Chapter 22 – An Age of Nationalism and Realism, 1850-1871 P.

644-663

Preface: Realpolitik or the “politics of reality” appeared as what a new generation of

conservative leaders practiced. These fulfilled many of the goals sought by the liberals and
nationalists, even after the revolutions of 1848 has failed. In Germany, the Prussian Otto von
Bismarck unified Germany through astute diplomacy and war. Long live His Imperial Majesty,
the Emperor William I indeed.

The France of Napoleon III

After 1850, there was a new generation of conservative leaders. Among them was Napoleon III
of France, who taught other governments how to use liberal and nationalistic forces to bolster
their own power.

Louis Napoleon: Toward the Second Empire

Louis Napoleon was never seen as a powerful character because of his physical appearance, but
he was a smart politician. Followed by a coup-d’état which proclaimed him president for ten
years, he restored universal man suffrage. A year later, he restored the Empire, assuming the title
of Napoleon III (first Napoleon had abdicated in favor of his son, Napoleon II)

Napoleon III = Louis Napoleon

- Had a authoritarian government (in a Bonapartist sense)
- Acted as chief of state, controlled armed forces, police, and civil service.
o Introduced legislation and declared war (only him)
o Ministers had no collective responsibility and were answerable only to the
emperor.
- Only government candidates were allowed to campaign freely, selected from “men who
where interested with the country.
- First 5 years of reign was success
o Reaped benefits of worldwide economic prosperity and some of his own
economic policies
o Believed in using resources of government to stimulate the national economy and
encourage industrial growth
o Promoted expansion of credit backing the formation of new investment banks
 Banks provided long-term loans for industrial, commercial, and
agricultural expansion.
o Government subsidies were used to foster rapid construction of infrastructure
 Completed French railway lines and tripled iron production
o Reduced tensions and improved social welfare of the nation
 Provided hospitals and free medicine and advocated better housing for
working class
o Undertook a vast reconstruction of the city of Paris
 Medieval Paris of narrow streets and old city walls were replaced by broad
boulevards, spacious buildings, plazas, and an amazing underground
sewage system, as well as a new public water supply and gaslights.
 Served as a military as well as an aesthetic purpose
 • No more barricades and troops to move rapidly.
- Had a large interest in public opinion
o Undertook new policies, liberalizing his regime
o Examples were: reaching out to the working class by legalizing trade unions and
granting them the right to strike.
o Liberalized the political process
- Reign ended with the Prussia-Franco war

The Crimean War (1854-1856)

- The Crimean War was another chapter in the story of the Eastern Question, or who would
be the chief beneficiaries of the disintegration of the Turkish or Ottoman Empire, which
had been in control, but started declining.
- It was a poorly fought war, beginning with Russia’s declaration on the Ottoman empire
over a trivial thing of religion (right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine)
o France and Britain declared war on Russia to keep balance of power
o Russia fought alone when Austria remained neutral
- Ended with the Treaty of Paris
o Forced Russia to give up Bessarabia and accept the neutrality of the Black Sea
o Danubian principalities are of Moldavia and Walachia was placed under the
protection of all the great powers.
- The war was costly for both sides, over 250,000 soldiers died in the war (60 percent of
the deaths from disease (cholera))
- Florence Nightingale (Lady of the Lamp) = Pioneering nurse, writer, and statistician
o Insisted on strict sanitary conditions that saved many lives
o Helped to make nursing a profession of trained, middle-class women.
- War destroyed the Concert of Europe

Results of the war:

Russian defeat – Withdrew from European affairs for the next two decades to set its house in
order.
Great Britain – Withdrew from continental affairs
Austria – No more allies because of unwillingness to support Russia in war
France – Napoleon III realized he was not a military genius, but was well aware of the
explosive power of the forces of nationalism and decided to pursue a foreign policy that
would champion national movements. Unfortunately, policy proved to be a disaster.

National Unification: Italy and Germany (That’s not good… for France)
Following the breakdown of the Concert of Europe, new ways for the Italians and the
Germans to establish national states were available, with Europe dealing with the
consequences well into the twentieth century (Hitler and Mussolini anyone? Okay, I’ll stop with the
comments.)

