Family Law in Zimbabwe Welshman Ncube

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\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Preface }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This book seeks to present a concise but
comprehensive ov-Tview of family }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
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\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimbabwe both under customary law and general law. To
the extent that no such has previously been undertaken in Zimbabwe this attempt
assumes the role pioneering work. The task in writing the text was not an easy one
bearing in mind complexities that arise out of the co-existence of two systems of
law of equal status within the legal system of one country. The shortcomings of
this work, which I hope are not too numerous, should accordingly be understood
within this context. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The book should be useful to law students at University
level, legal practitioners and other social scientists interested in the
discipline. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
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I would like to thank Geoff Fel toe of the Department of Public Law at the
University of Zimbabwe for persuading me to begin working on this book and for his
encouragement after the book began; Professor Reg Austin, Dean, Faculty of Law,
University of Zimbabwe, for his continuous concern and support; all the staff of
the Facu lty of Law for their generous support and encouragement; my family for
their love, encouragement and endurance; Beverley Haigrove of the Legal Resources
Foundation Publications Unit for her patience, hard work and gu idance in making
the publication of thisbook
possible; last but certainly not least. Tsitsi Da nga rembga for her competent
editing. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Welshman Ncube Harare, Zimbabwe July, 1989 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (vii)\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Contents }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard
\plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0
\af4 \dbch \af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0
\ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch
\ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Preface. List of Zimbabwean
Statutes bocvii) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Part One - Internal conflict of laws }{\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and pre-marital legal
problems }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Chapter 1 Internal conflict of laws: the application of customary
law and general law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1.1 12 13 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Introduction3 The colonial state and the application
of African customary law}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The independent state of Zimbabwe and the resolution }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of internal conflict of lawsS
13.1 Primary courts and their jurisdiction}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 13.2 Classification of conflict problems and their }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 respective resolution}
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 15 }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 133 Conflicts
between a foreign system of general law or customary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law and Zimbabwean general law or
customary law}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 15 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1.3.4 Conflicts between customary law and general law16 135 The application of the
choice of laws guidelines20 13.6 Conflicts between different systems of customary
law25 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Chapter 2 Seduction, breach of promise and return of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 engagement gifts27 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2.1 Seduction under general law
}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
.27 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
2.2 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
2.3 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
2.4 2.5 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
2.1.1 Proof of sexual intercourse28 2.1.2 Presumption of
seduction29 2.1.3 Presumption of virginity30 2.1.4 Defences to an action for
seduction damages30 2.15 The measure of damages32 Seduction under customary law32
2.2.1 The effect of the Legal Age of Majority Act33 21.2 Quantum of damages34
Breach of promise under general law35 2.3.1 Defences to an action for breach of
promise36 2.3.2 Assessment of damages37 Breach of promise under customary law38
Return of engagement gifts38 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (ix) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 PadTwo-Children }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ....41 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IVY }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 stChapter 3 Paternity;
43 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3.1 Introduction43 3.2 Paternity under general la
w ........... ... 44 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3.2.1 Children born in wedlock
.44 3.2.2 Children born out of wedlock 48 323 Rebutting the presumption of
paternity52 32.4 Insufficient defences56 325 Presumption of paternity in respect
of ex-spouses59 33 Paternity under customary law 59
}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 33.1 Children born in wedlock59 33.2 Children born out
of wedlock 64 3.4 Claim for lying-in expenses..
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 4 Termination of pregnancy, domicile and
registration of birth and name of child65 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4.1 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Termination of pregnancy
4.2 Domicile of child 43 Registration of birth 4.4 Change of child\uc1 \u8217
?s surname }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Chapter 5 Legitimacy and adoption C........._ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 65 67 67 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 . ...68 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 69 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5.2 53 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Legitimacy under general law
69 5.1.1 Presumption of legitimacy 69 5.1.2 Types of
illegitimate children and methods }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of their legitimation70 5.1.3 Disabilities of
illegitimacy72 Legitimacy under customary law73 The status of children conceived
through artificial insemination . \uc1 \u8222 ?75 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5.4 Adoption75 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch
\af4 \hich \af4 \dbch \af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 6
Maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
6.1 Children born out of wedlock under general law 83
6.2 Children born out of wedlock under customary law \uc1 \u8212 ?84 63
Children born inside wedlock85 63.1 Maintenance of step-children89 6.4 Procedure
and jurisdiction in maintenance claims89 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Arrear maintenance94 6.6 Assessment of
maintenance payable96 6.7 Variation of maintenance orders97 6.8 Enforcement of
maintenance orders101 6.9 Discharge and termination of maintenance orders and/or
directions103 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
78 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
(x) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /Chanfar 7
Cnardianshin. custody and access }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 105 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.1 guardianship, y and
access ........ 7.2 Guardianship of illegitimate children under customary
law\uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1 \u8212 ?107 73
Guardianship of illegitimate children under general law 7.4 Custody and access to
illegitimate children under customary law 75 Custody and access to illegitimate
children under general law111 7.6 Adulterine children -..
-113 7.7 Guardianship of legitimate children under general law .
-114 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
7.7.1 Sole guardianship 7.7.2 Transfer of guardianship.115 7.8 Guardianship of
legitimate children under customary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 116 7.9 Custody of legitimate children under general
law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
7.9.1 Custody on divorce 122 7.9.2 Effect of an
award of custody125 7.93 Award of custody to a third party
125 7.10 Custody of legitimate children under customary law126 7.11 Access
127 7.11.1 Variation of custody and access ..... .128 7.11.2 Enforcement of
custody and orders129 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\afs22
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.113 Removal of children from Zimbabwe }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 - }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Part Three - Marriage,
matrimonial property rights }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 8 Formation of marriage
8.1 Types of marriages in Zimbabwe133 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8.1.1 Monogamous marriage under the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage
Act ..................... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8.1.2 Custoinary marriage under the African }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriages
Act}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 133 8.1.3
Customary law union134 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Formation of marriage
137 Competency to many137 Formalities prescribed under the Marriage Act }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter
37] 141 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Formalities under the African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 238]144 Consent of the parties 145 8.6.1
Common law exceptions . 147 8.6.2 Statutory
exceptions 148 Marriage of minors149 Void and
voidable marriages150 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297
\langfenp12297 8.7 8.8 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /0 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,00 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 , }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 146 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 el,5970,5\uc1 \u8221 ?. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0
\ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0,110\{ft }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Pr. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0
\ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8222 ?,.__ m }
\af5 \loch \f5 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f5 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 widoutolcorroity of Forty. }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tot suns\uc1 \u167 ?on of
tthiansioiavatiepply }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 9 Personal consequences of marriage 153 }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Consortium otnnis vitae }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.2 The married status
93 Attainment of majority }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain
\li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (xi) }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.4 Reciprocal duty of maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.4.1 Maintenance of spouses }
lite ...... \uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1 \u8212 ?....158 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.4.2 maintenance for spouses
159 9.43 Maintenance of ex-spouses 159 9.4.4
Maintenance in a customary union 160 9.43 Variation and discharge of
maintenance orders }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in favour of ex-spouses161 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .163 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 10 Matrimonial property
rights of spouses }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
10.1 Introduction163 10.2 Internal conflict of laws re: proprietary consequences
of marriage163 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch \af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10.21 African marriages and immovable property166
10.2.2 Proprietary consequences of customary law unions167 103 General law
consequences of marriage 167 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 103.1 Marriage in community of
property 168 10.3.2 Marriage out of community of
property 168 10.4 Customary law proprietary consequences of marriage
170 10.5 The property rights of spouses at divorce: the effect of the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985
172 10.5.1 The statutory target 180 105.2 Property
excluded from the court\uc1 \u8217 ?s powers of division181 10.6 The extent of
application of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 184 10.7 Criticism of the new
approach 185 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 11 Succession to matrimonial
property 189 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11.1 Testate succession
189 11.2 Intestate succession under general law 189 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11.2.1 Intestate succession to
the property of spouses }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 married in community of property
190 11.2.2 Intestate succession to the property of spouses }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 married out of community of
property 190 113 Intestate succession under
customary law 191 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
113.1 Intestate succession of Africans to immovable property192 113.2 Intestate
succession to the matri-estate194 11.3.3 Succession to the patri-estate194 }
\ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 12 Dissolution of marriage 197 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12.1 Introduction197 12.2
Divorce197 12.2.1 General historical background197 12.2.2 Historical development
of divorce laws in Zimbabwe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under the general\'5clavv200 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (xii) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1223 Criticism of the old
divorce law 207 122.4 The old customary law of divorce209 12.25 The new
divorce law: the concept of irretrievable breakdown210 12.2.6 Factors indicating
breakdown212 122.7 Mental illness or continuous unconsciousness 221 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as grounds for divorce }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Glossary }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ....223 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bibliography }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .225 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (xiii) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Table of cases }{\rtlch
\ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar
}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kurangwa v
Elijah Chanakira }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1966 AAC 29 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Africa v Africa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1985(1) SA 792 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Tondcri Mudzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1973 AAC 32 ........................... }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mandirahwe
v Richard }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Kadiro }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 (DC of Mutare Case No. 20/1983) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (ins worth v Ainsworth }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1967) 10 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FLR 396 (SCN SW) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ilarakha v
Alarakha }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1975
RLR 247 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Was
Mayo v Bathwell }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mabasa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (2nd August, 1983, District Court of Bulawayo) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (lice Hail
Duncan }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
john Walidn Wilson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(1906) 27 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
NCR 624 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Illardyce v Mitchell }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 (1869) 6 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 WEB 45 infra v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Amra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1971(4) SA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 409 (D) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Indason v Madya }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1929 SRN 23 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ircher v Archer }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Wellington Registry No.
