REAL ANALYSIS Chapter 1: Elementary Set Theory and Countability 1.1 Definitions ... LAL Set un 1.1.2 Operations on Sets .. 1.13 Functions and Their Properties 1.1.4 Classification of Functions .. 12 Countable and Uncountable Sets ... 1.3 Properties of Sets mnnnmnmininennineninmnenesnnninnsin 14 Cantor Set .. Chapter 2: Point Set Topology 2.1 Definitions and Propertics summon 2.2 Bolzano Weierstrass Theorem nmnnmnn 23. Properties Chapter 3: Sequences of Real Numbers 3 Definition ssnnn 3.11 Range Set of A Sequence . 34.2 Bounded Sequence rnnnnssnnnen 34.3 Monotonic Sequence wn. 344 Eventual Nature of a Sequence ene 32 Limit Point of a Sequence ..... 3.2.1 Existence of A Limit Point 33 Subsequence evens 3.3.4 Complementary Subsequences 34 Limit of a Sequence 3.5 Advanced Analysis of A Sequence srnnmennmnnnmnnmnnnnsnnsnnannensnn 35 Limit Superior smn 35.2 Limit Inferior nna 3.53 Convergent Sequence 3.54 Divergent Sequence swmmmmen 355 Oscillatory Sequence swmmmnn 3.5.6 Finitely Oseillatory Sequence ..nesnnnnmnnnns 35:7 Infinitely Oseillatory Sequence somnmennnrnsmnn 3.6 Properties on Limit Superior and Limit Inferior eunmeunnnnnesnnnennnannnssnnsn AT 3.7 The Sequence of Natural Numbers emo BS Cauchy Sequence sennmnmnnnimnanenn wes 238.1 Algebra of Cauchy Sequences smn 3.8.2 Cauchy’s General Principle of Convergence(CGPC) . Chapter 4: Series of Real Numbers 41 Definition .... 4.1.1 Sequence of Partial Sums 4.1.2 Convergent Series. 4.1.3 Divergent Series 4.1.4 — Oscillatory Series 4.1.5 Oscillatory Series ... 4.2 Necessary condition for convergence of a series... 4.3 Cauchy's General Principal of Convergence sme. 44 Series of Positive Real NUMDETS wnenennnsnnunmenneninennnnnanns 4.5 Alternating Series 45.1. Test for Convergence of Positive Terms Series mm 4.6 Absolute Convergence . 4.6.1 Conditional Convergence 4.7 Series of Positive Real Numbers 4.7.1 Conditional Convergence sunnnuninnsonnantunannnnsni ‘Chapter 5: Function and their Properties S.1 Definitions 52. Graphical Transformation semen 5.3 Some Important Functions and their Graphs wn 54 Classification of Functions 5.5 Limit of a Funetion 55.1 General Principle for Existence of Limit (GPEL) ... 5.5.2 Second Definition... ‘One Side Limit ‘Theorems on Limits sweunemennntinniennsinnin ‘Some Important LimitS.nmmemneunnennininssnn Chapter 6: Continuity | | | | | ? 6.1.1 Second Definition of Continuity .. 6.12 Third Definition of Continuity ....nemnmne 6.2 Types of Discomtimuity scveeonweemeneoevinsmnenensnsentnsnentnnentnsetninnnsreennssntns 63 Algebra of Continuity secmmnmnnnninnnemmennninnnnininnaninrernnnnnnanmmnnnnnsee 4 ‘Some Important Theorems on Continuous FUNCHONS ssuismmmninnannmennnnrinnnenedS 65 Uniform continuity..... 65.1 Non-Uniform Continuity Criterion snesonmnenis 65.2 Uniform Continuity Theorem ..... 65.3 Lipschitz Function... 654 sevtenereseneeneeneneee 2D senseserssnnemnnnnnane DS rernnaneemeeeteL 3 rrrmaenesd 23 ‘Continuous Extension Theorem .. nnnanneseienniniennininnnninnsinnnl 2A655 Some Important Sufficient Conditions for Uniform Continui 6.5.6 Algebra of Uniformly Continuous Functions Chapter 7: Differentiability 7.1 Definition .. 7.2 Geometrical Meaning of the Derivative .. 7.3 Algebra of Differentiability esse 73.1 Darboux’s Theorem .. 74 Local Maxima & Local Mi 78 Mean Value Theorems .. 7.6 Higher Order Derivatives 7.7 Indeterminate Forms .... 78 — Convex Set. 127 782 Concave Function ... Chapter 8: Riemann Integral 81 Definition 8.2 Quick Review for Riemann Integrability 83 Amproper Integral en. Chapter 9: Uniform Convergence a a 92 — Quick Review for Uniform Convergence .. Chapter 10: Function of Several Variables 10.1 Definition of n-tuples.... 10.2 Real valued funetion on 1 Variables sn 10.3 Limit and Continuity of Vectors and Real Valued Functions . 104 Maxima and Minima of Functions of Two Variables. 105 — Compactness of Connectedness sm... Assignment Sheet —1 mnie Assignment Sheet ~2 wna Assignment Sheet ~3 ... Assignment Sheet ~4 seen Assignment Sheet —5 wu Assignment Sheet 6 sens Assignment Sheet —7 enn Assignment Sheet ~ 8 .. Assignment Sheet ~ 9.sssmmemnnninnanne Assignment Sheet — 10 animaCHAPTER 1 ELEMENTARY SET THEORY AND COUNTABILITY 1d. Definition 1d. Set A set is a well defined collection of distinct objects. By-yellsdefined we mean there is no confusion regarding inclusion or exclision oF Objects. Sets ‘are conventionally denoted with capital letters + ind a Tetters will | represent the members of the set. ‘Note: This definition is widely accepted-but aot cigs 7 Following notations will be used for some\Gi Resite 9 sets that are commonly used. SS ee N= The set ofall natural numbers or all poten Thiegers. Z-= The set of all integers. ~~ (Q= The set of all rational numbers. Sr Q= The set of all irrational se Note: No set is member of itself. ie. Ae A forevery set 4 Operations on Sets Let and B be two sets. Theat 1. ‘Union: The union of 4andB, denoted by AUB, is defined as the set (e|xe AorxeB). ‘While writing AU B , elements common to 4and B should be taken only ‘once in the union. pt “AAD, rt wr) Din Sra Haz Khas Neat LUT, New DonIIOONG, Ps (OI) 2657527, Co: 999ISD434 & SVTTOVIA SUIRLTIO| - ‘Eat Inoadinencemtcom: Webs: wwr-diuseedeay semExample: (@) Take 4=(1,2,3.4} B=3,4,5,6} ~ Then 408 = ({1,2,3,4,5,6} 7 : 2. Intersection: The intersection of AandB, denoted by 4B, is defined as the set {x|.x€ AandB both} ont ‘Thus 47 B consists of all elements bomman 16a and B . Also note thet AOA andifac then an Bd oo f If ANB=6 , then the sets A sod act Disjpint: Se z A B () A “fb. ne Then ANB=6 : 3. Difference: The difference of Aand 8, denoted by 4~B, is defined as the set {x]x¢ Aandx eB}. ‘Thus 4 ~B is the set of all elements of 4 not belonging to. Simi larly, we can define B- 4 ‘ea, (First For) a Sarah Haus Khas, Near EET, Non DoBVATOOG, Ph (@)-IES7SI7, Ces DOOSTENDE & ORDTCTTSE, SOMBATED Eel: lfealpncademy-com: West: mor dlnaeedny-0m,(a) A-B#B-A (b) A-BCAB-ACB © U-B)NB-4)=6 Example: (@) If 4=f1,2,3,4,5,6,7} and B= {4,5,6,7,8}0 Then A—B={1,2,3} 0 4. Complement: The complement ‘of 2%i set UJ. (universal set), denoted by 4°, is defined as the Yet {x1 GU suchthatx ¢ 4}. In. other notation we can see it as U- fim fet ff 5. Power Set; The power set of 4, denoted by P(4), is defined as a set | {X|Xc 4}. Thus, P(A)is collection of al possible subsets of 4. If |4=n, Then |P(4)]=2" (where, [4] denotes the number of elements in the'set A. ie, cardinality of the set 4) ie: werentThe cardinality of the set {2 elements in its power set : Cartesian Product: If 4 and B are nonerrpty sets) then the Cartesian product AxB of A and B is the set‘gf" all, aed and be B. Thatis, 7 AxB={(a,b):a€ Abe B}. ¢ Thus if 4=(1,2,3} and B: ‘elements are the ordered pairs” (21), (45), (2), (25). BABS) ‘We may visualize the sett Bas thé Set of'six points in the plane with the coordinates that we have just ited. Note: Ax B -B%A whee B ani also'if any of Aand Bis empty then AxB=o. % £, Relation: Any subset of 4%B;defines ‘relation from 4 toB. and B={4,5} define gi3. Functions And Their 1, Function on a set: A Yelatjbn f from a non-empty set A to another non empty set Bis said to be @ function, if each element x¢ 4 corresponds to.a unique element y.¢B and the y which corresponds in this way'to a given x is denoted by f(x), and is called the value of x under f . Note: If f is a function from a set Ato a set B then we write it as fi:AB. Graph: If f is a function from 4108, then set of all ordered pairs (x,,£(2)) is called the graph of the function f . 7AM, es Poo) Sra Haas Khas, Nos LLT_ New Dor 110016 Pu: (OT)) 0557527, Cae SOOOISIGN Be OEIGITSA BSRIRETES BB1.14. Classification 3. Domain, Co-domain & Range of a Function: For a function f ftom AtoB, the set Ais called the domain of f and the set of values of fis called the range of f and written as f(A), whereas B is called the Co-domain of f. Clearly f(A) B defined by x” is a one-one function. F() F(x)=£0) (2 x20) vx.yef0.l] (@) Injectivity of a function can also be cheek Gon its. graph, If any straight line parallel to x-abigfiéeets the burve ))= /() at most at one point, then the function f(x)cis Oné-one or an injection otherwise itis not. () 1 f2AB then m =22= fOGY™ Fe). te forall x29 €4. However f(a)= S02) oe x37 is true only when / is an injective map. (©) If Aand Bare finite setg {tears respectively then ti mumber of one-one Satan Ato Bat en nem here itnR, defined by f(x)=27, ‘then is many one function. 3. Onto (Surjective) Function: A function f:4—B is said to be an ‘onto function or a surjective function if every element of Bis the f- Put Your Own Notes ei "A, (Firs ar) Va Sra Hn Kins, Near ET New DAB-UGHG, Ph (11) 2657027, Ca SPOTERN ‘Bema nfeaipacademy.com: Web worn iosacae.com ey @| Remark: It depends upon domain and co-domain respectively for a 4 fanction to be one-one and onto. 2 i 4 Example: The function f :[0,1]+R defined by f(x)=27is.a one-one SRA not a function where as function f :[-1,1]—> R defined, by one-one function. f(-I)=f(=1) ~ Also function f [0,1] > R defited by F(}.=32 8 mot an onto fonction, a but f:[0,1]-+[0,1] defined by /(x)= x? sep net Remark: If Aand Bare two sets having. m atidn.clements respectively and let1snsm, then mumber of, ontoSfanttions ‘from 4 to B is 4, Into Furiction: A function of 92%" B is an into function if there exists an clement in zB having no pre-image in 4 In other words, Se 5. One-One Onto Bijectivg ) Funetion: The map f:4-> B is bijective if itis one-one as well as‘onto, 4 B BEAD, iat i) Yin ar Hou Kos Nene HLT, New DeA0016 Ph (15) 2697527, Cl PORN HOOICITIA SIRTTSD mal nfoausendencom: Weta: weinescaden coma 1.2. Example: The map f:N— defined as f(n)=| vf (Where iz) denotes the greatest integer funtion is bijective function Cantor’s Theorem: For any set A, there is no map from 4 onto the set P(A), the power set of 4 Reason: Let $: 4 > P(A)is onto. Since for everyxe 4, §(=)is a subset of A. Then eithera ¢4{x)or it does not. Now consider X = {xe 4:x¢9(x)} Since ¥is a subset of 4 and gis onto, then X = (+) for somite 4 , so cither re X ort x. re x and since X = 6(¢) Wemust haver © (7) Which is contrary to the definition of XS Similarly, If rex then ré6(?) So-that\ce.x which is also a contradiction, S06 cannot be onto. Remark: There always exists a one-one imap from 4 to P(A). Countable and Uncountable Sets Spee 1. Similar/Equivalent/Equipotenti i Sets; Two set’ and B are called Similar if and only if there exits an bijgetiv® function between them and then we write A~B f 2. Finite Sets Consider S) ={83, a4 + said tobe finite iff there existe eR, and a bijective function f fromS to. (x gives the numberof elements in the set ) Tfno such m exist, then set 4 J8iSfid to be infinite a,2,4,0,u} is a finite set, since there ‘n} Then a non-empty set Ais te Se are similar if their cardinality are equal (b) Every set 4 a ‘itself as there exists an identity map on ae ; (©) If4~Band B~cthena~c. (@) The main difference between 2 finite and an infinite set is that every infinite set is equivalent to at least one of its proper subset whereas a finite set can never be equivalent to any of its proper subset. It is so important that some of the authors use this note as the definition of finite and infinite sets (©) Subset of a finite set is a finite set. (f) Empty set is considered asa finite set. Ta st Flora Sara, Haz Khas, Near LLT, New DANCIIGIG Ph: 1} 2E557E27, Cas 999THG4 Erma ine@ipoende cm: Webs: Worn diencadomcom SAIC SRT3. Countably Infinite Set: A setsis said to be countably infinite if it is similar to set of natural numbers ie. if ~ N Example: Zis 4 countably infinite set. Reason: Define aoy=ir[E} Clearly @ is bijective function from N to Z has *. Z is acountably infinite set. In Abstract: We say a set can be put under counting system or process iffa rule can be imposed over that set by which suocessor is defined. 