(PART1)

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

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THE UNIVERSE
- composes of many galaxies, solar systems, etc.
COSMOLOGY - branch of science that studies the origin, evolution and fate of the universe.
THE THEORIES
1. Big Bang Theory
- in this theory energy and matter divided and became distinct from each other.
- most popular and accepted theory.
2. Steady State Theory or Infinite Universe Theory
- proposed by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold and Herman Bondi.
- it states that the universe has been present ever since and therefore no beginning and no end, and has been
expanding constantly.
3. Pulsating Universe or Pulsating Theory
- combines both Big Bang and Big Crunch ( end of the universe) as part of cyclical event.
UNIVERSE - 13.8 billion years old
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
-belongs to MILKY WAY GALAXY
- sun( average star) as its center
- satellites of planets (moons)
SOLAR SYSTEM - 4.6 billion years old
THE PLANETS
○Mercury - nearest to the sun
○Venus - twin planet of Earth
○Earth - habitual planet
○Mars - dust red planet
○Jupiter - monster world of swirling gas with 66 moons (now 69 moons)
○Saturn - glistening rings of ice
○Uranus - white or ice planet
○Neptune - vivid color
THE SOLAR SYSTEM THEORIES :
1.The Planetisimal Theory
2. The Dust Cloud Theory
3. The Companion Star or Nemesis Star Theory
4.The Nebular Hypothesis - the accepted one.
THE EARTH SYSTEM - terrarium
○Earth - complex and dynamic
SYSTEMS - Air, Water, Land and Life.
SUBSYSTEMS -Atmosphere ( blanket of air) , Hydrosphere ( ocean - basin of water), Geosphere, Biosphere
(life zone)
LAYERS OF THE EARTH - crust, mantle, inner and outer core.
ROCKS - any solid mass of minerals.
- naturally exist
TYPES OF ROCKS
1. Igneous - formed by the crystallization of molten magma.
2. Sedimentary - formed by weathering.
3. Metamorphic - formed by too much heat and pressure.
MINERALS
- are individual crystals of all the same stuff.
- cannot be created nor destroyed.
ctto
(PART2)
Gr11 -Earth and Life Science -
*Origin and Structure of the Earth*
Origin and Structure of the Earth and Beyond
Geology
This is the study of the earth’s rocky parts found on the crust (lithosphere) and its historical evolution. It covers
lots of different disciplines of sciences such as mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology,
paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology and sedimentology.
Physical Geography
Also known as geosystems or physiography. Physical Geography deals with the study of the physical features
of the Earth’s surface. It also deals with the different processes and patterns in the natural environment, as
opposed to the cultural domain of human geography.
Geophysics
This field studies the shape of the Earth, its reaction to different forces as well as its magnetic and gravitational
fields. This study is most vital for mineral and petroleum explorations
Soil Sciences
Soil sciences cover the Earth’s outermost layer which is the crust. Major sub-disciplines of soil sciences
include edaphology and pedology.
Oceanography/Hydrology
This field of science studies the marine and freshwater domains of the hydrosphere. The major subdivisions
include hydrogeology and physical, chemical, and biological oceanography
Glaciology
Glaciology studies the ice and icy parts of the Earth known as the cryosphere, and its effects to the
environment.
Atmospheric Sciences
This deals with the study of the gaseous parts of the Earth, known as the atmosphere. The major sub-
disciplines are meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics
These different fields of Earth Sciences are interdisciplinary. They rely on one another for information to
further develop their respective areas.
Structure of the Earth
Crust
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth comprising about 8-40 km in depth. The presence of mountain
ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes on the Earth’s crust are explained through studying of the different energy
transformations. The crust is separated from the next layer by a boundary or surface with seismic waves that
change velocity, known as Mohorovičić Discontinuity. It was named after Andrija Mohorovičić, a Croatian
seismologist who discovered its existence.
Mantle
The mantle lies beneath the crust and extends to a depth of 2,900 km making it the thickest layer of the Earth.
It is made up of very hot and dense rocks which flow due to great differences in temperature moving from the
bottom to the top of the mantle, called convection currents.
Convection currents from the deepest part of the mantle is a very hot material that rises and cools, then sinks
and then heats again making a cycle. The convection current acts like a conveyor belt in a factory which moves
boxes. The mantle is divided into 2 sections: the upper and lower mantle, separated by the transition zone (a
discontinuity between the 2 mantles).
Core
The core is the innermost part of the Earth. It is divided into two parts - a solid inner core which is about 1,300
km and a liquid outer core about 2,250 km thick.
