o a oed ladig o ditig it ay e eessary or ew ad passegers to svive a
peiod o tie eore ese. Te prioities i s sitatios are geeally protecto ocato water
ad food Protetio eig te ost ip oat Te ooest ase o deat i tese oditios is
expose. Hypoteia i wate ad od lad oditios ad eat exastio ad deydatio i ot
oditios oo sese ditates te ease tat sod e derake i ea o tese sitatios
Ha eigs are war looded ad aitai ody teperatre vey preisely ewee 36 ad
36.9. A iia age i tepeate o jst a degree p o dow wi ase aor pysiologia
distaes ad drastialy aet te idividals aility to tio orally. Te ody ses te ao
ity o te eegy it podes to aitai its tepeatre ewee tese vey speii levels. Te ody
is er ae y speii eas to irease or derease eat loss ts re ealig it to eglate
its teperate we te exeral evioet is ostie old eat oss e exessive i old
weate te ody wil geeate eat y slar otratios. Tis etod o eat podtio woks
wel t it is osty i tes o eegy stoes ad a apidy lead to exastio eat ad teeore
eergy, a e oseved sig additioa ayes o lotig Were evioetal tepeatres ae
ig te ody gets id o exess eat y stig ood to te ski wee additioa eat loss is o
taied y ovetio ad sweatig. Deydatio apidly eoes a prole i ost lid is ot ade
qately eplaed I aqati oditios, te srrodig wate a e vey od, ad evey eor
sold e ade to get ot o te wate. Oe ot o te water potetio ro te wid, also a oo
ig ato, is essetial  s zeo tepeatres parilar are st e take o ads ad eet to
avoid ostite. I exessively ot ad or id oditios, adeqate lid repaeet st take plae
ad a tasks eqiig exerio sold e le or te ooler pa o te day o igt.

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Pag 813

J. CONTRANDICATIONS TO TRAVEL BY COMMERCIAL A IRCRAT

 olowng igrs can b sd as gidlns n tms o t mnimm tm inval or passengers
bwn inss or srgy and yng and vn tn only ssntal gs Pots may only sm ly
ing dtis w ir AMEs consnt
1 Wtin 4 ws o a a aac
2 Wn 2 ws o a sto
3 Wn 2 ws o y a, nos o troa sgy
4 No a al wl  jaw is srgically wrd;
 2 Ws a any abdominal o bowl sgy
6. Pgnancy byond 24 days o a taning miscariag;

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QUESTIONS
(ANSWERS ON PAE -

 Ace sess is consideed o e

(a of long draion,
( cale only hrogh medicaion
(c direcly elaed o poor die and oesiy,
(d reaively sho em

2 In he even of a foced landing o diching, generally he prioiies fo svival, in a hosile envion
men in orde of impoance are
(a wae food poecion and locaion
( poecion, locaion, waer and food,
(c waer poecion, locaion and food
(d food locaion, waer and poecion.

3 Ace faige in pilos is

(a es reaed y medicaion o make yo sleep,
( es eaed y resl and ninerrped naral sleep
(c es reaed y no flying for a leas 48 hos,
(d incale

4 Paradoxical o REM sleep is characeised y

(a high eves of ain aciviy,
( deceasing ain wave acivity
(c vey low feqency ain waves,
(d slow olling eye movemens.

 Chronic sress is consideed o e

(a direcly elaed o poor die and oesiy
( cale only hrogh medicaion
(c of long draion and may e elaed o polems associaed wih lifesyle,
(d elaively shor erm

6. The sage of Ohodox sleep known as slow wave sleep

(a is characerised y high levels of ain acivity,
( is he sleep period which ejvenaes he ain
(c occs every 90 mines
(d is chaaceised y very ow feqency ain waves and is associaed wih physica resoraion

7. The sleeping disode known as narcolepsy

(a is an inailiy o fal asleep as a esl of nervos xcimn,
( wold preclde a peson fom prsing a flying caeer,
(c is an inailiy o fall asleep as a esl of a disrance in circadian rhyhms
(d wold no peclde a peson from prsing a flying caree providing ha a siale medicaion is
sed.

8 e lag a disrance in ody (circadian rhyhms ofen manifess iself in he fom of
(a ace insomnia,
( sleep apnoea
(c nacolepsy,
(d nervos insomnia

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9 Cronic aigue in pilos:
(a can only be reaed by medicaion
(b is bes eaed by resul and unineuped naua sleep,
(c requires a long ecovey period,
(d is incable.

1  Circadian dysymia, o e lag, is a disurbance in body yms wic is more pronounced:
(a on igs om eas o wes
(b on ligs rom no o sou
(c on al ligs wic are conduced a nig,
(d on ligs rom wes o eas

1   In erms o sess managemen

(a a deence mecanism is e bes meod o dealing wi sress,
(b alcoo is an idea meod o andling sess,
(c deence mecanisms are unaccepable meods o deaing wi sess,
(d medicaion is e only meod o dealing wi sress.

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HUMAN NFORMATION PROCESSING

A. INRODUCION
lg a aiaf s a exese  w te ots sensory eetio, tat of baae viso tou
ad eag obied wt te decson makng process eates te equed oodated sal
eatio eessa to oto te aiaf e sae ods tue fo a eso divig a oto a o d
ig a bile I ode to udestad ow we oess ifoatio it is fist eessa to ave soe
kowledge of te sstes voved  te task