4. Countable Set: A set s is called countable if itis. etter finite or counisbly infinite. In case of countably infinite-ther®8-funciion. which establishes a bijection between N agdctheclements. uf § ~ Therefore the set Scan be displayed as S ={U), BecoFir, 3. twe write {a.ay.odqsn} in pldve “OLYOs@).S.700,-} then $= {01,€2,040q5-} S S 5. Uncountable Setz A set which is not agountibte set called uncountable ve feet Note: If every map from 4 to B fails to'p-onto, Then we say B is larger than in the sense of cardinality ie} the cosdomain has more potential than the domain. oN / Oe If the domain has less reteafaThensyery map‘from'4 to B fails to be onto. ae oe 6. Let A and B are finite set etd [4] 248)" TheaA is similar to a subset of i 16.any of thie subset of Note: If we define carditality, sets no matter how it is defined of but these cardinalit sal follow the above rules. ‘These symbols which bre sed to denote cardinality of infinite sets are ‘known as transfinite nuinbérs, 7. Arithmetic of Cardinal Numbers: Np denotes the cardinality of Nand ¢ denotes the cardinality of R . @ No thy + onto =No 7 nes (0) n+Xy=No,neN (Ror, E-mu: iafoitmncodany.con: Waist: wre-domadeny.com ‘RW, at iow Sa Sera Haas Khas, Neat LAE, Rew De iT0OG Ps WIN AGI, Ga SHRILL WOICTTI EATS eBee eee ane CRS st | @ ches Put Your Own Notes aes Bas (©) wXp=NpneN () erere aga (© Noveme (ey Be =0>Ny @ Niaz “Ss (k) NoNas$(q)=k V keN 3. Every set equivalent to finite/infinite set is fniteFnginite St Eee i Reader should prove it themselves. 4. If Ais similar to a subset of @ and Bis st of A, then AWB similar to a subset of 8 ™, SY ‘Reason: As => A has less potential than B Alsois similar toa subset ofA {~~ => Bhasless potential than A oa So By (1) and (2) A~B S.A setis infinite iff it contain cantly infinite subset. Reason: Let Xbe any infinite set. Take x6 X Again take another y€ ee eo S ‘Proceeding in sia), we have An= Ana {aq} 2 Wypen Let A= Us I Clearly 4c X This shows that every infinite set has countable infinite subset Converse is obvious. Hence a set Xs infinite iff it contains a couitably infinite subset. 6. Every infinite set is equivalent to at least one ofits proper subset ema inom com. Webate wr doesadem sm BEAM ra wr) Da Sarat naz Ks Nene LT Row DIMOU, Ps (OLDPRES7SD, Cel OPED 969916173, BRET‘TLE Dripsacademy 1y Set Theory and Counta Reason: As done in above property construct 4 = L 4, Now take B= A—{a)} and define ¥=(X~ 4)UB | Clearly a; ¢ ¥ X thus ¥ is proper subset of X - | Define g:X — ¥ such that 2 fya[tin Fe FO ese Clearly g is one-one and onto, This shows that if we remove one element from an infinite Set. Then its cardinality does not change. oe By the same procedure if we remove finite numberor elemesits froman_ infinite set then its cardinality remains same, «<>. 7. A finite set is not equivalent ony of its ropes sibiet.. re oa Reason: Let Ais any finite set aiid B < Athion Clearly 'B has less number of clements then Aand two finite set are equivalsat iif they have same number of elements so 4and 8 can-not be equivalent. Thus no finite set can be equivalent to its proper subset... I & Countable union of countable set is gounlable, * 9. If Bis an uncountable set and Ais aeguntible set then (B~A)is an i ‘uncountable set. 7 Reason: Suppose that (BA) Sis countéble set and also 4 B=(B-A)A (being o waon, ountable set) is countable thas : B isa countable set. But this i ible a$'B is an uncountable set. i Thus B-Ais ‘uncountable 10. Family of all finite o_o setis countable, Reason: Let Aisa If Ais oa ans infinite set. Thengaa3 Now define 4-eQ} In this manner 4, is countable Vine N Thus if F denotes the collection of all finite subset of N then F =U, which is countable (being countable union of countable sets). = 11. The family of all infinite subsets of an infinite set 2 is uncountable. ‘RWI (Pest Ron Sera Wr Kas Near LET, New Da 016, Phi (@UD} BASIS, Cas IEGEN & SOVOTGTTIA FSRATTRT 3 Eval af(livacadmcams Website wn dipsesden cue yRntso bet +2008 Corned nator Reason: Let # denote the family of all subsets of the set X and denote the family of all finite subsets of X. Then family of all infinite subset of the set X is equal to B—A. Which is uncountable. (By Property 9) Rema (@) The family of all subsets of countably infinite set is uncountable. ) PC 12. Finite Cartesian product of countable set is countable. N),P(Q),P(Z) all are uncountable set. Application: Nx N«...x.N is countable set 13. The set of all positive rational numbers is countable" Reason: a+{z .4_820.co-prime positive iteptrs | ~. a q ents Let A={(0.q): ng ace eo prin Bostv®egers} > Clearly the elements of @* and A are,in dng os ‘gorrespondence and therefore Q* is countable iff 4 is sei ‘Since AcNxN and NxN is countable, therefore, A is commtable. (being subset of countable set) x : te Hence Q” is also countable a a ee Note: J @ Q=Qt Lg Uo} is ibe © By via 3 ea Hx XZ, QxQx...xQ all are countable | 14, Infinite Cartesian Pract Tired sets 4,42, Az... (Where |4|22, for infinitely ages oi) is uncountable. 15, Set oft péimomial ba fos ia cmt Reason: nee | (nba 1 €Q} “ee Then F, is coijatible YmeNU{0} as there is a bijection Py > QQX.. A adefided as fg (ao +4. Hage) = (450455) Now if P denote the class of all polynomials over Qthen clearly P=(J2, which (being countable union of countable set) is countable. ml 16. Set of all circles whose Centre and radius are rational number is countable. Elementary Set Theory and Countablility — ey, ( ‘EAA, Eat int is Sarak eas Khas, Near LUT, New Dols 10016 Pa) AGS7EN, Gal OPA HOTEL NAAT Ema lafegsecdeay. cu Weheke: We psec dea omPeigsacaderny TE noe cored mete 17. 19, 20, 21. Reason: Let X ={c]c=(x—a)" +(y—b)? =r?where a,b,reQ} Define 6:¥ > Qx@xQ as6(c)=(a.b,r).This is a bijective map and thus LY’ countable set R f / Algebrai | alae Transcendental) | L : t Algebraic number: A real number is called an algebrait:tiumber, if itis a root of a polynomial P(x) =a) +ajx+ ) fan #0) with ~ rational coefficient : aS Transcendental number: A real number whichis not Algebraic called a transcendental number. Set ofall algebraic numbers and set of all transcendental numbers forms a partitions of the set} Every transcendental number‘ irrational. Irrational niitibér thay Be algebraic of transcendental V2 is an algebreic d Set of all algebraic mifnber ié Countable, Reason: fixed meNu{0} define Pp = {0 +4 +.0px? +..+.a_8” 1g, €Q} ‘This Py is countable, Now take P= [J , and being countable union of countable sets it is men also countable. So, P is countable. Now ifais any algebraic number then there is a polynomial in P such that whose root iso. foe Aa ee oR enc oT Eel ffedipancadey.com: Western digicade. £00 ‘A or Sar va Kas Nee TLT_ New DeMTANGOG Ph ITSO, Co WOOTEN STITT RCTIT23, ‘Thus the set of all algebraic numbers is contained in the set of zeros of polynomials in P Now all we need to show is that the set of zeros of these polynomials is countable. ‘Since every polynomial can have at most & real roots where & is degree of that polynomial. Now we denote the set 4, as the set of zeros of polynomials in. Since P, bas countable number of polynomial and further all of those polynomial have finite number of zeros $0 4p, will have countable number of elements, Now define.4= {J 4,, . the set of zeros of polynomials inP, being mi countable union of countable set is countable and set of algebraic ‘numbers being subset of this set. Set of algebraic numbers is countable. Reason: Since R= AUT" whereA is — snambers and 7” is set ofall transvendeaital finbers, Nowginte A is countable and Ris uncountable Oe «7 =R-Als uncountable Bp using the result 9) Arbitrary collection of disjoint open int yal copntablé. Reason: consider 7 to be the colle prions open intervals. Now if Fis any interval then we can sega) mani wh satin any other interval we denote that by avi take anf other interval there we can find any other rati in this way we can find a sequence of rational mumbefs 4; sain, sn dguoh where each a; is from different interval and thus. ei fan generate a’ set of rational numbers having one-one correspgindenée, with’ the set and since that set of rational number is countable so 7s also countable. ‘There does notexist yx agate, fi fiction from a countable set to an ‘uncountable set. =a = . There does not exii ny Staton fom an cout set oa a4 a4 ee E f Countable / Uncountable Natural Numbers ® i Countable Integers (Z) Countable Rational Numbers(Q) ‘Countable ‘Non Empty , non-singleton Intervals Uncountable (Open, closed, semi-open, semi-closed) paca, aSRETODSe Uncountable Real numbers (IR) Uncountable Algebraic numbers (41) Countable ‘Transcendental Numbers(7”) Uncountable Algereic [|] Conable] Inrationals Transcendent} Uncountabie ] 27. There exist intervals which are eouiitableeg. [aa] WWaeR 28. Every countably infinite set has cardinality ‘Xp (Aleph Naught) 29, *e” isthe smallest cardinality of any sina Bat 30. The unit interval [0,1] is urcounabeset ~ Reason: Let us assume that [ Pate tee = either [0,1] is ait or county Since every non empty, oni Sptervaljé an infinite set, [0,1] ig cof real nurabers in [0,1], nite decimal, we have with decimal representation where by is any integer from 0 to 9 such that by # ay, Jy is any integer from 0 to 9 such that by # ayClearly, b <{0,t] and bx, Vn since the decimal representation of is different from the decimal representation of ,, a8 by # dy, Thus escapes enumeration and we arrive at a contradiction. . = Hence [0,1] is not countable. 31. (0,1) is uncountable set. (By property 6) 32. Any open interval (a,b) is uncountable where « +5 . 33. Any open interval (@,4) is equivalent to any other open interval (c,d) where a#b & c#d FE Reason: Let x ¢(a,b). Consider a function f':(a,b)>{(¢,@) given by mate) Se ~ Itis easy to verify that / is one-one and ontg, Henge Gi esult follows, 4 ee Hy 34. Any closed interval [a,b] is equivalent, Yosh ot ther closed interval : [ed] where a#b & cad s 35, Any two non-trivial intervals are equi na n-émpty, non-singleton intervals are non-itivial) me 36. The set IR of all real numbers is uncotintable. ‘ Somer Reason: To prove this, itis suffi gat ghow that-{0,1)~ IR. Consider » the funetion :(0,1) +R given by SAL P ‘2x-1 kuooi |P(u)|=2%0 40. Set of all functions having domain 4 (countably infinite) to the co- domain 8 (containing at least two points) is uncountable set Cantor Set . For describing the Cantor set, we shall give the following preliminaries on the temary expansions ofthe real numbers in [03} which is need for the arithmetical characterization of the Cantor set. So" In the ternary expansion of a real mymber, we use-the in the ternary scale, x=0.a,a)q3... means that xe oe where svt will tke any one of the values 0, 8nd2., Except for numbers Tike? a2 ee The termary expansion of every real nlniber is unique. Ss —A RO to et 0 ys 29 1p us m9 8/9 1 . Now consider the closed interval[o,1]. From[0,l], let us remove (3) Which the open middle third part is of[0,1]. Then we obtain the intervals UeneAmSe my trae Centre OTs:Elem of these intervals. That is we take away (78 (Fs B)in ie Jana gt hese intervats [ot 9, At each one of the succceding stage, we shall remove the open middle third of cach open of the remaining close intervals. If this process is carried for a countable number of times, removing the middle thirds of the Teft out intervals at each stage, the set of point lft out in [0,1] sealed the Cantor ternary set or Cantor middle third, in (42 First note that any number in (5,5) removed it Pe ~ ~ expansion of the form0.1a)a3a,.... For ail Bi mb semived i in the second 12) aal2 7 SSS state al 22] soa [2 4, 1 will oceur in,the cond place i in the temary 3 SS ; scale on the assumption Zea be re Kas. manner, all the numbers removed in will’have 1 in the mth position in the ternary scale, All te ‘vill not have one in ‘their eXperisions, Hence the Canis Bt Gis the set of all numbers x in [0,1] hich have a temary expansion sitiout dig 1. Where we assume that if'the dn a similar without one’s. Note: From the consti. it gra io that only the end points. 121278 ape the “Cantor set. But this is not so. For = te 2 Further it is insresing fe noe ‘te sum of the lengths of the intervals removed in [0,1] is one as sbén below. teftet) (tit 3° \9° 9 a7 27 37 27 ‘The sum of this geometric series is i ei nal lfedlneaceda com: Webske: woe dioesademcom [B00 iri Sra er Nee ew aOR Fs (DATE, Gan snTtNaN a OCT ATaims 538% ae Ame T Cone Re LED Ty Results on Cantor’s Set: aE : Put Your Own Notes 1 AS " fre oa in =00r 2h another expression of Cantor set. ———— mi 2, Cantor set contains no interior point. 3. Cantor set doesn’t contain any open interval. 4, Its closed and bounded, 5, Each point of cantor set 4 is limit point of 4 6. Cantor set is perfect. 