On the Meaning of Yoga

Author(s): K. S. Joshi
Source: Philosophy East and West , Jan., 1965, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Jan., 1965), pp. 53-64
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press

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 K. S. JOSHI

On the Meaning of Yoga

THE WORD "yoga" has great prestige value. It is frequently

associated with the acquisition and exhibition of supernatural powers. It is
customary to look at yoga as a curious ancient art which combines a set of
religious beliefs with a strange and mysterious practical discipline. To the
orthodox Hindu mind, it represents something very high, beyond the ken of
the man on the street--indeed, something very auspicious and to be achieved
only by virtue (punya) gathered over many past lives. It is an amazing fact
that, even in the land of yoga, superstitious and fanciful notions of the subject
seem to have wide currency. The philosophy of yoga is perhaps one of the
least known of its aspects. The reasons for this profound ignorance are not far
to seek.

First, yoga is full of facts of which the scientific background is as yet very
imperfectly understood. Fifty years ago it was very hard going to say that the
subject of yoga has implications which could be approached with modem
scientific procedures. Thanks are due to the pioneering efforts made by Swami
Kuvalayananda' to arouse an interest in yogic research. This approach is not
yet fully developed, however, and much experimental work will be required
before we can assess the value of claims made by the followers of yoga. Many
of its concepts are indeed still enveloped in obscurity. Second, it is the lesser
followers of yoga who usually emerge before the masses as "yogins," and what
they say and do becomes popularly known as yoga. Third, there is no general
agreement among present-day workers in the field about the subject matter of
yoga itself. Until this is achieved on the basis of scientific information, yoga
is bound to be mixed up with myth and superstition.
According to one interpretation, the word "yoga" is a noun form derived
from the root "yujir" meaning to "unite" or "connect." The noun "yoga"
was thus originally used to designate a union or connection between various
things. The word has appeared in this sense, in the RIg-veda,2 where a Vedic
seer asks as to who knew the yoga (i.e., connection) between the words
of a verse. At one place in the Atharva-veda3 the word "yoga" appears to de-

1 Swami Kuvalayananda, ed., Yogamimiansa. (Lonavala: Lonavala Ashram, 1930),

Vols. I-IV.
2 Rg-veda, X.cxiv.95.
3 Atharva-veda, VI.xci.1.
53

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 54 K. S. JOSHI

note a collection of e
was worked by so man
was grown after tilli
bullocks. What the
quoted-is perhaps the
The word has been used in a similar fashion in more recent literature also.'
The word is still in use in the Sanskrit language to denote a connection or an
event that is an outcome of a combination of specific predisposing factors.
Kilidisa, e.g., mentions the word "yoga" in his Raghuvath~ia to denote the
event of the coming together of the moon and the star Citri, which happens
after the cessation of severe cold.5 The original meaning of the word has thus
come to persist along with the highly technical meaning that we now ascribe
to the word "yoga," which, in all probability, seems to be a later development.
The most common example of union in the Vedic period was perhaps the
union of bullocks or horses, and the fact that these animals were kept together
by means of the yoke seems to have made an impact on the meaning of the
word "yoga." The word, in due course, began to denote the "tool of the union"
-the yoke. For example, we find the term "ratha-yoga" used to denote the
yoke of a chariot." But this is by no means an important way of using the
term, for we find numerous examples where the word "yuga" has been used
instead to denote the yoke.7 We may look upon this usage of the term "yoga"
as only an intermediate step to a further shift of the meaning which was more
profound and lasting.
Perhaps the most significant change in the meaning of the term can be
traced to an apparent similarity between our senses and the horses previously
referred to. A rider can go on his way comfortably if the horse is well within his
control. Similarly, one can go through life comfortably if the senses are con-
trolled. Our senses have thus often been compared with the horses.8 It was
thus that the term "yoga" perhaps came to indicate the method by which the
senses and, by implication, the mind, can be controlled.
The yoke is a tool that makes for bringing the horses under control. This
fact might have helped the meaning of the word "yoga" to be shifted to the
tool or the method which can be utilized to bring the senses and the mind

4 (a) Siddha-siddhanta-paddhati, 1.69.