M.203/66) B 1969(2) SA 584 (R) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 B and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1968) 2 All ER 1023 v BandE119691 3 All ER 1106 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 K }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1983(1)ZLR 212 }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?gam
v Kanyisai SC 29/87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4
\dbch \af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 alley v Bailey }
\langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 aines v Bathes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1944 SR }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 135 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 arrass v Barrass }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 RLR 384 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or n( 11241111 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 CA 1CD%. 71c }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ell v Bell 1909 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 TS 500 ..... ...... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rnn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 eneke v Beneke }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1965(1) SA 855 (T) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enjamin v
Salkinder and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (25) SC
\langfenp12297 enny v Benny }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-465-86 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 U 1917 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MV 13 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain
\li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 est v Samuel Fox Co Ltd }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1951(2) }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 KB 639 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iccard v Biccard and Fryer
(1982) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9 SC
473 ................................................................... }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tact v Black SC.. / oniface v
Johannes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SRN 9 ..................... ...................... ...... ottger }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Bottger }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-405-
82 ............. ................ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 oyes v Verzigman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9 Buch
299 ...............................................................................
.............. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
rett }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v
Brett }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
[1969] 1 WLR 124 ........... .................................. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rown v Brown }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1921 AD
478 ...............................................................................
........... 14651 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Knioht }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 RAIL 97/7R 145 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 __.. _.....o... ... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 uckland v Buckland }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11967] 2 All }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 all v Taylor }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1965(4) SA 29 (AD) }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vrvess v Benatar }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1975(1) SA 782 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1942 NZLR
356 .................. ........................................ .... }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v C1954 (2) SA 274
(SR) ..............................................................................
.................... \uc1 \u8212 ?)86 ............... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ziderbank v Calderbank }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [19731 3 WLR
308 . . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ............. ... 45,50 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langfenp12297 .......... ............................. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4
\hich \af4 \dbch \af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ER
300 ..............................................................7.. 31 ., a ,
3154.5 2 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (10 ............ 146 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (xv) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Calitz }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1939 AD 56 ....... }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 :ard v Spars }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1984(4) SA
667 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 :are
v Estate de Vries }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1906 SC 532 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Carstens v Carstens }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1985(2) SA 351 (SE) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Champion v Morkel 1971(2) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SA 121 (R) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chanelsa v
Chanetsa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-
11-32-85 ..... ........ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chaniwa v Chaniwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-31-85 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapman v Chapman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1977(4) SA 142 (NC) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chard v
Chard }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-
392-87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Charles Ndlovu v Mkethwa Ndlovu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1971 AAC 37 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Charova v Charova }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-52-86 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chews v Bvuta }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1928 SR 98 }{\rtlch
\lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chibaya v Chibaya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-357-85 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chidembo v Machingambi }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 50/87 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chiduku v Chidano }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1922 RLR 55 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chifamba v
Chifamba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC
149/87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
- Chihowa v Mangwende }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 SC 84/87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chikololere v Gabuza }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1969 AAC 48 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chikosi v Chikosi }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1)1975 RLR 140 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chikosi v
Chikosi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (3)1975
RLR 418 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Chilingwa v Mwamba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1939 (1928-62) SRN 144 ....... ........ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chingombe v Mudzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1973 AAC 32 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chiregwa v Kabiti }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Appeal No.
19/83, District Court of Mutate) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chiromo v Katsidzira }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1981 ZLR 87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chirume v Chivizhe }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 104/87 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chirunda v
Chirunda }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Chitiyo v Chitiyo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 HC-H-20-83 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chodokufa v Chodokufa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-295-87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -Cholo v Ma tiye }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974 RLR 302 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Claassen v van
der Watt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1969(3) SA 68 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Cook v Cook }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1911 CPD 810 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Cripps v Cripps }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1953 SR 10 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Crump v Crump }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [1965] 2 All ER 980 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cumbers v Cumbers }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [1974] 1 WLR
1331 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Cuzner v Underdown }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
119741 1 WLR 933 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 D v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
D 1946 EDL 140 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Dairies v Daines and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1980 ZLR 141 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Daniel v Teresa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1972 AAC 17 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Davel v Swanepoel }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Davidson v
Davidson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SR 190 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Dawe v Dawe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1980(1) SA 141 (ZR) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dayimano v Kgaribaitse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1931 SR 134 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 de Sails v de Salis }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1957(4) SA 639
(SR) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 de
Souza v Munjoma }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1951 SRN 260 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(xvi) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 de Wit v }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
llys }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
CPD 65_ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Delport v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Yee 1913 EDL 374 31 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dhanabakium v Subramanian }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Anor }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1943 AD
160 ........ ... 80,83, 109, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dionisio Dionisio }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ZLR 118 (AD) ...
-.85,87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dixon
v Dixon }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(1974) Fam Div 58 181 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Docrat v Bhayat }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1932 TPD 125
73, 109, 111 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Dokotera v The Master and Others }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1957 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 R&N }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 697 166,
192, 193 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Dolby v Lewis }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
SC 34/87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 123,130 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Donaldson v Donaldson }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-361-86
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
\langfenp12297 .......................98,99 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Douglas v Mayers 1987(1) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SA 910 (ZHO
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 73, 109,
Ill, 112 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Doyle v Doyle }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1957(2) SA 577 (SR) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1% }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Doyle v Salgo }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1957 R&N 840
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dreyer v
Dreyer }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1984(2) SA 483 (0) 162 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dube v Masera }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 99/88
52,63 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Dube v Myinga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1965 AAC 1 33 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Duma v Madidi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1918 SR 559
\hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 195 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dumase and
Saulosi Chekani v Adamu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1958 NAC 594}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 135 Ev E 09711 NZLR 859187 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Edward Ndlovu v Dogo Malabar }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1959 (1937-62) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SRN 639;
1959 (1928-62) SRN 904 ....34, 61 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Edwards v Flemming }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1909 TH 232109 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Elizabeth and Mzeze v Swandibva
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SRN 49}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 60 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Estate Heinamann
and Others v Heinamann }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1919 AD 19}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ex parte AB }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1910 TPD 1332 153 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ex }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parte }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 F }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 19510) SA 665 (0)}
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ex parte }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 F 1962(1) SA 48
(SR) 202 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ex parte Godden NO }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962(2) SA 160 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (SR)70 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ex parte L v }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 L GD
Civ.17-71 149 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 F v L and Anon }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1987(4) SA 525
109,112 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Fadzai alb Kurevawabva v Nyamandi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1978 AAC 8 210 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Favard v
Favard }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SR 9567 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Fegede v Motsi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
SC 105/87}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 83,
97 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Five
Mbambo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
NAC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fletcher v
Fletcher }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1948(1) SA 130 (AD)122 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fordson Manduna v Clara Khanye }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1977 AAC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 961,84,107 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fourie v Fourie }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 G-S-84-7689 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Frankel\uc1 \u8217 ?s
Estate and Anor v The Master and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1950(1) SA 220 (AD)16,163 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Franks v Rex }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1924 WPD
Fransisca a/b Simon v Matupe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1953 SRN 250113 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Frikanos Mupasiri v Maggie a/b Mufandaedza
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1967 AAC
5}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 G v G }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1956(3) SA 698 (SR)148 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gate v Ngoreta and
Muringwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
57/88}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 29, 52 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Germani v
Herf and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1975(4) SA 887 (AD)}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 127, 128 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gerson\uc1 \u8217 ?s Executor v Gerson }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 77}{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Godwin Mudzimu v Kenneth
Gomwe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
AAC 16110 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (xvii) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11-387-8785 86 96 19631 2 All 966 1933(2) ZLR 121 34
11914 AD 8871 74(2) RLR 13 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 CO, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 52, 56,62 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,nga }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1964(3) SA 522 (N)153
987(1) SA 48 (C)218 1961(4) SA 21 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 15, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 36, 37 1973 AAC
NO and The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Master 1-1C-H-246-83192 SC 134/8686, 87, 97 SC 74/88111 L.R 1349 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 II ER 56046, 47 Div 9174
R756146 1197411 WLR 219181 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?beepers }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1950(4) SA 421 (W)85 .1(1197411 NZLR
Weaton-Watson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1949 SR 121 160 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 ba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 (1897) 12 EDC 6 - 39 SA 12788 CTR
15228 A 544 (RAD)205 7-8786 3 SRN 3460 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d Mate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (3rd September 1983, Bulawayo District
Court)38 1-160-86158 18229, 46,49 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?,state Meehan }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1922 CPD 17971 1NZLR795186
38-88130 1/83130 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1960(4) SA 936 (CPD)161 7 CAACC 157126 )701 1 All ER
309124 76.80 1); 1968 P 11946,47 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3 (RAD)}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 61, 107, 110 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 81 174 46 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 23 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 May, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1983, District Court of Bulawayo)210 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (xviii) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 famesv Keyi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1%2 SRN 16 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Janis( v lint and Takaziweyi }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1939 SRN 49I }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jansen
Jansen }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-1-
