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    10 views88 pages

    CROWE - Mechanics

    Uploaded by

    victoria ruiz

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 88
    vh_Prtace 1 am indebted 10 the folowing parent anor pubiting exmparies for poms fo que opt mater om the sources Indes Invert Eston, “Ascbsyepny’ in Abert Exstan Phoacpner- Sess, ‘ed by Pau Arthur Schigp ol 1 (rp and Row, 1050); Abert Eston, “On he Bastadamice of Movng doses” A Enstan, HA Lorentz H. Wig and H: Misowaks, Tne Prncple of Rott, 2 clocton of ls ‘paper wane. by W. Poret and G. B. etry (Dover repubeston of tho 1828 cogiall Ansad's Phys, rane. by Hopocaies G. Apostle {Povgateie Pre, 1960); Chisian Huygens, Othe Maton of Cana Bots 8 ghon “Csizan Huygns' The Moton of Cling Boaes” tree. by Flenra J. Blackwell, 69 (1977), 574-597 Calleo Gl Diabgue Goncening te Tio Ge! Word Systore-—Ptlanat ard Cope ean, ana Je. Sevan Ore Unio of Callens Prac, 1053), Fer Descartes, Pils of Piosopy an. ty Witam H, Donahue fr tie ‘hus tam Chares Aan ond Pau Tanrary fed), Oeuwes de Descartes, 40. 81 (Libra phosoprigue in, 1973); rans made by War H.onanue tom lsaoe Newton's Mathmatca! Pils of Nara Phi Tosco and ined in Dana Denemee, Nevins Penépar The Carat ‘rout with vals a hates by Wm H. Donahue (teen Len Press, 1905 Wall ana Ematcon, who admincir the copra or Gila Gala, Tao New Senco incu Centers of Gravy & Face of Perevesion rans by Star Drake (Unworsy of Wisconsin Poss 1878. CCavannigh Professor Emaris Progam a Leera Sues Unverty of Nore Dame Chapter 1 Mechanics before Galileo ‘Two que fren masrings one wordmechane” are encuntres 1, According to ho mor common ofthese, mecnanics ls hat ares ot ‘onidgo concord wih he constuction, deen, ad operation ot Imachires. Thus the person who eras ard malas sutmeie or ‘borat engnea ead a mechanic 2, Th second meaning fhe tr mechanics “The sje ter tote inthis book ls mechan nth second sens ‘Mechanics in is second gence Wa very abet a ere ranch of physic! nthe prosant como te merit ook "he eporence recancs mie evopner eae as, beoverectetes Mechanic a, maraye reuenty dest ‘narra at siyalecncs busy lado ists isnot ony important fr phys and or ney 250 le phiosophealy of steaponl signieance 2.__Chaper 1. Mechanics baore Glico Pari: Mechancsn Antquty 9 oo Plosopers akg tho quosten Win © good sence?” or wats he propa aodogy fr ‘lence rue tno mecharis. Thesloa! sues, 35 wi became ‘vert i wet lows, have also boon rac by ideas Soveloed nthe ‘ory of mechanics ‘Some Key Questions Dealt with In Mechanies Various questions and ideas ave cota to mechanes. In encourtrng he Fistory of mectanice, wl prove hep fo have elects on somo oo ay questions and as m mech, nus ra ergs. aps the mos cera idea in ochancs ton, an ea ‘oat som tt ape and clea. We suspect hal fants and members of Primtve sooetes have suet dee of mater, het ts coneptSovecps ‘ory ear inthe te ofan dial or soy. Marever.t someone asks Us ey in the roming wheter we sre manag, we usualy rpiy witout hesiasonallrave ar nepal, depending on wheter we Rolo our Ded tums out, however hat the eo a maton i ether more complex thal his aes. Suppose hat upon waking up. sonecne wephones us fo tind out # we ae n maton ye The answer sums Coat enough ules ‘wooo on epost. andthe person i asking wheter be Sip nas yet pat Then the anower may bo thal athaugh we have not moved an in Fea we are selng at 8 kets. Or magneto eal est on the Moon ad ars oid out wena the Earn the Moon, eo Sun is stationary. we re Copernican, then the ooroctanewe es ven ‘who ourmerning cole, we are managing to move atover sty fous Tiles pe hour These enaples suggest tation to some exert 8 rarer reer Asus? si ten they lean ens rst otha? Mowe ne telune toe oes a tua a ane? Rate ee Ce enctoro GTBRED ro tex ge rod Sonecane Gus meres tt terran hanya Sites cemuly dereop sind asus possty be anh Geet cette king unto teduarce barnett eto. ‘vets may of terra hase et or kg ara tor ainsorere ror comes ot dermiiy wre nen ye Sere og aod ay en sty Nerve ae pars Seren ye, Race dette water re aos Sinners sn aonaton vee earn Seren. GR: & sitar anaysis of our nation of time suggests thet spacing exact wt consis tne a complex mati. tial fo ay Bung ‘he wens cereuryn tomas wth locks evar room ae was on vey (at wis 0 aetame that the nin fin ela and deg Yet Peete —e von of pat humans acon wo messes of ine: tho pulse ad {alarg at ed the liter ang or toae near te nh ost pole, wre sit mors separate suse and suse, o on planets rotating and ales erent ram he rates or cur Eth? How ear In te fe ta chil a sacety cows the nton of speed enaxge? Nath Grose sips nor Raman charts came easoped wr speadometer, nor peesby si eat Geeks Fan have oat oon of he ooneepl ety weal speed, Aeharter woul be ey aware that ant charsoer moved are rapid han ne, bl wed os soit oor en May wonder at gents fret recognizes et tony oo speeds Sung, turthatona can mesringllyspeut the sped at whch a seed changes, it, of saseraton. Speed may be cbsered and posi even meas ‘thew great deity, tut seoeg and musing aczleraions er more is eurelyevtert nat cna ideas, 9, avenge speed rtaranoous ‘speod, speed of otter, fre, iar. ot. ate mporant fr mechs ut is requenty ct i speci eva when and now such ideas mace thar tst appoeraree. Neneteles! 