B. HE GENERAL SYSEM

  HE CENRAL NERVOUS SYSEM
E BRAIN
(a uto
Eaie we efeed to te bai as te bods oute ad  a lted sese, tis s so e
abil to tk seak, judge, easo ad ea ae al futos of te ua ba But oe
ta just tese itelletual atvites te ba also diets ou beatg, etabos, voluta
ad ivoluta oveets, egulates ad oodiates al te seso essos we eeive
ad te eotos we feel
(b oato
e bai s oused  a igid bo skul wi ovdes oteto aog wt tee dffeet
tes of ebae o eiges A ea olouess fluid aled te cererospnal fud
suouds te bai atg as bot lubat ad sok absobe ad also asssts te
boodstea i bigig utiets to te bai ad eovig waste oduts is lae task is
of aiua otae i tat it otets te bai fo otaiato b waste oduts
aied b te bood
( Coosto
( Ceebu
s, te lagest ad ost igl develoed a of te ba, s loated i te aea
iediatel ude te skul It s oeed wt te oe olex futios of te bai
su as tougt, eo, seso eetio voluta oveet ad as su is te
stutue w seaates uas fo ote aias e oute sufae of te eebu
alled te cerera corex is esosble fo otollg te seso ogas (ees ad eas
as wel as oto ativtes su as wakg ad ug
e eebu s dvded dow te dde fo fot to bak ito wo aves o
hemspheres ea of w s esosble fo otolg te ativties of te oppose side
of te bod fo exae te ef eisee otos te igt side of te bod Altoug
sila  aeaae tee ae ve lea funcona dfeees bewee te, fo exale
te develoet ad use of laguage see ad witg s aied out i te lef
esee, wlst te igt esee s esosible fo eatvi ad sata oietatio
(i Ceebeu
About te ie of a ea o ougl oeegt te e of te eebu, te eebelu s
osideed te ost tve a of te bai ad s esosibe fo baae o
equilbu, ad usua oodatio
(ii e Bai Ste
e ba ste oises sevea as te futos of wi ilude lkg te sia
od to te ige as of te ba, otolig te eatbeat, blood essue beatig,
bod teeatue, faia oveet ad sesato, ee usle otol, sex dve, easue,
a uge ad tist

Prvae Po Lcence © Avex Ar Tranng 0/2004

Revson 2/200
 HUMA IFORMATIO ROCESSIG
Page 9-
THE SPNL CHORD
Te na cord i contained wtin, and tu rotected by te bacbone or spnal column
wic i made u o ma bone caled vrtbra. Eac verebra  contructed lie a olid rng,
earated om te above and beow vertebrae by a cuionng ayer o carage caled a dsc
taced to te ear o eac verebra i a bony arcie tructue caled te spnal canal wtin
wic i oued te vey agile spnal chord Oenng between te vertebae allow neve to
ente and leave te na cod a tey a to and om te am, leg and trun. Te na
cord erve a te mao ln aing meage to and om te ban and te body
Togete, te ban and te ina cod come te central nevou ytem. e e iur 9-1.

rrum
in or

rum

in or

r

 nr rou ym  r n in or

Fgur  Th Cntral Nrvous Systm

. PERPHERL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Te eea nevou ytem, wic connect te cental nervou ytem to te body organ
ytem comrie te somatic and autonomc ytem
Te omatc ytem ncude snsory neve wic ca meage om te ene ogan and
ote body recetor to te ban or roceing
Te autonomic ytem, or bologcal control systm ncude nerve wic are ony motor nerve,
te uroe o wc i to reguate bodiy uncton uc a breating, weating ea ate and te
blining o te eye No conciou tougt i equed o ti ytem to unction
Rflxs ae anoter exame o te unctoning o bot te omatic and te autonomic ytem 
you nadvertenty touc ometng wic i ot you will automaticaly ul your and away witout
your brain telling you to t  te lin between te enory neve, wic ee te eat, and a motor
nerve, wic direct te reone.
3 SENSE ND SENSTVTY
t wa te Gree looer rtotle wo caied te ive ene a gt, ound, mel, tate
and touc. Today, o coure we now tat tere are indeed many more te more ernent,
ea, rom our oint o vew being vetibua (acceeaton, balance, gravty, netetic (te
ability to detect moton toug ou muce, tendon and oint and te n ability to dtingu
cold and wamt a wel a an and reure.
t i troug snso rcpton tat we react to cange in te body ntena and extena
environment Te body organ aocated wt te ene contain igy ecaied ene cel or
rcptors wic are excted by a articular timulu Te snsitivty tat i it aby to eond to
a tmulu o te eceto n te variou ogan  derent. Potoreceto n te eye ae
enitve to lgt, mecanoecetor (in te in and ear ae enitive to touc, ound and
equilbrum cemoreceto (in te noe and mout ae entve to mel and tate, wilt

Prvat Plot Lcnc © Avx Ar Tranng 0/2004

Rvson 2/200
 HUMAN INFORMATON PROCESSING
Page 93
hermoeeos osay moio the bodys emeratre Stmlatio of a eetor ases a ee
imse to be rasmted o he reevat at of the brai whee it is roessed ad teeted ad
a esose ssed.
here ae, howeve, mis o he efetiveess of the varios reeors, a enor threhod below
whih a reeto ao dete a stimls  ommo exame of ths, whih is eriet for ios,
is sod eithe ve sof, ehas osde of or freqey age o heaig loss de o age). he
sesory heshod seves as a idatio of he sesitivty of the sese ogas ad he testig of
eyes ad ears foms a imoat a of he avao media examiao
Reetitive smlao of a reeto a lead to adaptaton a oditio whee thee s a grada
derease i the esose to that stims to the exe tha yo beome omletey awae of  
yal examle s weag a wstwath, eve hogh  s ohg yo ski, d may eve be
fairy tight, yo wil soo beome awae of t Yo may be smlary afeed by osa exosre
o sod