1-48-86 1. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lefita v lames }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1961 (1937-62) SRN 29; 1961 NAC
Ienah v Nyemba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
SC 49/86 165, 166,1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jinni v Jirira }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1976 RLR 721,166,1 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jockonia v
Simanga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1967 A AC
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 John
Paradzayi Nyiwo Dzirutwe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1964 AAC 73 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Johnson v Joubcrt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1976(1) PH B 2 (R)154, 1; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jokonya
Diana and Machingura }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1944 SRN 47 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jones v Jones }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119751 2 WLR 606I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Joseph Tinga v Joshua Shekede }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1970 AAC 30 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Joseph
Joseph }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1958(4) SA 263 (SR)1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Juniasi and luniasi v Nawa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1944 SRN 210 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kainos v Tazvivinga }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1973 A AC
2861,84, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Kaljo v Kaljo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(1974) 3 ALR 130 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Kamangira v Jengera and Murapi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1940 SRN 92 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kamberiya v Jessie and Madiba
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SRN 342 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kanatopsky
v Kanatopsky }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1935 EDL 308 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Kangausaru v Marere SC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 101/87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kanis v Kanis }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974(1) RLR 12986,103, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kanyuka Sixpence v
Egisita alb John Hawker }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1967 AAC 3760, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kapisi v Magwayi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1937 (1928-62) SRN 90 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Karambakuwa v
Mabaya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
158/87135, 136, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Kashiri v Muvirimi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 55/88 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kassim v Kassim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [19621 3 All ER 426 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kat v Kat }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1910\uc1 \u8217 ?15436 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe Muchabaiwa }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 87/8427, 32, 33,136, }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Khoza v Khoza }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-B-106-871679, 180, 183,
188,2 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfenp12297 Khumalo Mthungrva }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1979 AAC 22 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kirk v Kirk }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1970(1) SA 128 (R) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Klerk v Drake }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1920 CPD 511 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Komo and Leboho v Holmes NO }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1935 SR 867,
166, 167,1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Krige v Smit }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 981(4) SA 409211, 216, 1 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kritzinger v Kritzinger }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1987(2) SA
\langfenp12297 Kruger v Kruger }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1980(3) SA 283 (0) 215, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Krystman v Krystman }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119731 1 WLR 927176, I }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kuhn v Karp }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1948(4) SA 825 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kusikwenua v
Parsons NO & Others }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1972(4) SA 119 (R) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 L v 11985(4) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SA 371 (02 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lamb v Slander }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 58/82 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 snide PilHp n Billie
Pillie }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Mn.
4/19S1 District Court ni Bulawayo) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 138,1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0
\rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch \af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
\langfenp12297 Le Brocq v Le Brocq }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119641 1 WLR 1085 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (xix) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1 6 ;6 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10 :05 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Le Roux v Neethling }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (9) SC 247 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Leighton v Roos
NO and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1955(4) SA 134 (N) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lessing v Lessing }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1958(3) SA 115 (W) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Levin v Levin and Anor }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1960(4) SA 469 (W) }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Locke v Locke }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1951(1) SA 132 (W) }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 38 _ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 138 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lombardi v Lombardi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11973) 1 WLR 1276a....176 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Long v Long
11973J }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
NZLR 399 ....... .... ..... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .....174 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lopez v Nxumalo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 115/85 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 20, 33.118 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lourcns v van Biljon }
(T) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lydia v
Masumbu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1939 SRN
74 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 113 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lynch v Lynch }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1965(2) SA 49 (SR)
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .115, 119,
120 M }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
v A and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
ZLR 306 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 68, 105, 106, 115, 125 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M v M }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962(2) SA 114 (SW)
.... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 72 }
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M and G }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [196912 All ER 242
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Macdonald
v Stant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1935 AD
325}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MacDuff
and Co v IC/ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
AD 573-}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mackay v
Ballot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
TPD 43028 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Mackenzie v Bilbrough }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1906TH 116 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mafara v Mafara }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-431-87
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 123,
Mafukidze v Matsinde }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 SC 118/87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 32, 34 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mafuta v Muketiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 163/87 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 85, 88 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Maida and
Stephen v Libona }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1964 AAC 32 .. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 107 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\af0 \lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Makamure v Makamure }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-143-86121 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Malipiti and Julia v Kandiro }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1946 SRN 94 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marais v
Marais 1960(1) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
SA 844 (C) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 Maria v Linos }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1970 CAAC 46412fr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marira v Marira }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-167.87 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Martin v Martin
[1975] }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fam
Div 8 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfenp12297 Marufu v Mayo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1983(2) ZLR 38698, 99)4Q0 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Masango v Masango }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-107-87 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 66/86}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 193,1% }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Masocha v Masocha }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-183-87}{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 175, 178, 180,
181, 188, 200, 221 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matambo v Matambo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1969(3) SA 717 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (RAD)}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 166, 171, 192 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mathews v Haswari }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1937 WLD 11073, 113 }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Matyila v Matyila }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1987(3) SA 230216 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mbonisi Moyo v Tendayi Moyo }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1970 CAACC 1 126 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mbwanda v
Mbwanda }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-404-
McEwan v McEwan }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
[1972] 1 WLR 1217176 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Measures v Measures }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1952 SR 146160 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mee v Mee }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-449-83106 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mchta v Mehta }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [1945] 2 All ER 690146 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Meyer v
Williams }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1981(3) SA 348 (AD) 28, 29, 49 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mgwabi v Maluttdu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1951 SRN 57933 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mhlanga v Kateya }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-427-8644, 45, 219, 221
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 W }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mkange v Tamangc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1949 C A ACC _
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Macke
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fouric }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1893)3 LTR 313
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mohamed v
Shaik }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1978(4) SA 523 (W)- 53, 55 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mohaud v Mohaud }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1964(4) SA 348 123 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gramani }
(N) 49 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Morrison v Morrison }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1972(3) SA 185
Moses Gwcbu v Stewart Sibanda }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (9th November, 1983, District Court of Bulawayo)62 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moses
Mvenge v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Emma }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Tafura }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
AAC 961, 84, 107 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Mount ford v Mukukumidzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1969 (2) SA 56 (1RAD)- 49, 54 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moyo v Sithole }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-B-35-85
12,123, 125, 127 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Moyo v Moyo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-241-84 99,100 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moyo v
Sifclani }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
13/88 51, 52 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mpambwa Mpambwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974(2) RLR 20
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mpofu v
Ncubc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(3/84, District Court of Bulawayo)85 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 usa Sithole }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (23/1983, District Court of
Bulawayo)210 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Mtandwa v Shiota }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1929 SRN 4 140 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muchada p
Muchada }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11C-H-346-
86 ...... 96, 176, 178, 188, 217, 221 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muchina v Muchina HC-H-632-87
Mudzimirwa v Karnunga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 SC 52/89. 111 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mujati v Mujati }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I IC-H-505-,87
175, 176, 179, 188, 220, 221 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mulholland p Smith 1910 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (10) HCG 33 .
31 Muller v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Vink }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1972(1) PH B 3 (W) 155 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Munhcnga v
Chakadcnga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
SC 38/87.. 53 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 - \uc1 \u8212 ?Muramwa Majoni }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1947 SRN 165
61,107 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfenp12297 Mitrimo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Tsivai SC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10/86 83 v }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muronrla }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-300-
85 ......... 124 MidakyA v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Musakwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 11/84
,20, 94, 95, 96 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 usiallinmwa v Musimursntwa }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Mutamba }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-1-85 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 utasa Mutasa }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-40-85 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mutseriwa v Mutseriwa HC-H-113-
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muyambo Muyambo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muza }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mbunjwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1943 SRN 17 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 32, 33 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muzondo v Muzondo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 98/85
\langfenp12297 Mvcrechena v A4verechena }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 52/88160. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Alvududu v Mvududu and Others }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1981(4) SA 456 (Z)167 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mwashita v
Simango }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 116/87
Myres v Leviton }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1949(1) SA 203123 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Naido v Naido }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1985(1) SA 366 (T)212 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ndebele v Ndebele }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1965 AAC 23118 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ndoro v Mapfurno }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1942 SRN 166}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 60 Nelson v Schneider }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1930 WLD 17757 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ngobeni v
Gibitwayo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1946(2) PH B 58 (W)138 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ngulube v Siziba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-B-08-8835, 36, 37 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 &Xi) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 outface }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1963 AAC 28
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ro 1984
Magistrate court of Matabeleland 13 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 undo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1947 SRN 17532 1C-H-275-86128 -74-88 3-
22-88 155 ni 1952 SRN 29210 HC-H-358-85158 in HC-H-66-87178, 188 t SC 38/87139
1-161-87123,124 1949 SRN 20533 SRN 21664 1947(3) SA 294 (0)156, 159 72) 1 NSWLR
4% 174 )1985(2) SA 851 (0)211, 216, 221 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mith }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1981 ZLR 514161, 162 D) 51, 54, 56, 57,
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 58-87}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 87, 98, 99 250-
8598 91 1 All ER 1 145 53 SR 2494 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 o Yawo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1972 AAC 28 34 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 124 195157 eno 1972 CAACC
lunivedzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
AAC 1333 72(4) SA 122 (R)39 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1964 AAC 1160 60(4) SA 925 (SR)35 113204 224143 SA
8297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\ltrch \loch \af4
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 202 tLR
88135 !II 56 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
51,53,55 31 (0)49,51,52,58 273168 6/8783,97 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NO }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1965(3) SA 103 (0)46 7585 land Registry No.