The Unification of Italy

Victor Emmanuel II/Count Camillo di Cavour = Prime minister of Piedmont
- Liberal-minded nobleman who had made a fortune in agriculture and went on to make
more money in banking, railroads, and shipping.
 - Admired the British, especially their parliamentary system, industrial techniques, and
economic liberalism.
- Favored Constitutional Monarchy, wanted Italian unification, but had no notion about
how to obtain it.
- Was a consummate politician who was very persuasive
- Pursued a policy of economic expansion, encouraging the building of roads, canals, and
railroads and fostering business enterprise by expanding credit and stimulating
investment in new industries.
- Knew that to challenge Austria’s control of Italy, he would need French help, therefore
made an agreement with Napoleon III.
- After two battles, France made peace with Austria because of complications; nationalist
forces allowed a few northern Italian states namely Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and part of
the Papal States.
- Didn’t envision uniting all of Italy, but forces of nationalism forced Cavour to act.

Giuseppe Garibaldi = Italian patriot who had supported Mazzini and Young Italy movement
- Was exiled in Latin America, where he gained experience in guerrilla warfare
- Became involved in the fighting against Austria
- Regarded Garibaldi as a nuisance, and encouraged him to move on to southern Italy
- Had 1,000 volunteers called the Red Shirts
- Tactics won battles, eventually retired to his farm for Cavour

March 17, 1861 = Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under a centralized government
subordinated to the control of Piedmont and Kling Victor Emmanuel II of the house of Savoy.
Cavour died three months later.

The Unification of Germany

After the failure of the Frankfurt Assembly to achieve German unification in 1848-1849,
Germany nationalists focused on Austria and Prussia as the only two states powerful enough to
dominate German affairs.

Prussia had formed the Zollverein, a German customs union, by eliminating tolls on rivers and
roads among member states, the Zollverein had stimulated trade and added to the prosperity of its
member states. A few years later, all states except Austria had joined the union.

King William I = Brother of King Frederick William IV

- Had definite ideas about the Prussian army because of his own military training.
- Believed that the army was in dire need of change if Prussia was to remain a great power.
o Worked closely with Albrecht von Roon as minister for war and Helmuth von
Moltke as chief of the army general staff
o Double the size of the army, diminish the role of the Landwehr (private militia)
o Institute three years of compulsory military service for all young men.
 Was feared by the middle-class liberals, rejected by parliament
o Unwilling to use army control, appointed a new prime minister, Count Otto von
Bismarck.
Count Otto von Bismarck = Aristocrat born into the Junker class (landowner)
- Embarked upon a career in Prussian civil service
o Grew tired of routine and retired to manage country estates
- Few years later, reentered public life, built a base of diplomatic experience as the
Prussian delegate to the parliament of the Germanic confederation
o Combined experience as Prussian ambassador to Russia and France gave him
opportunities to acquire a wide knowledge of European affairs
- Was considered the ultimate realist, one who knew what to do and always went straight
for a goal without any flexibility
- After becoming prime minister, largely ignored parliament while rule, parliament did not
revolt

The Danish War (1864)

- Arose over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, Denmark incorporated the two
duchies into Denmark.
o Angered German nationalists as they had large German populations
o Diet of Germanic Confederation urged its member states to send troops against
Denmark
o Bismarck did not subject to Prussian policy to the Austrian-dominated German
diet
 Instead persuaded Austria to join Prussia in declaring war on Denmark
o Defeated Denmark, which surrendered the duchies, separated between
Austria/Prussia

The Austro-Prussian War

- With Austria isolated (see Crimean war) Bismarck used the joint occupation of
Schleswig-Holstein to goad the Austrians into a war
- Prussia won with superior technology, (needle gun + railroads)
- Didn’t burden Austria, only a few territories except Venetia to Italy

New constitution for the North German Confederation was created, Parliament was consisted
of two bodies: Bundesrat (federal council) and the Reichstag (lower house).

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

With Prussia dominating all of northern Germany, and Austria excluded from any significant
role in German affairs, Bismarck realized that France would never be content with a strong
German state because of the threat it posed. The French were also not happy with events in
Germany and looked to humiliate Prussia.