7. Measure of Cantor set is zero 8. Cantor set is uncountable, Ss [Note: For definition of interior point, limit point, erfet se -clossd-and bounded set See Chapter 2.Point Set Topology Wilco ont saooe cerunes netrote CHAPTER 2 POINT SET TOPOLOGY 21. Definitions and Properties I Archimedean Property Of Real Numbers 1. If x,y are two positive real numbers then exist a positive integer such that ny > « 2. If x is any positive real number then there exist & positive integer such that > x : 3. For any real number x, there exist an integer rest that 2 xeS. Note: (@) 5 is not an interval if there exist 2,b€5,a#b and there exist ¢ such that a<¢0,(a—5,a% 5829 Examples: Q SS (a) S=N, Then Set of all adht go is's itself. () 5=(0,1], Then Set of all ints of sis [0.1] 12. Isolated Point: Let a's amiSCR, thén a is called Isolated point of 5, if there exist 85°0: such that (a=8,a+5)9S = {a} “ye Of nti poor s @) S=[0,1) le ofa init pont of sis [0,1] 14. Interior Points L&,SCR aod vem we sy ais an interior point of S ifthere exist § >0 such that (a—8,a+8)cS Set ofall interior points of sis denoted by 5° Examples: (@) S=N, then no real number is an Interior point ofS. (b) S=R or S=(0,1) then every member of S' is an interior point of s. ‘HAI, i For) Sa Sar Ha hae, Near LL New Deb 06T6, Ph (@15)SSTS2, Cok: DP TRVAN & DOOLATES SBOTTES ll fos academy cam: Website worm dlnsendom sePoint Se . Exterior Point: Let aeR and SCR, we say a is an exterior point of S if it is an interior point of 5¢ in B (where S® means complement of $ in E). Set of all exterior point of S is denoted by ExtS Examples: (a) 5=Q then no real number which is Exterior point of @ (b) S=[0.1] then set ofall exterior Point of $ is (0) (i=) 16. Condensation Point: Let aeR and SCR, then a is called Condensation point of $ if for every >0.(@~8,a+8) must contain uncountable members of S . Hence if 5 is not cSuntable., then there exists a point in S such that x is condensation point afys Example: SS (3) 5=OF then every Real mumber is a Cohdéystion Point of $ (©) 5=Q then no Real nuihber is Condegiation Point of S 17, Frontier Point: aeR is said to be a Yontier Point of SCR if it is neither an interior Point of $ nor an exterior Point ofS . Set of all frontier point of 5 is denoted by Fr.S™~ Example: oo (@ S=R en aa s°=R=(s"} Net Ext S=$=> (ExtS)" =] Now, Fr(s)=(s4f° ACS ee A @) San nde Poin ! Frontier Point of s which are member of 5 are referred as dary point. Set of all boundary point of 5 is denoted by BS Example: @ S=R Then @=FSAS=$NS=6 (>) S=N OS =FrSOS=NAN=N 19. Open Set: A set 5 is called open, if itis neighbourhood of each of its point. 20. Closed Set: A set 5 is called closed, if it contains all its limit point. er arag Put Your Own Notes —— i! EAT, st Foo aia Sara aaa Ean Infdivacademvcoms W bse: wn dioeasedoy com TAT, New Dat 10016, PhO - 2655597, Ces 99DIRD4DA & 99916173, BHBIATPoint Set Topology derived set of 5 and it is denoted by s* 22. Perfect Set: If 5 ~ 5* then 5 is called perfect set. 23. Dense Set: A set sis said to be Dense in any set x iff $= x. 7 a Sere Nore: 7 (a) This is only a sufficient condition for, 2° “set Bhave a Jimi point i.e. unbounded infinite sets may have i oe Example: 5 = (©) Condition of ininitenes cannot {a : Haapnples 8 {01} doen nothage A (©) Contin of boundedness ) S=| ite) god does not exist and Lower bound of s isO Y © 501} hen phtdend os is 1 and Jower bound of s is 0 . Bounds of a set may or may not belong to the set. . Ifa set has one upper bound / lower bound then it has an infinite number ‘of upper bounds/lower bounds. |. IfSis a bounded non-empty subset of R. Then inf S inf 6. For any two non-empty bounded subsets S,T of B such that SCT; inf T scr Gi) (SaTyesnr Gi SUTPIEUT yp 53. iamnigoecenne 54, The intersection of exbirary family of closed sets is closed 55. Finite union of closed set ‘is closed. 56. Arbitrary union of closed sets may not be closed. lva22 then each §, is closed set but UE, 5 =(041) is an open set. anne Sailiimasensenssre 9 SN eRe =Iont ee 58, Derived set is always closed set 459, Derived set of a bounded set is bounded set. 60. If derived set (say) Sis finite then 5 is countable set 61. Let § and T are two subset of real numbers. Then @ seros'cr (i) (UTY a Gi) SATY CS’ AM (where S',7" denote the derived set of $ ond 7 respectively ) 62. Non-empty countable set cannot be open ws 63. Ifaset is open then SS" converse need not be true Example: 5 =(0,1} then $< $’ ={0,1] but s iSndt airopen’ set. 64, 1 s is an open set and 7 is closi'fatn-Eheti “1 15 Gen and TS is closed set \ 65, Arbitrary intersection of open sets may not bé open. Example: S, = then each $;-is“apopen set. But (5, - (0) which is not an open set. 66, Every non-empty open set is union bf 67, Closure of a set § is denote by 5. and set of limit points of Some Examples: PO rs? | Put Your Own Notes |[a0);a2b [2] fertaen}] cnr fox | ferbeen}uts 2 Ta U foosm;n€ N} 1 4 [ou] : : Seta Set limit points Frontier | Boundary points points Etatinioninie - eambanbiaeneones Nbd. of x 6 7 | SNone fits . “Points "None of its \ Points None of its Points ‘None of its Points, Each of its Points None of its Points (a2) None of its Points PointsRemeestig cert Ts CHAPTER 3 SEQUENCES OF REAL NUMBERS 3.1. Definition ‘A map from N to B defines a sequence of real numbers when the images are arranged in the natural order of natural number i.e, starting with images of n is followed by that of (n +c) ie, f:N—R is a sequence of real numbers and =< fOfQ..> <> -we =< ay > .

<> ete. > Ky > = < 057505500 wl When f:¥-r€ , then this fimeton, defines = eae % of complex numbers. Note: A wap Sq) >R (1). Define a finite seiedee of length scaled as string (Siq) donote the set of first n naturel nunibérs). Generally sequence is always infinite (i.e., non-terminating) paclngegt on finite set then it is siven by (1). Range set of a Sequence of ‘The range set of a sequence is the set of all distinct elements of a Sequence and without regard to;the position term, Thus the range may be finite or infinite set ie,the rage’ Set of sequétice is given by {22 EN} oF simply by RW). \ Some Important Example ef Sequence n=1or prime else n=1or prime p/n & pis the least prime 2A, est Foo 3a Sora Har Kay Nene LLT, New Dei-110016, Ph (1}2G0S27, Col POSTERS A SOVTOTTSG REBATES Eales Wests wee diguendemy com% Gyn Fy a=1 ay 10. aq.a =E(dy +ayon) Where a, &a given 11. dq = 244 where a; =0 12. =2012 VneN ne in( 2 <) 13, 14, 15. =cosn 36, =sia{) Ur 17. = Last digit of 3” SANt 18. = {-2,-3,-1,0,1,2,1,0,1,0,.. SS B sleytyte NS & 20. a, (©) HE the mange of the séqieuée is finite then there exist a ¢ R such that a, = for infinitely many values of n. however converse need not be true. n=1or prime Example: an - else ‘Then ¢, =4 for infinitelymany values of x but range of the sequence is not finite ‘Hi, Gi Si Sera Hass, Near ELT, Ne DAMEN PROUT CTR E-gnll lfelineatemn.com: Webake ww nace. coum emit, SET3,13. Monotonic Sequence Let be @ sequence of real numbers is monotonic if either dq Say, V2 €N (Then the sequence is called monotonically increasing or non-decreasing) or a, 2,4; ¥aeN (Then the sequence is called monotonically decreasing or nop-inereasing). If a, is called stricly increasing or increasing sequence. If a, >a), VHEN, then is called stricly decreasing or decreasing sequence. Examples: (a) = is increasing sequence. (b) = <-n >is decreasing sequence. Eventual Nature of a Sequence ~~ 1. A sequence is said to be eventually. smonotonically increasing if ntually ono 3 meN such that ays, 20, Vaz. CSS Example: <0,2,-5,3:7,8,910,1 203% idsG'be a linit point or a cluster point of a sequence if every neighbourhood ofp ¢batains an infinite number of elements of the given sequence. f In other words, a real number p is a limit point of a sequence (a,) if for any £>0, a, €(p~¢,p+e) for infinitely many values of m Remark: A real nunber p is not a limit point of a sequence (a,), if there exists at least one neighbourhood of p which contains only finite number of elements of (a,,) RE NL | Put Your Own Notes | ‘Erma: lfidbvncuancom: Webste: wr dlpsncadeny 0 ‘MAIL rst For) Ha Sora Ha Kaas News LET, Nev Do 10016, Ph (O1)}AESSTHIT, Co. DOOTER & OS91C175, SRRMTRDNote: (@) Limit point of a sequence need not be a limit point of the range set. Example: =(-1)" ‘Then {I,-1} is a set of limit points of but neither | nor] limit point ofits range set. | (&) Limit point of the sequence can be obtained in three ways and they are as follows (b) Ifthe range set has a limit point, then sequence has limit point. (0) Af the range set is finite. 7 = a, = afer infinitely many values of nwhere @ ¢ it => a.is a limit point of the sequece. Existence of A Limit Point ween Bolzano Weierstrass Theorem: Evéry bounded sSuygace has ‘a limit point. Reason: Since the sequence (say) is ogunded\ thus Range set of is a a, >is bounded. OSS ‘Case I: If range set is infinite then by Bol Wetesase Theorem for set, range set must have limit point thus sequéage <&, has a limit point. Case Ti: If range set is finite then POR AET tn a, = 0 for infinitely ‘many values of n Evidently, a. is a limityggint Of the sequence . Bee ? Hence, every bounded sequence fias Application: aan 1. =(1" has limit points 1,31 2. <> =< his tnt poting SS | be a ul strictly increasing sequetice of natural numbers. Then for any sequence EF , the sequence < ay; is. defined asa subsequence of . Example: Let be any sequence of real number. Then Kany >< a24-1 >< Agg > all are subsequences of where ayy >= = Bysbysby Similarly = = €1503103504)-- = Gos .dt6y-~ Thus is a sub sequence of and is a subsequence of and are subsequence of then define ne Sy= {ig EN} and 52 ={ng [ae EN}, then and are complementary subsequences if 1. SUS) =N 2 §N=6 Example: If is a sequence of real numbers, Then and ate complementary subsequence of Remark: Unbounded sequence may have limit point, Limit of a Sequence Let be. sequence of real number and /be,a saree. (feR)then ee wwe say Tis the limit of the sequence iffor aby 2 “Sim eN such that [ay -Tfce Vz me a NY Symbolically, we write it as lim ¢ =/or 2, —P/-adn > 20 Algorithm: To claim / is limit of a sequeiice @) 1. Simplify |ay 1 to get |a, 1d 0) is function of n. 2. Solve the inequality 4(n) outhien set m=[y(o)}+1 (where [y(e)] denote the ceiling function) =4, provided b, #0 VneNand 620. vk eR-{0} ‘6A, est Fr Sia Sarl Ha Kar, Near LEE, New Deiei1006, Phi OTD-24S07507, Cay POTESE B SBTSTTSG,RSSSMATIF Ema foilncadeny-comt Wes: wom nena om(@) In view the results 1-5. we can say that the operation of Timit is compatible with addition subtraction multiplication divison and scaler multiplication (b) Converse of the above results 1-4 is not tue, Examples: (@) Take =and =<-n>, then , are not convergent (<2, +b, >= <0>, which is convergent. (b) Take =(-1)",.=(-1"", then not convergent @ =<(- Went es ere Gi) =<0> wathisome i) -1> , which is convergent. (©) Every convergent sequence is bounded" ce converse need not be tr. “Reason: Let Tima,=a (ae: ‘Then for givene> 0, 3 kN suck Joake Vadk o~ “3s QS ‘Take M =: ric evereee fer ea fests ane} ‘Then msa, is bounded Note: Converse need nof be true. pf then / is bounded but not ja-akce2 vne 1a, ~a' ke vind. Take M =Max{m,,m2} Now,|a—a'|=|-a, +44 a,=a"| = [a-a'|S 10, -ai+1a,-a"| ¥n2m every Neighbourhood of / Teaves out only finite members of the sequence. (ii) Limit of a sequence is limit point but converse need not be true. (O) If Him u, ==> tim |x, [517 | Converse need not be true. Example: Take {u,)=(-1)" then (t,|)=(i). is convergent but is not convergent. (©) lim |x, -f|=0< lima, (HE [a |S |p| 922m and. lim |v, | =0 thus denotes the absolute value of 1.) (9) If lima, -aanda, 26 ¥n2m,meN Then (®) A bounded sequence is convergent’< it BaF unique limit point Note: oD () The above statement of the result prayides a second definition for a ‘sequence to be convergent gs asgequence ig’ convergent if it is bounded and has a unique fimit i (ii) Condition of the above jresiilt cannot be relaxed i.c., if a bounded soquence have more thanéene ‘limit point then it cannot be convergent. ie, i Example: A sequence = (=I)", is bounded having two limit points 1 and -I:thus it Snot convergent sequence. Application: ) have more thin one limit point then {a,) cannot 1, Ifa sequence ( a ae @ = isnot convergent. (b) =<(Cl)" +n >is not convergent. ‘AVE, it Foy a are, Hz Kh, Neat LE: Fon DeR10016, Ps (1D) BOEDTEN, Cal: POON DOTCTTIN, BSSRUTAS ‘Bawa ninety: Web: wr die 4end0£03, Ifa sequence bas limit point, then it may not be convergent. Example: Consider a sequence =<1:0,2,0,3,0,4.0,...