Chapter Outline Learning Objectives — 26.1 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 25.2 Robotics 28.2.1 Robotics in Automation 25.2.2 Industrial Robot Design 25.2.3 Industrial Robot Applications, 25. Safety in Automated Manufacturing 25.4 Rapid Prototyping Techniques 25.4.1 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) 25.4.2 Stereolithography 25.8.3 Other Rapid Prototyping Techniques 258 The Future of ‘Automated Manufacturing After studying this chapter, you will be able to: ‘© Define the term automation. ‘© Summarize the traits ofa flexible manufacturing. system, ‘© Explain the advantages of using robots to perform certain tasks in a manufacturing application. ‘+ Identify the safety issues associated with automated manufacturing. ‘© Explain the similarities and differences among various rapid prototyping techniques. © Discuss the future of automated manufacturing. Technical Terms additive manufacturing laminated object computer integrated manufacturing (LOM) manufacturing (CIM) lean manufacturing work direct shell production _cell casting (DSPC) programmable logic flexible manufacturing controller (PLC) system (FMS) robot fused deposition modeling smart tooling (EDM) stereolithography just-in-time (JIT) work envelope inventory system442 utomation is a term coined in 1947 by a Ford Motor ‘of manufacturing but a method of manufacturing that has evolved over many years. Automation is system for the Continuous automatic production of a product, Figure 25-1 It relies on a machine or group of machines activated elec- tronically, hydraulically, mechanically, or pneumatically (oF a combination of these means) to automatically perform one ‘or more of the five basic manufacturing processes: + Making. ‘Inspecting. Assembling, «Testing + Packaging The prinefples of automation have been known for many years. An automated flour mill was in operation in the late 1700s near Philadelphia. It was able to continuously mill {grain into flour. The mill used many of the elements found in modern automated operations. The integration of the computer, Figure 25-2, with specially designed machine tools and equipment, has revolutionized * Hiri Figure 25-1. A robotic system used to assemble the components ‘of automobile engines is an example of an automated system, Wachin incamentals production technology, resulting in increased productivity, improved product quality, and reduced manufacturing costs. Automation has also minimized human involvement in ‘many phases of the manufacturing process. 25.1 Flexible Manufacturing Systems _ Due to its extensive use of computer-controlled machinery and adaptive tooling, a flexible mamufacturing system (FMS) ‘can be quickly adapted to changes in the product or the manufacturing process. This general category of machining ‘manufacturing technology is also widely referred to as computer integrated manufacturing (CIM). 4 flexible manufacturing, system is made up of one or more groups of machines that, are used to perform multiple operations automatically. Such, a group of machines is often called a flexible manufacturing cell (EMC). A flexible manufacturing cell brings together work stations (machine tools), automated handling and transfer systems, and computer control in an integrated manner, Figure 25-3. It is capable of performing multiple manufac- turing actions simultaneously. Work is transferred to and from the individual machines in the flexible manufactur ing cell by automated fixture carts. conveyors. or specially designed loaders, Figure 25-4. Robots may also be employed in some operations. Figure 25-2, The integration of computers and specially designed machine tools and equipment into manufacturing. systems has revolutionized automation technology. Computerized systems improve product quality and reduce ‘manufacturing costs.Chapter 25 Automated Manufacturing Machining center 1 Machining center 2 443 Machining center 3 Electric cabinet a 4 jeoiqicese \d/unload ~ ~~ = (XL Loat station Pallet ail transporter section call Teontroler Remote operator terminal Figure 25-3, Flexible manufacturing coll that uses a pallet transporter to link the machines. A cell controller automatically queues work for immediate delivery to the next machine available. Figure 25-4. A conveyor (foreground) transfers workpieces to an unattended horizontal machining center in this manufacturing cell, ‘An improvement to the straight-line work area layout is the lean manufacturing work celt design. This design was developed as part of the Toyota Production System, with a U-shaped layout that allows fewer operators to efficiently operate smaller, automated equipment. See Figure 25-5. ‘The smaller layout and the close proximity of the machines. tenable parts to flow through the work cell one at a time, with minimal amount of inventory building up between opera- tions. This layout also allows for the processing of smaller batches