To make a long war short, France declared war on Prussia after certain affairs in Spain. Prussian
forces overwhelmed France’s forces, and the war lasted around half a year. The French were
forced to pay five billion francs over 3 years, and gave up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine
to the new German state, which left them burning for revenge. Soon after, German unity was
achieved by uniting northern and southern German states. With its industrial resources and
military might, the new state had become to strongest power on the Continent.
Nation Building and Reform: The National State in Mid-Century
Though European affairs were dominated by the unification of Italy and Germany, other states
were also undergoing transformations. War, civil war, and changing political alignments served
as catalysts for domestic reforms.

The Austrian Empire: Towards a Dual Monarchy

Alexander von Bach = Leader of Austria
- Made local privileges subordinated to a unified system of administration, law, and
taxation implemented by German-speaking officials.
- Catholic Church was declared the state church and given control of education.
- Regime was composed of “a standing army of soldiers, a sitting army of officials, a
kneeling army of priests, and a creeping army of denunciators.”

Emperor Francis Joseph = Emperor of Austria after Italian war

- Attempted to establish an imperial parliament (Reichsrat) with a nominated upper house
and an elected lower house of representatives.
- System was supposed to provide representation for the nationalities of the empire
o Alienated the ethnic minorities however.
- Ausgleich/Compromise was made when Austrians dealt with nationalistic Hungarians
o Created dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, with separate constitutions, etc.
o Vienna became capital for Austria and Budapest for Hungary

Imperial Russia
Alexander II = Tsar of Russia (1855-1881) Successor of Nicholas I
- Came to power in the midst of the Crimean War
- Made a serious overhaul of the Russian system
- Called Liberator because of his great reforms, he was not a liberal but a thoughtful realist
- Issued the Emancipation: Serfs and Slaves on March 3, 1861
o Peasants could own property, marry as they chose, and bring suits into law courts.
o Had to repay long-term installments
 Subjected to authority of mir, or village commune.
 Village commune was collectively responsible for the land payments to
the government.
 In effect, the village communes owned the land the peasants were
purchasing.
 Nothing much was actually changed, because peasants could not leave the
commune.
- Instituted a system of zemstvos, or local assemblies.
o Provided a moderate degree of self-government.
o Provided public services: education, famine relief, road/bridge maintenance.
o Levied taxes to pay for services, but were disrupted by those who feared self-
government.
- Instituted new legal reforms which created a regular system of local and provincial courts
that accepted the principle of equality before the law.
Alexander Herzen = Russian exile who lived in London
- Slogan was “land and freedom”
- Believed that Russian peasants must be the chief instrument for social reform
- Believed that the peasant village commune could serve as an independent, self-governing
body that would form the basis of new Russia
- Movement was called populism
o Aim was to create a new society through revolutionary acts of the peasants.
o Group of radicals known as the People’s Will succeeded in assassinating
Alexander II in 1881 (…)
- Successor/Son Alexander III turned against reform and returned to the traditional
methods of repression.

Great Britain: The Victorian Age

Queen Victoria = Starter of the Victorian age

Henry John Temple = Lord Palmerston

- Stood out as a political figure, prime minister
o Was a Whig, but without strong party loyalty
- Primary interest was foreign policy
- Defended British interests worldwide with chauvinistic character
- Was not a reformer, and opposed expanding franchise

Whigs are now called Liberals.

Benjamin Disraeli = Tory leader in Parliament

- Motivated by the desire to win over newly enfranchised groups to the Conservative Party
- Believed uneducated classes would defer to social superiors when they voted
- Issued the Reform Act of 1867
o Important step toward the democratization of Britain
o Lowered monetary requirements for voting
o Extended voting population to two million, Liberal victory.
o Party discipline intensified, rivalry as well

William Gladstone = Liberal leader in Parliament

- Responsible for a series of reforms
- Gladstone ministry was called the apex of “classical British liberalism.”
o Legislation and government orders opened civil service positions to competitive
exams rather than patronage
o Dropped religious requirements for degrees at Oxford and Cambridge
o Introduced the secret ballot for voting
o Abolished the practice of purchasing military commissions.
o Education Act of 1870 made elementary schools available to all children.
o Eliminated abuses and enabled people with talent to compete fairly
o Sought to strengthen the nation and its institutions.
The United States: Civil War and Reunion + The Emergence of a Canadian Nation
It’s European History. We’ll do more of this next year.