0 comprehend the istry tht lows, to apprecate te acieverena ae ponuers fh sinc, # simp {a reste tt ow ary ofthese aan coma ou a gens ae hay had iobe crested, error, an poate, which procecsbe may tka yore iret care ar posi ings of urassing bianca? Part: Mechanics in Antiquity’ Wat author ine ent History of physics resoved the most sustined pre fr his Meas? What autor recohed mest erin? A pause Se lh retains We acon dan ow decom A 4 _Choplr 1. Mechanics bstre Gallo toa a ane ce. aT reer ote ‘inen Arte was working out ie ea hat he presented in Ns we ‘moor teatces on the pysical wor his Physics and nthe, Heavens ho was wary ae of th ce were router to mese sje, yt for ho most part he acrected a luo o "dens cute derek rom thee eaausoa in othe yan. Lt lok tt atte TAD re os fancus his group bing 268), who a Ns Oe eu natue expounded oes and ‘an apprsch nat has been developed centres earl. Aang the eri torists wor the pe Sorat posopets GRUBB =. 480 2) ard (Ge. 61 ce), wrose decree wore el nono Ast ow de atoms view pyses? Frat ta | Comesperdngy he sae rnarods of nqaty ar proper fo ba areas. In gone, hey sossed an fnpires! meediony, rer han 2 ance en regous of Meecha ticapome note vs: aie ge sou ppv, er wre SE, 27-047 a) tes avy err aoc een sth he Pythagoeans In is Tinaou Plo urged | The poston sowoeaiod by Areal can in some way be casero 36 Intraday bewean hse Ivo postions. Let us st sanine a eatmont made ty Arsen Psi whch statment ae arn on is wo {he elon of maths to phys et nies wf ates Yara ov st ‘alpen murat ane ptar a o eet ‘Coetoie tr pcteas awe tessa to et ‘Sape o cans ean en tsa aernnaoutnn Se atone rt sas raps Pert: Mechanics in Aniuty 5 i oud Pat pyc shed uncertndwt teSin ot Se stpe the ier an lhe Son ar oberg rote ‘nat the Eath and rvs oop or ‘such im tap bay nr cease SS ‘gn eusing sath Doge, Tots wy he soars ter 8 ght ay we spaab tom mane rakes fo rere or aes ar at ecurn sepwang tam nv howd Those nto Po a ton, edo the ae fate rons or oy Se Separtg he pra ene rom rota sng neat Ine seponie han ater eboss Tae bares Csr ‘nes octet dros neath sce tha he sabes Sale strsees. For ose and eentes an sags Semcon {So ore pal sha pts ana hamonisn td kona re one a. geo otcred i gsc ne pt Fea enter epics incre wrath ies nt {a manasa oy Wo shut recite vhs eke jects ye] a ne woutne nts cfonaneee Sus ccs an rasa ee Sota neta wt man ar wh espa mats. Wh ‘ope toe we righ aes panne pile Sie a it teorasres mth oncnofham shod te peat be corer? Deena a be cerned at ch ae bel rates? ane hen aan ihe et? Herat, be ove shoe visa heal sd a5 ra peg fiche nats; he blr tel hie a saumaaecasalags i “ei cet ype ©. Ath Pipe Pr 180 2-28 ‘Shes yee a taro __Chopiar 1. Mechanics bale Gatco The makes cea thal Arto rjc the Patone vew hs ‘vatortel rie wna tanaars of oneal toe Ab be loved hat Pato fad in et ited up concapual calegries ton two ‘Saint stbeugh uted dscpines, mstemates ana pyss. Corsten. Trai, Attote ected the primacy given o mathemati the Por (Gliese WaSlaSIOppEEESErougn for cero reasons, 0 he ‘pprcach of to atomists. Ho Tau Nom fo ging nade tnton to Thera or essence of maori obec. Aso belived & nas vary n= ora ‘ate. We shal 68 tat 9 late foratenet hatch anda 2 "iro pastas fon hte ao sce Oe ASA TOETE Dyas ane sory af deine decees, ee at nn suse ‘ater so methedooahs Escwrcre Arto aqud tal he calstl rss ana wat i ED pect toi wh nave acorn fee per {Boas on ear Fev the cakes bodes more ies and cory bok upon temsatves 3 ha hey can move ele, Moveoer. the ce Iota odes are moves ty te dite asacated win em Aor = ‘osmalogy. Teresi ost, on the oer hand, are impedect and 60 nor GeaveiMalfon sof couse. od vary wall wth Aras Sen he Aeosnre system of urn his no neti rene a Ae fees system cant hve oon et prodet th goose. Tis Cerro the floras and Phenits wee al crc te conaityo he Ears eaten \ prot datncten between hs oretial angels ra oxensed toine sansoeton of te toss concer las that sth bors earn, re, owner orm combnaton ose pre eye ee ‘agen bao te Men burn tern The seta ra tal composed 63 pre ar roomier. Pogarng metiod, Aciove aga n cana! oe Poni, cpted ‘oc tntes emprism. The ask ofthe at to eerie the n> ‘he exon. of hype Ba vive kore of ts esenca Inet e syst has pope komo undersocing Pow bodes ange) aut matemats payed a vey mince Aros vss canbe supgestad hl 8 sores matheracs ered AS {cota syses trough na tac dr. Dowpy proses bythe omer ot feeretca e.g dale seme the formule ie yeas tem ang goometry as © model, This ed hen oo heavy reliance on EALERTS. « sere. Ae roped 10 Uo or Dyce whl the Prosecersr of Eucié had done fr mathematics. 1 shai be Soe Par Mecharios in Aniauty 7 howrar that Arts conception of physes,subtantaly mare than Palos, assigned «le experiance, fo otmaning carey hom rare bots, ‘Aristotle on Place, Motion, and Void One ofthe ey Atctoian dots SOE ral pace. Ths Astle explined that earthy oss fal twas the Earth ‘reso nara lee ce teat wih bea iy sd re ie because ther natal place fes above us 1 en poe roi ns tat Arslage'sexplaraton rests an an anayss of Denaro he wy under coneiseraton an at rata * Gencaning maton, when Ate ewes sen ene for a change he died at moors ro two categories, natural and vlan When av arty boa fast the Eat oe ascands. snarl molon, wrereas ‘when a hea cl brown torr the shy the pole v= esd mann acon, Artie aired hat a Hg in nse RIMS For cre nodose sours of ner toto ine fo wes fr nanmate jects ne move! Ml bo ‘xo i aE MENGATEERIDy 23a bal rvonn nto a, Gsirmalngatepacemant=ne a: ores way ae bal poases tough ‘as Arse sated in Book Vo is Physic, Jos, tiege when ara troan 3 malo, though ta wen pursanom ant itng tamer bem. fm sae rare scone soo bnaic oar thas boon pe Ds [rem wna ren ic esr ane eomoten eh gs used at cerntn wih wn hne gear ak reper ce!