> then 0 isa limit point of but is not convergent as it is unbounded. (@ A monotonic sequence < a,, > is convergent <> it is bounded, Remark: (® Convergent sequence may not be monotonic. Example: cy" a (ii) A bounded and monotonically increasing sequeng supremum. Sages ts (ii) A bounded and monotonically decreasing sequbndecanverges,t0 i infimum. CS (iv) An eventually monotonic sequence, ci oat is bouided (i) If . be two sequences, of-tul—numbers: such that dy Sy Sp Sby Yn zm and ign PS, im ay = Ti ons ino Be SE (vi) Monotonic sequence can have at LORE point. Applications: ~~ Pes {@) The sequence 1 Sette 0.48 it is, monotonically decreasing sequence and) is tsifimmum. 4 (b) The sequence i nots convergent as it is monotonically increasing sequebée which is not bounded above. c\3eJa, © YmeN, then convergety, ga (@ The sequence’ (SZ)kdefined|by the recursion formula 9/7 £ convéiges to the positive root of & Then 74+Sp41 > 73 “Ths, bythe principle of mathematical induction, Spay > Sp VEN and so (S,) is monotonically increasing. Again S, =~ /7 <7. Let us suppose that Sy<7 ATES, 0 Now Spay =Y7FE, = 52 =745, Taking the limit as n> and using (1), we get Petsl =f-I-7=0 Hence / is a positive root of x7 -x-7=0 edle which is quadratic in a, . Since this-eqhation has real roots, thereforea?,;-220 = a,,)2V2¥neN. ” Thus the sequence (2,) is bounded belowby.v2 - Now = (a,) is a monotoniilly decreasing sequence. otonically docieasing and bounded below Using ingga =H 92 Let (5,) be a sequence defined by 5) =1,5p4 WneN, then (s,) is a bounded and monotonically increasing sequence and converges to V3. {EAA (et cr a Sarl Har Khas, Near LT ew Da-i016, Ph: (O1)AESSSGD, Celi P9OLRSS4 & HPDIOTTSE BSROETS Erma nfdnecnce. come Web: worm dostendom com‘Antao 9001 alee orthed matte (g) Let “x,y, , are two. positive unequal numbers and Xe Hons +3921) andy, = Jiayma V2 2'Then the sequence (%:) and {y,,) are monotonic and they coverge to the same limit. @_ Every sequence (a,.) has a monotonic subsequence(a,, ) (k) Let (a,,) be @ sequence converging to . Then every sub sequence of also converges to /. Reason: Let be a sequence of real number which converge to J. Let be a subsequence of Since >! So for given > 0, 3meN such that Ike, Vazm We dq, He Vg Em 2 =<4> be a ()(g,)eab=(3) a ipa subseience oO it point of a sequence (a,)<> there exist a in) Sonverges to 1. (©) If each of the two subsequence (a;,1) and (a,,) of a sequence (aq) converges to 1. Then (a,)also converges to 2. (+ (azq-1) and (a3,) are complementary subsequences of (a,)) (©) IE (ayn) and (ay_) converges to different limit then (a,) cannot converge. Cree naa Rem ‘HAF, et Foe ia Sara Hons Kise, Neat LUE, New DenbA1016 Ph: (2650527, Cele 999184 & DMC, OSES E-mail ifoaunsecabemcom: Webuhe: wvnienaecomExample: (@) Let (2,}=((-1)") Since {a,,) has two limit point -1 and 1 «+ There must exist two different subsequences of (a,) Say (b,) and {c,)) such that lim by =Tand tim ¢ =-1 Hence (aq) is not convergent. te (e,)=((-"=4) sine y)=((a)* <: Lis a limit point of (a,), E , is a subsequence of {a,) and (b,) 7 Similarly, to=(rre" + and (c,) 1 => ~1 isa limit point of (a,) Hence (ay) is not meas © Let (a,) be @ sequencé’ 202 a, eee n>, then (a) Awhere -{a,) is defined as is convergent.by > Opt = (b,.) is monotonically increasing sequence. “> (aan) is monotonically increesing sequence Since (anes), (az: Forms complementary sequences of (ay) and ‘converges to same limit Al 1 atetete is titoge Let Yattg tse tales: Then lim Y_=7 ‘Ari it wr) Bin Sera az Kn, ear LUT, New Dein 016 Pas O11) AG5VRVT, Cae DPPIBSGH H OUSDLCTIOG, SEATED El: Inolloncademycom: Weta: wr ipiesden 2mBiscay Advanced Analysis of A Sequence Limit Superior Let (a,) be a sequence of real numbers which is bounded above. Define hy = sup {a.02,..dgat} by = s0p09525,44.-} by = SUP as nets Angaee} Then (b,) is defined which is monotonically decreasing Then limit superior of (a,) is denoted by iin a, or litn.supa, and is RE defined a inf {by ,bp.b5.Baan-} IF (a,) is not bounded above. Thea limit superiox oF fap) is defined as | Ima, = tim supa, = 40. . Sa Example: @) Let (a,)=(-1)" Clearly (a,) is bounded’séquence. (c-1Sa,S1 VneN) ‘We have, & =sup{-1,1,-1, & =sup{l,-1, bg empleyt cyDivsscadony Witise 9001 200t corte cts ‘Now inf {bj.b2..} =1 . lima, =1. eater Clear (a) is bounded sequence. We have, ,=1 1 bas aot Nowinf {,by.. + Tim a, =0. 35.2. Limit Inferior Let (a,) be a sequence of real numbers Define q = inf {a,47,-04q 4p si} «. €2 =inf (a, 45,--} Gy = inf (ap Apes (:0 sup{o ser, =4 sequence (a,)) Note: 2, y 1. Tf a and B are limit inferior i imi superior of a sequence (a,) respectively. Then [¢iB}:may..not have any member of the sequence. (above exainple) Convergent Sequence / A sequence (a,) is said to be convergent iff limit superior is equal to the limit inferior and they exist finitely i.e. lima, -lima, =/(!¢R), then /is called the limit of the sequence (a,). Example: Let (a,)=(2012) VneN, then (a,) is convergent sequence “lime, = Time, =2012. ATA. ie Fo) Sa Sarak Manz Khas Near LET New DabiaR0006, Ph (1) EESTEY, Ca DOE BOOTLE SETS yi ‘Eau: ioitmnendomvcoms Website wwe-dpsiadcay cm~ A sequence (a,)is said to — Epo a and Jima, exist |. Divergent Sequence A sequence (a,) is seid to be divergent Iflima, = lima, = (infinite) Or == infinite). Examples Let (aq)=(-3)"-m » then (ag) is biued- below and pvergent eagle —oand ‘unbounded above both but it is not ¢ Tm, 40, : Oscillatory Sequence ‘A sequence (a,) is said to be oscillatory sdqyestet ime, lima, Finitely Oscillatory Sequence Se SS finitely and lima, #Tima, - Examples: A sequence (4, exist infinitely and Properties on Limit Superior and Limit Inferior 1. Let (a,) be a bounded sequence andi ¢R . Then Jim supa, =! iff for each 6>0 att ( a, >1~¢ for infinitely many values of 7. (i) a, <1-+6 for all except finitely many values of “SaNa ra Fw i Sra Hee Kas, Near LUT; New Doub HWE, Ph: @UD}ESTET, Co, PPIBHG 710 lesen tees ie eTSere 2. Let (a,) be a bounded sequence and /<¢R. Then lim infa, =1 iff for each e> 0 (0, 1~s for all except finitely many values of » Let (a,) bea bounded sequence and fim supa, = M . Then (There is subsequence of {a,) that converges to Mf Gi) The limit superior of no subsequence of {a,) can exceed M Gilt a subsequence (a,,) of (a,) convinges. Ithen 3 a Sean} f constant subsequence (a, )=(p) which-gononges + P Conversely: If the sequence (a,) — Subsequence say (em) =?) wel oN Conversely: Suppo, tat a, is eventually constant sequence. Then there exist me such theta, =p Vn>m (peN) for any €>0 s|q-p]se | ¥nzm 1. => (a) is convergent and- converges to p. . Ifa sequence of natural numbers is not divergent then it has constant subsequence. SANA, ies Foe) ia Srl nee Khas Nea LL. New Del 10016 mal lnffisecudns cont Webs: wr sacatesy etnNUR. inion mURDRNTIT RISE ES SRNR Reet ee NT acd ‘Since sequence is not divergent then either it is convergent or Oscillates. If sequence oscillates then it is either Oscillates finitely or Oscillates infinitely .In both the cases, the sequence has limit point and hence it has a constant subsequence. {If sequence is convergent then there exist @ constant subsequence. Cauchy Sequence ‘A sequence (a,) is said to be a Cauchy sequence if for any £>0, there exists a positive integer m such that|a, —a,,|0 be given and if n>m , consider|a, — pw mt cd cg. providedm >> Se jn mlm e Se Let m be 2 positive integer greater thanl /¢ . Thehtn.— aah 0, there corresponds 4“pasitive-integer ‘m such that So lenep —ay| et (:* "nal mm*) ‘HAUT, ie Fw) ia Bra Hose Kas Neat LEE, Now DaRUAIGULG PL: (HD) SERVED), Cal PORN OEOTSTTON ASTDSequences of Real Numbers eam — aml This contradicts (1), Hence the given sequence is not convergent. The sequence (a,) , where a=istede +4 is a convergent sequence. el Reason: By Cauchy's criterion of convergence, @ real sequence converges iff it is a Cauchy sequence. We shall show that the given sequence (a,)is.@ Cauchy sequence, so that (aq) is.convergent. For 12m, we have eit to ce or >t ai : (m-1)1082 Mos(1/s)orm> flog(1/e)(log2)"? +1} =. (say) PRL te lan Gn |<€ V 22m, where m is a positive integer 2. Hence (a,) is'a Cauchy sequence and so (a,) is convergent. a See ST 3. Let (a,) be a sequence of real numbers and for each nN, define 444.09 + gay = fl +a|+~ + Hel If ((,) is a Cauchy sequence, then so is (s,). "HAM, (et er a Sort uz Ka, Near LAT New Doi, Pa (@H)-267597, Ces 999R3%38 & SBVOLOITIN ASSET Esl: dioacadamncon: Wetste ww doseadem. comReena cps Reason: Since (f,) is a Cauchy sequence, for any e>0, there exists a (ers positive integer m such tat [fy or fl+ +o mee) lil]| Othen lim(ay22..2,) “BAD, et Pw) Bn Sea nus Kl, Near LI Ne Dec 11006, Ps (Ot BOSD, Cal oP ION WFO TIG ROUT Bah lveehguncden cons Web: wwedignsndeay comExample: Let tim (1+ nol mie] Reason: Let a,(1+4) vthen ¢,>0.VneN and lim a, ) =e Then tim (aye5...a,)!"" =e. 2 7 43 ee 2(3V(4P f+ Hl = Hence lim 8) 3 (2) ] =e, use), ~ wee 3. If all the terms of a sequence-{uy)..are pod lim (@,)!" = lim “#1 , provided the later limit gxist. aq 4, Cesaro’s Theorem: Let lima, =a, € positive’ real numbers such that tim Se! 0 Oy Application: ow @) Let (a,)=(2"%9"), then tim 27.1? =0 Reason: We have ay - yy, = = lim = lim ae, mL gel ge am? Gna (nsf 2" i (ast) Rereetre eT Rs >0 By Cauchy's second theorem on limits, we have ivevand if lim S04 we Oy exist:Then lim (a,)'” also exist and the.twoiimnits are equal. ie., 1, "HAI, (Frat lor a Sorat Haus Kh, Near LET, New Da ‘Bama niencademy cent Webs, wre ibtaeade com= lima, = tim 2.2 -9 (i Heft and me E18. Then fin Let a, =Doolm= n+) =n) ge (n+ (=n) Gaye 20 Oy Now tim “ah = of (DIE p>, then lim “eM 9. If (a,)be a sequence of positive real numbers such that lim 2242 =7>1 92 Gy ; then (ay) is not a bounded sequence and hence not convergent10. Let lim a, =a, lim b, =5, and(S,) &(7,,) are two sequences, where (,)are convergent and lim S, =max{a,b}, lim Ty = iin[a,b} Reason: For any two real numbers x and y, we know rmax{s.7}=Hx+y)+ 4-94 @ | amin {x,y} ® Taking in Qs we obtain 5, =m Ayo} ~by|eusing 0) lim S, = tim (a, +b,)+S im Ja a 2ae Zn! =4{ i ay + i 6] +5 im en 2 by, Y ! (a-+6) +4 tim | | a 6°) From(3), lim S,, Similarly, liom Z, =| For example let (ag) =4(4)") Thea (a2) =(h41.-), which converges to 1.. but (2,) does not converge to 1. 13, Let (a,) bea sequence such that a7 ra”, then |a,|>]a| 28 n>. | 5, =max{dq,2,) 89 T, =min{ay,5,}- Then the sequences {S,) and ——venn “eas Gia wr) ds Sava ar Kiser LAST New De 016, Pas (OTIPRUSHTER, Ca PPVESOG & SHUTS ASSET Li ‘emi niioneadeo.com: Webse: wir dpiced cmt41. 4d 412 413 414 415 CHAPTER 4 SERIES OF REAL NUMBERS Definition We know about arithmetic and geometric series etc. A series of » terms is denoted by the expression m +1, +..+u, or u,. If the series has no last a term, then such series is called an infinite series. Infinite Series: Let (@,) be a sequence of real numbers, then ay ROL numbers. Itis also denoted by » Sa Example: @) D4 here o-(4) vaen 0 E(t ree Sequence of Partial Sums SS Suppose Ya, is an infinite follows: =a Sy =a 40 Divergent Series The series a, is said to be divergent, if the sequence (S,) of partial sums of Da, is divergent ‘Oscillatory Series The series a, is said to oscillatory, if the Sequence (S,) of partial sums of Xa, oscillates. {HA/1, Fito a Sral Hou Kas,Ronse] Necessary condition for convergence of a series If the series a, converge, then lim a, =0. Remark: (a) Converse of the theorem need not be true. Example: Let Ya, rh then tim +=0 but zhi is not convergent. (b) IF lima, #0 then Sa, cannot converge Examples: (@) The series 1+r+r? +..(r > 0) converges if r<1 and diverges if r=) (Geometric Series) (b) The series >(-1)"" oscillates. Solution: We see that “141-10, 8, =1and so on. (5,) =(1.0:10,1,0,..), which oscillates: Hence the given series oscillates. (6) Test for convergence of the series © Sen i Svn(™) Solution: teenie ECU" » is not convergent. 