of equipment by using simpler machines that allow for faster changeover times between different product lines. The machine tools typically used in flexible manufac- turing systems are CNC vertical and horizontal machining centers. Other CNC machine tools, such as grinders and, automatic gaging equipment, may also be included in flex- ible manufacturing systems. Each step of the manufacturing process is computer: controlled and is linked to the next step. This link is cre- ated using programmable logic controllers (PLCS). A PLC is, a small, digital computer that acts as a communications hub for flexible manufacturing cells. Using various sensors andMachining Fundamentals e Loss Efficient Straight-Line Configuration ® © ‘More Efficient U-Shaped Configuration Figure 25-5. The lean manufacturing work cell concept is built around a U-shaped work area, which places workers in each cell in close proximity to improve the efficiency of work flow and minimize inventory needs, machine-specific codes from the CNC equipment, the PLC manages the communications process between different machines (such as CNC machines, robots, and conveyance systems) within a flexible manufacturing cell. Measuring sensors, often utilizing lasers, are sensitive enough to detect tool wear as it occurs and automatically compensate for it Nevertheless, every part is inspected individually. Problems such as tool malfunction or tool breakage are immediately identified so corrections can be made before additional partsare produced that do not meet specifications. Flexible manufacturing systems can also make use of several other technologies. These include smart tooling: just-in-time (JIT) inventory of materials, parts, and subas- semblies; and robots. ‘Smart tooling consists of cutting tools and work-holding. devices that can be easily reconfigured to produce a variety Copyright Gaon. Witeox Co. ne:Chapter 25 Automated Manufacturing 445 Oa wm Computer Ethics Inv most jobs today, the computer is an essential tool. The employer provides a computer for your use as a tool for research or to accomplish tasks. It is unethical to use the computer, without permission, for personal activities, such es playing games, shopping, or other activities that are outside of your assignments. Using ‘your computer for personal activities while on the clock can be considered stealing company time, Organizations commonly use social media to reach existing customers and find new ones, Those who ‘are writing communications for the organization must be prudent when using sites, such as Facebook or Twitter, for business purposes. Keep your messages honest, and return messages from those who have taken ‘time to respond to your communication. Use good judgment and represent the organization in a professional manner It is also unethical to access confidential information, download copyrighted material, or harass oth- ers while using company equipment, Unapproved use of computers may open up the computer network for Viruses and other issues that may jeopardize the integrity of the network. Many organizations monitor computer users to make certain computer activity is ethical and legal. Users ‘may also be required to sign an agreement that the computer will only be used for specific purposes. of shapes and sizes within a given part family. This makes it economically feasible to manufacture products in smaller lot sizes. A just-in-time (JIT) inventory system is an inventory ‘management system that eliminates the need to store large quantities of materials and parts. The parts and materials, are scheduled for arrival atthe time they are needed, and not before. While JIT inventory systems lessen (and often elimi- nate) storage costs, production can be reduced or stopped if the delivery of the needed items is delayed by bad weather or strikes 25.2 Robotics The Robotic Industries Association (RIA) has adopted the following definition for industrial robots:"A robot isa repro grammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through vari- able programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks” Robots can be programmed to do many types of jobs that are hazardous or tedious for human workers, Spot, ‘welding, paint spraying, and loading parts onto machines are examples of these jobs, Figure 25-6. 