| “ig nas qute trent ram the stomist Wa thet bales mov ine @ ‘6d, Alled fo this i famous Arta eect of tha ater Blt Qa te VOI, rccte rejects He alert cootine for ‘sruer ot resons_Ona nt tht lee nit malo OE onset peak of he exstonae of nating. whch fs wha accord the Sioniss isthe oidspacesinhichiboy Delve. Put Acie ra also ‘mor'erpical arguments agers the vo "Corser te folowing arabes. We cosas mathe same welt obo ra tse Wo 0: ong etter Deca thers aero ne ad Bagh ‘ich Noe, 08 Uragh wr of sar or Bane, her “ews Pts gs bran 127, Ss hte Py I, 24025, “esos Pes Ae aon 8.73 See te, en 288 8. chapter 1. Macrans before Galloo art: Mechanics in Artguty _@ og ange sa he carson aS: ns "nn part cfs arin asin the vis, sate ssa tat he (tor examol, a bl : 5 Wo cout generalize (agin sing macorn formule) the concuions he Troe aaratve ana. reacted nna selection nie flaming lo ‘Tre bx Ao wl ati md Bin i a eh aR tied seh see aoa) tine E hes [Cn ) Bog Barca bw scien get ba Date ‘Ss cous ores crore an wor poorer othe xt errr ‘ewe A an ase vou han eughB Lath Ws eds Bul Arson had goed neha same hal wich a as Hor nator thon =r See ane (Chat soe a a4 wit eu tne ne et ‘nt ovoun @ snd Cte ie along ae E Ae a te ‘Teomporoa or less cstv or more easy cust the meduen the _ ave a veld space, The Faw inthis argument ie wot eocly etocted test et ato taal eu 1 Book Vio he Pryses, Aries ae srtherInporant tatemant nr = it inh the ole ceases By 2 BO st bout icant or fred motion n pater, ho ate: thre 90a lo (ratogaes) a nana We Preteen tee Soot fn agre te yee tug eae on iene sce dT Petmotan mina Ioduma cota dre he tee titel reg 20d Te ‘Shae’ Aulcnae ata wena 89 rr mah ‘car in| weaned she Soanes brow es Bsus tn cure to nom orn Sn ease ‘eats wse pepo An elacat Acne Be Imre lor Sti Ft cous Btn oral ‘ian aac aca ha essa em canton ona our sang Shame 7 Poreanpe EeAzanih- arth ow snes say a pepo ‘oy rosea we, so nos ay sen omnamge® can be aquest ty means fe flcwing formule ” We can reprase lot's claims in ths passage ne folowing mar Siri tnmay senate or. ene condone emg te sane, outing the force doubles th distance Pye ar Wa Ai, 6-74. So Ae, Pa 8, Soean ti a8 a Pry is 6. ae ae, Py VS 208 95 589, 30 _ Crapo 1. Mochanios bor Galioo 2, ulin th oc avs te tne 5, Having he tos aos thei “1 mg here ard ls the weight eps he tance heme Pitt thn nrosuced an inpartant queen 841) coe omg Se Rana roy [emo ra tree Sint thant aoe E may ‘uae Barometer ior apa ia Tr pat Soran ¢ tones Jia mow sak rage org causa ary of ovo Pa ta sang may nat cne sry uty aon trey rene a etn ay gue efor! he ta tot of Im stgaers on cite th rrer re Sane rato en sn nen ge eb uta any patothe mot nies scour rthrg poets = Parc gin ry ine! of tre oma ea whch sro Sant eos taal tea al nd en yal. ok eo 0 sie a par [i abt wold he ac at ‘hve wi, rine wie # orn ol apt arty On Ste cnarha (6) tana foe mow one apt ae arteries ‘Theron’ apie dunes Sinaghen ne Ther ateas wen rman abe mvs hacortne wom oc are Savage erhoaa roparion does a0” eng ne pis al emerge mat aly Ham hase passages is Ae ‘ts con/cton ts SSE USNS Nees oT We ss otha! Artal goal was o prea cause anlsis of maton fathr tan erly a dserpn ofthe maton. oreo, Aso tess certain magna, maton il ot SOIR sameot way nea poe tae need eesing he ‘ceasin terms of suen forme os tove use & Tow peragaphe ack expan a tang ‘Ore of he most mprtant and yet mos! dtc gots to understand ano testo « 1721 he adda pis Ses Hat a nt onl iy ‘aca aferen om toss now el, but aso tat is notion ot pysles ‘sores 8 ‘A g2od over "that ho onal goal of Atanas ‘Seal legs wasto expinshan: WASMAFEHE ducuscod sucn an (2) as epaad pe was tng not only of projet, bul als hereto ec Ps ee an See ett. mse Vs, Ho 0 Part MechariesinAriuty 14 tery fu evra 4 oer Te a gmt ‘Lonel ts spree pena tn ss hwy oye too th opine eae crt as Gal Never ted Ea, She ssomten macs ou boa extn cob urea cro ton owing sc ome ee: cnr crise SE TEES, ‘that we view a5 sagarate from physics and that he neglected or rulad out Ct oxnaco etl pars cw wo costae rsa. One Seta Gx to he crea ns ‘ia ren oo nsw te odo Scot ois aspen sects pyr tenets trot PO spe sow ha to won ecean s asesenoncen Tecan ia ‘voi erect dbo riod cnt one gare Sin tpt guar het cim ne he wo tl Aste Cburns he pops er on ig ste ah spc ae eae et een ‘Screen cit ta ts a ae ‘mamematioa! approach, — Se ayn mings pend wr ae oo ltl nage ole oto trestle. a Gre aor ‘cupid eres cs peouanne olny masa ‘nna tt ys ons wea pid tery me ‘om oma ene yc! eon oe cee Mechanios in Later Antiquity (One should not assim tht th above dscusin exhausts the cont tone mage 10 mechans tanga tie wel wort natng that Arcot ‘decuses he esuee mn mecnanse snd tet varus ltr authors auch a8 ‘rchmesos of Syracuse ana Hero ot Aloxanra made smpstant stirs vrs aspocts o mechanics, Archimedes for example, mad ety impres- sive anaes o hw to determine speci gravy of varbus problems Foes, ard of he laws governing the mecenal doves know a he lover ‘ste tees nct go uncalenged. The mes raroseve rique nis views mace nate arty vas tat BSRTPEIGBS 500). ‘comer to Cian, wo chalenge, for expe, Asi’ cant tne continuedmeton of reece afr rey have he hasofthetrowe” istobe aston one Evenmore ny " lm that he rate at wc” beds reco 12 Chapter 1. Moshanes betes Gain ‘otha clan Burts 8 comps erro. rou an may consort by ata canna reece han yt fv Be {Ger Far yo etal ome same ha eit lh rete ry tins hor a ho oe Yu sonal ne moo {fatima requestor he mot doe ht span th soo ne ‘toc tata he dornce na yaa one “This passage sugoss how elfen he soul nor of mechanics i¢ tr ne Rstey tied on popula oooh, ota pasaage rakes ‘arial he wicepoas bol het Gaueo a the frst prope es. ing itt clam by doping bodes of ctr wel om some hgh piace, 0, the tower Psa, i by mare