68 0440, 285 eet ‘The sequence _ of partial sums of the above series is, (Ss6%.00:8 6.) BB AF 0.07 Ba Clearly, timsupS, =/3 and liminf S, =0. ER SADNESS EE HEI It follows that (S,) is not convergent. Hence the given series is not convergent. asian ‘NA is Wa) aS Haz Ka, Near LI, Now DARFIIGOL6 Ph (TIP SSTSET, Cl: 9991606 S0PGITRE, SSOSHTID Erma lafinadeon.com: Webske wn lsweadeny.em44. Telescopic Series Let (a,) be 2 sequence of real numbers. Define 8, =a, ays) and ¢y = Aya “Ay Then 7b, and )'c, are called telescopic series. If (S,) denote the sequence of partial sum of the series 75, Then 5, = 355, b, ahehte =4,-@ +4) — FM Gust Similarly if (¢,) denote the sequence of partial sum of the Series Sey. Then fy = dy. % we Thus (5,) and {f_) are convergent iff (a,) — Thus 4, and Yoo, are couvergentiff (2, iecotivelgen Sn ue eee ~ Ex os The ee \ cample: The series + st-+ 1+. is convergegt, ‘Solution: We have, Hence the given sexigs is ogiiyergent. Cauchy’s Genefal Principal 6 Convergence A necessary and sufficient COndition fora series Da, to converge is that for each, F @ positive integer m , such that lena 4 ; rings! a terms converges uy -40 but also mu, +088 n—>co. 4 convergent seties, for any ¢>0, a positive integer N exists such thay. {tigia +o[+tigap|2N and m=[#, tue greatest inter not greater x £ 2 gt Higa tnt tly <= Athan 5 tat He bent SE But >», is positive monotonic decreasing so 8 ord et (A= tty 0 is only a necessary one not sufficient condition for the convergence of the present type of series. If m, does not tend 10 zero then the series )'y, is certainly divergent, for example, the harmonic ies FL series Ly must diverge because it has positive monotonic decreasing 1 terms and n= does not tend to zero, However, mu, ->0 does not imply anything as to the possible convergence of )'u, for example, Abel's series yo ‘loge mu, 90 diverges although it has positive monotonic decreasing terms and Examaple: The series Dy Solution: We have uy Hence the given series is not convergent. \ ws [ia * = Example: Peet, ia ; woe: The series — tot aga pte aot convergent e i Solution: We have SS rae fiery Bot 1 lim nO wl Solution: Let 1, -4) ,sothat logy, ~tioe(2) logy, = 28!=Howe _ loge tim logy =~ tim 8", which is = form (by LHospital’s Rule) "ATL Feat For) ia Sur Haus Khas Newt LET, en DeBI106, Pb (TD}2AS0757, Ces DPDIRSON & SETA BSB ‘Dazall: no @dlprneadeay.com: Webi: wrr.pseade com45. Now ier, 0 = bog tn) => imu, =6 =120 Hence Yu, is not convergent. Series of Positive Real Numbers Series with positive terms are the simplest and the most important type of series one comes across. The simplicity arises mainly from the fact that the sequence of its partial sums is monotonically increasing. “~~ Let Diu, be an infinite series of positive terms and {8,} Bethe sequence of its partial sums so that \ so Sy = Hy tacky, 20, Wn Sq-Syy ty 20 \ = 5,25, 0rd YON ‘Thus the sequence {5,} of partial sums oP segor positive terms is a ‘monotonically inoreesing sequence, 4S Since a monotonic increasing sequence ither‘converge; or diverge to %, but cannot oscillate, therefore, there 3 ties for a positive ‘erm series, it may either converge or a2. Remark: ee ew (2) A positive term series conver bounded above. (b) The sequence of partial’sum ofa series with negative terms can be shown to be monotonic decreasing. and hence a series with negative terms converges iff the seqtience fits partial sum is bounded below. (©) It may similarly’be ifn sever, ‘The sequence (S,) , even though bounded above, is obviously not convergent and as such the series is not convergent. The sequence (S,) thas two limit points viz.—1 and 0. 1 should be seen that, in general, boundedness of the sequence of partial sums of a series is only a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the convergence of the series )°u, , and it is only for positive term series ‘hat this condition of boundedness of the sequence of its partial sums is "a, Fv) a Sara Ha Kes Neat ELT, New DAnFIIGOLG, Ph (i) 2657E17, Cals PSTASS4 ZOD 16T35, SUESTD ema tf Sencadaa.coms Webern inne. cotas well a'sufficient condition for the convergence of the corresponding ———=er— series. Put Your Own Notes ‘Test for Convergence of Positive Terms Series b 1. First Comparision Test: If yx, and )\y, are positive terms series, k>0 and 3meN such that" $M ¥ "2 (@) Dhsconverges=> Tu, converges. (>) Dim, diverges )°y, diverges. Example: Test for convergence the series | + Solution: Cleariy, n" > 2" forn>2 Hence by First Comparison Test) is eonvigemt. Example: The series De** converges,“ Solution: We know e* > x for signage ARS toteloetedyere f First’ Comparison Test, also. Example: Testor convergence the series: (@) We know lark for alln22. wy Lt rte! 2 cisly mBeort, Vv ne2. Tagan Yea loge ‘ATARI ae Since xt diverges, so by First Comparison Test, = EN Since J.-L converges, so by First Comparison Test, z Eh ineipnea doo com: Websites wv dlosaeade}.com “BAA Ft Fn Bis Sora Haz Ri, Sear LL New DeBFL1ON6, Plus 1) EDSTY, Cl OTEDN & SOATCTI, BSATEY BB |+— converges, a loge Example: Test for convergence the series: @ ue ivi Solution: (@) We know thatn!=2"" y n>2, — : : in S Tio <1 is convergent. Hence: by Fish Compitivon Test, is convergent en reel NS > ‘The series on the Right Hand Side g Sips geometric series with ‘ot . common ratio <1 is com 8 convergent, Be ~ lye a * ‘Example! Test for fate es Sy for all positive values of x. Solution: Clearly 3" +x >3" » singe F30 sal Now x being iba Sees with common ratio <1 is @ Do, converges Fi ome i) Du, diverges = D», diverges. 3. pSeries Test: The series >. is convergent iff p >1 7 7 4. Limit form Comparison Test: Let Y'u, and S-y, be two positive term series such that tim Ga '=1, (Jis finite and non-zero). Then Su, and Xv, converge or diverge together, 244/N Es ne) a Sar, Rs Khas, Nene LET, No» DaUli0016 Pas (i) SERSTSN, Cal OHUNGAN Z BHDICTTU SUEY Es ict emo indenthold good. Example: @ Let Su, = TywD x ‘Then lim * = lim n= Yai, is convergent oS Proof: As (a, by)? 20 => a2 +82 -2ayh.200-~ =De+De 2 Drab, ~* 2ye oltlh yam, By comparison est. 3, Then by comparison itt O72 is convergent => is convergent. Hence proved. Example: Test each of the following series for convergence: 13 @ ay 123° 234 &) rE a ere eee ard Remark: If /=0or/=2, then the conclusion of the above test may not ‘Thus / =~and in this case }’u, diverges and Drewes 5. If Ya? & Ye are convergent series oF positive eal Tpotibers. Then LRN ‘Put Your Own Notes a "aA, PH Fo) a Sar Ha ha, Nent 1, Now DeBFl1016, Ps (@11-2GSTSG7, Ce SORTED HPICTTM. SOHO 64 ‘mal inliisneadea.comt Web: wn dpsed.2n-1 mur yor¥2) For large values of 2. u, ty nmi) Lat =p Then Feat) -Gala) Now jin $2 20 and finite. ~ OS Since Dv, = ‘converges, So ze eons — Lit © aes Be The wth termis 1, : 1 iim = 0 and finite es a" 7 So Yu, and Sv, converge or diverge together by limit form comparison test, Since J Digg divert, 20 Xu, diverges. i Git ii en a Nea EE Ne DE Ph HET PIA 8 POMS HE sified. con: Webs: WrExample: Test for convergence the series Vint in (Bre2)(Onr4) 2.20 Solution: We have, u, + 02nd finite Os “ae ee So Su, and Fy, converge, ordre BARE Timit_ form comparison test) Since Dv, = Yt; converges, so the given series Converges. Example: Test for converges the serie 613 sn Solution: i, aes. uttons We have, Go BY (Gn) ae Bak we Let yy é ot ne ne EES (EEN (Rationalize) Peale a nn 80 that )'y, converges. ‘Baal: ielpacadee.oat Weber dipeacadeny com ‘RAI, et ora Saal Haas Ka, Nea LT New DABPIIODVG, Ph: 1) 2657897, Co 99918340 & 99910175, SATSerer Now im “= ip 2VH re Eesti) 2 aga) + fica) So Su, and Sy, converge or diverge together by limit form ‘comparison test. =1200and finite Since YYy, converges, s0 the given series Y-w, also converges. Example: The seins YY Tra. diverges, Solution: Take v, =, then tim %. ‘84014 ime a Sarl Hr Ky, Near LUT, New Deis 10]6, Ph AR}SCTEET, COL SHOT FOO I6ITIN RARRGUTIT gdh. Webatc redionerseSo, by limit form comparison test 'x, and }'y, converge or diverge together. Since }-y, converges, so )’u, converges. Exaniple: Test for convergence the series Solution: Let, = Atbands, Jim Y= tim 21 = tim ( 4) =10and finite. So, by limit form comparison test ou, and}, converse ‘or-diverge together by limit form comparison test 7 Now, Dn =D prislie, ps2. converges, if p-1>1 (dye 3rand diverges if Bes, if po1>l eng? \ Hence 54) converges if p > 2 and diverges 8.9 2 RR ‘Thus the two series Du, and. form comparison test SENT Onc ee i So Dou, and S\y, converge or diverge together. Since 5°», = 34, converges, so the given series converges. ‘A ia Porn Sra nea Kian Near TLE, New DAMPIVOULG, Ph (TIPSESS 757, Cal BOPIBU & OSPTCLTA, HERAT emulates cader.com: Web: Wire dipscade cmtKniso soot Z0us cortied nate 7. If a, is convergent series of positive terms thea 7 convergent. Reason: Since }ra, is convergent so lim a, =0 Let bere vn. Then tim 2%= lim (1+a,)=1+0=1 Hence, ya, and J, converge or diverge together by limit form a comparison test. Since Da, is convergent, so), = Tey convergent. eee Remark: If Ya, is convergent rE S&S Veonvergent ‘ SS Take 5, =“! then fim Se tml eae limit form: comparison test, Ya, & 2h converse aS together. Since Da a D’ Alembert’s Ratio Test : Let ve Bach pesiive = series such («20 anda, #1 VneN) that tim *-=1 ‘Then we ed CNS @., Day. converges if 1>1 me (i) Soa, diverges if 1<1 (Gil) Test fails if 1=1 Solution: We have / a, =[|1230 "*|357..2ne1) Fan: 2 and tim Ht = tim = lim| —#|=4>1. Pei tel wal | mel gL By Ratio Test, the given series converges. "AAG, Fs Pow) Sn Sta Hus Kis, Nene ELT New Della O016, Ps OUA)-2ESVEDT, CAL SPE BHO IOITI, OSH Pama: nfodoeaentecom: Web wr nnadoycoma i 123. Bxample: Test for convergence the series } ear 5 : i 123..n(n+1) mms We have u, — pay“ “Fo. Gne a) (3G ay Solution: We have 1, (Brea) 7.10 Gna) (3(n41) 44} and lim A = tim ae ‘nak ‘By Ratio Test, the given series converges. Example: Test for convergence the series > i ate = EH (a4 IS Ee ~ and tim “t= me pes = tm (w+1). tim] | <2 lO 2 Hence the series converges. Sa Example: Test for convergence dees where ris any positive onal number p= Now fim} ¢.come Moin By Ratio Test, the given series converges. ‘VA, Fier aia Sarah Haz Ks, Nour LT New DeOiIOH, Fi Eom: nfisacaec cea: Welseries such that ii) Vest fails if 7 135 Solution: We have u, = ‘wel “946... 2n(2n$2) +L re bara (,.1) (41/2) tei mela n)sT?2n) ‘HATE is Poa) Sa Sara Hage Khas Near TAT, Now Dat H00}6 PL (is) 26577, Cal PPFIRDANA A DIPICITE, FSUROOTD ena: nodlseendem.com: Webste wr douaadea.comRee e Oi Now lim -=1 means that the Ratio test fails. ~ ‘So, we apply Rabbe’s Test. We have jeofesaenal | ans2_ On nQ2u) ant yt Hence, by Raabe’s test, the given series converges. Z135.0(2H—1) 4neh | Example: Test for ave ¢ the series} } ixamtple Ir convergencs 246,20 2es3 3a) (45) F4.c(ane2). 2053)” Solution: We have 1, My 2042 Int5 Qned Byer 20T ane And By Rasbe’s test, ue diverges 10. Cauehy’s nth Root Test : Let )°a, bee 3 pave term series such that lim (a,)"" =1. Then. @ Day: converges if <1 GH Ya, diverges if ¢>1 (Gi) Test fails if 7 "term is ” % uF - and im (,)”" wer cui “Hence, by Cauichy’s root test, the given series is convergent. Example: Toe series ¥*(n”"—1)' converges. a Solution: Let w, =(n"!* 1)", s0 that (1)! =n!" —1 lim a Hence, by Cauchy’s root test, the given series converges. e1-1=0<1 Now fim (1, ye { ‘A, to ara Han Ke, ear LET, New Dae s1006 Ph (TT 2ERTEN, Ca DIE OVOTTIG, SHEN BB ea afaonede com: Webate mrwalonacadey £0Example: Vest for the convergence the series whose n‘* term is sled) Solution: We have wu, = (+x) ed ade) aap Hence, by Cauchy's root test, the given series converges. Example: Test the convergence of the series a Now, (u,)!” -| C2 te aay vd en Hence, by Cauchy’s root test, the given series converges. Some Important Definitions 1. The infinite integral | /(s) dx is said to be convergn (divergent), 1 if inf F(2) ais finite (infinite aq2. Let f(x)be a real valued function with domain {I,c0[. Then the function f(x) is said to be non-negative, if f(x)20Vx>1, Nc 3. The function (x) is said to be monotonically decreasing, if rs ys S(X)2/(y) ¥ ny elLof. Example: Let f(x)=1/x" . Then f(z) is non-negative and monotonically decreasing V x21. 11, Cauchy’s Integral Test: If w(x) is a non-negative, monotonically decreasing and integrable function such that w(n)=u, VaeN, then the Example: The series ¥° in? if psi. Example: The series ear is cor Sin(logny? O0) converges p>1 and diverges if 0