C MEMORY
 . DESCRPION
Memoy od be oosely defied as the bais ably to sore ad eal iformaio ad s
osidered esseal for ielige behavior, for wiho t we wod be abe to ear It s still ot
fly destood how he memory woks, b i sime erms memory stoage foows a hema
hage bewee he erve ells o eoes of those as of he bai assoaed wth memoy 
he erebal oex, haams ad hoams. Eah time we ear somethig ew this hemal
hage reates ew athways o memory trace whh we a atvae a ay te to eode a
memory
2 PES
Whis we ted to thik of memory as jst beig he ability o real evets, hoghts or fats
motor-k memoy is sed to ear o remember moo skills sh as ridig a biyle, drivg a ar
ad, yes, fyg a aeroae. his abiiy makes t ossibe fo s to eom may ftios witho
concou thogh. Factual memo alows s o real more omlex thigs sh as oey,
detty mbers, elehoe mbers, faes of eole we kew a og tme ago ad so o.
Basialy here ae thee evels of memoy
a) Sesoy or Immedae Memo
he sheer vome of stml to whih or seses ae sbeted meas that i is oy eessa
fo he brai to eai these sesoy s for a few seods, or jst og eogh fo the bai
o deide whh of the sm o at o I s, ehas, ierestig to ote eah sese has ts
ow memo tore ad that the tme sa of eah varies, fo exame a vsal image obably
asts fo a seod, whereas sods may be etaed fo as mh as egh seods
b) Sorerm or Workig Memoy
his s he abiy to reai fomatio i temorary sorage or, if eessay, wok wh it for a
slghy loge erod Whist  tems of capact  is geeraly ageed that the soerm
memory is abe to hod  o even tyes of reated iformatio, he perod of eeto
aeas o vary aordig to oio from bewee 1 0  20 seods, to 30 eods, to a few
mies Ceraily ifomatio deays vey raidly less we ososly rehease, o eeat ,
or se i Fom he ot's esetive he dager of he shor erm memoy is ts iabiy to
rea a o of iformatio fo a log eiod, whh derles the eessiy of wg dow, for
exame, a IFR deartre learae. oher exame of the lmitato of he shoerm memory
wold be whee yo are give a teehoe mber to da  as soo as yo have fiished
dallg it yo wil robaby have forgoe most of the mber ess yo otaly eeat t i
yo md  method sed o ty to irease he aaiy of the shoterm memo is
hkig, o goig together items of fomaio o emember them as oe , fo
exame ombiig boh the feqey ad idefaio of a adio avigatio beao as oe
tem, rahe ha wo seaae oes he se of memos is ratsed i fyig to emembe
heks, fo examle dowwid heks BUMFF)
he sho-erm memoy aso ftios as a workng memory  hat ew formaio a be
aoed or aeavely iformao a be draw from the log-erm memoy fo se. I his
way, the shoterm memory as as a way statio, roessig iformatio i a attemt to
remembe  ehe by rehearsal eeo, o rote) o by eodig destadg o ikg ew
formatio o some aleady aqired iformao) before tasferg i to the logtem memory
Eodig or destadg ifomatio s deemed the more sessf method of eaiig

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ifoato Reheasal o ote leag like cag fo a exaiatio, seldo esults  log
te etetio.
(c) Log-te Meoy
The log-te eoy, the ais had die, s whee the geatest capacity fo stog
ifoato exists. Hee foatio ca e stoed fo a few oths, a few yeas o a etie
lfete  the capacy alost defies elief. If ot used egulaly foatio stoed hee does
decay with tie although edece suggests that ifoatio is ee fully fogotte it eely
ecoes oe dificult to etiee Po to stoage ifoatio is classifed ito two aeas
(i) Seatc Meoy
Seatic o meaning eoy deals with the stoage of foato i wod fo ad s
assocated wth aility ad udestadg such as dig a ca o flyig a aeoplae ad the
use of laguage o eeeig how to spell a wod Clealy if we ae to stoe foato
hee we eed to nderstand t a actio that eques cocetato ad total aeto ad oe
that is ot the poduct of ote leaig. We ca help ouseles y assocatg ew foato
wth that aleady stoed o y leag ew ifoato i the eioet whee it wll e
pactsed fo exaple a expeieced flyig istucto will suggest to a studet that he sits 
the paed aeoplae whle leag a sequece of checs athe tha i a cofoale chai at
hoe
(ii) Epsodic Meoy
Episodic o the event eoy s esposile fo stog eets o epsodes which hae ee
expeeced duig ou daly lies. It s quite coo that such eets ae ot stoed
copletely accuately ut ae flueced o odfied y ou ow atitudes ad expectatos The
testoy of a peso who s a expet i a pacula field ad ay hae wtessed a cidet
i his aea of expese, ay e coloued y hs ow oinion of what occued athe tha e
a exact accout of what actually happeed
3 REMEMBERING AND ORGEING
Oce foato has ee stoed  the eoy it ca e etieed o ecalled at ay tie ad 
diffeet ways Recoection eas that we ae ale to ecoe o epoduce ifoato that we
hae stoed i ou eoy Aothe ethod of usig eoy is recognition - the identification of
foatio o ateial that we hae ecouteed peously It ofe happes that we ght
ecogse soeoes face ut ae uale to eee the ae - a classc exaple of good
ecogtio ut ad ecollectio Aothe exaple of whch s the dificuly i eeeg a
pacula wod These lapses i eoy ae stll ot fully udestood ut see to illustate the
coplex pocedues ioled  eoy stoage ad ecollectio Methods used to ipoe eoy
clude
(a) the use of checklsts
() eoics
(c) pactice ad epetto
(d) associato with stoed data
orgetting, which s pehaps cosideed a ad thg actually sees a ipoat fucto ad ay
e classfied i thee dieet ways:
(a) The Efect of Te
The atual atto due to the passage of te Ifoatio whch s ot used o is o loge
useful teds to e dscaded
() Itefeece
Ths theoy suggests that ew ifoatio whch is added to the eoy iteees with sila
ifoato which is aleady stoed
(c) Motiated
Ths efes to the desie to foget soethig ecause you wat to Upleasat o tauatic
eoes ae stoed y the a  a way that akes the dficult to ecall ad i the pocess
spae you uecessay etal aguish.

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4 AMNESIA
his em efes o he loss of he abiliy o emember I ca apply o old o ew memories ca be
oa o paial pemae o oly empoary ca be as a esul of bai damage o cocussio
disease dugs or psychological auma. Mos commoly i afecs episodic memory oly so ha
eves are forgote bu he perso is abe o spea coherely he difee ypes ad causes
iclude
a) Age
his is a commo cause possibly due o deerioaio i he cadio-vascula sysem which
esuls i oo litle blood ad possibly oo few uies reachig he bai Sice memoies are
soed i differe pars of he brai i ofe happes ha od memoies ae reaied bu more
ece eves ae forgoe. he degeeraive diseases of old age ae also esposibe fo
deerioaio i memoy ad amesia. lde me ae suscepibe o asie goba amesia
which ca cause oss of memory fo miues o hours.
b) Alcohoism
Log em acoholism esuls i he gradual deeioraio of bai cels ad hus memory. Very
heavy diers are uabe o emember he eves ha ook pace while hey wee ioxicaed
c) Head Ijuries
e of he effecs of a head ijury is emporary amesia wih he memoy loss occuig from
he ime jus befoe he ijuy uil jus afer Usualy memory reurs as he ijury heals.
d) Cassic o Hyseica Amesia
his is usually he esul of emoioal sress where he sufere is so overwhelmed ha amesia
povides he escape from eaiy he peso may believe hey ae i a srage place o ow
hei ame fom where hey come o o where hey ae goig Ivariaby ough hey have
reaied a kowledge of aguage ad social cusoms.
e) he ypes of Amesia
Less commo ypes of amesia icude Audiory Amesia i which hee is o memoy for
wods ad Visual Amesia which is he iabiliy o ecogise objecs ha were oce familiar ad
eve pied words
f) Fugue Sae
his is a psychatrc condton, which may las from a few days o a few weeks, i which a
perso suddely oses al ecollecio of heir persoal ideity ad pas life duig he course of
which hey may move o aohe aea assume a ew ideity ad employme oaly uaware
of ay chage i heir omal exisece. Eually suddely he codiio passes eavig he
sufere disessed ad cofused as o how hey came o be i his ew evirome ad uable
o remember ayhig ha occurred while i he fugue sae. his codiios eds o afec oly
hose wih hyserical pesoaiies o a backgoud of charace disoder ad is geeraly
caused by a vey iese emoioa expeiece