25.2.1 Robotics in Automation The RIA definition of an industrial robot contains two implied requirements: Figure 25-6, Robots can be programmed to do many types of jobs that are hazardous or tedious for human workers. This robot is paired with a press brake to load and remove sheet metal parts. of the robot arm in three-dimensional space. See # The robot must be a multiaxis machine three or more axes) that is capable of moving parts or tools to any given location within its work envelope with a high degree of repeatability and precision. The work envelope ofa robot is the volume of space defined by the reach Figure 25-7 * There must be @ control system that can be pro- grammed to drive the robot through a series of speci- fied motions and be capable of interacting with other ‘machines and equipment.446 Machining Fundamentals Figure 25-7. The work envelope of a robot is the volume of snace defined by the reach of the robot arm in three dimensions, REEN It Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Established by the US Green Building Council, LEED is the industry stendard in syeen corstruction. LEED rates green building practices in areas including energy conservation, building materials, water use, and air 4uality. Green practices are evaluated from construc- tion through the life of the building project. Buildings ‘must meet certain criteria to achieve LEED cetifice- tion, which offers numerous benefits. LEED certitica- tion can boost public image and qualify buildings for certain tax benefits and zoning allowances. Green prac- tices ate becoming more prevalent in factories where smart choices for the environment can also promote efficiency, thereby reducing cost. Green machining practices and construction methods ere an important part of LEED alongside recycling and environmentally friendly cleaning methods. 25.2.2 Industrial Robot Design As shown in Figure 25-8, an industrial robot consists of four basic components: * Controller. Performs computations for controlling the movement of the waist, arm, and wrist to the proper location. + Manipulator. The articulated “aren” of the robot, The end of the arm is fitted with a “wrist” capable of rota- tional motion around one or more axes, + End-of-arm tooling. A device attached to the robot wrist for specific applications, such asa gripper, weld ing head, or spray gun. Grippers can be physical, vise-like manipulators, as well as magnetie or vacuum powered grasping devices. End-ofarm tooling, wrist Manipulator Power supply and controller Workplace Teach pendant Figure 25-8. An industrial robot consists of four basic parts: a controller, a power supply, a manipulator, and end-of-arm tooling. The end-of-arm tooling on this robot is a gas metal arc welding gun. * Power supply. Supplies the power to operate the robot. May be hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric. Robots that are designed to lift relatively light loads are typically powered by electric drive systems. Pneumatic robots can handle medium weight loads, while heavier loadsChapter 25 Automated Manufacturing require the use of hydraulic power systems. However, weight limits are not the only factors considered in selecting the proper robot. The maximum reach of the arm while carry- ing aload is critical, because the weight limits are established, according to how much the robot can handle precisely at its ‘maximum reach. Less precise operations can be performed, with electric or pneumatic powered units. However, if the ‘weight is heavy and the required precision is tight, hydraulic, systems are preferred. Cost is another factor companies must consider when purchasing a robot. Electric robots are least expensive, and hydraulic units are most expensive, 25.2.3 Industrial Robot Applications Manufacturers have replaced human workers with indus- trial robots in a number of different applications to increase worker safety, to increase capability, or both. Industrial robots are often used in the following applications: # Hazardous and harsh environments. Fumes pro- duced by spray painting and welding, heat in foundry or forging operations, or crush hazards when feeding material into punch presses. See Figure 25-9, + Tedious operations. Repetitive operations such as feeding, loading, and unloading of parts and materi als, and some assembly operations. See Figure 25-10, « Precision operations. Precisely repeated positioning operations, maintaining consistent tool speed, follow- ing complex welding and cutting paths without pat- terns, and quality control using lasers. + Handling heavy or unwieldy materials. Lifting ‘material onto or from a stack, moving material beyond the normal reach of a human, or mounting heavy or bulky workpieces on machine tools, Figure 25-11. Many types of robots have been developed, but almost all can be classified into one of the four basic geometric Figure 25-8. A robot ladling molten aluminum into @ wheel mmald. 