The outer core is made up of very hot liquid metals. It is composed of melted nickel and iron. The inner core,
on the other hand, is in a solid state despite its very hot temperature, because of the pressure. The metals are
squeezed in and are so dense that they are not able to move.
Formation of Earth
The Creation Theory - is biblical in origin asserting that everything in the universe, including humans were
created by a supreme being in a span of 7 days
The Big Bang Theory - speaks of the Earth's formation in a scientific perspective. It states that the universe is
formed sometime between 10 and 20 billion years ago from a cataclysmic explosion.
The two contradicting theories stemmed lots of arguments from believers of the creationism and those who
believe otherwise. One cannot really say exactly how the universe was formed, but humans do work on the
pieces of evidence that are at hand to answer whatever questions people may have.
ctto. /references (I do not own this full explanation about the origin amd structure of earth) Just want to share it
with you guys!
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(PART3)
GR11 *Earth and Life Science*
|History of the Earth|
The Earth was formed about 4.5 Billion years ago. During the Earth’s early formation, it was desolate and was
just composed of ice and rock with no atmosphere and water. However, deep within it lie radioactive elements
gradually unleashing their radioactive power as well as melted rocks that did not cool for the next hundred
million years. As the cooling took place, a dense core of nickel, iron and other
Heavy elements formed, which was enveloped by a liquid outer core. Land masses began to form spewing lava
and ash clouds. Gravity held the blanket of gases. Moisture in the clouds fell as rain and evaporated, and fell
again, eventually forming the bodies of water. These processes continuously took place and the Earth was
reshaped again and again.
The same forces acting on the Earth today are the same forces that shaped the Earth throughout its history.
This is known as the principle of uniform processes. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, storms, and floods which
have all occurred in the past, still continue to shape the Earth today, just at different rates.
The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth's past based on the geologic time scale, a
system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet's rock layers (stratigraphy). Earth
formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left
over from the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the Solar System.
Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other celestial bodies.
Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the
atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as the result of a Mars-sized object with about 10%
of the Earth's mass impacting the planet in a glancing blow. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth,
significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the materials
survived to form an orbiting moon. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere.
Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.
As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents formed and broke
apart. They migrated across the surface, occasionally combining to form a supercontinent. Roughly 750
million years ago, the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later
recombined to form Pannotia, 600 to 540 million years ago, then finally Pangaea, which broke apart 180
million years ago.
The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago, and then intensified at the end of the
Pliocene. The Polar Regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every
40,000–100,000 years. The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago.”
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
Alfred Wegener theorized that there was once a vast supercontinent 200 million years ago which he named
Pangaea meaning "All-earth".
Pangaea broke into two smaller supercontinents, called Laurasia and Gondwana throughout the Jurassic period.
By the end of the Cretaceous period, the continents were separated into land masses that looked like our
modern-day continents. In 1915, Alfred Wegener published this theory in his book, “On the Origin of
Continents and Oceans”.
There are fossil evidences which supported the continental drift theory. Eduard Suess, an Austrian geologist
first substantiated that there had once been a land bridge connecting South America, Africa, India, Australia,
and Antarctica. He named this large land mass Gondwanaland. This was the southern supercontinent formed
after Pangaea broke up during the Jurassic period. Suess based his deductions on the fossil plant Glossopteris,
which is found throughout India, South America, southern Africa, Australia, and Antarctica.
Fossils of Mesosaurus (one of the first marine reptiles, even older than the dinosaurs) were found in both South
America and South Africa. These finds, plus the study of sedimentation and the fossil plant Glossopteris in
these southern continents led Alexander duToit, a South African scientist, to bolster the idea of the past
existence of a supercontinent in the southern hemisphere, Eduard Suess's Gondwanaland. This lent further
support to A. Wegener's Continental Drift Theory
•The Subsystems of the Earth•
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is basically the rocky crust of the earth. It is inorganic and is composed mainly of different
kinds of minerals.
Hydrosphere
This is composed of all the waters in the Earth. This includes the oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and even the
moisture in the air.
Biosphere
The biosphere is comprised of all living organisms, from the smallest bacteria to the largest whale. Plants,
animals, and single-celled organism are all part of the biosphere.
Atmosphere
Atmosphere is the mass of air surrounding our planet. It is subdivided into different layers of different
densities. The air of Earth is comprised of 79% Nitrogen and fewer than 21% Oxygen. The remaining amount
is shared by Carbon Dioxide and other form of gasses.
Remember that the parts mentioned are interconnected and influence the climate, trigger geological processes,
and affect life all over.
ctto