M.485/65187 59 (SR)206 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (ECU) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Robert v Abraham }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1952 SRN 293 ..... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Romans Romans }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC, CD 113/76 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 - Rosa v Rosa }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1980 ZLR 387
(C.1)) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Rosenbaum Margolis }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1944 WI.D 14 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Rubens v Rubens and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1909 (26) SC 617 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Runyowa v Runyowa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 DC-D-355-85 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Russel u Russel118971
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 AC 395 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Russell }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Russell }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1922 AC 687 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rutter v Rutter }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I IC-H-185-
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ryan
v Ryan }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
R&N 356 (SR); 1963(2) P11 B 26 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S v feggels }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962(3) SA 704 (C)51 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vMcC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and M }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [19701 1 All ER 1162 S v }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rahman }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974(3) SA 288 (RAD) SvS1955SR 245 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Samba }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962(4) SA 93 (E) }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Swart }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1965(3) SA 454 (AD) 51, 52, 53,
5t4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfenp12297 Sager v Bezuidcnhout }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1980(3) SA 1005 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Santuriwo v Kahari }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-207-87 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Schnaar v Jansen }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1924 NLR 218 }
Scholtemeyer v Potgietcr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1916 TPD 188 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Schroeder v Schroeder }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1959(2) SA 6 tN) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Schwartz v
Schwartz }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1984(4) SA 467 (AD) 211, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Scott Scott }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1197811 WLR 723 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Scott v Sebright }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LR 12 PD 21 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Seetal v Pravitha and
Anor NO }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1983(3) SA
87 (0) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Senica Chiwaka v Rester Machinga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1979 CAACC 16 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Shadreck Chitima v Gideon Danatu }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962 SRN 27 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sheldon v
Sheldon }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (19661 CA
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sheneti v
Sadock }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SRN 15 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Shonge v Shonge and Sifelani }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-414-86154, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Shoriwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Risi and Mubayiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1944 SRN 275 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sibiya v Commission
for Child Welfare (Bantu), Johannesburg and Others }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1967(4) SA 347 (T) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sidubi Middlemiss }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-B-130-87 154, }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Simba v
Makoni }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
20/83 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Singh v Singh }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1983(1) SA 781 (C) }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sipamehlo v Dube }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1940 SRN 79 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Smit v Arthur }{\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Smit v Jacobs }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1918 OPD 30 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Smith v
Smith }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1948(4) SA 61 (AA\uc1 \u8217 ?) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Smith v Smith }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1961(3) SA 359 (SR) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sperling v Sperling }
(AD) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Stander v Slander }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1929 AD 349 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Stradler v Cramer }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1922 CPD 16 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (xxiii) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 trathearn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-325-84
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 _86,96,158
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mon }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1926 AD 47
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -45 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 m119651 }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NZLR 781
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -186 }
(C) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pchter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [197013 All ER }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 905 146 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0onzewi }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1961 SRN
3360,113 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
fror119741119 SI 30 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8212 ?186 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lwabani v Akupusa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1958 SRN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 549
_210 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Thompson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1958(1) PRB 3 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 206 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thomson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-89-87
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;mith-
White }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SR 4735 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1953(2) SA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1 (EDL) -145 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 43) SA 1006 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (TPD)75 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 forger }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1948(3) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SA 532 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (W)155 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Berg v looste }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1960(3) SA 71 (W)}{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 153,154 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rust v Viljeon }
(C)46 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Valt v van der Walt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1961(4) SA 854 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (0)100 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Vesthuizen v van Wyk and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1952(2) SA 119 (GWLD)75 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nter v }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Deventer }
969 201 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 meld v Engels }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1959(2) SA 699 (AD)44,45 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v van }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Niekerk }{\rtlch
(W)147 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van Zyl }
\langfenp12297 andinika and Magutsa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SR 171 ......... ..... ....... \uc1
\u8212 ?...-..\uc1 \u8212 ?..-.- ..... 7, 63, 113 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Venter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1949(4) SA 123 (W)}{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kilian }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1927 AD }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 449
154,155 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\uc1 \u8217 ?look }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1953(1) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SA 485 (W) 138 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 )65(3) SA }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 140
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 )68(3) SA
;la! Solicitor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1972 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 AC
2447 1970) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1 All ER }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
115747
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (W)139 }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 976 RLR 42989
981 ZLR 243 (AD)112, 122, 125 19631 2 All ER 386; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1964 P6746, 47 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wachtel }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119731 1 All ER }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (CA)157,174 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van Wyk }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1978 RLR 175 35, 36, 37 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Walters }
(0) 115 zr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
v Jameson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1969(2) SA 349 (W)}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 153,154 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?Watson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1959(1) SA 185 (NPD)161.162 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 VSSC154/86}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 99,100 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Vest }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119771 2 WLR 933181 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v
Whitehall 1958 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
SC 25246 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
v Duggan }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 G-S-
v Williams }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
119631 2 All ER 994205 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (xxiv) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wilson v Ely }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 WR 34 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 73,113 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 WiLson v Wilson 1981 }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ZLR 21100 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wood
olVood }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
141/86158 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Woodhead v Woodhead }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1955 SR 70; 1955(3) SA 138 (SR)85, 94, 156, 159 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Woodiwiss v Woodiwiss }
(N)154 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Wyndham Quin v Wyndham }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Quin }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1978(4) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SA 843 (AD)204 X v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Y 1973(3) SA 118 (RAD)49, 52 Z v Z HC-B-
17-87 126 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Zimunu v Chakawarika }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1934 NAC 48. 134,135 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zinyoro v
Zinyoro }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 98/88
Zvarewa v Zvarcwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1979 AAC 37165 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zvauya v Zvauya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297
\langfenp12297 HC-H-625-87119 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?. L}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?d\uc1
\u8217 ?Tl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?\uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 - 3 APR 2006 ) }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 List of Zimbabwean Statutes
Cited Administration of Estates Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 301119,189,191 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 African law and Tribal Courts Act }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 23716-8,10, 17-21, 26, 116-
7,126,209 African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter 2381 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6, 10, 14, 18-22, 24, 74, 116, 113-5,137,
139, 142-4, 164-6, 189, 191,208-2101 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Antenuptial Contracts Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1986 (No. 11 of
1986)67,11 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Protection and Adoption Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 331 ............. -.\uc1 \u8212
?...70, 75-9,80, 82,891 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 109, 118, 120, 141 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Protection and
Adoption Act, 1929 (No. 22 of 1929) 75 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Civil Evidence Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 411 29 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Communal Land Act, 1982 (No. 20 of
1982)182 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Criminal Law Amendment Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter 581 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 66 Criminal Procedure and Evidence Act }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 591 206
Customary Law and Primary Courts Act, 1981 (No. 6 of 1981)9, 10, 12-3,16, }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 18, 19, 20-1, 23, 26, 63, 74,
84, 85, 91-3, 101-2, 110-1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 113-4, 116-7, 122, 126, 134, 136, 160, 161, IM-6, 189,
191-3 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\par
}\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0
Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 198912-4, 17, 22, 26, 63, 84,92-3, }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 101, 110-1, 113-4, 116, 122,
126-7, 136, 161, 165, 189,193 Deceased Estates Succession }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act (Chapter 302] }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 18, 19, 190-1,194 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Deceased Persons Family
Maintenance Act, 1978 (No. 39 of 1978) 173 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Guardianship of Minors Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter 341 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 19,86, 106-7, 114-9, 121-2,
125,128-9,1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Legal Age of Majority Act, 1982 (No. 15 of 1982) 33, 74, 108, 110,1 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 118, 135-6, 143, 145, }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Legitimacy Act }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 471 74, }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Magistrates Court Act }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8,10, 12-
0,1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
Maintenance Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 [Chapter 351 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297
12, 43, 49, 84, 89-91, 93-8, 100-4, 157, 159, 16 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage Act [Chapter 371 18-20, 133, 137-
143, 149, 150, 164, 1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Married Persons Property Ad (Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 381 .. \uc1 \u8212 ?
18, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
167,168 Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act, 1987 (No. 11 of 1987).210 Matrimonial
Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of 1985) 12, 19, 21, 45, 72,
87, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
88, 95-6, 98, 103-4, 118, 122, 148, 151, 152, 157, 158, 160-2, 168, 172-4, 177,
180-1, 184-5, 190, 201, 2013, 210, 212-4, 221 Mental Disorders }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act /Chapter 3241 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mental Health Ad, 1976 (No.
23 of 1976) 148, 151 Missing Persons Act, 1978
(No. 28 of 1978) ............. 197 Native Law and Courts Act, 1937 (No.
33 of 1937) ........... .....6, 7 Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1977 (No. 29 of
1977) 66 67 Wills Ad, 1987 (No. 13 of 1987)
.189, 192 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 (xxviii) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Part One }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Internal conflict of laws and
pre-marital legal problems }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Is HOT LOAN AND MAY MOT }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ALMOVED MOM }{\rtlch \fcs1
\ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfenp12297 LAW }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
LIBRARY }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Chapter 1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Internal conflict of laws: the application of
customary law and general law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1.1 Introduction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The colonization of Africa by European
powers had profound implications for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 African}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law and African legal institutions. African legal
orders were completely disrupted }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 replaced by European legal systems. In all areas
affecting state power and security\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 colonial governments imposed their legal
systems and law. Accordingly, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 constitutional}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 laws and criminal laws were completely }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Europeanized}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and all peoples
in a partici}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
pating}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 country were subjected to the
same foreign constitutional and criminal laws. Thus, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 public legal order problems of internal
conflict of laws did not arise since all peoples! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a particular state, European settlers and
Africans alike, were subjected to the same l}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 aw }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In the realm of private law different considerations
applied. The continuance of Afri}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law was permitted except in circumsta}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nces }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where it ran counter to the
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intention}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the colonial
state or where it was believed to be contrary to European notions of jus}{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tice}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and morality. TW
Bennett\uc1 \u8217 ? contends that customary law was}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 permitted to function in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 field of private law mainly
because of the necessity of economizing on: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?administrative resources in
the early days of occupation. This was a time when go }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mental resources were stretched to their limit. The
shortage of European manpo}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 wer}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 coupled with the policy of indirect rule meant
Africans, their laws and their courts were largely untouched by the colonial
governments. There was also, no doubt, a desire }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 part of the settlers to preserve }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tranquility}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 among a
potentially hostile population }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 conviction that European law was too complex to be
administered by an unsoph}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 isticated}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 people.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 al }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Zimbabwe.% }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 aWFLKT LAWS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Whatever}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 their reasons may have been, in the field
of private law the colonialists }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 emained }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 true }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to their racist policies based on the notion that
European common laws }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 w}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ould apply to Europeans and African customary laws to Africans. In a simplistic }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fa}{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 shion all internal
conflicts of laws were settled by reference to racial criteria. This simple }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r}{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 acist choice }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law process posed no
difficulties in the early stages of colonial development since at this time all
Africans continued to live in accordance with their traditional customs and norms
and there was very little interaction, either personal or commercial}{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 between Europeans and Africans. However,
such a simple racial choice of law formula could not be maintained indefinitely.
Increasing numbers}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
of Africans}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 became}{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 assimilated into the European Christian
culture with its European marriage laws. Accordingly, more and more Africans came
to change their lifestyles. They adopted European cultural patterns}{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and European marriage}{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 norms}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a result of which they}{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contracted}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 civil}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Christian marriages. Moreover, Europeans
developed more and more personal and commercial dealings with Africans. In this
scenario problems}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
of internal conflicts}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
of laws}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 beet:time very
complicated and could not be reasonably resolved by}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a choice of law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 criteria}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 based solely }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 s}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on race. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Conflict of laws simply means a dispute
about the applicability of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 either of two of more }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 systems of law. A conflict
between two systems of law within a country constitutes an internal conflict
whereas a conflict between two systems of two or more countries constitutes an
external conflict commonly referred to as a conflict of private international law.
This chapter is concerned mainly with internal conflicts of laws in Zimbabwe
arising from disputes as to whether general law or customary law should be applied
to a particularcase. In making this decision our courts seek to utilize choice of
law rules which \uc1 \u8217 ?yield }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 constant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 criteria for choosing one system of law in preference
to the other. The choice of law rules do not themselves resolve the dispute but
merely indicate the system of law under which the dispute ought to be resolved. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1.2 The colonial state and the
application of African customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The problems associated with the co-existence of two
systems of law of equal status within a singlelegal system cannot be fully
understood without considering the historical , context in which they arose and
developed. Accordingly, it is instructive to study briefly theorigin and
subsequent development of the conflict of laws which exists in Zimbabwe t
today. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Questions of public law,
mainly constitutional law and criminal law, were settled in favour of the
colonialists by the defeat of Lobengula\uc1 \u8217 ?s feudal state by imperialist
armies. This enabled the victors to impose their public laws oil the defeated
Africans. However, the colonialists were still faced with the question of what
should be done with African customary laws in the field of personal law.With their
military triumphs thesettlerscould have imposed their European personal laws on
the defeated Africans, just as they had imposed their state,constitutional laws
and criminal laws. However, this they did not do }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW ZIMBARWE
for reasons ranging from the fact that the continued existence of the personal
customary laws of the Africans was not inconsistent with colonial domination and
capitalist accumulation, to the fear that the complete tearing asunder of the
Africans\uc1 \u8217 ? customs, culture and personal way of life would make them
ungovernable. Thus having nothing to lose from the continued existence of
customary law and fearing that the imposition of European personal laws would
destroy the African way of life and make the Africans ungovernable, the
colonialists chose a middle of the road approach, neither fully recognising nor
fully abrogating customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The first enactment to refer to the application of
customary law was the Royal Charter of 1890. This enactment, after empowering the
British South Africa Company to govern Southern Rhodesia, imposed on the Company
theduty of appointing judicial officers and establishing such }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sasw were necessary for the
administration of justice. However, the Charter did not prescribe which law the
company was to administer, even though it was enjoined that in the administration
of justice to the Africans: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?careful regard shall always be had to the
customs and laws of the class or tribe or nation to which the parties respectively
belong, especially with respect to the holding, possession, transfer and
disposition of landsand goods and testate and intestate succession thereto and
marriage, divorce and legitimacy and other rights of property and personal
rights.\uc1 \u8221 ?2 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This vague and wide provision typified the colonialist?
dilemma as to what to do with the customary laws of the African. It did not oblige
the colonialists to apply customary law, nor did it give thema freehand to ignore
it. All that was necessary was to pay \uc1 \u8221 ?careful regard\uc1 \u8221 ? to
it without being obliged to apply it. The Royal Charter was enacted by the British
Parliament before the actual physical occupation of Zimbabwe by Cecil Rhodes and
his colleagues. For that reason it could not and did not prescribe the law which
the invaders were to apply over their conquered territories once the conquest was
complete. However, as soon as the British South Africa Company established the
rudiments of an administration in the country, the Company\uc1 \u8217 ?s
Administrator made a proclamation declaring that the laws of the Cape Colony were
to be applied to the Company\uc1 \u8217 ?s territory? The applicability of the
Cape Colony laws was repeated in the High Commissioner\uc1 \u8217 ?s
Proclamation\uc1 \u8217 ? of 10 June 1891 and again in the Matabeleland Order in
Councils of 18July 1894, the latter being a victor\uc1 \u8217 ?s declaration over
the conquered peoples. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The provision was inserted yet again in the 1898
Southern Rhodesia Order in Council and eventually the 1961 Southern Rhodesia
Constitution proclaimed that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 14.
Administrator\uc1 \u8217 ?s Proclamation No. 1, 28 Sept. 1890. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4 Section 19. 5
Section 26. 6 Section 49(2). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?any law for the time being in force in
Southern Rhodesia relating ry law, the law to be administered by the High Court
and by desia subordinate to the High Court shall be the law in force in Good Hope
on the 10th June 1891 as modified by subsequent Rhodesia the force of law.\uc1
\u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iieces of legislation is that they made the Roman-Dutch
in force at the Cape Colony on 10 June 1891) the general h common law as modified
by statute thereby became the ministered by the courts of the country. The
position of al legal system varied 1mm statute to statute. Perhaps this of the
colonial state\uc1 \u8217 ?s dilemma in not knowing what y laws of the Africans of
which they clearly disapproved etely abrogating. The Royal Charter had required
the ard\uc1 \u8221 ? to customary law. The subsequent Matabeleland rovision for
the application }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 customary law in disputes at such customary law was not repugnant
to natural mt. In revoking the Matabeleland Order in Council, the ncil 1898
provided that \uc1 \u8221 ?native law and customs\uc1 \u8221 ? were lween natives
and that in such cases the courts \uc1 \u8221 ?shall be such law was not repugnant
to natural justice or morality \uc1 \u8217 ?clod). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 er in Council were superseded by the
Native Law and on that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 my }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 civil case between natives by any court of law,
decisions h native law and custom, but if native law and custom is matter before
the court\uc1 \u8212 ? than a native court shall determine the case in accordance
with }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
[transmit the case] to the native commissioner of the district Dr to a court of
competent jurisdiction\uc1 \u8217 ? (emphasis added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 h made the application of
customary law mandatory in pplicatiori was subject to the repugnancy test. }
\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 al Courts Act\uc1 \u8221 ? repealed the
Native Law and Courts Act, nation by any court of any civil case between Africans,
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the decision may
be in accordance- with customary law\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (emphasis }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 discretion implicit in the wont
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1
\u8221 ?may\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Was minced by the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 further provision }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law was to be deemed
applicable, unless the justice }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the ease }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 required, in any matter relat
ing to seduction, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 adultery, ritsiodyand }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of children, he devolution
otherwise than }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 will of }
property, \uc1 \u8217 ?rights }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 held under individual registered Mk and a marriage
contracted under }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Yet again, in order to be applicable, customary }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law had to
pass the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
test }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of
not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297
repugnant to natural justice or morality or to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provisions of any }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enactment, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 prowl( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 c }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?nothing amtained }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in any }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enactment
rt4ating to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 age of
majority, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 status
the effect of marnage on the property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouses,, or the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 administration of estates }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 shall affect the
a pplicat it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 in of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 rtraornary law, except }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in so }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tar as such }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enactnun }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 been specifically applied to }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Atrkam. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by that or any other }
etiarttnent.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8226 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
\uc1 \u8226 ? \uc1 \u8226 ? \uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ?
\uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it can onus oc
seen mac toe extent ana manner }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of cne or customary, saw }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the colonial state was neither static nor
uniform. The 18119 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Charter required the courts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 have careful regard\uc1 \u8221 ? to
customary la w. The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Proclamation of 1891\uc1 \u8221 ? en joinedthemul }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -follow the laws and customs of natives concerned, }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in so far
as they are }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
applica \uc1 \u8217 ? whereas the 1898 Order in Council }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 required the courts merely to
be \uc1 \u8221 ?guided\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law without being bound to apply it. The }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 word
\uc1 \u8221 ?guided\uc1 \u8221 ? gave ris }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 conflicting decisions as to its
meaning.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Any ambiguities that may have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 been inherent in the word
\uc1 \u8221 ?guided\uc1 \u8221 ? were septet.\uc1 \u8217 ? by }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Native Law and Courts Act which
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 made the
application of customary law bet; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Africans clearly peremptory, subject, of course, to }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the
repugnancy clause. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 legislature reversed its decision of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1237byenacting }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 African La wa nd
Tribal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Churls }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
which made the application of customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 neither peremptory nor optional in }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 between Africans. The 1969 Act provided }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court\uc1 \u8217 ?sdecision
\uc1 \u8221 ?may\uc1 \u8221 ? be in accordi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 with customary law. Yet in
cases }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 seduction,
adultery, divorce, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 marriage, pros }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consequences of marriage, custody }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and guardianship of
children, devolution otl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 than by will of movable property, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court had
toapplycustomary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unless the] }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the case otherwise
required. In whatever }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 event, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court was not obliged to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law if such
application was contrary to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 demands of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the justice the( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12 Section 3(1). 13 Section
3(1)(9). 14 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Sec the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 definition }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law in section 2(1) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the same Act. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 15 The High
Commissioner\uc1 \u8217 ?s :1..0c:a mation 10 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 June }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1891. 16 In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?Como and Leboho n
Names NO 1935 SR }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 86 it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was held that the word }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law should be applied
merely as a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
guide in determining how the co. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 should be applied. This }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 meant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court considered itself not
bound to apply }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law. However, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Vela landinika and Magulsa }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1936 SR 171 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was held }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the ward }
\langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 meant that as bantam Africanscustomarylawand }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not
thegeneral low applied. It is set }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that the decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case nearer }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 literal meaning }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the word \uc1 \u8221 ?
guided\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 CONTLICT OF LAWS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is clear that in all the above
enactments the courts were given powers to refuse to apply customary law forone
reason oranothcr. That power is the ontyconsistent theme runni ng through these
enactments which were otherwise riddled with contradictions and inconsistencies. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Colonial policy towards
customary law clearly perceived this law as an inferior system of law for whose
administration it was necessary to establish a separate system of courts, the
chiefs\uc1 \u8217 ? courts and the district commissioners\uc1 \u8217 ?
courts.\uc1 \u8221 ?The general law, on the other hand, was administered by the
magistrates courts and the High Court. This dual system of courts was accompanied
by a tal system of norms and laws in civil matters, particularly in the field of
family law. amity law thus came to be characterized by the coexistence of Roman-
Dutch common law and statute law constituting general law on the one hand, and
African customary law on the other. The existence of a dual system of norms and
laws applicable to family law inevitably resulted in complicated internal
conflicts of laws, which the colonial state sought to resolve solely by the use of
choice of law rules based on race. Thus, in general terms, civil disputes between
Africans Were to be governed by customary law unless the justice of the case
required otherwise or unless the applicable customary law was contrary to natural
justice, good conscience and morality or unless an applicable statute was in
existence.\uc1 \u8221 ? On the other hand, disputes between non-Africans were
resolved by the application of Roman-Dutch common law and/or statute lave.\uc1
\u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfenp12297 1.3 The independent state of Zimbabwe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and the resolution of internal
conflict of laws }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The dual system of laws and norms prevailing in the
country during the colonial period was preserved by Zimbabwe\uc1 \u8217 ?s
independence Constitution in the provision that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Subject to the provisions of
any law for the time being in force in Zimbabwe relating to the application of
African customary law, the law to be administered by the Supreme Court or the High
Court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
\langfenp12297 by any courts in Zimbabwe subordinate to the High Court shall be the
law in force in the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope on 10th June, 1891, as modified
by subsequent legislation having in Zimbabwe the force of law.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1
17 Note that the district commissioner\uc1 \u8217 ?s courts also had jurisdiction
to apply general law. 18 Note that \uc1 \u8221 ?nothing in any enactment
relating to the age of majority, the status of women, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 effect of marriage on the
property of the spouses, the guardianship of children or the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 aa m trust ra non aeceasea
estates at tectea tne \uc1 \u8212 ?application or customary law, except in so
rar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
as such enactment has been specifically applied to Africans by that or any other
enactment.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See definition of customary law in section 2 of the
African Law and Tribal Courts Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 19 generally W Ncubc, \uc1 \u8221 ?The Matrimonial
Property Rights of Women in Zimbabwe: A study }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in property relations, domestic labour and
power relations within the family\uc1 \u8221 ? unpublished M.Phil.thesis, UZ,
1986, pp.203-209. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
20 Section 89. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
FAMILY LAW IN ZIMBABWE 9 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297
\langfenp12297 The same provision was contained in Southern Rhodesia\uc1 \u8217 ?s
1961 Constitution and all subsequent Rhodesia and Zimbabwe-Rhodesia
Constitutions\uc1 \u8221 ?Section 89 makes statute lawoverride Roman-Dutch common
law and the application of general law subject to any enactment on theapplication
of customary law, in this way perpetuating them-existence of customary law and
general law as two systems of lavelowever, the Constitution of Zimbabwe does not
define the relationship between customary law and general law within the legal
system of the country. It merely makes the Roman-Dutch common law and statute law
the general law of the country, subject to any laws providing for the application
of customary lava. Thus, when the new independent government of Zimbabwe took power
in 1980, section 89 of Zimbabwe\uc1 \u8217 ?s Constitution and the African Law and
Tribal Courts Act governed the application and administration of customary law in
the coun try. As already shown, the African Law and Tribal Courts Act contained
racially based choice of law rules which resulted in all internal conflicts in the
field of family law being resolved by the use of a racially determined criterion
and customary law remained legally \uc1 \u8221 ?inferior\uc1 \u8221 ? to the
general law consisting of Roman-Dutch common law and statute law. The independence
government, having waged the armed struggle. against the colonial
government\uc1 \u8217 ?sracist policies, was naturally averse to a racially based
criterion for the resolution of internal conflicts of law. Further, since
nationalist sentiments and the desire to regain the African people\uc1 \u8217 ?s
pride which had been down-trodden and ridiculed by colonial oppression had been
leading inspirations in the struggle against colonialism, them was a strong desire
to restore the traditional aspects of the pre-colonial legal culture at
independence. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The African Law and Tribal Courts Act was seen as one of the major colonial
legislative weapons with which customary law had been slighted and ridiculed.