D INFORMAION PROCESSNG
. AENIN AN VIGIANCE
he abiliy of humas o pocess ifomaio is effecively deemied by wo facors he attenton
pa ad h sho tem memoy, wih he limied amou of ifrmaio which i ca rai he
coo ha we have ove our aeio is limied ad o mater how vigila we may ry o be we
ca be easily disraced by oher sighs or souds. Huma aeio ca be caegoised as folows
a) SELECIVE AENIN
his is simply a sysem of examg ad prioriisig he seso ipu simui. hose simuli
which are perie o he ask a had are reaied whis he remaider jus ade away. Sess
pays a impora role i he eeio of simui whee sress eves ae o oo high excess
capaciy alows he perso o be awae of ohe simui such as someoe callg you or i he
case of he pio of a aeropae audible warig sigals or AC commuicaio Where sress
levels ae high a greaer demad is paced o our ateio ad i is possible ha impora
iformaio ca be overlooed o discaded Fo exampe he pilo of a aicaf joiig a very

Prvate Plot Lcence © Avex Ar Tranng 0/2004

Revson 2/200
 UMAN INORMATION PROCSSING
Pag 6
bsy circt at hgh spd, tyng to ook ot for trafic istn to AT and coplt anding
chcksts as on fna appoach only to fnd th landng gar still rtactd
(b DIVIDED ATENTION
En thogh or atntion ght b focsd on on task, t s stl possb for othr stii to
intrd and did or attnton. This ablty shold not b confsd wth moo poammes
whch alow s, withot conscos thoght, to cary ot sal physica tasks at onc, sch as
walkng whst swinging a walkng stck with on hand and ating food hd in th oth Diidd
atntion in th thoght procss is pa of a o copx nfoaton procssing syst
condctd by th brain This faclty is coony frd to as th cockta pay fct in that
if yo ar in a grop of pop yo ght b concnd wth on conrsation ony bt stil ha
th capacity to ohar yor na bng calld It can b both good and ad Th ablity to
did or atntion is both sfl and ncssay in any actitis and fro th aiation point of
iw s what nabls s to cay ot sconday tasks sch as changing raio frqncs or
aircra configration and conicating wth AT whist stl fying th  arca Howr, th
ngati sd is that it aows or nd to wand onto oth atrs fo xapl what w ght
b doing onc th flght is or
2 STRESS AND AROUSAL
Stss and aosa (anss tnd to go hand in hand Th or strssd w ar th or a to
th cas of th strss w a, aost to th xcson of oth nts which qr atnton This
rdction, or n fair n didd antion is ofn th cas of ishaps cas porant
nfoaton has bn ssd, for xapl th gar p waning sgnal Th abity to diid yor
attntion s an poant skil for piots and gnally pros with coptnc and xpnc
3 INFORMATION OLLETION AND PROESSING
(a THE FUNTION OF THE BRAIN
oonly frd to as th ntral Dcision Makr, th brain is cnta to th han
inforaton pocssing syst Infoation which is gathrd by th snss is transid by th
nos syst to th brain wh it s alatd, a cos of acton dcdd pon or stod as
pa of th larning and bring pocss W ha ofn rfrd t th brain as a
coptr sipy bcas n any rspcts it fnctions th sa it has ory contos
fnctions and systs, and prods soltons to pobs This incdibl dc has a gratr
pocssng and ory capacy than any coptr yt bilt bt as a dcision ak has a
ajor litation t has only a sine cannel capaciy. In othr wods it s only ab to pocss
on thng at a t and th dcisons which a aid at a no stanos, bt athr a
seies prodcd on afr anothr
(b STRUTURE
Th thod of nforation pocssing by hans follows a sris of phass hich can bst b
xpaind by sing a od dagra which shows, in sip ts, th sqnc of nts
nold.

Shor tr/ ntal

Snsoy Dcision
wokng
stli Makr
oy
Acton
Moto
progas

Fdback

Fiue 2 e Model of Infomaion Pocessin

( THE STIMULUS OR PEREPTION
This is th fist phas in th procss and is podd by or snss Ths stl, o incoing
sgnals, ar transitd a th prpha nos syst and th cnta nos syst to th