Pan miler. aD Slonfcart int mae 0 sound evideae tht Glen evr pried the teperimert of ropang wags rom the ang toner of Pa. Part Il: Mechanies in the Medieval Period ‘The Mertonians, Oresme, and the Mean Speed Theorem Wat oe of conti 3d scence ‘Ore expcaton of hi vow spar n Henry Shih Witsmes The Great Asroromers. Chest” Vif Yat lume a ‘ils THE CHRISTIAN WORLD TWELVE CENTURIES OF PROGRESS (225-1545, AD) whens opened the caster by tng. ‘Shros arte Neo ce theca aanomporess ‘av cvstnaom may mee tata) bese ness woe? “That Villans intended hat hee he gave his checker be ead a sarcasm le edo ro hic that nt the nes ur pages bn, ret ute Bank Ate botom of the seen page Wins eerie 2 ot The ‘reader wl note Pa this pag, as wo asthe nxt Wo, ae Bank Thi e “Gan Wei Can a Othe oi) A Sane Ba uc Se (eras Uy Ps 15 23, ‘hom Sth ane oe at aroma ln, 02, 92 Part Masi Mechanes 13 the mest raphe method the author can deve to shaw ts atonal i ene ge (gcotaton te mesa peed sea WEN Vos Stren toss rev cogs to tenner tie ha pbesion of Witmss volane. the fst ie volumes af Pete Des enwotme | gystane du monde: stove des actines cosmalgiqes de Pitan Capeme (The Syston ofthe Wen History of Csmatgea! Dacres rm Pastore Copernicus) (Hermsn, 1919-159) had shown fainorecness sucha vow ofthe msde ages. Ona to dance athe dectenes of Wilma’ eaten aoou! medieval sence comes rom Moov ese made authors had hen or ‘ulate some ofthe undamertal detntens and mathonatea rlstons ot ‘Mechanics Le! us exinine wha these author achieve, ' group of mivalscetsis ent m Merton Colege of Oxord Unive ana ho Unversty of Pars by abut 1350 nat ony ha ought ‘seopy atout he prbiems of matin, bt alee had sucoaeded fn ataning Sele a nny or a . Gana Tay hp SR We sal exarine thi dscovery, but ony inset tal to suoges ‘holeptinay ofthe cam al hase medieval sans tained a uber fe dats and manana! late fundamental fo mechan Let Us consdrapaccage rom a wok itn ato 1950 ty Nicole Orme {ea 1325-1002, who ugh atthe Unvrsy of Pare end eventual be ‘cave Bithop of Lise. neacng ths passe tem Ores, kowp 2 rind Types ofthe forms tay dacusses ata the resess of peng sole, na cary na porcons ou, to hoat na conta of water ver & fro, antho speed a bey. They eaaed thal ich form or ny cou: 2. change ata cansanteat, oF tame Aero 81 Chote 1. Mactan blo Gallso 3. cheng {hy csc he ecard gear 8 set tees {ira Tape omen fo won cart 8c Sintra args an Soa ncn ec, ey ‘enrich nang cor gape “hae ers appear ong sae an Ces Tse eno Conus of Cues anor. Ferrera pesay Sins what oe htt rata ere csr "peasy tres oustarg speed! cotta tonite yes (Gee MeN SAERTISIED, Cres sono. Se eer tect tester Pa Ose rho anne a ser qty te ieunersy or, eth cara uy sous Sete iy tesa apa ss ur ang nese re aly mage by BC ese Sapam) ‘gattrtorg wel em ans rmine re gree np ‘int Doe hems grt o fhe ject ne The sees ‘ Ite pore er ny ap 7 ecy ie DE Teta, ‘ty en woud be nm route te aol tet a oye Detergent ny ec fale AFC, see eer by tne tanh cep of es art Tere is oor yh 28 [peptone oo |e mons of Elda eo aa Wangs EFC 2nd ECB oe agua. Trae, bgt BAC. ‘ier degree uo for uy, 3 recone SAFGE ten nogta ha qari he ae ee ‘e pres Theooe fw utes agra yrange {ie vecl of rdw ei A whl Ps te Ra Pee monn PBB ‘omod penn o Omens on sts Gary acer Part: Mechval Mechanics 15 ‘commentary se Bota teh Expressed n verbal form. he showed at * (@tanc) Cree wet on ose oe sme way can be ego uly army tar ‘iad nec ees aa ata sare (so gra 36 ma Serb uly sale y euaoarae ABCD. Fertetpe DE be dens bac {oto tho spe bow ore ‘tine FC be cram trough F| S {henge of he ide part ‘whch eu ard pata > ‘Ho sujet bao. Ae ee [Soe srun Toon bet, 16. Chapter 1. Mechanics bfore Gali rectal AFGB, wher wos designate guy wernt be ig ol ha mc pat ome uct AB, Teo, cher famot ve ra grtte aatoe coogi by questa oe G ; 6 5 p 4 Is ‘commentary Ine passage, Oreene hs in et rven the nw wal now forma (sa Etech ‘isis rom is statement, “These subst are tan made nh Wt equation ron quatange ABDC = sta ecttegle ABCF. yea qadangle ABDC = area recto ABDE' aca AEDC ten etange ABC Frm west at eD.EC_ ymakng the appropri subtnuons, tna becomes AB-AES AB-AF. hls whet we wished prove Part: Medea Mechanics 47 ee 7 Esse (RREEIA ePerscs conten onee mkeRet Ye determine ie ares irder a cue. Uae much work waa dare on is ‘naesoccurin naive whch thee ea constant aceertan, Ores rd the Metre ci ot actly 1 tps tus hat (ra furthr pon canbe crewn fom this eouson. As wal known, for canst sceseraton acting ovr 3 tee fon a ted with anil Spoof, We Mo thay — cy al Hf we ssl Bis oem fo Into te Second of bu tee auton served by Orne, #20 ha or & Bets y_ wot (tat) z For cases whee, = Wie shat comet eta is ia vry ust equation, ‘Sample Prolene 1. Suppce an alae coretarty ancora fom 0 mpho 600 meh over pond of 4 mnues. Caulte te dtance covered Soliton: n going hi, we can use ether of wo ecuatns * z 18_Chapte 1. Mechanics bles Galion £00 9 +O em 1 eae Ore OT ay 3 eon = Sseoond Case “Te scene to 2. Suppose 8 ose accelerate fom rest athe rat ol 10 mph par second for 10 mines How ew have gae the oro Orie? Sov oe Bose bak -yena WO pen? 2.100) 2 110m 12 2 n/a 36" 5: 100 as = 500 is, 2. Sune rain a sma stants travstng at 90 mh, aecelerate a ‘he ate ofS mph por rtf 8 es, How awl Wael ung these Part Medes Mechanics 19 ‘Soluon: Ths coueapende o Oram ascond ease. The formulas 4 Der a forma reiting ntl eos, ral spose, tno and azole Sion: We kon PS yg 9 HEM We shat salve mis inating rom these two equations. From me tt equation, we rave ‘batting tee he second equation gives z Hence “This equation ut n slog various probes ‘summary ‘Wie are