(b) Vim.u-purana, VI.vii31.
s Raghuvathia, 1.46.

7SBrhaddran.yaka UpaniSad, IV.iii.1O.

(a) Rg-veda, III.1vii.17.
(b) Satapatha-brahmayna, III.5.124.
8 (a) Mahabharata, Vanaparva, 211.23.

(b) Kat.ha Upanisad, I.iii.4.

(c) Maitrayapi Upani.ad, II.6.

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 MEANING OF YOGA 55

under control. This is a h

the existence of a well-a
steadying the mind and t
this meaning deviates quit
"yoga." To bring out this
from a root altogether d

mentioned in Pl.nini's
(yuj: sathyamdne) and tolist of roots. (yuj:
contemplate It means at least two things: to control
samadhau).
It is possible, as mentioned by Dasgupta,9 that the techniques of controlling
and steadying the mind were already developed and organized by the time of
Pinini, and to indicate these he might have thought it necessary to derive the
word "yoga" from a root form different from "yuj-ir," and the root "yuj" was
thus invented by him from the noun "yoga." This is perhaps the reason why
the root "yuj," to show the act of control or concentration, does not usually
appear, as believed by Dasgupta, in any verb form. To say this, however, is
by no means to suggest that, while the word "yoga" was being used to denote
simply a union, the facts about controlling and steadying the mind were not
known. In the Vedas we find clear indications that the Vedic seers and rsis
were quite familiar with a set of procedures which, when followed faithfully,
were observed to bring about the highest state of being. These were spoken
of variously as "dhyana," "diksa-," "tapas," and so on. Thus we find examples
of Vedic seers aspiring to reach the heavens, or even for attaining Brah-
man, through dhyana, tapas, etc.10 But, in all probability, these practices were,
in the beginning, in a more or less fluid form, lacking elaborate classification
and differentiation. Later on, they were organized into a system, and it was
possibly then that the name "yoga" came to be associated with it. The word
"yoga" is thus older than the discipline or the system of philosophy which
goes by that name.
One more meaning of the word may be mentioned. Here it does not refer
to the system or method, but to the state itself that is supposed to be the end-
point of the method. We find this meaning referred to in the Kattha Upanisad
and the Gita. The former describes yoga as the highest state of steadiness of
the mind.11 The Gita describes it in two ways: as a state of equipoisel2
(samatva) and as a state of separation (viyoga) from sorrow.x3 The present

9 S. N. Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy in Relation to Other Systems of Indian Thought

(Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1930), pp. 39, 44.
to (a) Atharva-veda, XIX.xliii.1.
(b) Rtg-veda, IV.I.1.
(c) Yajur-veda, XI.2.
11 Katha Upanisad, II.iii.ll.
12 Bhagavad-gita, II.48.
13 Ibid., VI.23.

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 56 K. S. JOSHI

author feels that ord

to the method alone.
as kaivalya, liberation
tion of all yoga, toge
state, it is not differe
the highest state of t
into being, then yog
spontaneously reveal
part of a yogin that r
situation, yoga as the
is linguistically conv
method rather than the state.