4a7 configurations shown in Figure 25-12, Advanced tech- nology robots can be programmed to serve a wide range of automated manufacturing applications. They can be interfaced with testing devices to perform various types of measurements, Some robots are capable of selecting and. positioning, ‘complex parts for machining or storage. A laser is utilized to, “see" and define the part outline so the correct item can be selected and positioned for machining, 25.3 Safety in Automated Manufacturing ‘When working with an automated manufacturing system, follow these safety guidelines: * Observe the same safe operating procedures that are used with traditional machine tools and machining, * Wear approved eye protection and a. smug-fitting apron or shop coat. + Be sure work-holding devices are positioned correctly and are securely fastened to the worktable. Figure 25-10. This robot is being used to load and unload castings from a ailing machine,448 Machining Fundamentals Figure 28-12. Basic geometric configurations of robots. All provide three articulations (specific arm movements). A—Cartesian cooidinates. B—Cylindrical coordinates. C—Polar coordinates. D—Revolute coordinates. ‘+ Carefully cheek tool clearance to be sure the cut- ‘+ Never enter the work envelope of a robot until you are ter will dlear the workpiece, work-holding devices, sure power is turned off. clamps, and any other potential obstacles when manu- ally positioning the work and during rapid traverse. Make a “dry run” fora safety check of tool positioning for each machining operation. ‘© Establish that the machine tool and control unit are functioning correctly, and continually monitor machining operations to be sure each tool is cutting(Chapter 25. Avtomated Manufacturing properly. Know how to safely stop machining opera tions in case of an emergency. + To avoid injury, remove burrs and sharp edges before inspecting the accuracy or the finish of machined sur- faces on finished parts. 25.4 Rapid Prototyping Techniques ‘A number of techniques allow designers to quickly generate three-dimensional models or prototypes of parts in relatively inexpensive materials. These techniques help to improve design and identify potential machining problems. They include laminated object manufacturing, stereolithography, fused deposition modeling, and direct shell production cast ing, among others. Rapid prototyping, or three-dimensional modeling, is ‘process that allows designers to create physical models, from computerized designs. Some people try to distinguish between the terms rapid prototyping, 3D modeling, and addi tive manufacturing, In teuth, there is very litte difference. 3D modeling and rapid prototyping are often used interchange ably, but 3D modeling can be applied to the development Of three-dimensional models inside @ parametric modeling, software, such aa Autodesk” Inventor, SOLIDWORKS", oF Pro/ENGINEER", Many of these software packages pro- vide the ability to test designs through computer simula. tion to help designers and engineers determine the optimum design(s) before they invest time and money into the tooling, and materials needed for prototypes. Rapid prototyping got its start from the need to pro- duce a physical part from a computerized 3D model. This provided designers and engineers with the ability to create ‘multiple parts that could be tested for fit, form, and function, again before laying out large investments to make function~ ing prototypes. This form of rapid prototyping was a step beyond the computerized model in that it improved the abil- ity to visualize the components more effectively than by sim ply viewing the CAD display. Over the years, the technology for creating prototypes has advanced, along with the mate rials that can be used to create the physical models. Today, some prototypes can be made to withstand physical, ther- mal, and chemical environments, allowing the prototypes to be thoroughly tested before finalizing the part designs. Rapid. prototyping processes have developed beyond making plastic models of parts to making the parts them- selves. This process, called additive manufacturing, uses fused deposition technologies to build parts in layers just as in rapid prototyping processes. This process is cost- prokibitive for many high-volume processesin which current technologies can produce more parts per time period. Also, additive manufacturing cannot yet deliver goods that match the physical qualities of similar goods created using cur- rent technologies. However, as newer technologies become 449 capable of higher levels of precision, and capable of applying the technology to more advanced materials, the process of additive manufacturing will continue to advance. 25.4.1 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) isa process used to rapidly produce models, prototypes, accurate patterns, and molds. See Figure 25-13. This three-dimensional modeling, method was developed in 1991 by Helisys, Inc. Since then, many automotive, aerospace, appliance, and medical product manufacturers have adopted the process. The equipment is compact and can operate 24+ hours a day Figure 25-13. Laminated object manufacturing, A—LOM was Used to produce these extremely accurate, full-size matchplates (patterns) and core box to be used in casting prototype metal projectiles. B—Rapid prototyping of the molds to make the wax pattems for the investment casting of oversized golf club irons was done with LOM. Design changes could be carried out