row inpossassion ofa numberof scl equators, which canada ‘anayang ton. Those ae: 2)__Chapor 1 Mechasies bore Galea o 8-8 btm = UE ad oy = mee 5 nett 9 ms = ye Moreover, wo avo oan tht hese rests, excep for #6 ano some cent #5, woo kronn oa number ese medevaleasasics. The ec05- ton of bis fac which was atid ony the Wwersith contr, Ras “Spnicant aor Horan! concapns of he mide ages. ‘Animpotant queston ack about hese aquatons cancers the sours ‘rom wren each comes oft pus free ts epstomelogica sits. ‘One ormore ofthe equations may mele bea dtr: note sos is that t could bean emprcalrsut wich woul hod obo checks 8 Inborstory Ot ean cous bea mathenstoa deevaton om on of tor ar aque and defnona care analyse ofthe fe eaunon ‘ovals hat rer than Being a aw of eats, 8 din of what We ‘moan by tearm speed, exempts cata no ous cae recy ft a aes *g aden ser tt a ha Part i Two Major Problems in Early Modern Mechanics _Aryone in ery mod es wishing to work out 9 since of mechani tod rtrd wan wo vey srs and nar aon Teiuvected gests 6: (SERED 2 ‘nten pe “To ee he soverty of tha es question, oa can Par iw Major Protas in Eary Modem Mechanes 21 order te probes ant would ener ying to sty the retons 11430 of ill balls laced on a movg eaouee, the Earth tates fon ts as, vee stouna the Sun, oF hat ter motions theca mations ‘nculs corny compioat the tek of determining how bec lead on tho Ear move. Tha proba of th rey o maton hry las eve. ‘Gale and contemporaries rerestedin mechs (ar wo = ano fe prodecessos) had Sel wir hese prclans. ‘Aroady hr Grek antiqty, verous authors rod raised the question of ‘ater the Eat ay eae 0 ts 2X Numerous objections cote made fo hee bl! ais, fetloast thst such motions woud erp te mon of dos on th arth ‘rou tbe nelocenite hypothe: of Aretrchue found fow ay supporters ip anquty f cam ttle again the eideanth ce Inthat work, he famous Pokaan cu an ray of "rgunents in support of ths stating pots. Relative ew seat contuy ntelcts adie the Coperican syste afc, has been fests Mal even by be a of te it had comer the Gopornean eye i were exetished proto {oud gan recogation in an aren of cence jx for eisng marcel ‘questions, even ths person were nebo el answers fo ost tose {questore, tan Nola Capers would deere crc or hag mada Sn exemsy valuable conttuton fo mashancs,Contrporaie of Cope cus ated tat toy wero acep he astonemicl syst, thy would ve toabendon much of onal piysls, Let us conider a ew ese Fab Win avons arm Stan Cay: A Prey ay (Saee 1a oe ene ne ung es rs, the seed 390" ‘he arty evolu round tha Sun is about 3.200 rh. Wy af ‘nse huge speeds evident? Wry 30 canon tls ave me sane ance wether ey are sot rte dracon ofthe Earths tion or gars i To were vor srs prtlams fr soto and early severtoet- ertury st at ae or the wa ary way favre te Copercan rpms “tnt seus cfc lal oto fact thal a Copernican teary. by tring he Sun ino a star, peed he Earth oft crits postion in the univer, and thus be Avsollan Ke of bodes. mang tomar te Cove ofthe wor alto pose. Move gene. be hn den ‘The Problem af the Relativity of Motion. tary Grek phlosophers,especity Po an Aretol, wor touted by te problem ota. A ery a the ith certury Ce, Kenophanas of ‘Cooghen na ingeated he rude of Grek eligeusnatons by emake fr: "Rehopins hve goce wit ru noses a lack ha, Tacans have ‘gs wi iy eyes andrea hai™ Darou wing cera, so Ponto to th reat of tastes: “Sweet ent by convention, ier by com tron, elaurby convention, ad ales a Vo aor) eit neal Protaporas cf Abr, la ate i conry Bc, mae te cain even more an ‘Sizqaied Fafa Fnan Anta ome Pa arate Pre Heat vena no Path Two Major Prebane in ary Modern Mechanics 20 orhape impose tel whet autor rt ecueod there fo fel, Mary of as ofthe ret a ecm to hot tated exten allen from tonne. Vato passages tom Asal’ wntings show tht he had hough eopy about pcbome orl of mater. Far expe, he commented fans Pyle: orev ecaoton et ysl totes a of age bods (ep. fr, erh ah ha) make ent oy at pas "Same ting but ab hat tn some per Foren ea De ‘io pvr tae fon paso het op a (Share dou ae span own ad eet Rea Se tors) ee pars spaces pate Na uch crs Som apse) don eat ey se tu fort wang hk naj ie aoe sector tt surges scary ae Ong> ‘ur poaon, whiten wy me my happen una ee sa ‘ing ato isn ote rg, mows np tom co, ‘ow rt, now be By nate one Pa, 2 hes [aise ane ox oa ore oer tte upon et Sry cure aecon bytes a oa it je aro ae ‘tee com-docion nat ay chance dracon tt were Rey Srey cre ev ers a “rat no ios of relly of moton was wey reoogand wong an ‘en sitar sree a pasags rom Von's Aanai which Asse “Sjccacapr mean Gr Ab etre Mena? Sy a 2 achsn Partie he Cuca ade Stee orm Te Pe a ‘neyo ames exer my re hr aes en ae ‘ray a sey fas ay Pp Ware mt fhe Sr Sr ieee ros Pe arty Het Ape ee Ps. 80, 5. ‘toate Pace a a 24 chap . Mechanics bere Gaon inion ‘Fornrom the rb we 2 and the ios sp bacares" Clauaus Paany nis Almages, writen ne scona con ce, showed hie arenes ofthis potion whe dacieseg th ques whater is possi athe Earth cou move, ‘Bxtcaran peo, reper] what hy conser aoe ew Savon age nth th oom, arc thay nara nara ‘Saar tr to toe costa owen fo apone t Eri a ey igen nr oan {ae ibe newer) mat appara ere eve 6 ao ‘nny made tat Penon ans earth ave by yaar wet, Doha sews sit tito! tha sane a ni 9 yo {0 esevo oath af ne by war Hower fy ot tale th aug ae pans roti neces pena ‘ra wth wal ut eat et hypotaas, elo ramp “nat tone ue eerou aide om he uber of args te prcanod tie quotation ard wena his ‘Although he question of there of matin, espe nthe con tec of patty of tm Ears moton, nes decd yaaa tmedeva actual, non Thomas Agi ous ED aan