We are now in a position to examine various definitions and descriptions of

yoga as tradition has it. But unless we state our thesis at once here, we may
feel baffled at the variety of definitions which may even sometimes appear
inconsistent with each other. Our thesis by and large is this: yoga as a method
culminates in a radical change or transformation of personality. On the yoga
view, we can analyze the concept of personality in terms of a tripartite di-
vision, namely, conditioning, seeking, and grief. The yogic personality is free
of these three traits. Yoga, thus, first of all, claims to bring about a state devoid
of conditioning in which one understands himself and the world in a direct
manner, without the mediation of any bias or opinion. Second, yoga brings
about an end of all search, effort, seeking, and becoming, making one's mind
silent and steady. Third, it bestows upon the individual freedom from dis-
turbance, tension, and grief. In the pages to follow we shall be concerned
chiefly with an elaboration of this central theme.
Definitions of yoga are too numerous to include all of them here. We will
consider only a few of them. We shall begin by quoting from three of the older
Upanisads. Thus the Katha 4 says, "When the mind becomes steady along
with the five senses, and the intellect also remains unshaken, the highest state
comes into being. That is called "yoga," whereby one becomes apramatta, i.e.,
unoffending and faultless." It is difficult to translate the word "apramatta" so
as to bring all that it conveys into one word in English. What the Upanisad is
speaking about is a state in which the mind ceases to be attracted by the objects
of desire. The steadiness remains undisturbed, even while the individual ap-
parently seems to be engaged in activity. There is no action to "bring about"
anything. Actions spring up spontaneously.
In another Sruti'A we find a list of the qualities of a yogin who has come to
possess a body shining with the fire of yoga. These are mainly physiological
14 Katha Upan~iad, II.iii.1O, 11.
15 ?vetaivatara UpaniSad, 11.13.

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 MEANING OF YOGA 57

qualities, which do not con

mentioned there which is i
the same as vair(agya, the im
Two reasons for the name
is so called because it brings
vital force (prana), and (2)
pointedness of the mind."
which the mind is not attr
we often find ourselves enga
wise, we may very much w
do. Such a discrepancy in
swayed away from this des
is different from the stat
ignorance.
We find yoga defined in three different ways in the Bhagavad-gitd, which
is perhaps the most popular among the authoritative treatises on yoga. Thus,
at one place in the GitaU6 yoga is defined as a state of equipoise (samatva) in
which opposites like success and failure make little difference. This state of
"samatva" signifies that one has become utterly impartial and free of the de-
sire to bring about a result in any particular direction. This is because the
response to a situation arises spontaneously and is not conditioned or colored by
the influence of past experience. Our conditioned response arises from the
learned way of looking at things. For a yogin, however, things are seen as they
are, without imposing on them "judgments" arising from one's limited store of
experience. At another place,'7 it is said that "yoga makes for the happiest
behavioral adjustment." The same thing once again. We always behave with
particular viewpoints, and therefore we never behave freely or openly. Our
viewpoints are often at conflict with those of others and the adjustments we
make with the environment are therefore not complete and adequate. Yoga
signifies a picture of behavior that is free from self-imposed limitations and
hence makes for the happiest adjustment.
The third definition of yoga mentioned in the Gita is perhaps the masterpiece
of the definitions of yoga. It is described as a state as follows:18 "When that is
attained, no other attainment is ever greater than it; one remains undisturbed
even in the wake of severest misery; that state is ever untouched by grief." The
GItJ does not forget to declare that this state of yoga must indeed be attained
with a high resolve.
Pataiijali, the best known author on Yoga philosophy, has defined yoga'9 in
l6 Bhagavad-gita, II.48.
17 Ibid., 11.50.
18 Ibid., VI.22, 23.
19 Patafijali, Yoga-s4tra, 1.2.

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 58 K. S. JOSHI

the fewest words as "the elimination of the modifications of the mind." Our
minds are caught in an ongoing process of thought and desire. These thoughts
are always colored by our previous experience. All our actions are indeed
conditioned in this way. Yoga, on Patafijali's view, signifies a way whereby this
endless chain of thoughts comes to rest.
Patafijali's commentator, Vyisa, however, equates yoga with samadhi.20
From our discussion up to this point it will be easy to see that it is only fair
to equate yoga with samidhi, which signifies a state of equipoise. We find this
view confirmed in the Gita21 where it is said, "Yoga is attained when the in-
tellect (buddhi) is no longer distracted by what is heard, and thus becomes
steady in a state of samadhi."
Bhojadeva, another commentator of Patafijali, explains yoga as being a state
of complete separation of the purusa (self) and prakrti (primordial Nature).22
This view of Bhojadeva is in keeping with the fundamental metaphysical posi-
tion of the Sihikhya and Yoga philosophy. According to this view, purusva and
prakrti are two fundamental and ultimate realities which are wholly distinct
from each other. They seemingly come together and constitute the empirical
world (sathsara). When the distinctness of purusa, which is one's real nature,
is understood directly, saiksdra comes to an end with reference to that purusa,
and he then abides completely in himself. This state of separation (viyoga) is
signified by yoga, according to Bhojadeva.
The Sandilya Upanisad2 mentions yoga as one of the two ways of the
cessation of the mind's working, and defines yoga in much the same way as
Patafijali. The Maha Upanisad24 also calls yoga "a method of making the mind
silent." In the Yoga-valis.tha25 yoga appears as "a wise way of overcoming
sorrow once for all."