0 WaeN is called an | Sees alternating series and is denoted by J: (-1)"", Example: © Sor pnrs ms ) Da (cay 1 or Pa ISH Lge ial gl gd ed Leibnitz’s Test for Alternating Series: If an alternating series Si | satisfies a ty Sty YE Gi) fim, =0 ‘Thea, the series °(-1)""u, converges. Remark: The alternating series })(-1) ee convergent if either digas £ttys ¥ HOF lim ty, #0. Example: The _ series { convergent, as Hence, by Leiba Absolute Con Example: SCD is absolute convergent series, ae ) Sea( 5) is absolute convergent series Bee 2 © yo" ia not absolutely convergent series. “HAA, ia iar) Dia Sar Hr Kas Noor LET, New Dei-n0016 Ps (11) 2S TER, Col POLED & SWIC, EBERT emai infoaanenden com: Webi we. ipsaade cmResult: Let Dox, be.absolutely convergent series. Then Yu, is also f convergent. The converse of this is not trne ie., a convergent series may not be absolutely convergent. Example: Consider the series Su, = We have seen that the given series is convergent, by Leibnita’s Test but LDisletetete.= D2 is not convergent ie, Te is not absolute convergent. Conditional Convergence Aseries x, is said to be conditionally convergent, if @ SQ is convergent, and (i) Dw is not absolutely convergent. : ~ Example: Test for convergence and absolute conivergende the series Fi a Pa Solution: Since p>0 and (n=1)? >n? so. wr? gy Sy Vt Ne Algo tim ug = lim = 0, since p> 0, ~ (ys ‘ot Be Leibnitz’s Test, =o af is convergent. ff elay"| 2 Now, Y {= $ a at Feample: Test for convergetive ‘and vabsolute convergence the series 1 pdsogs f 5 ¥ + ee Thus Yu, is convergent, by Leibnitz’s test. Now we show 1, is not absolutely convergent. We have |x, 1 leat, md : 3 Mel be doy yp t8 amie 7.38 divergent, so S"]u, |is divergent. (by limit form comparison Let », Since test) Hence )'x, is not absolutely convergent. "NTE i Fv) Sin Sart Haus Kas Nene LAT, New BARFLIOUG, Ps (11) G07, Cx PHVESOG A STING BERBBTED Erm infosiipnea dey: Weber ibsacade cmPipes ‘Rrigo foots ace coreed insure Example: Test for convergence the series ve ay ase being real a number, fenral gy, (+ Dive? weonvergent) Solution: We have |, Thus Su, is absolutely convergent for all real values of aand so De, is convergent for all real values of & Example: Discuss the convergence of the series Solution: We have felpinna Sift st 3} Hence Yu, is convergent. Sa Example: Test for convergence and absofite cbnvergence ‘the series zor “oy a a a Tog(n+l)- log2 logs toga YOY SS Solution: We have uw, ne S ‘ * ae” SE | / fogs) moet +) ee a ‘Since logx is an increasing functi for all'x>0, therefore log(n+2)>log(n41) (on Swe)” Clearly, tim uy = Yn > tga sug PaaS bp A too i-2teex<0) => Ff (2)is decreasing fimetion ¥ x> e¥? = f(ut2)sf(n+l) Vn (-ne2e mete el? en) log(n+2) _ toe) va yy Sy VA ‘Thus both the conditions of Leibnitz test are satisfied and so the given series is convergent. "HAT, iw For) la Saal Haz Ka, Near BT, New DeBbSIOUTG Pas @11)-2697S0, Cal: 971834 991 O17, USHA Ean: nf@ilomcaden.com: Webster diarcade. cmCHAPTER 5 FUNCTION AND THEIR PROPERTIES 5.1. Definitions Function: Let 4,2. R be two subsets of B. A function from 4 to B denoted by f:4—+B is a rule which assign every element of 4 to unique clement of B. 4 is defined as aidomain of f & 2 is defined as co-domnin of f and s(4) is defined asrangbof'¢ where )= [Fae Brive A} 1. Equality of two functions: Two functions ¥Y; ate-said to be equel oN ‘fend only if 7 @ A&A; have same domain D (say) Gi) A@)=4G) vxed 7 2, Composition of functions: Let Ja givoz be two functions such that (x)= and ab ove xeX, ye¥, eZ. ‘Then the funetion h:¥ ~ A(x)=2= g() =2(F()) set sta a denoted by gof. 3. Inverse function: Let fx. bea | $ne-ong onto function, Then the function gr» x whiel! associate each'element y ey the unique clement xe such that ¢(x)~y is knoyjn as inverse function off. ig deaéied by. #1. Then, we have “y= sfx) be a mule, SR on which f n Leif $ bea subset of R & f:5-+R be 5 fi called domain of definition. We sometimes oe in of définition as “Dod? Sa) ‘Examples: @ F()=sinx, x41, Bod =R-{1} © F@)=4, Dod = ~ {0} © £(@)= 108.3, Dod = R* @ £(2)= Jog, 10g, 2% Dod =(1. =) (©) F(z)=Iog, log, log, log, x, Dod =(e°, <0) Function and their Properties ‘2840, i Pow) Hs Sera Hau: Khan, Neat LT, New Dali-110016 Ph (11) 2659707, Cl 999100404 & 9MGTISN, SOSTAD Ena nb hlsneadem.com: Web: wre doneadonycommSome well known functions L 2 Identity Function: The function defined by f (x)= » for all xeR is called the identity function on &. Clearly, the domain and range of the identity function are both equal to ®. The graph of the identity function is a straight line passing through the origin and inclined at an angle of 45°10 x-axis Polynomial Funetion: =A function \of F (x)= aq +x +0937 +t a,x" , where neNy adap, ‘Then, f is called a polynomial function. Se Example: f(s)=3 25249 SS Modulus Function: The function. f ws set of all non-negative real numbers defined by feet {, ind is called the moildhs. function. The range is the Properties: - @ [sam a¥sos/(FS0). Gi) fofz am x Ea OR Funétion: Let f:R+R defined by @ sunllestfnteger to x. Itis also known as floor of = eet of teal number and range of fis the set of ‘New DeRFAT606 Ps (Oy 2ES57S7, Ce OAGAS4 TEDDIES ‘ATT, a Far) Sa Sara Har Khas Near LT 2 mal ifiipaneademy com Webi: wer prea comnee? @ fa]ex.if rez Gi) [xe afs]ersif rea . Exponential Function: Let « be positive real number. Then the function f:R—R defined as f(x)=a" is called the exponential funotion. The range is the set ofall positive real numbers. yor yenis _yeahast Ocact 8. Logarithmic Function: Let ‘a be a posi fetal umber, then the function f:R* +R defined as (x) =o cilled the: logarithmic function. The range is the set IR of all 18ql ni of HoR defined as re 2, where ASeceeeaes | DaR~{xeRlg(x)=0} i Example: (@) Let f:R~{0}+ mR defined as f(x)=4 ! (b) Let /:R~ {0} +R definedas f(x)=-4. ie 10, Signum Function: Let :R > {-1,0,i} defined as 1, if x>0 E F@)44 ifxco SN i ie) 0 ifx=0 ‘S ° i is called signum function. i 11. Trigonometrie Functions: na Ye 5 f (i) Sime Function: The fungtion Sirassociates each real number x . ib sx i ale the sing fi tjHlere x is the radian measure of ‘the angle. The domain 61 ‘sine! function is R and the range is fay. _ Gi) Cosine Funtjon: The faction that associates each real number x is ithe cosine function. Here x is the radian measure Near LN (L1-ASSTS, Cnt ASIN IEIDT ETT, ASAT E Esau infedsncademcom: Website: Wor doesadea com Eii)Tangent Function: The function that associates each real numbers to tanx is called the tangent fonction. Clearly, the tangent function is not defined at odd multiple of 1/2, ie. #n/2,£3n/2 ete. So, the domain of the tangent function is B -{(2n+1)x/2|ne2}. Since, it : takes every value between —» and =. So, the range is R . ess t ; KeQ2 xe xen x= Sal aS Gv) Cosecant Function: The finciidn thet associated each real number = to coer is called the cosesant ution Clearly, coeex isnot ea ee penne 0.22, g2m3a UB, So its domain is " R-{nx|ne2} . Since coseex>1 one Therefore, range is | Y 3 t fintion. Clearly set is not defined at Die, (In+i)2/2, neZ. So, its domain is « Since jpecx|21, therefore its range is ‘HAD, Fist Foe) a Sarl Maur Ras Near LL New Denl10016 Phi (UD) BEVERY, Cae DIEVRE Bh DUTCH, RRBUATED Eau edicimcndomvcon: Weber dioeadonysem,Anis o001 #2008 coraried meses ans (vi) Cotangent Function: The function that associates a real number x to cotx is called the cotangent function, Clearly, cotx is not Put Your Own Notes 2s etc. So domain of See defined at x= 1 a cotx is R—{nx|weZ}. The range of /(« evident from its graph in figure. ,neZ ie, at a= otx is Ras is 12 Inverse Trigonometrie Funetidn: The Pier sin tcos's, tan"! ete, are defintd athe inverse of the corresponding trigonometric functions, Far Sample, sin” is defined as the angle whose sine is x. But since Yor eich-velue of sin“" x, there are unlimited number of values of the”angles-whose sine is x and for values of x for which ||>1, sin‘! x dogs not exist. Thus, we cannot define the inverse function of sin ules we modify the definition of sinx in such a way that it becgmes eiietion. If We consider sinx as 2 faction from [-n/2,»/2] toy. then itis a ijection. Consequently 4, 1] to f-a/2,2/2] Similaily, the other inverse Tigger furiétions can be defined. The domain and range of the inverse trigonometric functions are ‘Tees [etn ote tna [-x/2,5/2] | yesin xeoz=siny fA] n/2,n/2) (0.7) pecot xe r=coty [-6/2,2/2] | y=cosec'x <> x =cosery {9 secte | R-(-L1) | [On]-{n/2} | y=sect reo rmsecy ‘HAD, it oe a Se Mowe Kun Nens LL New DARGIUDGTG, Ph (OI) 2G57E27, Cl: 999180484 & UPSTEI7G ASBSBICTID ‘mall: lfoilnncndemv cam: Website wwh diosaeaden omSaleem: Graphical Transformation 1, When f(x), transforms to: f(x)a. (where « is +ve) ies SQ) > F(x)+e sbift the given graph of f(x) upward through ‘ @* units again, f (0) f(a)-a shift the given graph of f(r) downward through a” units 52. . f(x) transforms to f (xa) Ss. ie, f(s)» f(x-a); 4 is positive, Shift ihe e BARE (0) through ‘a * unit towards right / (x) transformatiogs to Kia) ie, f(x)>s(x+a); a is positive. sain geedb of 6) ‘through ‘a * unit towards left Example: bad OH th the graph of f(x) ‘a? times along Shrink é graph of f(z) ‘a’ times along ‘Bn aS Has Eis Nae, Nev DG hs OUTST, CR PTT BOTTA TOUTS snseatem com: Webster dipacademy.ominx and f(z) +a f(x) = Stretch the graph of s(x) ‘ a” times along y~ axis. y=2sinx = stretch the graph of sinx ‘2” times along. y-axis. 4, f(x) transforms to f(ex) hey M(x) > S (aes a> ~ Stretch (or contract) the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times slong y-axis. again f(x) > (t= a>l Shrink (or expand) the graph of (x) “iy times along, y-axis. ytd vat) =A ats iat we) Ba Sera naz Khas ear ELE, New DAFIIOO16 Ps (OL)-OSSTED, Cal VATED & HONTTS, BSB Teal: @eincaden om: Webste: wr lioracad-m.com5, s(x) transforms to f(x) ies fl) >FCx) To draw y= f(x), take the image of the curve y= f(x) in y-axis as plane mirror. oR “Tura the graph of /(x) by 180° about y-axis.” OR ele sh Example: Plot *yp.the image in y-axis as ~ Solution: As ye is known; they Plane mirror for y=e*shownas; Ne AMI i Fw i Sora as Ks Nag LL Ne DeREOOG Ph OHS, CA OTE A PUOICTE RST E-uul nfatpacadeny com: Website: wr deaconA ‘Anis0 3001 2008 Certtied mete erated Example: Plot the curve Solution: As y =e" is known; vane! take image of in the x-axis as plane mirror. 7. f(x) transforms to ~ f(—x) hee fle) -f Ex): To draw y=~y (-x) take image of f(x) about y-axis to obtain f(x) and then take image of f(x) about x-axis to obtain ~ f (—x) F(x)>-F (x) (Image about y-axis (ii) Image about +-axis Example: Plot the curve y= —log(-r) Solution: As y=logx is known; (i) Take image about y-axis for dado’ x) (ii) Take image of y = log(-x) soba & kis for y. Here; y =|} i @ In the first step, Deve the positive part of (x), {ie the part of (2) above x-akis) asitis. (i) In the second step, take the mirror image of negative part of (x). {ée, the part of (2) below x-axis) in the x-axis as plane mirror. OR Take the mirror image (in x-axis) of the portion of the graph of F(x) which Ties below x-axis. OR ‘BA, rt Flora Sera Hous Kia, Near ELT, New DdnbiIG016, Phe Q1i)2GSVSTY, Cl SPIRE & DEWTELTIG REET Beaull: nflpicades cam: Web: wordignacadcacomTum the portion of the graph of f(x) lying below x-axis by 180" about s- axis. Graph of fo2): Gragh for] fe: y SEE i rita ay a Tt * =) Example: Sketch the graph for y = fin x]. Solution: Here; y=sinx is known, To daw 9 ns We he the minor mabe Gana) oF 2 portion of the graph of sinz which lies belowW~e. axis f /(a) i the right of y-axis as the plane mirror 7) lying leftward of the y-axis (if it exists) is = sat Pint) Sa Sara Ha Kes eas LT New DeMbnGGi6, Ph 11) 2697527, Ca PPVIESSN &DODIONS, SSO Eom nloldlvseademcom: Webae nem disseadea.canExample: Sketch the graph for y= ozs] - Solution: As we know, the curve y=logx :. y= log|x| could be drawn in two steps: (Leave the graph lying right side of the y-axis as itis. (Gi) Take the image of f(x) in the right of y-axis as the plane mirror. yt 10, Sketching /(.c)= Minimum (8 and. (x) =Minimum { f(x),¢(x)} (i) a(x) = Maximum {£(x).8()} = ne offeh wen steleg the g(a); when g(x) we Sketch s(x) when ifsYgraph iF-above the graph of g(x) and sketch g(x) when its gr Abbie te of f@)- is of bth the fumctions f(x) and g() and their points of intersection, Then we find aay two conseeutive points of imtersection: In between these points either /(x)> e() oF s(x) ¢(x), between any two consecutive points of intersection of f(x) and ¢(x)- Similarly, in order to min{ /(x),2(x)}, we take those segments of (x) for which /(x) g(x) oF a(a)> F(a) : : From adjacent figure the point of intxsectioni are S&3c Graph of max{sin.x,cos.x} 7 \ oman {sin cos x} Example: Sketch the graph for vali ({x 1-111} Solution: First plot the graph for: y=|x,y=|x~l] y=[x41| by a dotted curve as can be seen from the ‘graph and then darken those dotted lines for which lake {]x-1p]x+ip: le-1]< {ix} 141} and [x41] < {ix}1x-1). Graph for y=|x},y=|2-1h9=[2411. E-mail lafefdionademcom: Wats: wrlpracadin com |As from the above curve graph for y= min{/x-1).LrhL+1]} is plotted as; —, ‘Put Your Own Notes 5.3. Some Important Functions and Thei L f:AoR rG)=sio() vee [Tis i Four) Se Sera Haas Kis Say TLR Ne Dear 10016 Ph (11) 2GDTEN, Co OWPERNN H BHTICSG FSSBBHTHD mls if iioneademcot: Webster pseadeny comrrr ce a red 54. Classification of Functions 1. Algebraic Function: A function yo f(XJis said’ to be an algebraic fianction and set SR, if tivo. of te Gqusion ofthe form Pol x) 9 + (x)y"* +4 Dy F f/a function y= s(x) defined on a set ScRis not an function then it is said to be a transcendental fimetion on s Examples: ° @ f@)-F ® s@)=c%, c# 0,1( ECE MR eas 3. Periodic Funetion: A function y= f(x)is said to’be periodic if 3 eR such that f(r4!)