super is quater de cal ot mundo, one oi testes ts quai cwhatar tha eats avaye etre no oreo ofthe une m ang wi he sue Ne remartd tht hi etry ng Sgr Pe psag ms by Cnn se tase Capen one Reman ase Jy Cte 29 and Wh {Seow Fos ips sony W918 Bea heat Pins Aap 1.o% 9 Com, are an ‘esa Circa vacant 209, 6 fer ag on ne ne Ca as Part I Two Mor Petome in Eat Modern Macharics Ie Sia mono arts en car woe SGiurl reo rons unos The cowros an ra ot ie [ert emg Wye bm se oo roaee at he Smt aoe fe mer oy ea Taye neste cng tw te steep or op ‘su wae Spo wate sed ‘The discussion ofthis ise by MEISNER in nis Lo tive cv ce er ts ‘mand even more impress aa he went eo far aso sae reading Ser ee ee mor npiesse when in coureeng ts oben, he rtued 2 mo. Yon on snipers. suggesting Ian an arew shot dec up rm a toim ti uate o aca aa fora sc was. Sa te oD TEC icasdcanna fener Galo’ epoch-nakirgcontutans to memranes. In concusing hs ascusson of he rely of mete, to cones 2 cr. Mechanic belre Gato shoud prove wet rk Hw tor eeusions. Fst, athough a those ators showed an understand ofthe probm ol reve maton ‘Some Probleme to Ponder 1) tare wore ent on body oe universe, woul be posta to move 2) ere are ony to bss inthe univers ad we no ta ony ono ie ov, wou tbe possble to detorine when oth wo bodies fs al 5) Suppose that hare anton two Bods the unhers: one is ani ‘mando sphere, he rrr surface of whieh decoata win nd of ‘rt ois of, nde oer avery srl sperical planet octet {te cera of sary val. Lt Us asso thal te per cates once ‘rary 24 hour, wave the pant remais faed in postin, Le i retha feta not voce. Wat motion wou an tabs te sty sphere, Conencod tt th tary au ret arate tothe planet ate center? Fares he by means 9 dagran. Ar hr ary concuve arguments tha an inate planet col formu Yo prow tat the sre rolting? Or are tore stgumens thatthe habitat of he say spore ‘od ut to shew tal the planet i ting? 4) Suppose nly tw bes, an B, tin th nvr. Suppose ta the inhabit see A mayo ard in geen oe you Let us suppose Ihr inbtarts fA eke hat ie motores. Spay he ted eran hope fhe ob hat hey wilatibtoto Bel us assure hat he boy A Par Two Major .n Earty eden Mechanics 27 ls retin he same oration: tha, wee tere acuta “A np of tat ter would cone to remain ight so up. Pt another ay. assume hat body A does rt tata. Ae there ry arguments that Innabtars ot B cous use to prove to inant of A tht ter by "hat actly tein? aie Gate Chapter 2 Galileo and Terrest Mechanics Chronology of Galileo's Life $B srincr came caters on Ftry 15, sonata Imachat ang mstan Vacanze Gala 1975 Begins pra of lasing rt 168 te monster of Seta Mera a Velo; ra re becomes nnn the Vaantrosan over 181 Enol tne Unvorsty fl. iiy forma etd, bt ‘oontun atone 1589 Having by ti ime coneosad teat on he citer iy nodes ard vores « yest baaos he cea Ibert precast Pa, 1109 Hesmna ofa doves conostes by & Foch open (ana Lge) wh eat ejects con be sean 2a, (eabmeetmesps Fess tom Pasa Uneay ror 1818 1616 121 1692 nore to Florence wih Grand Duke Coano ide Modo asp Caran Robert Bolamine wee to Gatco, urging tir to present Coperisriam ony ra rypothetia ran CCengegston othe index species carecins na. Fobsowved ‘lon sang a Copemcese book ope Paul, Carnal Barina, and Cosine do Mota “Tle to Rome in hopes of poruadng the new pope, Uan “ils to alow him to eon he Copernican eyter. Pepe oes grovied Calla ets Copeman ypc. Punta i logo. sop aie masa ston mora Toleraio Copaicano(Diaiogue concerning the Two Chet Wort Systeme Peomsic and Coperncar), wget a- esting tho Copenesa astm “rae Gl mn wie his Disbyue ls bemed Gallo abe ‘Copernican sytem, Puttanes he Disco @ cmastaron matamatice itm & the nuove seunze (Discourses and Derenstaons Cones: ng To Now Sloe, wich the begining of ed me chance Gallo is on rua 8 nioduion at Introduction Having decutc Araioles mechan and the matemates of maton, tm 0 the very import contibutons made inthe een by Be great akan pty! Galion Gale (964-1642) Galleds man contre to mechanics appear in is Distgve Concwning the Teo Chie! Word ‘System>—Pltenaic aed Copeman (1632) and nau, mote maho- ‘mata! form in ne Oscourses ard Demonstaions Conering Teo Now ‘Sesenas (1698) “Bian 5 (ioc eset on ‘Mo to these sce questions area runbr of hor andor po sophia! aston 2, Ith som thatthe metin of bodes naar he Earth curtace would be ‘225y'oanayza. Such Snot th cave. For example a weight derped om 1100 fot ovo fas oho Earth ncn 2.5 cand, Moreover. con. al reastane, a futher impede 2 Chapter Tere Mochancs In ein te folowing selection rom Gisioot To Now Scenes, 1s knportan oie at alia is ba hs ed oe Tare Systorsinc Aioqu forat enelvieg tree speakers: Seat Sait and Sagres. Serpico named ater Sele, an ancant cermentae: ‘Ars writngs) defends Arsctelanism, whereas Sabi prose Gaieos ideas. Sagres, who appears es «supposed neva riers SEPERATE INT SAVA Lot ox roe tro Galo Two ow Galleo, Two New Sciences, trans. Drake, pp. 65-69" ‘grin the dena of interpenetration Iam completly on the side ‘the Peripatetic philosophers With regard tthe void, {should Whe to hea adiusly weighed the demonstration with which Aristotle refites i, and that with which you, [SaleistL, oppose him. Dp me the favor, Simplicio, of providing Atte proof exactly, and you, ‘Sait shall reply it ‘inp. As | lt, SSS ST a SoA ‘so inioduced the void as necessary for motion, saying that no me- ‘tle moved in ditlrent meus. As tothe fst be assumes th: ‘moveables difering n heaviness are moved in he same medium with "pequal speeds which maintain to one another the same rations he GHAR. Thus, for examples a mousse sen ness ea as “raters maven mes ove he