Yajfiyavalkya's definition of yoga26 as "the union of the jivatman and the

paramatman" is perhaps inconsistent with the general tenor of Yoga philoso-

phy,higher
any in which
being, the
but,individual puru.as
rather, to remain are not
eternally in supposed to uniteisola-
a state of complete ultimately with
tion. But this definition is important inasmuch as it shows a vestige of the mean-
ing attached to the word ""yoga" before the discipline itself was formulated. The
idea of "union" is also evident in the Vi4nu-puran.a,2 where yoga has been
defined as "the union of the purified mind with Brahman." Brahman is a state

20 Vyysa-bhasya on Yoga-sfatra, I.1.

21 Bhagavad-gita, II.53.
22 Bhojavritti on Yoga-siatra, 1.1.
23 Sandilya UpaniSad, I24.
24 Maha Upanisad, V.42.
25 Yoga-vais.tha, VI.xiii.3.
26 Yoga-yajtiyavalkya, 1.44.

27 Vi.nu-purdana, VI.7.31.

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 MEANING OF YOGA 59

of being. When all becom

process in which we see t
to be different, and thus
process of becoming is an
comes pure, so to say, by
means by saying that one
Both the concept of "un

Markand.eya-purna"28
union in defining
with ignorance and union yoga. Yoga
with Brahman." In theisMahabharata
described there as the "dis-
we find
yoga described in terms of viyoga (separation).29 Viyoga from what? Ob-
viously from pain and becoming.

The method
learning of yoga
of the alphabet. has learns
"As one been the
compared in thegoes
alphabet first," Gheran.da-sarthita30
the text, "and with the
further knows many fields of knowledge, so, through yoga, one can obtain ulti-
mate knowledge."
It behooves us now to find out precisely what yoga means in the light of
these definitions. Do all these definitions converge upon one single point? It
may be plausible to conclude that they do. It is the contention of the present
writer that all these definitions can be analyzed in terms of two common factors.
These are the concepts of abhyasa (increasing practice) and vairagya (non-
attachment). These have been mentioned by Patafijali as the means to the
elimination of our fivefold mental activity.31 Let us consider the latter of these
first.

Rdga means the desire to achieve something-an object or a state. Our life
is indeed an ongoing process of seeking-to become something or to have
something. The absence of this seeking is what is called vairagya, which is a
state of being and silence. It has been said32 that "our senses have an in-
herent tendency to move outward. The wise man who wants immortality has
to turn his eyes inward and look to his inner self." Turning the eyes inward
is the mark of vairagya. atihkara, in his commentary on the Kena Upanisad,33
says that "only the man of vairagya and none else is a fit person for taking the
course to mukti." At another place,34 he declares that "even though one is well
versed in all the .fastras (branches of knowledge), he does not become fit for
liberation unless he is a man of vairagya." We learn from the Git035 that "one

28 Mdrkandeya-purana, 36.1.
29 Mahabhdrata, Vanaparva, 213.33.
30 Gheranda-satmhita, 1.5.
31 Patafijali, Yoga-siitra, 1.12.
32 Katha Upani.ad, II.i.l.
33 Kena Upanisad-bhdsya, I.1.
34 Vivekachii4dimai, 78.
35 Bhagavad-gitd, XV.3.