Moreover, with its explicit racist choice of law provisions the Act was
unacceptable in independent Zimbabwe. The need to restore customary law to \uc1
\u8221 ?rightful\uc1 \u8221 ? place in the legal system of the country and also to
provide for a non-racist choice of law formula therefore became an urgent
issuesThe task was made yet more urgent by the fact that the national liberation
war had virtually brought the colonial judicial administration to a standstill in
the rural areas. The chiefs\uc1 \u8217 ? and district commissioners courts were
virtually inoperative and an unofficial system of peoples courts, the so-called
\uc1 \u8221 ?kangaroo courts\uc1 \u8221 ? had taken their place. Since the chiefs
and district commissioners had been instruments of colonial oppression, it was not
advisable to restore their role as judicial officers. Asa consequence of all these
considerations, it was necessary to enact a new law which would govern the
application and administration of customary law in Zimbabwe. This law came in the
form of the Cus toma ry Lawand Primary Courts Act, 1981 (No.6 of 1981)
(hereinafter called the Primary Courts Act) which introduced a new criterion for
the application of customary law and also established the primary courts. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 13.1 Primary courts and their
jurisdiction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Prior to independence the divided legal system in Zimbabwe had a triadic court
structure which often operated to forestall conflict of laws problemi. On one side
were the chiefs\uc1 \u8217 ? courts and district commissioners\uc1 \u8217 ? courts
with appeals to the Court of Appeal for African }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 INTERNAL CONFLICT (W LAWS }{\rtlch
\f5 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?\uc1
\u65533 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vent ually to the Appellate Division of the High Court.
thechiefs\uc1 \u8217 ? courts apply only customary law and had no power to apply
the general law\uc1 \u8217 ? rommissioners\uc1 \u8217 ? cou rts had jurisdiction
toapply tx)thcustomary law and ! Court of Appeal for African Civil Cases heard all
appeals from the toners courts, notwithstanding which law had been applied by the
loners\uc1 \u8217 ? court. On the other side were magistrates courts and the High
ito the General Division and the Appellate Division. Generally these u\uc1
\u8226 ?neral law even though they had the power to apply customary law. g in any
enactment, including the MagistratesCourt Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 181, to rates court from applying
customary law. However, magistrates often terminable by customary law to the
district commissioners\uc1 \u8217 ? courts, at use most of them felt unqualified
and unknowledgeable in customary at Division of the High Court also had
jurisdiction to apply customary stance by virtue of its inherent jurisdiction in
all civil ma tters23 but, like marts, rarely applied it. For example in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mpa\uc1
\u8217 ?nhwa Mpamhwe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Beadle CJ, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to refer to my judgment in the case of }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kusikwenya }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Parsons GD 26
of 1972 (not I) where I pointed out that where there are matters which are
essentially matters ustom with which this court is not familiar, the proper courts
in which to pursue rs are either District Commissioners\uc1 \u8217 ? Courts or the
Tribal Courts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
virtually all conflict cases occurred in the district commissioners\uc1 \u8217 ?
courts t of Appeal for African Civil Cases. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ins Act changed this court system and
structure. Chiefs\uc1 \u8217 ? courts, district :ourts and the Court of Appeal for
African Civil Cases were abolished. primary court system was created. The primary
courts are made up of It the bottom, followed by the community court which is both
a court of an appellate court for purposes of appeals from the village court From
ourt appeals go to the district court which is a magistrates court sitting nut for
purposes of customary law appeals\uc1 \u8226 ? From the district court an !tly to
the Supreme Court? Thus, under this structure the court system }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the African Law and Tribal
Courts Act. c }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Kusikwenya Parsons NO and Others }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1972 (4) SA 119 (R) at p.120. section 3(1) of the
African Law and Tribal Courts Act stated that \uc1 \u8221 ?in the by any court of
law the decision may be in accordance with customary law\uc1 \u8221 ? ad). This
supports the contention that the General Division of the High Court to apply
customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
0 at p.23. he Primary Courts Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I II }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iron at the level of the magistrates courts. Inc
following magram }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the present structure in Zimbabwe: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Suns COURT }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rai Coon (can apply both
general law and customary law) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 courrr (Magistrates court sitting as a district
court for purposes of appeals from a community court. Appeals from the district
court go directly to the Supreme Court) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MAGISTRATES COURT }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (can apply both general law }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law) }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cann!Nape court (jurisdiction
to apply only customary law) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 VILLAGE COURT ( jurisdiction to apply only customary
law) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW
IN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
merges into one at the level of the magistrates courts. The following diagram
ill }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
the present court structure in Zimbabwe: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SUPREME COURT }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 COURT (can apply both general
law and customary law) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 DISTRICT COURT (Magistrates court sitting as a
district court for purposes of appeals from a community court. Appeals from the
district court go directly to the Supreme Court) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M AGISTRATES COURT (can apply both
general law ai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
customary law) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
COMMUNT1Y COURT (jurisdiction to apply only customary law) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 VILLACE COURT ( jurisdiction to apply only customary
law) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 INTERNAL
04\uc1 \u8217 ? LAWS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 courts, namely the village courts and the community
courts, only have jurisdiction to apply customary law and have no jurisdiction
over a matter that is not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 determinable in accordance with customary law?\uc1
\u8217 ? However, primary courts have jurisdiction over all parties properly
brought before them. A primary court does not lose }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 because }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 one }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the parties is whiteor non-African as
was thecase with urisdiction simply }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !he old district commissioners\uc1 \u8217 ? courts and
chiefs\uc1 \u8217 ? cou its so that Face is no longer a decisive }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 factor as to whether or not
customary law should or should not be applied to a particular case or whether or
not a primary court has jurisdiction. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 2 of the Primary Courts Act defines both
customary law and general law. two are defined as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?
customary means the customary law of the indigenous people of Zimbabwe or any
section or community thereof\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\sa0 \lisa0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?general law of
Zimbabwe\uc1 \u8217 ? means the common law of Zimbabwe and any enactment, and
excludes customary law\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Customary Law and Local Courts Bill,1989 which,
ifenacted, will repeal the Primary Courts Act, maintains these definitions as they
are. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Statute law is thus part of the general law of Zimbabwe and the primary courts have
no jurisdiction to apply it since they have jurisdiction to apply only customary
law. Thus, where a dispute is governed by a statutory provision the primary courts
have no rurisdiction unless they have been given express jurisdiction by that or a
ny other sta tutory provision. For example, a community court has specific power
to apply the provisions of the Maintenance Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 35129 and the provisions of the
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 No. 33 of 1985).\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u176 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fhe magistrates courts and High
Court also have jurisdiction to apply customary law in he first instance. Thus a
magistrates court and the High Court both have jurisdiction to ipply either
customary law or general law in a civil case, subject only to the monetary and
inter restrictions upon the jurisdiction of magistrates courts as laid down in
section 13 of he Magistrates Court Act. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Aloyo v Sithole }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-B-35-85 Korsah J put it as follows: }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?There does not
appear to be any provision in the Customary Law and Primary Courts Act which
bestows upon primary courts exclusive jurisdiction in cases determinabh.bycustomary
law. Though, I must confess, that I think it desirable that persons imbued with a
knowledge of customary law should have the preference to entertain claims
determinable by customary law. This view does not, however, detract from the fact
that by the provisions of s.13 of the High Court of Zimbabwe Act, No. 29 of 1981,
subject to the provisions of that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 B }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 11(1) and (2). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 12(3) and (4). See
definition of \uc1 \u8221 ?appropriate court\uc1 \u8221 ? in section 2 of the
Matrimonial Causes Act, as amended. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act and any other la w, the High Court has full
original jurisdiction over all persons and over all matters within Zimbabwe.
Exclusivity ogjurisdiction in mattersdeterminablebycustomary law is, therefore, not
reposed in the primary and allied courts. The High Court is also seised (sic) of
jurisdiction to hear and determine this application even if it were determinable
by customary law alone\uc1 \u8221 ? (pp3-4). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Special note must be made of the fact that
section 30 of the Primary Courts Act repealed section 13(2) of the Magistrates
Court Act which allowed a magistrate to avoid deciding a ca it required the
applica lion of customary law. However, it would appear that some }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 straits are unclear about their
jurisdiction in customary law matters, as well as the issue of whether or not they
have jurisdiction to apply section 3 of the Primary Courts Act which contains the
rules for the resolution of internal conflicts of laws between customary and
general law. This confusion is well illustrated in the case of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nhamburo }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nhamburo }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (undated and unnumbered
1984 judgment of the magistrates court of the Province of Matabeleland). The
magistrate failed to realize that he had jurisdiction to apply customary law and
that he had the power to apply the provisions of section 3 of the Primary Courts
Act when he dismissed an application for summary judgment by the plaintiff for the
ejection of the defendant from a house which the plaintiff claimed he had a
customary law right to occupy. The magistrate reasoned that since community courts
had been given jurisdiction to apply customary law, magistrates courts did not
have jurisdiction to determine matters governed by customary law. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, with due respect,
there is no clause in the Magistrates Court Act or in the Primary Courts Act or
any enactment which restricts magistrates courts to the application of general law
in the way that primary courts are restricted to theapplica don of customary law
by section 11(1)(a) and 11(2 Xa) of the Primary Courts Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Likely changes to structure and
jurisdiction of courts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The court structure and jurisdiction of courts just
discussed above is most likely to be changed by the Customary Law and Local Courts
Bill, 1989, which at the time of writing is still being discussed within the
Ministry of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs. It is expected that theBill
will come before Parliament in late 1989 and it is also expected that the 5th
draft of the Bill which will be presented to Parliament will be enacted without any
substantial amendments. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If the
Bill is enacted it will substantially alter the present court structure and
fundamentally redefine the jurisdiction of a number of courts. The present primary
courts, namely villageandcommunitycourts, will be abolished and replaced with the
local courts, which will be divided into primary courts at the lowest level and
community courts which will be both courts of first instance and also appellate
courts against the decisions of the primary courts?\uc1 \u8217 ? Appeals from
decisions of community courts will be to the provincial }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 31 Clause 10(1) as read with clause 22(1).