Pivae Pilo Licence © Avex Ai ainin 0/2004

Revision 2/200
 HUMAN INORMATION PROCESSING
Pae 97
s em sensy se. A any ime duin e cuse  nmal daily aciiy we ae aced
wi a eiale aae  simuli, u nly a wic is peinen  e ask a and is teed
out, as a uncin  u aenin mecanism (seectve) and e es is discaded
EXAMPE
n leel li e pil, wils scannin e li insumens obseves a decease in ei and
a ain in speed.
(ii PROCESSING OR ANAYSS
n is e secnd pase e inmain is nw analysed and cmpaed wi a aleady
sed in e memy  m a menal mdel and a decisin is made y e cenal decisin
make  eie ac  ile i away in e ln em memy (ememe, wic is w
exeence is acuied Tis pcess is me cmmnly knwn as inkin
EXAMPE
y cmpaisn wi knwn cndiins sed in e memy e ain decides a e aicafs
aiude is incec (nse lw
(iii ACTION AND FEEDACK
ACTION
Once e ain as decided n a cuse  acin i sends u elecical sials ia e m
nees  e apppiae muscles wic eac in espnse.
EXAMPE
sin e elea e pil adjuss e aicafs aiude  e leel psiin
FEEDACK
Feedack n e decisin (cecincec is pided y u senses m wic ue
cecie acin can e aken.
EXAMPE 1
Te pil sees a e aica as spped descendin and speed is csan e cec
cnl cane was made n ue acin euied.
EXAMPE 2
Te pil sees a e aicaf is nw an ei and lsin speed, m sed
inmain e ain deemines a e aicaf is nse i and sinals e muscles 
espnd accdinly.
(i Tis med  inmain pcessin, ie eceie pcess, acin, eedack is called e
closed oo system since e cenal decisin make is cninually inled in e pcess
ecause  eedback Tu eedack e espnse  an acin can e ideniied and, i
necessay ue acin iniiaed, as in e examples ien, wic allws us  mainain
cninuus cnl e e peain
(c MENTA OR MIND SET
One  e danes  inexpeience is exectaton  menal se. F example eain wa yu
want  exect  ea can inluence e pecepin sae  inmain pcessin. Te
iexpeienced pil w k  n unway 03 and euned  e aiield an u lae expecs
 land n e same unway and may een appac e aiield  jin in an apppiae
psiin  unway 03 Insucins  jin  unway 21 wee n expeced and cnusin
esuls. In is case ein inexpeienced as inceased sess leels and e antcaton  a
jinin pcedue, wic is d as lead  a menal se wic is n d! Sess as e
efec  diminisin pecepin and explains wy adi calls  unansweed and e ea es
lef up despie e wanin sinal.

Pvate Pot cence © Avex A Tanng 02004

Revsn 2200
 HUMAN INORMATION ROCESSING
ae 8
 ERRORS IN ERCEION
he coect ecsio ca oy e mae if the iformatio eceive s corect. Eors i
eceto the rocess of recev a aaysi ifomato have areay ee escrie
esewhere  ths ook, a ce vestla a ovestia illsios ee ae .
e RESONSE IME
his efers to the tme erio etwee eceiv the stims a reso to t. he actal
time erio ees o st how comlex the oem s a whethe the rai, as cetal
ecso maker s ivove f the resose to the stmls is thoh a moto oramme oy,
the esose time is vey shot t where the resose eqies coscos thoht a
ecsos y the ai the esose time may icease sstataly
4 HE MLIFNCONING BRIN
lthoh the a ca e accratey esce as a siechae decisio maker, its owe is
sch that we are ale to carry ot a vaety of fucios at the same tme. his s mae ossie y
the feret lees of meta actvy of which the a s caale, the most avace of these
ei coscos thoht or cogiio
(a HNKNG
hs is the rocess of coscious ecisio maki ase o iformatio receive thoh
sesory stimls which s aalyse a ehas comae wth that whch s alreay store 
the memoy kowlee follow whch a ecisio is mae a acto tiate.
( MOOR ROGRMMES
hee ae may tasks which we efom  eveyay ay ife which have ecome reetitive to the
oit that we ae ae to accomsh them atomaticaly wihou coscios hough Sch
actios ae the est of moo pogammes the eefit of whch s that withot the ee for
ect volvemet, the a is ae to cocetrate o the ecisio mak tasks whilst at the
same time we ae ae to eorm other fctos simtaeosly. Some coscos moioig
w, howeve e reqre. Drvi a ca, rii a cyce, wak, seak a eve yi yor
shoe laces ae al exames of motor roammes t at the same time howeve t shol e
stresse that a moto oamme s oy as oo as the tme set ractsi it If yo have ot
e a cycle for a few years the iital attemt will e shaky t the skll rets wth
eeate actce
tmately, some asects of fy a aeoae aso ecome a motor orammes. he early
staes of fyi trai eqe almost tota cocetrato, t as roress is mae a ew
skils are leae a eveoe y cotial actce moe sace ecomes availae for other
asects sch as s the aio, kee a aviatio o, eai a ma a so o he motor
oramme for fly is ei eveoe. Oe of the eatve asects of a motor oramme s
that wthot iect or coscos thoht they are oe to eror or acio slips for exame
releasi the maa fa eve istea of the ak rake rio to taxi o retract the ear
istea of the electricaly oeate fas. Motor orammes sch as these ae cale ope loop
sysems, sce the ai s ot iecty vove a o feeack is ive It ecomes cea that
some moto roammes eqie the ai to aot a moitor role, o  other wos, thik
efore yo act.

Piae Pilo Licece © Aex Ai Taiig 0/2004

Reisio 2/200
 HUMA IFORMATIO PROCESSIG - QUESTIOS
Pag 91

QUESTIONS
(ANSWERS ON PAG 1 1  1 )

1  A moo programm  a aio whih

(a i aomplh hough lv ao,
(b i aomplih hrough iv ao,
( quir oiou hough,
( i aomplih wihou oou hough

2 A ugu a i a oiio whih

(a may la om a w ay o a w wk,
(b au oal ama
( au mmoy lo u o h paag o m
( allow aio o b ma wihou oou hough

3 Smai mmory i mmory whh al wih

(a h oag o v whih hav our urig li,
(b h orag o iormao i wo om
( h mpoa orag o omao,
( hukg

4 A lo loop ym i a mho o proig ormao whih

(a  u by moor programm,
(b ilu bak,
( lu bak,
( or aa i h mai mmory

5 h ak o amig a pioig ory pu mul i a uio o
(a a moo pogramm,
(b iv aio,
( lv ao
( mai mmoy

6 h abiliy o ou o o ak bu ll b alr o oh imul  a uo o
(a iv ao,
(b liv ao,
( moo progamm,
( aapaio

7 Iormao prog whih ivolv ao a bak 

(a all aapaio
(b a ampl o a moor pogramm
( all hukig,
( rrr o a a lo loop ym

8 h pro o groupg oghr m o iomaio o mmb hm a o u  r o
a
(a ammig,
(b aapg,
( hukig,
( groupg

rvate lot Licence © Avex Air Traning 0/2004

Revsion 2/200
 HUMA IORMATIO PROCESSIG - QUESTIOS
Page 92
9 Te abiiy of te so tem o woking memoy to poess uneated infomation i imited to:
(a) between 1 0 and 20 types,
(b) 7 ypes,
() 30 ypes,
(d) between 2 and 5 types.