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60 K. S. JOSHI

canattain immortal
ment of 'vairagya.'
those whose minds a
It is needless to mu
debate can arise on v
relief from distractio
of steadiness which
of the mind. It comes
its relation to the ex
process of this aware
steady. An effective
paravairagya) whereby
being fully aware of
supposed to be free
an introversion and
stands for the cessat
freedom from it vani
trace of becoming in
This happens as wh
disease, and, althoug
ment in his health
three things at all a
behind, when its wo
beginning, vairagya
the mind becomes co
called "prasada,"37 w
from the mind. Suc
is called yoga-praji&
of Indian
philosophy
of the process of de
awareness is the real
It is spontaneous. It
desire for mukti. One
the ideal in Yoga ph
Vairagya and abhyd
in a state in which pe
ing, and grief. This
claims to bear the

36 Ibid., VI.36.
37 Ibid., II.64.

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 MEANING OF YOGA 61

method of yoga with abh

discussion than it can be
Keeping this central fact
various yogas or the vari
of yoga has to choose his
various yogas he has to t
to saying that yoga "in g
really this or that variet
available. To mention the

yoga, jfiina-yoga or raja-

us survey these in brief, o

Bhakti-yoga. This type is

yoga of the laity. It spring
panied by a belief in the
are its instruments. We f

such
of theasoldest
the Pur.inas,
referencesthe
to Yoga-vais,.tha, thethe
bhakti is found in .rimad-bhagavata, and so on. One
Svetdivatara Upanisad.38
Patafijali has mentioned "1 vara-prantidhana,"3'9 a form of bhakti, as one of the
ways to attain samadhi. But he seems to have incorporated the notion of God
into his system rather halfheartedly, and his emphasis on bhakti is naturally
without much force. The GitU declares9a- that the follower of bhakti also be-
comes fit for the attainment of Brahman as do the followers of karma and joinna.
We find an interesting discussion of bhakti in Chapter XII of the Gita. Toward
the end of that chapter the following characteristics of a follower of bhakti are
mentioned: he is friendly to all, without attachment, regardless of pleasure or
pain, ever satisfied, silent, and so on (verses 13 to 19)."?

Karma-yoga. References to this type are found in the yoga Upanisads. E.g.,
at one place,41 it is said that karma-yoga is the restriction of the mind to its
essential acts. In the Matsya-purana,42 it is called kriya-yoga, which is the
practice of right virtues such as kindness, cleanliness, lack of greed, and so on.
Patafijali speaks of kriyd-yoga43 as including tapas, svadhyaya, and iLvara-
pranidhana. The Gita is by far the most important treatise on karma-yoga.
According to the Gita, the mere renouncing of action in a particular way has

ss 5vetakvatara Upaniad, VI.23.

39 Pataijali, Yoga-sitra, 1.23.
39a Bhagavad-gita, XIV.26.
40 Ibid., XII. 13-19.

41 Matsya-puranta,
42 Trifikhi-brahnmat.a
52.11. Upaniyad, 25.
43 Patafijali, Yoga-Sitra, II.1.

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 62 K. S. JOSHI

no value at all." Wh
particular effect. To
here and now for o
pleasure."
The central idea of karma-yoga seems to be that we cannot remain without
acting even for a short time. We have to respond to the environment. It is
for the wise man, however, to respond without any choice or desire for a par-
ticular effect. But this yoga, which, according to the Gita," is the "wise way of
acting," is to be obtained only through the attainment of samadhi.47 Looking
to the characteristics of a karma-yogin as described in the second chapter of the
GitO, we find it well-nigh impossible to differentiate the state obtained by a
karma-yogin from the one which a bhakti-yogin ultimately achieves. There is
more to the story: vairagya and abhyisa are equally fundamental and indis-
pensable for both of these types of yoga.