= f(x) VxeD.od and x+/¢D.o.d. and such | is called « period of f Put Your Own Notes Fundamental Period: The smallest positive aeR for a periodic function / is defined as the fundamental period of f Examples: (a) f (x)=sin xis a periodic fumetion with set of periods {2nx:n <2) fundamental period of (x)= sinx is 20 ©) f(x) Remark: (a). Periodicity is a domain based property. §, (b) A periodic function may or may not have ft Example: (RR f(x)=e¥xeR, ceR wn x is a periodic function with fundamental period =. Then forany ae, f(+a)=s(a)=6 | set of periods of fis B an. ‘but fundamental period does not exist (©) Ifa function fhas a fundagieal Period 7 Then af (b+ c)+d has period abd eR. Mo i641 Wiiose fundamental period does not (@ There exist a periodic exist but set of perio ©) IE fisfrrsiipate! periodic functions with periods 7)Tbo-ty respectively id L.C.M. ‘of T),7,,-.7, exist Then their Hinear combination of i's is periodic function and their L.C.M. decide the period of s/s. @ - cu{B.2, LGM (Py PavnPa} 42” Gn HF {Q1.420-04n} @ If j,02,.,0, are irrational numbers, obtained by multiplying ‘same irrational number by different rational (non zero) then LCM (409,40) LCM (Rational multiplied by that rational) (@) L.CMofretional and irrational numbers is not defined. “aa, ies Fes) Ta Sarl Haas Kn, Noor LL New Deli-0016, Pa (i) DEITY, Cl 990TRUM & FOPTOITIG RBA Erm: neianendeny cea: Weblte: wrv.dlastet com,Examples of Periodic Functions: @ re) ~sin(2) is a periodic function with period én Reason: Since petiod of sinx = 2x «period of sio(2 since Zsinx has period 2x 1 oa 2% Asin3x:ha 7 sind has period 2 and LOM fos.28} ok LEM {2,3} “HF {3} also Le (2.1) 32 = F(a) periodic Notes: {a) Sum or difference of two periodic function may not be periodic Example: Take f(x)=sinx, ¢(x)=x-[3] ‘Then f and gare periodic function with period 2x and 1 resp. But (x)= g (x)is not periodic. 2 tr ua Hae Neg Ne Da OMG Ph Oi) 3TH, GOTTA foeacnenrcom: Weta: rw secede.Funetion and their Properties nico soot 3009 Certied eters = (b) Sum of two non periodic function may be periodic function, - Put Your Own Notes 2 vxeR Neusat Example: (x)= x7. g(x)= Thea f and gboth are non periodic functions But (/+e)(x)=S(x)ta(x)=0 VxeR is a periodic function. (©) Sum of two periodie functions (having their fundamental periods) may be periodic but fundamental period may not exist Example: f (x)= sin? x, g(x)=cos? x both are ‘periodic, functions with fundamental period x. But f(x)+(x)=sin?¥zeos ¥=1 does not have fundamental period. (@) =(fee\(s) VxeDb.d. xpmeD.od / (©) Algebraic functions aiinot, be function. = jodig unless they are constant | 4, Bounded Function: Let: bounded if and aly if Notes: ‘, “8 {a) If sis finite = Mnee ig finite =f is bounded. (©) Fora function to Surbounded, rmge must be infinite set (© fisimbounded on $n- ie, (/ (%)) is unbounded. (@ Sum, difference and composition of two bounded functions is bounded function. (Bas in St Ha ag Na EE DOE TE Fas STEN, CRUG OMT BATH Ena: no incadewcom Webste: werrdipseadea comBivswiry Pertierra Example: f:[0,1]>® F() x20 Then f is unbounded. Reason: For all ne, 3 +[0,1] such that i(t}-*= ro) >No f((o)) = Unbounded set contained in ((0,1]) = /{{0,1}) is unbounded. 5. Monotonic Function: Let 5 cand > (fis said to be monotonically incressihgif one * > Flas fea) ; GE strict inequality hold thea y Wspealed stfictly increasing function) woe Gi) fis sid be amotio “So (ra)2 Fu) V anay@ise (@) If f is monotonically ‘increasing (decreasing) function. Then ~f is monotonically decreasing (increasing) function. (®) If f,:X, > Xis monotonic on X, and f;: Xz > X; is monotonic on Xjthen frofj :X, -» Xz is monotonic on X. (©) Sum of two monotonically. increasing (decreasing) function is ‘monotonically increasing (decreasing). @ Difference of two monotonically increasing (decreasing) fiction ‘ay not be monotonically increasing (decreasing) ‘APR, at Poa) Sa Sra nas Khas Neat LET, Rew Da-10016, Ph O11) 2657707, Oa, 9991SHOE COHMTSE, SBD E-palinfoidigscadenr.com: Wetet: wrr.dpseedemy.cmn_ Examples of udd functions: Example: [og]oe x)= sin, ir)ex xe] 05, fjnsns, aleinx vae[od] Then f and g are monotonically increasing functions but (x)= sins is not monotonically increasing function. (©) Produet of two monotonically increasing (decreasing) functions may not be monotonically increasing (decreasing). i 4 3 | Example: f > B defined by i ref So | and g:R>R af x<0 -2 x20 Bat festel—{ i is not monotonically increasing. Examples of some well known moriogonic Tumetions: RR defined by — @ /:RoOR YON, is mondignically increasing function. ™ aie fe S(a)-a" VreR.a>i () (0,0) R defined © F()4x| on R are even functions. (@) s(x)=sinx oR it Foo Sa Surat Meus Kher, Rent LL New DoBU 0016, Pos OUR A SODTOTTEG NSBAT Evol afotdosacademy com Website: wom loancademy Le‘Remark: (a) The graph of an even function is always symmetrical about y-axis. ia, the curve left hand side of y-axis is the mirror image of the curve on its right hand side, (b) The graph of an odd function is always symmetric in opposite quadrant, ie, the curve in the first quadrant is identical to the curve in third quadrant and the curve in second quadrant is identical to the curve in fourth quadrant. (0) If f is a even and differentiable function on R. Then f"(x)is an odd function. (@ If s(x)is an odd differentiable finction on R'then s"(x) is an even function. Limit of a Function General Principle For Existence of Limit (GPEL)“o~_"~ Let Sc be a subset of Rand x limit point OE. (midy or may not be member of 5) AN f Let /:53R v7 % We say | eR is the limit of f <> for any © 0-35 5 Such that é aya efx Olan al0 3. such that FRR defined bj, i 1 xeQ orf) xe Then limit does not exist at any real number. Solution: For any we and for any $>0, 3x 0. Solution: The function f(x) =~ is defined for all non-negative real numbers. Since we consider the interval (@—8,4 +8), we can choose 0<8Va Hence, we choose §=min(a,z Ja) or any other smaller positive real Now |x —Wa| [rma] 0be given. Then we want to find 2.6 > bse that Lf G)-OlR defined by (4x em ~(0 FG) omen Put Your Own Notes Seance! i i ‘AAG, at oe) Bia Sea Haus Ke, Noa LUT, Rew DeBba1O006, Ps (11)26007877, Co 99918543 SOVTLCTIN SSSR? Eau: ndloacadenn.com: Webste: wrrndiseadean. cts‘Then limit of f does not exist at x =0 ¢) isa sequence in = R ~ {0} such that (20) 0 but Fle) = s( 2) does not converge anywhere. 2 (b) #:R-+ RR defined by oe 1 x30 rel x=0 x<0 Then limit of f does not exist at Reason: Take (2,) -() and (6,)={. Thea a, +0 and b, +0 But f(a,)+1 and (b,)— -1 (©) F:R~{0}> R defined by eee ms is shid to approach Z as x-> a from the je >0, there exists a 3>0 such that The oumber Lis called’theynghthand limit of f at a. We write this as Jim f(@)=1. Note that for the existence of the right band limit s(x) should be defined in (a,2+8). Definition 2: A function /() is said to approach M as x approaches « from the left or from below if given ¢>0, there exists 8>0 such that [f()-M|; for this will imply » > »» contradicting our assumption. Hence the only altemative is x, 0, there exists ‘ positive number & such that | /(z)-t}k ‘Alo then we write lim f(x)=! or f(x)+1 8x0. (ii) A function f is said to tend to fas x > ~w if given «> 0, there exists @ positive number such that | /(x)-!|0, however large, there exists a positive umber 6 such that f(x) > whenever 0<|r—a|<5. Also then we write lim f(x)=0 or f(x)» asx 0, A function f is said to tend to ~0, howover large, there exists a positive number such that ¢(x)<—k whenever 0<|x—a/<8 Also then we write tim /(x)=—w or f(x)+-0 asx a A function f is said to tend to w as x-+ if given #>0, however large, there exists a positive number K such that £()>,¢ ~, whenever mK ~ Also then we write tim f(x)=2 oF f(r) 0 dss oh A function f is said to tend t0 ~0 as «> w WRgiveihs 0. however large, there exists a positive number-K.such thatyy(s)@-k whenever aK : Also then we write tim f(x) (vil) A function f is said to tend to « as Ny “Sif givenA>0, however large, there exists positive mumbef"X ugh. that J(s)> whenever xe-K. oF \ Also then we write wna KTieys= 26 oo (vili)A function / is said to tend t0"0 as x 3-0, if given #>0, however large, there exists a positive number &.such that f(x)<—k whenever Example: Show that tim 45 tim Solution: Let «> de given. Chodser8f =1/< . Then ‘AN st For) I Sr saz Rs, Nowe LET New DaR-0016, Ph (01]) 2657927, Cs OOPIES4 & OPIOTTIG SRT ml: vfdlovacdemcom: Webs vor dlenendecomSolutions: (@ Let 4/0 be any large number. Let 5 =1/ 64 ito ‘Then O 43 > Som ¥ ¥ Example: Find lim ‘Solution: Dividing numerator and denominater-by..°, we get a tim tn tin BoP eTati2 ee eT etal SS 1-43im (112?) eerie “T5773 12 i (17*) aio “T0409 i ae Example: Evaluate ‘lim a wuts ° be HE = el +4, by (1) Aginx40-s-tyie se! o40,by(l) 0) A) “ari, (ist Fee) Ja Sar Haas Kas, Near 1-7 New DERE, Erma info BESET, Coe SODTRDIGA 99916174, SEHOUTOS {ovecedmncens Webster apsaendemy comMe lim == lim —- and a eel | Heace tig" doesnot exist Example: Show that tinny ve Solution: We know that x>0+ > e°¥* > and x-90- =e 40. us xe" _ 00 have tim 00 : Wenave eid 140 us - and lim im, OEE ede Uy Hence tim Solution: Let f(x)=1/(x-+1) and let ¢>0 gedetis oclecitx>! oN [f(x)-4 pay fare ~ Taking k=1/e.. Then, we see that Lndee Whenever x>4 => tim eat pur 1 Example: Evaluate tim, i Solution: Let f(x) =1/|s].Let & O fof. [oft A Pl tlovslno ‘8A, ie on) Sa Sara Hae Wha Neat UT Ney Deb-O01G, Ps i} 2GS7S27 Cok DIN A SOHIGTIIN ERENT ema: nodlpacdom.com: Webste wey lossendem-comContinui CHAPTER 6 CONTINUITY 6.1. Definitions: Let ScR be a subset of R and /:9— be a real valued function. Then we say fis continuous ata.e S if any of the following condition is satisfied: @ aeS-s' (.e.a is an isolated point of 5) (ii) aes" and tim f(x)= f(a) (ie. limit of f exist ab-x=o'and equal to the value of the function) Remarks: (@) If any of the condition fils at @ point-then ene is said t0 be discontinuous at that point and the Pia igcalled a point of discontinuity of / (&) If limit point of sis not member of S~.ThEH'7 is assumed to be discontinuous at that point. Example: Let f:B-(1} +> R be defiried as /(x)= sin x.Then at x=, is discontinuous fnction. Rar (© Atisolated points, /(x) is said to bBcantinnows if is defined there at Example: Let :[0,1JU( 3} R, deft by f(z)=sinx. Then f is continuous at x =3. contimious at. ‘Solution: W ing i x fs SJ i continuous at x= 0. us Solution: We have lim se) =m + ti, x)= £(0) (© £(0)=9) Hence, f is continuous at x=0 TAD, it Foe) Sia Sara Har Ks Near LUT New Dai-110016, Phe (11) ES57527, Cel OORESEG IOPTOTTOG, BRET mal nine de cen: Webte: wor dgencadeny com| i aa 61d. Example: The function (RR defined by /(x) continuous at x=0 ie We have, tim f(x) lim Solution: We have, im £(x)= Ig or ino eerie ‘Also, £(0)=0. Hence / is continuows at x =0 ‘Example: Let be the function defined on R by f(x) fx}, forall xeR where [5] denote the greatest inleger not exceeding Then f is discontinuous at the points x =0,+1,+2,43,... and is continous. ‘at every yon oe SA Example: Let f be the function definédon Ras P(x}=)) slab. for all xe R Determine the points of discontinuity off No 41 oS a x)ext2, for 2sx<3,f(s)= 1435 for'3gxe4; i) xcs a)= 1th Sgue4 point. Solution: We have, P(x) 40%, for Ost (2) Hence the points of discontinuity of f are 0,+1,22,3,... Second Definition of Continuity Let SCR and /:5-+R be a fimetion then we say f is continuous at the point aeS< for every sequence (%) in $ such that Gs) 90> f(x) > (@) ‘EAI, et hw) Ss Sora Maat Kis Neat ELT, New Dei-ii006, Ph: Gf} 2637897, Cal 999 TRUS & SOIC, HEHE E-mall:ifoissendem.comt Webs: re dotreadean ste= fers Remarks: QS 6) If we can find two sequences (0,)x(o.) in 5 such that (a)(bn) Fut MOT QW Notes converges to « but /(2,)./(b,) converges to different limits. Thea f = is not continuous at x= a (i) Ife can find a sequence (e,) which converges to « but /(2,) does not converges at all. Then f is not continuous at x= 0. Examples related to above definitions: (a) Let f:f0.t]+ R be defined by q re2efolhp.g ek a otherwise S(a)= ‘Then f is continuous at every irrational number ‘in [0:3] ‘and 0 but. discontinuous at all rationals except 0 (b) Let f[-1t] > B be defined as xe[-hI]n@" and x (x)= (© Let f:R>R defined by A 1 xe if cl xeQ F . ‘Then, fis not continuous at any real number. (@ Let F:[0,1] [0,1] defined by se: ala f — it SG) ‘Where 4;(2).