othe sappinon het thatthe spe of ue same moveable Hough dierent medline an in fos ordensitis ofthe meaner ing, or example, thatthe rasatude of waters ten mes that of ai he ‘tol have it that the speed i a ten times the speed in eter From this second supposition he derives his proof [against the i : ‘are [sot pened i ew Sees ty Ca of Gray as Fae of sso, ‘eo Sar Say ran em) Tmt ____Galiso on weg and ate of Fal 33 ‘medium fneazo ptno, every moveable that Is moved through some Space in some ime tog» fillet metiom must be raved cu ‘hevoidinasingle instant bat for motion tbe made ostantanee Ismpossile; therefore, thanks to motion, the vod is imponsbe. ‘Sut This argument fs seen to be af hotinem; that is it goes against those who would have the void ae neces. Kor maton Hence if T accept the argument as conclusive and gant that motion ‘doesnot ake place inthe voi, the suppostion ofthe void taken ab ‘utes and noust in zlation to motion, not hereby destroyed ut to say what those ancients [attacked by Anite] woud perhaps ep So hate ma bliss ge Un shinenesn on ‘ots argument thie posible ge agitate oA fen both of thers. As tothe erste rine wheter ts ee ta 5.9 sno ‘mes as heavy atthe ether both released of the same nent to orm height say of one hundaed bracci, differed so hh in their speeds that upon the arrival ofthe lrgee stone upon the ground, the ‘her would bo found to have descended no more Ma 0 ten trace ‘Simp. But tis sen from his words that he apps to have ested this, for he says "We se the heavier.” Now dls "We see” suggest ‘hat head made the experient [fa Veqrian Say. But Simplioe, who have made the ts, assure you that cannonball hat weighs one hundred pounds (or ts fre sod ot tit yen npn thal " bof more than alffan ounce] both comin, brace ‘at without ofer experences, bya short and conclusive demonstration, we ean prove cleary that sno etal a ever ‘moveabes moved more swift than anther, ess heavy, these beng ofthe same material, and ina Word, those of wich Arislle speaks. Tell me, Simplicio, whether you assume thal for every heavy aig body there iss speed detemnined by nature sich tha this eo be increased or diminished except by using force or opposing some in pediment to Simp. There can be no doute that a given moveable in a given ‘medium has an esablished speed determined By natute, which cae ‘ot be increased except by conferring on ft some new impetus, nar iminished save by some impede that retards Salo.” Then fw had two moveables whove natural spoods Were ‘unequal it isevident hat Were wet connec the slower to Ue fer, 4 Crapo 2. Gaon and Teresi Mechunes the ater would be pasty setae by the slower and his would be pty spended up bythe faster, Do you not are eh en ” ‘Sing. It seems to me that this would undoubtedly follow. St But if ti and ee ao te that 3 lage stone moved wih et degree of sped for etample ands salle ne ‘ith for [qe ening oth ogee ir compote il be Ipoved witha spot es han eight egres, Bt the ho one led {Dyer make ler sone tn tht ft coe hich was moved ‘wieght gre of pods three the restr stones moved ity than the leer one Buti i contrary to your asumption Sip. Well that indeed is beyond my comprehension. Sih Ie ill nt be beyond it a bit when Ihave made you se the OHM ono ould when we ty oppo thomson shortened su weer ah he Sinespect nth ich ssn boty al ral hv Sou you hve pe ant igh Doyo not ht os ‘oui ee yp me cme sho wooing sons Simp. But what ifthe lage stone] vere placed on the smaller? Salts would increase the weight fits motion were faster Dut it so on Woh ana ate of Fal was already conch hat i thesmller were slower it would patiy feta the speed of the lager so that their compost, though Inger than before, would be moved ls silly, which is aainat your a Sumption. From this we conchide tot ‘Simp. Truly, your resoning goes along very smoothly yet ind Ithard to believe hata irdshot mat move ae siya cannonball ‘Swi Youshoul sya gran of sand as [asta a miltone” But {don't want you, Simplicio, tdovehat many others do, and divert the lngument rom ils prisclpal purpose attacking something Ik that “depts by ahr rom the trath, and then eying to hie under this haranother's fault thats a big ava ships bawset Astle iy, A Ihunde-poura ro bl falling rom the height of handed bracla hits the ground before one of stone pound has descended single braci." I say that they arrive atthe same time You ind, on making ‘the experiment that the larger anticipates the saleby vo inches ‘thats when the lager one strikes the ground, the oer sto inches behind it And now you want hide, behind tho two inches, the sineyine braca of Aristotle, and speaking only of my tay eee He gives as an example mover ables in which the pure and absolute effec of weight can be discerned, leaving ase tase ther considerations of shapes and of erain very tiny forces mano, whic introduce great changes alain fom ‘he mecium, and sehch alter te simple effect of hesvines alone Thus one sees gold hich is most hewy, more so tan anyother ma teria reduced toa very tin leaf that goes floating Hough the ai as do rocks crushed into fine det ‘Simp. Perhaps from very great heights of thousands of braces, thot would follow which snot seen a thee lesser highs Sil Ithat ib what Adstote meant, you sade in with a fur ‘her eror tht woul be ai. or no such vet sights ar found ‘oncearth, sits lar tt Aristo could not have made tha wa ee You want to persuade us that he cid so Because he say that theft 26 _ Chap 2. Galoo and Teresa Mecharics Commentary on Galileo's Two New Sciences, pp. 65-69 “ne sacon of Gale's bok is ater eravtae. We te ne