1 0 unking is
(a) te abiity to fous on one task but sti be aet to ote stimui,
(b) te stoage of infomation in wod fom,
() a metod wi an be used to inease te apaiy of te ong tem memoy,
(d) a metod wi an be used to inease te apaiy of te sot tem memoy.

1 1  A task wi is aompised witout onsious tougt is efeed to as

(a) uning,
(b) adaptation
() a moto pogamme
(d) a osed oop system

1 2 Adaptation is
(a) a gadua deease in te esponse to eepto,
(b) te abiity to fous on one tas but sti be ae to ote stimui,
() an ation wi is aompised witout onsious tougt,
d) stimuation of te so tem memoy to inease its apaity

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HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
A INROUCION
Human bengs dfer fom one anoter not only pyscay and inteectualy, but also n teir personality
caractestics It is tese difeences wic not only dentify and set us apat as ndividuas but n
many respects determine ow we interact wt one anote

B GENERA CONCEPS
 PERONAITY
Personaity s te term wic is used to describe te caactestcs of a pesons beavour, atitude
and feeings It is ofen a source of ataction between two indivduals wo recognise in eac oter
tose caactestics wc ae simiar to tei own Indeed, eac time we meet someone new we
eite conscously o sub-consciousy sta to evaluate tei pesonalty identiying tose
caactestics wc argely detemne ow we wil eact towards tem
a) CHARACERIIC
e development of a peson's personaity is consideed to start at an eary age and many
caactestics, suc as temperament, eoveson, introveson aggession, aniety and
ndependence may, according to opnion be ineted ose wic emain stabe and resstant
to cange ae refeed to as personality traits and are usuay aready well establsed by te
age of si Ote nfluences suc as envronment famiy lfe and culture also contribute
Personaty taits are vey dificut to cange and f an atempt is to be made, intensive
psycoteapy would be equired
b) INDIVIDUAL DIERENCE
Personaity caracteistics and taits form an impoant par of pot selecton, paticuarly for
mutcrew operaton were cockpit confct must be avoded Pesonaity assessment takes many
foms from personal interview to wrtten tests o questonnares wc are based on a procedue
known as actor analysis s metod nvoves askng seveal tousand peope a series of
questons concening ter opinions abts, lkes and disikes Coreation of te esponses
dentifes establsed patens in pesonalty caracterstcs: people wo enoy ave clubs and
disco-dancing are ady likey to be found n a museum o a ibrary At te most basic eve,
personality can be epressed n one of two ways eoversonintroveson and aniety
An extrovert s an peson wt recognised tats of beng impusive domnant, assetve
uninibited and sociabe introvert s consevative, cautious and sy Anxiety manifests tself
in etremes from emotonal nstabiity to gut fear and woy and can apply to bot erovet and
intovet Most peope are we baanced and can tus be refeed to as aveage but as te
pesonality moves fue away fom ts aveage so te caracteristics become more
ponounced above te average  initialy stabe, responsve and easygoing becomng more
aggessive, anious and cangeabe Below te average - introveted nitaly stable tougtu
and controled becoming anious, sobe and pessimstic
It becomes cear now wy cetain personates are beter suited to ceain types of work; te
anous erovet s not likely to be an accountant or bank manager, te anious ntrover woud
probably not be a good saesman Civi aviation plots tend to fa nto te stabe etovet
categoy, eady to take calculated sks wtout being mpulsive tril seekes
c) AITUDE
A person's atitude stems fom personal beief feelngs or some knowledge of a subect and is
ofen epressed eiter as an opnion o by beavour Atoug acqued eay in fe tey ae
less fied o gd tan a pesonalty tait and can tus be modifed o canged fary easly by
moe nformed knowedge o n te case of piots by etensve training Amost on a daily basis
we are subected to adverising poitca retorc, egous peacing, family pressure and a ost
of ote nfluences al of wc can modiy o cange ou atitudes Piot atitudes towards
cockpit management and risktakng can be easily modfied toug training Crew Resource
Management CRM) taning s amed more at canging o developng atitudes in ode to
mpove team decson making, rate tan at canging pesonaltes Attudes are measured or
assessed by various tests o by inteview wt te aim of dentyng possible azadous attudes,
of wc five ave been identfied

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 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR 
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(i) The At-Authoty Attude
Ths attitude mafests itself i the peso ho fo o appaet easo dislkes eig told hat
to do ad efuses to oey the ules t is commo amog a ceai type of motost ad
dageous  a acaft cockpt
Soluto
Rues ae ceated fo a easo ad ot y some cotol feak Too may people fly y the ules
ad ve to ete fo them to e og Accept ad compy
() The Impulsive Atitude
mpusive people ted to act o eact ithout coscous thought  the elef that somethig
must e doe mmedatey ad as a esult usualy ceate a gge poem tha they aeady
have
Soluto
Thik efoe you act
(i) The Ivuleaiity Attude
The it i eve happe to me sydome This fealess VFR plot elieves thee s ue sky at
the ed of ths cloud a uay to lad o ad oy othe peope ecome disoeted ad
cash aeopaes
Souto
t can happe to you Accept that as a huma eg i a aeopae you ae vuleale ad
should have a viae alteative couse of acto
(v) The Macho Atttude
Ths sk ake is ot iteested i eg pa of a team ecause he s ette tha eveyoe
ese put togethe ad ll ty ad pove it f he s pat of a ce ad somethig goes og
t s eveyoe eses fault ad ot hs
Solutio:
Lea esposily Recogse ad accept you imtatos
(v) The Resigato Atitude
Quiet pehaps ithda this peso fees he has o coto ove hs fate has othg to
ofe ad goes ith the flo Easly domated oe theateed y othes ho have dfeet
opios he pefes the oe of M Nice Guy
Souto
Stad up ad e couted You have a cotuto to make Recogise you  aty
(vi) Compacecy
This s a codto hich teds to ceep i thout the pot eg aae of t ts cause may
e elated to cofdece ceated y expeiece ad taiig As the plot ecomes moe
famila th fo exampe a e aaf ype the evousess o stess assoated th
leag e systems peomace ad aica hadig disspates to e epaced y
cofdece folloed ultimatey y complacecy Oe of the symptoms is a elctace to ema
pofciet aadog good pefight pag to payig the fght as t comes
ad attitudes ca e couteed y good atttudes Pa of piot taiig volves developig ot ust
fyg skils ut aso the ight appoach to the task This icludes
* ecogsig you o ailty ad theefoe vuleaity
* avoidg actos hch ecome sks ecause of poo udgemet
* oeyg the ules
* leaig fom othe people ad acceptig the opios
* thkg aout ad assessig situatios efoe makig decsios
* eig cofidet ut eaisticaly so