before making the expensive molds necessary for quantity production,450 Uses for LOM Parts LOM uses inexpensive solid sheet material, such as paper, plastic, and composites, to form the desired designs. Molds made from the composite materials can be used in direct tooling applications tor processes such as injection molding, ‘vacuum forming, and sand casting. See Figure 25-14. LOM. parts are accurate enough for form-and-fit verification appli- cations. The finished part hasa composition similar to wood and can be easily machined or modified to obtain the exact fit required. Modifications and corrections can be incorpo- rated into the CAD design before manufacturing. Operation of the LOM System CAD data is programmed into the LOM's process controller. ‘A cross-sectional slice is generated, and a laser cuts the out- line of the cross section, then crosshatches the excess mate- tial for later removal, Figure 25-15. A new layer of material is bonded to the top of the previously cut layer. The next cross section is prepared and cut, This automatic process contin- utes until al layers are laminated and cut. Excess material is removed to expose the finished part. The completed object's surface can then be sanded, polished, or painted as desited. Figute 25-14. The CAD drawing on-screen was used to produce the LOM model (being held). That model was then used to produce @ mold. The mold was used to produce an aluminum sand casting of the prototype rear-engine power takeoff housing for a diesel truck engine. This technique cut development time in halt Machining Fundamentals 25.4.2 Stereolithography Anotherrapid prototyping technology; calle stereolithography, can produce complex design prototypes of castingsand other objects in hours, instead of days or weeks, Figure 25-16, The three-dimensional hard plastic models produced by the ste- reolithography process can be studied to determine whether they are the best solution to a design problem. Since new models can be made quickly, design changes and modifica- tions can be evaluated without the expense of making new patterns or molds. ‘The stereolithography process uses a computer-guided low-power laser beam to harden a liquid photocurable poly- ‘mer plastic into the programmed shape. The process starts by creating the required design on a CAD system and or enting it in three-dimensional space. A support structure is aclded to hold the various elements in place while the model is built up. ‘The design data is downloaded into the stereolithogra- phy machine, which operates somewhat like a CNC machine tool. A program within the stereolithography machine's co troller slices the design into cross sections of 0.005" to 0.020" (0.12 mm to 0.50 mm) in thickness. The machine's control ‘unit guides a fine laser beam onto the surface of a vat con- taining the liquid photocurable polymer. The liquid solidi- fies wherever itis struck by the laser beam, Figure 25-17. ‘The model is created from the bottom up, on a platform located just below the surface ofthe liquid plastic. After each Optics XY positioning device Layer outline land erosshatch, Laminating roller Material supply toll Figure 25-15. The Laminated Object Manufacturing process.(Chapter 25 Automated Manufacturing “slice" is formed, the platform drops programmed distance. ‘The sequence is repeated until the entire model is formed, Figure 25-18. The model is removed from the platform and. rinsed in a chemical bath to remove excess resin. The model is then placed in an ultraviolet oven for curing. When the 0 92 Figure 25-16. Stereolithography equipment is used to produce durable, finely detailed patterns that are extensively used in ‘modeling, functional prototyping, and tooling applications, UV laser Elevator (OGY movement) (Zmoverent) eg + Laser beam’ Liquid surface Bs Platiorm aE zi Figure 25-17. Basic diagram of the stereolithography process 451 ‘model has cured, the support structure is clipped away. The ‘model can then be finished by filing, sanding, and polish- ing. Paint or dye can be applied. The entre stereolithography process is shown in Figure 25-19. a ‘Support structure Figure 25-18. A model created using the stereolithography process. Note the support structures on the model. Once ‘the model is cured anc the support structures are removed, this mode! will be used to train assembly robots. By training the robots with accurate prototypes rather than waiting for ‘production tooling, the plant can greatly reduce setup time. 5. Interface 6. Merge ZUuilty 8. Prepare Figure 25-19. The stereolithography process.452 25.4.3 Other Rapid Prototyping Techniques Rapid prototyping techniques that operate on a system simi- lar to stereolithography can produce fully functional proto- types made of ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), medical ABS, or investment casting wax. When made of investment casting wax, the three-dimensional models can