ehatang ing Arioles ocina on ta Ben ct en axeriment, bus ota a fe "ype that ona might expat. The axpermare has the fom oa "Rauet ox Bormann pvt, Inthe ral paragraph of he passage rm Gallo, he tts At fo chiming ahve nested an egetiment he coud rot have made. Loavg {ede the quston ofthe gia of is complait, we ca sk abou the ‘roeranens that Sapiedo Gas thet Galles partes. Thase Wor such that ina fa of abo 10 baci atau 20 fon, wo waits torent howinese were eset reach he ground tong in pation by onl “wo ‘cs The ci sur excossio. We can calcu (ng modern reihads) tht each ay fang Hom ths dslarce, weld be moving at ‘he specd of about 110 foot pr acer atthe fee str the ground. ‘Ghen such rape maton and he aie of lag nether he wo bees woe rlosoa emutanoouty, wo can spect tat Galo cain goes ft yond waited nave ean peste foro obeone. ines Inthe conto noe ano der oeumtation rm he me ot Gali He suoporte the wdeapeas betel sth droppes waghts rome lesnng| tower o Pies, Wa an aporoach he sam poin—-Glo elaono expereeniation— trom encherareten, Sane Glo manuserts Wer ey ne are Coin experts in which ie caoares what hapened when be asp ‘coder anion ba om the same sett evtion With ound ‘es tht aor haha released he wo als simutancously from his hands, ‘he woods tl he aay pt of dace ft nay, ut hat he Fon bal ion overtook t Moser scolar, knoing thst Boor dette han ‘vec, the bal sulfa Werle But ase tt fli 2 modu fuch a he heron ba sud more soznaluy verconi ctan st reach the Earth ght ahead of he wooden bat were puzale by Gale's liso anne Moen et Penculn—_9 repored experimental esute. Nenanles, when experiments wore por termed bey honed that aloo rad earoty reported what hapeans—the wooden bal aft esc, bt hen rs! Why tha soul be was fay x: Galileo on the Motion of Pendula nt nat escton of Gallo To Now Setencws, he asses how mada rout fatrg bode. I his secon, he cies varcus arguments Yo show that th eect of tho mesiom dose ot mantel as 4 denon a2 ‘istotn fet assumed rather subtract, Thustha mad ees 1 force upward, which shoud be sutrated ram th donrmard foo of the body The frees Galle rom a numberof rolame nthe Atlan ‘sjstom, not leat probe prover nh yen! why tome bodes {@4, wood bas) se rane than akin water Cll nad ong teen erected the moon of pends, weighs suspended on stings fat 'sechronem of the pend, comes clos he flowing escton ot Galas Tro New Soances Galileo, Two New Sciences, trans. Drake, pp. 86-91 Sal. _What Thave set forth thus far is new especially that no fer ‘ence of weight however great, plays any part ata in cversing the speeds of moveable, s0 thal RRM er vc oocysts EMI ve sme way ot ec dating and naling cla daylight woul ave ben ee fo renin than set Sono iat has escaped my ps ‘mus not neglect any experimen or eson tat can consboraiit, ee eke 28 Crapo 2. Galloo and Toros Moc ‘Sagr- Not only this proposition, but many others of yours are so fa from the opinions an teachings commonly accepted, that to brondeast thes publicly will excite aginst them a gre number of contactors forthe innate contin of men to look askance on ‘thes working in theif whose ties reveal rth falsiy which they themselves alto pensive. By cling such men [a youl “inno tors of dostrnes” 9 tle most unpleasant ote ear of the multe, ‘hey straint ot hose ots they cannot uni, and to demolish with “underground tines those edifices which have been built by patent vices, working with ordinary instruments, But to us, who ae far from any such motives, the experiments and reasons adced up 10 this point ae quite stitactory ‘i's The experiment made with two moveable, 2 differnt a¢ ee the height s very great, the medium that must be opened and driven aside bythe impetus ofthe ling body wil be of greater prejudice to the small momentum ofa very light movenbe than to the ore of 1 very eney one, ad vera Tong distance the light one wil remain fovea small helght i may be dost wheter there really no diferenc in speeds, of whether there isa diference bu! GAisunebserble <0 {ell 1 taking how one mught many tes Tepent descents fom small eights, and accumulate many of those tmunimaldifereaces of tine that might intervene between the arrival ‘ofthe henvy Body atthe terminus and that of the light one, so that ‘ded ogee inthis way they could make wp ame nt only ob- fervable, but easily observable Toner to make we of motions a low as posse in which e- sistance By the medium does lest alter the effect dependent upon “Smple heaviness, 1 also thought of making the moveables descend song an inlined plane not much raised above the horizontal. On ths no les than along the wera one may cbserve whats done by Ireovy boc cifering in weight. Coing further, wanted to be feo soy hindrance that might are from contact of these moveable with the ssid ted plane. iB Gok fv ball Geo Sean ‘ne of ork, the forme bing teat a unde times as heat a5: See “ong, ted high above. Removed from the veteal, hese were et 80- ‘nga the seme moment, and fling along the circumferences of th ines described by the sual ings ta wee eral ey passe a “omings a good hundked tes by themssves, onthe Motion o!Penduin 99 ‘atthe heavy one te " hundred onl tie even bbyamoment but dhe two tavel with eal pore, The operation of the ‘medium is also perceived offering some impediment to the motion, iliminshes the slats of he ork mach more then tose he lead But it dows not make them mare fequent o las 9: inde ‘when the arcs passed by the cork were not more than ve oF sx d= ses, and thos f the lend were fy o sit, they were pase over inthesime tine ‘iI that i

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