Raja-yoga. This has also been variously called as jfi4na-yoga, satikhya-yoga,

dhyana-yoga, Pitafijala-yoga, as.tgnga-yoga, and so on. Unlike bhakti-yoga and

karma-yoga, this is believed to be the yoga of the few--beyond the reach of
the common man--to be followed by men of superior abilities and understand-
ing. This is ultimately concerned with giving up action or practice, although the

fourfold mental equipment (sddhana-catus.tya) is necessary to make a begin-

ning, which does not fail to include vairagya and abhydsa. This leads to an
understanding which dispels ignorance (avidya), the root cause of sorrow and
grief. Perhaps this is the yoga referred to as "dhydna-yoga" in the ?vetJ.l-
vatara.4s This has also been described at length under the names of buddhi-
yoga and dhyana-yoga in the eighteenth chapter of the Gitd. We may say that,
when the word "yoga" appears alone without any qualification, it is usually
this yoga that is in the mind of a speaker or writer.4s8a

Ha~tha-yoga. It is said in the very beginning of the Hatha-yoga-pradipika, an

important treatise on hatha-yoga, that ha.tha-yoga is like a staircase to raja-
44 Bhagavad-gitd, 111.4.
45 Ibid., III.4.
46 Ibid., 11.50.
47 Ibid., 11.53.
48S vetarvatara UpaniSad, 1.3.
48a I do not do very much here with Patafijali's definition of yoga. I have my dif-
ferences with Patafijali regarding many points. The SrIhkhya idea of the separation of
purusa from prakrti as the goal of yoga seems to be a metaphysical idea. Such ideas
would be of no avail if we have somehow to bring yoga into operational terms. And,
unless we succeed in bringing the various phenomena described in the Yoga texts into
the field of verifiable experience, the subject matter of Yoga would continue to be mixed
up with myth and superstition.

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 MEANING OF YOGA 63

yoga.49 We learn from ano

the word "ha.tha" means
ha.tha-yoga is so called b
There is no time here to g

body). Their physiology

through physical posture
physiologically integrati
and how far it is successfu

thing is certain: The curre

as something merely ph
ground.

Laya-yoga. "Laya" means absorption of the mind along with the calming of
the process of breathing. It can be achieved in two ways: either by making the
mind silent51-in which case it becomes equivalent to raja-yoga---or through
controlling the breath through hatha-yogic practices.52 This latter procedure
is based on the premise that mental activity and breathing activity are inter-
related, and thus, through controlling the breath, we can make the mind silent.
Much the same view is held by ha.tha-yoga. It is said that all these methods

of ha.tha-yoga and laya-yoga are directed toward one higher goal-the attain-
ment of raja-yoga, i.e., samadhi.65 From the hatha texts" we learn that a
continued practice of pranJdyama gives rise to peculiar subtle sounds (Andhata-
dhvani or n&da), and laya-yoga is the way of letting the mind be absorbed in
the hearing of that sound, so that ultimately it becomes silent along with the
sound.

Mantra-yoga. It is said that5s this is the yoga for the least capable. It is akin
to bhakti-yoga. One recites a form of words time and again, usually addressing
them to a deity. This helps to reduce the "running about" of the mind in a
mechanical manner. In the absence of vairagya, however, the mere repetition
of the words has no meaning.

Before we conclude this brief discussion of the varieties of yoga, we ought

to note a fact about them all. We have already equated yoga with vairagya

49 Hatha-yoga-pradipika, I.1.
50 Siddha-siddhanta-paddhati, 1.69.
51 Yogatattva Upanisad, 23.
52 Yoga vad.itha, V.lxxviii.15.
53 Hatha-yoga-pradipika, IV.103.
54 (a) Hatha-yoga-pradipika, IV.98.
(b) Siva-saihhita, V.43.
55 Yogatattva Upanisad, 22.

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64 K. S. JOSHI

and abhyasa. It is not

of yoga is independe
excluded, then nothi
worthy of the name
vairagya, it matters li
of devotion, or is doin
present writer that th
strictly speaking, sup
yogd'--and it is com
forms of the various
are accustomed to ac
the matter. aihikara
manner56 by saying
man, without any exp
ward; they ever stru
to undertake the act
Upaniad,57 with "tru
varieties are unimpo
unfavorable to much t

5o Aparok;anubhati, 13
57 Mun aka Upanisad,

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