Chapter 2

Systematic Characteristics

Systematic characteristics can be exactly quantified by mathematical or

graphical means versus statistical characteristics.

1. Range:
The “Range” is the total range of values which an instrument is capable of
measuring:
• Input Range of an element is specified by the minimum and maximum
values of input, Imin and Imax.
• Output Range of an element is the minimum and maximum values of output,
Omin and Omax.

I O
Element
Imin = -10 Co Omin = 3 mv
Imax = 90 Co Omax = 15 mv
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6. Sensitivity

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7. Hysteresis

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8. Resolution

× 100%

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 9. Environmental Effects
In general the output O depends not only on the signal input I but on
environmental inputs, such as temperature, pressure, humidity, supply
voltage, etc.

The previous expressions represent the behavior of the element under

“standard” environmental conditions, 20 Co, 10 V supply, then, expressions
need to be modified to include changes in standard environmental conditions.

There are two main types of environmental inputs:

1. A modifying input IM, causes linear sensitivity of an element to change. (K is
the sensitivity at standard conditions when IM = 0. If the input is changed from
the standard value, then IM is the deviation from the standard conditions, and
the sensitivity is changed from K to 𝐾 + 𝐾𝑚 𝐼𝑚.
K = 10
K=0

K = -10
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 9. Environmental Effects

2. An Interfering input II , causes the straight line intercept to change.

II = 10

II = 0

II = -10

The general model becomes:

𝑂 𝐼 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎 + 𝑁 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼 + 𝐾𝐼 𝐼𝐼

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 10. Error Bands

Usually, non-linearity, hysteresis, and resolution effects are so

small that it is difficult to exactly quantify each individual effect.

In such a case the manufacturer defines the element performance in

terms of error bands.

For example, for any value of input I, the output O is will be within
± ℎ, of the ideal straight line Oideal.

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