be used as the master fora cast part. A rapid prototyping process called fused deposition ‘modeling (EDM) can produce fully functional prototypes, Figure 25-20. When made of ABS, the parts can be installed and run for the best proof that a design works. The ABS parts canalso be made in color, Figure 25-21, The FDM process can produce three-dimensional objects based on CAD-generated solid or surface models. A temperature-controlled head extrudes thermoplastic mate- ial layer by layer. The designed object emerges as a three dimensional part without tooling, A variation of this technology has been developed that produces parts made of sand or ceramic material instead of, Figure 25-20. Fused deposition modeling equipment can produce prototypes from ABS, medical ABS, or investment ‘casting wax. When made from ABS, the parts can be installed ‘and run to proof the design, Machining Fundementals plastic. Layers of material are built up, using an inkjet-style printer to spray a quick-hardening binder to solidify each layer. The technology has been used to quickly produce shell molds for casting metals, such as Inconet® and aluminum, The mokd-making process is called direct shell production ‘casting (DSPC), See Figure 25-22. 25.5 The Future of Automated Manufacturing With technological advances being made at such a rapid pace, only time will tell what the full effect of computers and automated manufacturing techniques will be on our society. Some workers, mostly unskilled and semiskilled have lost their jobs, much like the home artisans did dur- ing the Industrial Revolution. The same thing happened to carriage makers, blacksmiths, buggy whip manufacturers, and feed dealers when Henry Ford started to mass-produce Figure 25-21. ABS parts can be made in color.Chapter 25 Automated Manufacturing Figure 25-22. 30 sand printing equipment being used to produce sand-cast molds for production purposes. the automobile, Figure 25-23. However, as these unskilled and semiskilled jobs have vanished, more jobs have become available in other areas. Many of these jobs require a higher level of technical training ‘Advances in manufacturing technology displaced some skilled workers in the past, just as automated manufactur- ing and robots have displaced certain workers in the modern, economy. However, machines eventually helped to employ, directly or indirectly, many more people than the number they originally displaced. Better jobs, with higher pay and improved working conditions, were created, These changes also demanded that workers and technicians become bet- ter educated. The key to the future, then, will be men and ‘women who are well versed in the various areas of industrial technology. 453 Figure 25-23. Then and now in the manufacture of automobiles. ‘A—When Henry Ford opened the first production line, he paid the workers $5 per day, a very good salary for the time. B—On a modern production line, robots perform many of the jobs. As 2 result, both praductvity and quality have increased ‘tamaticelly, while production costs have decreased.tion of a product. ble manufacturing systems are adaptable, allowing a single production line to produce different products simultaneously. ‘+ A robot is a programmable manipulator, capable of mov- ig parts or tools to any location within its work envelope with a high degree of precision and repeatability ‘+ Safety concerns in an automated manufacturing environ- ‘ment include all the safety concerns encountered in tradi- tional machining, plus the safety concerns directly related to the automated equipment. ‘+ Rapid prototyping techniques ean quickly and inexpen sively produceaccurate models that can beused toimprove design and identify potential machining problems. ‘+ Common rapid prototyping techniques include lami- nated object manufacturing, stereolithography, and fused deposition modeling, Review Questions Answer the following questions using the information provided in this chapter 1. What is automation? 2. How are automated machines actuated? 454 6 10. UL. List the five basic manufacturing processes that automated machines can perform. List three means of transferring work to and from the individual machines in flexible manufacturing cell ‘What do the following automation-related acronyms stand for? (An acronym is a word formed using the initial letters of words in a phrase. For example, RPM stands for “revolutions per minute”) ALEMS. B.CIM. C.FMC. D.CNC. E, JIT, Explain the following terms: A. Smart tooling. B. JIT inventory C. Robot. In robotics, what is meant by the term work envelope? List three general uses for robots. How do the safety precautions for automated ‘manufacturing compare with those for using traditional manual machine tools? List three techniques that are availabe for the rapid prototyping of a CAD design. In stereolithography, a(n) __is used to harden a thin layer of material as the object is built wp.