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(d BHVIOUR
e term beavur defes w we teact wit ter ele wic i tur determes w
ee resd t us f we ae lite ad fedly ele geerally esd  a simila mae
Beaviu tyes ca be categrised as fllws
(i ggressive Beaviur
e aggressive es is ccered oly wt temselves ad tei w terests usuay at
te exese f tes ey ae argumetative dmeerig abusve ad ude ad ae
usuted fr te multcew evimet wee te emass is  teamwr
(ii sserve Beaviu
ssei is a mre subtle fm f aggress.  ers w s assertve is abe t maage
teir ccer fr temseves without beig abusve r avig t dmate r gre ater
ers's rgts
(ii Submssve Beavu
Submss exesses yu ccer fr smee ese at yur w exese e submissve
ers eite des t exress s w is  ideas ad alws ters t dmiate im
 ateatively des but i s agetcally a maer tat e s a but igred
(iv Suive Beavu
Beg suive meas tat yu ca exess yur ccer fr smee ese wtut
abadig yu w rigts ad is.
I te mutcrew cct assertve ad surtive styes ae ideal requremets
( MOIVON
Mtvat s te frce frm witi urselves tat drves us t beave  cea ways Because
te duct f mtivat s eact t is csdered t be a sitive frce i tat at least we ae
drve t do smetg Sme examles f physiological mtivati ae te drives f uger
tst slee etc Psychological drves ae mre cmlex; sme ee ae drive by
acevemet, sme by wer tes by mey  securty r maiuatig mtivat
is viewed as a meas f ctrlig, ad teefe imrvg  te muticrew
evmet ecuragig members t tae at i decis maig is see as a stve e 
mtivati ad i tu b satisfact Rewads be t facal r jb rmti ae as sitive
metds f mtvatig ele t erfrm. Bredm as a egative efect  mtvat  ac f
meta stimulus  teest r ay a aaretly meaigess tas  beig excluded frm
decis maig ave te efect f causg cmacecy ad reducig erfrmace.
2 BHVIOUR ND SILLS
e tem beaviur ca as be used t descbe te maer  wic we accmlis vaus tass
Tee ae tree categes
(a Sl-Based Beavur
Earier we se abut te brai as te Cetral Decsi Maer ad ts le  cscus
decisi maig. We as se abut mtr rgammes  mtr rgramme is a examle
f sl-based beaviu By cstat eetiti r rute we are able t acqie certa sils
wc becme stred i te sils memy, wic we are able t execute witut te cstat
atteto f te ba Ceaily te ba will dect tat suc a acti mst be tae but
tereae te mt gramme diects te eati.  sme examle is lwerg te
udecarage i a aerae e bai decdes tat te aerae is  a siti wee tis
must be de but ccers itsef wt te maters wst te ad reaces fr te eve ad
seects gear dw is abity t be abe t cary ut multie tass simultaeusly s extremely
beefcia ad mafests itself i everyday life Hweve t ca als be te case f er Eve
tug te brai s t ctrlig te tas dealy t sud be mitg wa s aeg. I
a busy cct evrmet tis is t aways ssble; yu migt be tyig t cmlete adig
cecs wilst cmmuicatig wit C. t s ee tat mstaes  ers ca ccur eas
selectig fa dw istead f gea s tye f err is caled a acti s.
vmetal Catue is te term gve t ater tye f err asscated wit sill-based
beaviur ad s te result f a fe reeated sl wic as becme a abit assciated wit
a artcua evrmet  classc avati exame is te rute gear dw ad lced ca

Pivate Pilot Licece © Avex Ai Taiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200
 HUAN BEHAVIOUR 
Page 14
aociated wt actvating te gear ever wtot te gear actaly eing oweed. Yo enter te
circit at a eed aove gear exenion, yo are on downwind and te gear od e owered
t eing aware of te ig eed yo comete downwnd cec leavng te gear .
Becae t i a motor ll te rain i not monitoring te roce and te error goe
nnoticed
By it ve natre iaed eavior i o entrenced tat it ecome very difficlt to modiy
and conco togt aot te roce ofen et te comletion of te ta. Invarialy te
i a to e earnt al over agan. Error aociated wit it are more common among
exerienced ilot.
) Rle-Baed Beavior
Reaed eavior are my tat et of rle wc are aid down to cater for redctale
tation. A c tey are tored in te ongterm memoy and nlie il-aed eavor
reqire te conco invovement of te rain Simle examle inclde te forced landing
rocedre to e foowed in te event of an engne faire in te cae of a ingeengined
aeroane, or te action to e taen in te event of one engine ot n a mtengined aircraf.
Sc eavior may e memoried or commited to aer in te form of a cecit to e ed
n a mlticrew environment and if ractied regary can e condered vey reiae roviding
tat te rolem a een correctly identfied. Legend aond of aircrew sing down te
wrong engine Anoter area for error i avng correctly identified te rolem to ten dea
from te rocedre etaled to recty t.
c) Knowledge-Baed Beavior
eoreticay te more reiae of te tree, nowledgeaed eavior ree on te active
invovement of te rain, te e of informaton tored in te memory a wel a tat wic i
otaned from te eron envronment. In oter word decson-makng based on thought and
reason It i wat et  aar from a comter t exoe te man frailty, wic can relt
in error. Factor wc can infence ti tye of eavior inclde
* amigo informaton - miinterretation can ead to error;
* trctred tning and an nwilingne to tet or oo at informaton in a diferent way;
* a rectance to tet ot oitive and negative aect of an idea;
* a tendency to diregard negative aect of an amton n reference for otve aect
alo caled conrmaton bas ;
* te natra nflence on an amton or concion of eronal wie or deire.
3 HUMAN ERROR AND RELIABLY
It  ofen aid tat to mae mtae i man Any macne, e it man or otewie, i only a
reale a te comonent ar: motor car do rea down, te vetilar ytem can rovide fae
informaton. Hman error  roady divided into wo ye; Fnctiona and Cognitve
a) Fnctiona Error
Ti inclde tem c a
i) Error of omiion - faiing to do ometing wic od e done, eg forgeting to loc te
door on te way ot
ii) Error of commiion - doing ometing tat od not e done, e g. tn deel n yor
tan intead of etrol
ii) Random error  mtae wc do not aear to folow a atern.
iv) Sytematic error - mitae wic do folow a reglar atern
) ognitive rror
Tee are error wc are te relt of a fat in te togt roce and inclde, fae
enation vetar), memory ae, oor dgement, incorrect reaonng and divided atention.
Preventng mecanica error  acieved y contina teting, for examle flgt tetng. Hman
error can e lmted y training, maintaining a ig level of aroal, montoring y crew memer
or eqiment c a atitde ae and grond roximity warning ytem.