¢2(#) are continuous function on their domain and $ is any dense subset of R. ‘Then roots of the equation 4; (x)~¢2(x)= are exly point of continuity of f. ‘Also ifthe roots are repeated then is differentiable at that point also, Saas Gt wt a Sea Haws Kis, Near LIST Fon BuAHOONG, Ph (O1}ASSTSET, Cl: #999184 & 99TI6I76, SESE ‘Banat ntuiioocatemvcom: Website wo lisecny 00,Psy Rent nee coratied mautate Example: (a) Let f:R +R defined by Ai veQ roe ae ‘Then is continuous at x=1,-Ionly. Reason: The equation (:6~1)-(1-s")=0 givesa =1 Which have only two distinct real roots viz. 1 and —1 (b) Lét f:RR defined by [x reQ x=] F@) i lr xeQ? Thea f is continuous only at x =0 6.1.2, Third Definition of Continuity A function /:5—»R is continuoud-ai # poi neighbourhood ¥,(/(c)) of f(c) there exist ¢ suoh that £(SMV¥5(c)) c¥.(s(c))ie. F(x) betongs to ¥.(¥(@))- 6.2. Types of Discontinuity 1, Removable discontinuity (sir si?~ajgtotinuity): Let SCR and F:5+9R be a function. If ee but either f(x) is not oe defined at wor it is defied ie f(a) Then we say that Example: (@) Let f:RR defined by on) 02) = and 1 #(0)=0. ©) Let roel Fe)=x — Wee(Ou). Then f is discontinuous at x =0and 1. ‘Note: This type of discontinuity can be removed by defining a new function g as F(x) when xs a()= lim f(z) when 3=a Then g is continuous at x=a.. anal: ifiilgenen desc: Webs: ww psacaten com 28011, rat Fla) Sia Sral Haus Ks, Near LLT, Now Dli-1016, Ph (1) 26S37E27, CA: SHIRE A OO1GTIN SOOTit Drips acaden ; ‘Aniso o0o! Hoos earned mntate 2. Discontinuity of first kind or (Jump discontinuity): A function ~ SiS+R is said to have discontinuity of first kind (or Jump | Put Your Own Notes discontinuity) at x~« if at this point left hand limit (L.H.L.) and right hhad limit (R-H.L.} both exist but not equal furthermore. 4 @ A function f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind from 4 the left to o. if LHL exist but itis not equal to f(a) | Gi) A function f is said to have a discontinuity of first kind from the s right to a FRILL, exist but it is not equal to f(a). Note: Jump at (x=) {im F(x)~ Jim, $2 | Example (@) Let f:R-+R defined by f(x)=[x] VreR : : ‘Then / has jump kind of discontinuity at & S fi (b) Let f:ROR defined by #(x fractional part of. : Then at x1 fas jump kind of discontimal (© Let s: RR defined by fi x>0 : ve s@)=l0 r= -l <0 Then atx=0, f has jump vind jscontinuity. ae Discontinuity of second kind (Mixed discontinuity): A function f(x) is said to have a discontinuity.of Second'kind (or mixed discontinuity) at + if any of Right hand Limit or Le aud Limit or both does not A(afa+8), mG r(aa+s) such that oy 5 => f has discontinuity of second kind at every aR. (b) Let :[0,1]-+R defined by we-f*G) 320 0 x 2 ‘Then at x=0 LHL. and RH. both does not exist => f has a discontinuity of second kind at x=0. ‘EAC, et Foo ia Sara Haar Khas Rear Lf Rew DE110016 Pas (OLIPROSSTSE, Cer P1634 & PHLG3G SEBTTES mal taffinocadmmcoms Website: wo cneacadtan.com63. cer (©) Let f-R +R defined by {e¥* sin(t/x) ise 0 x=0 | ‘Then fhas discontinuity of second kind at x =0. Reason: We know that xe0 sot-sel 40 and x-0+ se 0, which does not exist. . Hence, f has a discontinuity of the second hd Goithe right at x20 Algebra of Continuity Let SCR and f&g real valued be functions on.< that aeS and f & g are continuous’at a. a Thin, is continuous at x=a il) Product of f and g is continuous at veya “is continuous at x=0 Rbe a function, then ‘Absolute Maximum on 4 if there is @ point xe A such that f(x)< f(x) forallxe 4 ‘We say that x* is an absolufe maximum point for f on A and that x, is an absolute minimum point for f on .if they exist, 2, The Maximum-Minimam Theorem: Let 1=[2,6] and f:/—>B be continuous on J, then f has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on J. aA co i Bn Ws, ear LE, New eB O016 Ph HIPRSSTY, Coe SPOMEABE& POPHCIEG SSATP Eiaiintaisacademy com: Weber. dlostadey 50.Remark: (2) If 1 is not closed interval then result may not hold, Example: Let f:(0,)->R defined by /(s)=+ is continuous on (0,1), but does not have absolute maximum on (©) If 7 is not bounded interval then result may not hold. Example: Let f[0,:0) +R defined by f(x)=x Vx¢|0,c0) Then f is continuous on 1=[0,«2) but does not have absolute maximum on 1. (©) Condition of continuity of 7 on closed and bounded interval cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f:{0,1]-»® defined by fu 2500 seo ‘Then f is discontinuous and unbotindedt 3. The Location of Roots Theoret te! and f:—>R be continuous ons and if — f(a)>0>s(0) ie. £0). <0shen there exist am ee) such that /(c) 0 Remark: Then fig, dont ce (1.2) such Bn 7 a Then He A (©) If 1=[a,0] and f:7-+R be such that f(a).f(o}<0 and there exist ce (a,b) such that f(c)=0. Then f may not be continuous. Example: Let f:[-i,1] +R defined by 1 -sx B defined by f(«) (© Hf F:[a.6]-+R is continuous on [2,6] and there exist 0,8 e[2,t] such that f(a) /(B)<0 then there exist ¢ <(a,B) such that f(c)=0 4, Bolzano’s Intermediate Value Theorem (1.V.P.): Let J be an interval and f:/ + B be continuous on Land if there exist a,beT and keR satisfying f(a)<#< f(b), then there exists @ point cel between a and b such that f(c Remark: S (a) The condition of continuity of cannot be relaxed. ~ Example: Let f:[0,1]> B be defined as ie xe) > ~~ OS { f{x)=41 x0 0 ral i i Thea / is continuous on (0,3) but nét continuous at 0 and 1 aso, ((2)-$<}R be continuous on 1. Then the set S={f(x):x¢/} is closed and ‘bounded interval. ; ie, image of a closed and bounded interval under continuous map is closed and bounded interval. “Ss ow) a Sar Hn Kus, Near LT, New Del-006, hs (ii RESDSET, Cle 9ODISS4R4 & OFTOITSG ERSTE Eee lnfeadienendomecam: Webste: wr paca 6,Warning: If 1:=[4,b] is an interval and f;7>R is continuous on J, we have proved that f(z) is the interval [m,!]. We have not proved (and it is not always true) that f(/) is the interval (1@).1@)] 2. Let s be an interval and let f:7 +R be continuous on 1. Then the set_/(/)is an interval. Remark: (a) Condition of closeness of / cannot be relexed. Example: Let f :(0,1)+® be defined as Fayed ¥xe(0) ‘Then is continuous on (0,1) x But 5 ={/(x):x€(0,1)}i8 (00). whieh closed. -_ Plxjex nities hil S Then f is continuous Rew ) ut /s = t f(x):xe 1} is [0.©), whichis (© Image of closed is closed and bous 1d the interval is [m,M], where exer} function aa point ¢ of an interval [2,2] 20s ach tha} (x) has the same sign as /(e), (b) A similar result hold for continuity at point ¢. (©) This result can be extended for any subset 5 of R. ie, If SGR, and f:5->R is continous function at x= and S(a)#o Then there exist 5>0 such that /(x) has the sign of (a) for all xin («-8,a+8)05 2AM, es Por i Sara Has Kay Nene LLT, New DARSIIOOI6 Ph (HI) 26STEDY, Cal PUTED A POMITSN SBSTATOD Bimal infedvoenten com: Webrte: wire donsadony.cmn7. Identity Theorem (First Form) Let f be a continuous function on an interval ¢ and f()=9 Y¥xenQ Then f(x)s0 Vee! (Second Form) Hf f(z) and g(x) are continuous on an interval 7 and s(s)ea(e)¥re1@ Then f(2)=8()¥ 26! Generalized form: Let f and g are two continuous functions on SR and f(x)=9(x) VeeT (where Tis a dense subset of s). Thea fla)=e(2) ¥re5- Remarks: ; : (@) If f is monotonic on #. Then lim f(x) and lim F (8) both exist may not be equal. 7 iz, A monotonic function can-baye, ‘onlysamp Kind of discontinuity ee Th (b) If f is monotonic and satisfy 1.7.P, on ‘Yuthea.it is continous function. PR {o) The set of point of discontinuity of he first kind of real valued function is countable. \ . (€) There is no real valued function” whieh-is continuous on every rational point and discontinuous at eygry izations point Some Important Examples: SSS 1. Let f be a function defined hhich ‘satisfy the condition pus at ¥=0. 2. Let f be a fuigtion defined on R which satisfy the condition SE SE)F GY sre “Then, if f is continuous at a point ¢ then f is continuous at all points of 3, Let /:R-oR bea function which satisfy the property @ sh ¥reR GD F+)= StF 0) VoreR ‘Then f(x)=cx VxeR where ¢ () EAT, Gat ie) Sa Sea Haas Khas, Ne TT. New DenHOHG, Ph (OD ESE Srcettscesdemranm: Web: momdiosenoy F4, Let f: RR be a function satisfying the condition @ |f@fshly rer G) F(x+y)=F (2) f(r), VnyeR Then, f(x)=c% vx eR, where c= f(1) If f is a continuous on R and any of the following conditions are satisfied then / must be constant function. @) f(2)=f (mx) Vice R fm) #1, mm eR Gi) F(x)=/Qesiv sek Gi) F@)= (2) VxeR Fixed Point: Let ScR and f:$ 98 beds ‘any, filiction. Then | ae iRsidin heared pinta f Hf La) ee RS Se (@ Fixed point of y= f(x) are th Poigt_oF intersection of the curve y= f(x) & y=x. \ ane Remark: (©) If h(x)=(x)—x, then the 2eypes OF7Mare the fixed point of f te, number of zeros of As {to-numbers of fixed point of i fe . | Examples > (@) The function /:R ~ {0} > fixed point wedisingeO Ver x xelesinz vx ¥ Thus / has no fixed point.(b) Let f: > R defined by f(x)=x+sinx Let 4={xeR/s(s) =x}. Then card (4) is countably infinite ‘Reason: Let us define a function h as We)= FG esinxtx—x =sinx Then h(x}=0 Vxenn where n eZ Thus, card 4 is countably infinite, (o) Let f:R oR bea function defined as f(x) has no fixed point, oS a ‘anywhere, t (a Let f:R-{J>R be a F(x) =hlog: [xi] ¥ xR ~{0} ‘Then f has 1 fixed point. Reason: Since the line y=, melt: }) intersect at exactly 1 points. ‘ se 8. Fixed Point Existence Theorem, “Ss. I f:fos8]>[2.] is a continuous fiition. Then / bas a fixed point ie, 3 xy [ab] such thatsife) =z0¢ Remark: (a) Condition’6f closeness dannot b 7 rela. Example: Let f:(6i)i: (1) B6/# function defined by Fer. Then fis: gopiians on £01) Bat it does not have any fixed point. of bouliedtness of the interval cannot be relaxed. ‘p:B> R béa function defined by f(s)=e". Then 'R but f does not have any fixed point. i (© Ifdomain and ratige aré not equal then function may not have fixed point of Example: Let £:(0,1)-»(0,x) be 2 function defined by F(x ‘Then f is continuous on (0,1) but does not have any fixed point = (@ I fs[a.8]>[erd) is 2 continuous function where [e,4]<[a.t] Then / must have e fixed point. Reason: Take the restriction of f on [c,4] ‘eal, et er Sa Surah Mawr Kae Nea LL Ne Tan infodigencdem.comt Website: we senendey BAL TTOOTG, Ps (HI) RGSTEDT, Co VIED & FEPHOTTSG, BSUTEETSEDigs cudeny a acme (©) This theorem gives only the existence of a fixed point. ie. if F:[2.5)>[a,6] is a continuous function then may have countably infinite, finite uncountable mumbers of fixed point. 1 @ Let fef-ui}>[-ul] be a funerion defined as | ss(4) ifxe0 oe x, has countably infinite fixed points 0 ifx=0 Gi) Let f:[-1,1]+ [1,1] be @ function defined as. /(2)=3? has two fixed point. See (ii)Let_f:[-1.1]+[-11] be a function defined as f(x)=x has |” ils ‘uncountable numbers of fixed point. % Result: Jf f is differentiable on B & [/'(x sae (here f(x) denote the derivative of /), then f has at mostorie Fxed’point. 3 : F (2) 6S, Uniform Continuity ee : ‘A function / defined on an interval 7 7s aid.10"ae'uniformaly continuous on / if foreach ¢>0 there existsa 8>0 aS [-G2)-7()]0, but not uniforialy-continuous on Jo, ‘Example: The function’ /(x)=sinx* is not uniformly continuous on [0, =. Example: The function f(x) =~ is uniformly continuous in [0,1]. 3 Example: The function f(s). sink is not uniformly continous on. ]0,co . Example: The function (x)=1/x is not uniformly continuous on Jo,i[, but itis uniformly continuous on [a,z{, where @ >0. 2A ea Srl as Nag LEE, Re DOMES PR: GUSTS, CA WORDLE PUD TGT,RHLT Ess ionic Wet enc.