Prvate Plot cence © Avex Ar Tranng 0/2004

Revson 2/200
 HUAN BEHAVIUR 
Page 105

C UDGEMEN AND DECISION MAKING

1 PILOT JUDGEME NT
Pilot eror or oor judgement ae the wo terms most frequently assocated wth accdent o incident
reors Vey sedom is an accident the resut of oo fying skils. Forunatey udgement can e
earned and the frst ste s to understand what it means. Judgement is the mental ocess which
resuts in decision making and can e divded nto two exeme tyes
a) Pecetual Judgement
Ths comrises leaned skls nvolving vsual ecetons such as udgng distance heght o an
aoach to and, in other words experience Once the skil has een learned t ecomes amost
automatc equiing vey ite thought.
) Cognitive Judgement
Ths s a far moe comlex rocess in that it invoves hinking Ths means takng nfomaton
fom a vaiety of souces, evaluatng t and esondng wth a couse of acton Inevtay the
ocess eqes tme, thee may e alternative couses of acton and sk assessment is not
easy. To make mates wose ths tye of judgement s afected y factos which nclude stress
and fatgue
Clealy the moe tme availale to think, the ess chance thee s of ero To ths end, trainng ams
at movng the flying tasks whch initialy requre a geat deal of conscous atention to the oint
where they ecome learned o semiautomatic skils thus allowing the rain moe tme for cogntve
udgement.
2 DECISION MAKING
Decsons ae the logical concluson to cognitive udgement How good the decision is deends
uon a numer of factors ncludng exeience your knowedge, you aity to understand and thnk
as wel as you fying ality Good decson makng requres the folowing
a) Informaton
Decde what information s equied colect t, anayse it comare t with stored informaton
gained fom exerence
) Facts
Ensue that what you are deaing with are realy the facts and not hunches o what you woud
ke to elieve
c) Altenatves
Aways consider aternative couses of action earing mind the riortes of a stuaton as we as
the advantages o disadvantages of the aternatves. Fuel and weathe ae two factos whch wil
influence aternative actons.
d) Action
Once the decision has een made, ut it nto action with confdence
e) Folow U
Confirm that the esonse to you acton is having the desied efect.
3 SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Stuational awaeness means knwing what is haenng around you Gven oday's advanced
navigation eqment and cockit systems t s vey easy to ecome comlacent and assume that
eveyhing is nomal In ode to mantan a hgh evel of stuational awareness the foowng oints
should e considered
a) Preflght lanning  the moe time sent on the ground anning the fight and consderng the
otions the easer the fght wl e and the easier it wl e to make en route decsions.
) Make sure that you have a the eevant infomaton, consider it carefuly and then decde on a
couse of acton
c) ake time to make the decison.

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 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR 
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(d D  assume esablish he as Assumi is he mher  all misakes
(e Havig deided  ad iiiaed a urse  ai he  see i i is rduig he desied
resuls
( Fe yusel  be ae ad avid disrais
(g Perhas ms ima  al, see higs as hey ae ad  as hw yu wa hem  be Pla
r he wrs, bu he  he bes

Pvte Pot Lcece © Avex A Tg 0/2004

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 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR   QUESTIONS
Page 101

QUESTIONS
(ANSWERS ON PAGE 1 1  1 

1 Decison maing ased on inng s caled:

(a) pecepual judgemen,
() cogniive judgemen
(c) seecve udgemen,
(d) auomac udgemen

2 Decson mang ased on experience is called:

(a) cognive udgemen,
() applied udgemen,
(c) selecive judgemen,
(d) pecepual udgemen.

3 A endency o disegard negave aspecs o an assumpion n preerence or posiive aspecs s

an example o
(a) silased eaviou
() percepual judgemen,
(c) conirmaon as
(d) sumssve eaviour

4 Avoiding complacency and nowing wa is appening around you s an imporan pa o:
(a) suaona awareness,
() cogniive udgemen
(c) pecepual judgemen,
(d) rueased eavou

5 An acion slip is

(a) a suaion wee a po lowes e gea u does no pysicay cec o see i i is down
() a suaon were a pilo decides o rase e aps ae anding u aises e gear insead
(c) a endency o dsegard negave aspecs o an assumpion in peeence or posive aspecs,
(d) alng o do someng wic soud e done.

6 Te em "envonmena capue" is used o descre an eror

(a) suc as owering e gear insead o e aps
() caused y a endency o disregard posve aspecs o an assumpon n preerence or negave
aspecs
(c) associaed wi slased eaviour and s e esu o an oen epeaed si
(d) suc as aing o do someing wic sould e done

7 e ype o eavou associaed wi a person wo is concened only wi emselves and er
own ineess usuay a e expense o oers s caled
(a) aggressive eavou
() asserive eaviour
(c) sumssive eavour,
(d) suppoive eavou
8 Wen a si as een learn y epeiion o ouine and can e execued wiou e consan
aenon o e ain is is regarded as:
(a) rule ased eaviour,
() nowledge ased eaviou
(c) uncional eaviou,
(d) sil ased eaviour.

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 HUMA BHAVIOUR - QUSTIOS
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9 A person wo is ale to manage ter concern or emselves wtout eing ause or gnoring
anoter persons rigts is exiitng
(a) sumissive eaviour
() asserve eaviour,
(c) aggressive eaviour
(d) suppove eavour.

 0 A endency o disregard negative aspects o an assumpton in preerence or postve aspecs is

reerred o as
(a) cognitve error
() envronmental capture,
(c) conrmaion ias,
(d) stuaonal awareness

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