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act and any
other lave:, the High Court has full original ali matters within Zimbabwe.
Exclusivity of jurisdiction in mattersdeternuna.\uc1 \u8212 ? ary law is,
therefore, not reposed in the primary and allied courts. The High Courtis-alio
seised (sic)of jurisdiction to hear and determine this applica bon even if it
weredderminable by customary law alone\uc1 \u8221 ? (pp.3-0. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Special note must be made of
the fact that section 30 of the Primary Courts Act repealed section 13(2) of the
Magistrates Court Ad which allowed a magistrate to avoid deciding a ca it required
the a prilica tion of customary law. However, it would appear that some }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 strates are unclear about their
jurisdiction in customary law matters, as well as the issue of whether or not they
have jurisdiction to apply section 3 of the Primary Courts Act which contains the
rules for the resolution of internal confl lets of la ws between customary and
general law. This confusion is well illustrated in the case of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nhamburo v
Nhamburo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(undated and unnumbered 1984 judgment of the magistrates court of the Province of
Matabeleland). The magistrate failed to realize that he had jurisdiction to apply
customary law and that he had the power to apply the provisions of section 3 of the
Primary Courts Ad when he dismissed an application for summary judgment by the
plaintiff for the ejection of the defendant from a house which the plaintiff
claimed he had a customary law right to occupy. The magistrate reasoned that since
community courts had been given jurisdiction to apply customary law, magistrates
courts did not have jurisdiction to determine matters governed by customary
law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
However, with due respect, there is no clause in the Magistrates Court Act or in
the Primary Courts Ad or any enactment which restricts magistrates courts to the
application of general law in the way that primary courts are restricted to the
application of customary law by section 110 Xa) and 11(2Xa) of the Primary Courts
Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Likely changes to structure and jurisdiction of courts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The court structure and
jurisdiction of courts just discussed above is most likely to be changed by the
Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989, which at the time of writing is still
being discussed within the Ministry of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs. It
is expected that the Bill will come before Parliament in late 1989 and it is also
expected that the 5th draft of the Bill which will be presented to Parliament will
be enacted without any substantial amendments. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If the Bill is enacted it will
substantially alter the present court structure and fundamentally redefine the
jurisdiction of a number of courts. The present primary courts, namely village and
community courts, will be abolished and replaced with the local courts, which will
be divided into primary courts at the lowest level and community courts which will
be both courts of first instance and also appellate courts against the decisions of
the primary courts?\uc1 \u8217 ? Appeals from decisions of community courts will
be to the provincial }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 31 Clause 10(1) as read with clause 22(1). }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Or LAWS }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2 and thereafter appeals will
go straight to the Supreme Court.\uc1 \u8221 ? The ;ion of primary and community
courts, which will be presided over by respectively, will be set at $2.50 and
55(X) respectively J% Both the ;e courts will have jurisdiction to entertain only
those cases that are cordance with customary law? They will have no jurisdiction
to apply lore significantly, they will also have no jurisdiction to entertain any
ovemed by customary law or general law, if that matter relates to the he
validity, effect or interpretation of a will or custody or guardianship lability
of any person to maintain another or rights in respect of any fly including land.
They will also have no power to dissolve any matters, which have been expressly
excluded from the jurisdiction of ill within the jurisdiction of magistrates
courts and for the first time \uc1 \u8226 ? have been given express jurisdiction
to apply customary law by the rtion 13 of the Magistrates Courts Act }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter 781, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which will be
In part: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
stratesl court shall have in all civil cases, whether determinable by the general
bwe or by customary law ...\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lye a customary law marriage
and to divide or reallocate the property rfor shall }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 now }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vest in the magistrates court. Magistra
tescourts will also fiction to determine guardianship and custody disputes in
respect of ;es solemnized in terms of the African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 238].\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in that both the magistrates
courts and High Court will have original rmine all civil cases whether governed by
customary law or general courts will have ju risdiction to hear only customary law
claims falling their monetary jurisdiction and also not falling within areas that
have luded from their jurisdiction, which areas include claims for custody )f
children, maintenance and divorce. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;ram illustrates the court structure that will be
established by the d Local Courts Bill, 1989, if and when it is enacted, }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (g). of Part If of the Schedule to the Bill which
affects this amendment. Part of the Schedule to the Bill. See also paragraph 2(a)
of Part II of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Coun
(Highest court, hears appeals (Toni all courts and thus can apply both general }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law and customary law) }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Coma (Can apply both general
law and customary law) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MACISTRATES COURTS (Can apply both general law and
customary law. Provincial division of magistrates courts also sit as appellate
courts for customary law cases coming from the community courts. Thereafter
appeals go directly to Supreme }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Court) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 COURTS (Jurisdiction to apply only customary law
subject to monetary limit of $500) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1.3.2 Classification of conflict problems and their
respective resolution }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Since a conflict of laws problem assumes the existence
of two or more separate inter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or external legal systems, it is generally convenient
to classify conflict of laws situatij }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 into three categories: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1 A conflict between a foreign system of
general law or customary law and a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimb4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wean general or customary law. 2 A conflict between
Zimbabwean general law and Zimbabwean customary law. 3 A conflict between two
different systems of Zimbabwean customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 13.3 Conflicts between a foreign system of
general law or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
customary law and Zimbabwean general law or customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This conflict situation would
generally be resolved by utilising conflict of law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 governing private international law. The
selection of whether a system of Zimbalm }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 la w, be it customary or general law, is
applicable as agai nst a foreign system of custo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law or general law is a matter falling
within the ambit of private international law! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 INTERNAL CONFLICT OF
LAWS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
4emational law, if a dispute relates to the formation or validity iould be
governed by the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 lex loci celebrationis, that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is, the law of age took place. Thus questions of the
validity of a marriage are he country or state in which the marriage was
contracted.\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law jurisdictions disputes as to the proprietary
consequences idance with private international law, governed by the law of the
domicile at the time of marriage.\uc1 \u8217 ? Disputes as to the other rights are
generally governed by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the lex domicilii, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that is, the law of the trties are domiciled at the
time of the cause of action. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ilia of laws situa lions does not fall within the scope
of this discussion, generalised treatment of the subject matter. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 letween customary law and
general law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
timing whether customa ry law or general law applies in a particular case, If
section 3 of the Primary Courts Act provide the guidelines which a court the
choice of law,process. This section makes general law and customary ems of law It
abolishes the colonial choice of law criteria based, solely on duces a social
criterion as the basic determinant as to whether customary al law should apply to
a particular case. In a seemingly non-mischievous lion 3 introduces a choice of
law criterion based on the class and social he individual litigants. This
criterion is intended to give the maximum degree in the choice of law process.
Such flexibility is necessary and desirable so as /courts a generous degree of
latitude in deciding which system of law to apply. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the Primary Courts Act provides
that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(1) Subject to the provisions of this section and of any other enactment, unless
the justice he case otherwise requires\uc1 \u8212 ? (a) customary law shall be
applicable in any civil case where\uc1 \u8212 ? (i) the parties have expressly
agreed that it should apply; or (ii) having regard to the nature of the case and
the surrounding circumstances, it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 appears that the parties have
agreed it should apply; or (iii) having regard to the nature of the case and the
surrounding circumstances, it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 appears just and proper that it should apply; and (b)
the general law of Zimbabwe shall be applicable in all other cases. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 dkosi v Chikosi }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (/) 1975 RLR 140 at
p.144. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Brown }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1921 AD 478,
Inns CJ stated at p.482 that: it is a clear rule of our law that ;hts of spouses
in regard to property must be regarded as regulated once and for all by v of the
husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile at marriage.\uc1 \u8221 ? Sec also }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Frankel\uc1 \u8217 ?s
Estateand Another v The Master wither }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1950 (1) SA 220 (AD) and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chikosi v Chikosi (3)1975 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 RLR 418. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN 71MBASWE }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (2) For the purposes of
paragraph }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(a) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of
subsection (1)\uc1 \u8212 ? \uc1 \u8221 ?surrounding circumstances\uc1 \u8221 ?, in
relation to a case, shall, without limiting the expression, include\uc1 \u8212 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) the mode of life of the
parties; (b) the subject matter of the case; (c) the understanding by the
parties of the provisions of customary law or the general }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law of Zimbabwe, as the
case may be, which apply to the case; (d) the relative closeness of the case and
the parties to customary law or the general law of Zimbabwe, as the case may
be.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Even if the Primary Courts Ad is repealed by the
Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989, if and when it is enacted these
provisions will be re-enacted as section 3 of the new legislation without any
amendments whatsoever. Accordingly, the discussion of the meaning and effect of
these provisions which follows will remain entirely valid, notwithstanding the
impending repeal of the Primary Courts Act, except that all references to primary
courts must be read as references to local courts if the said Bill becomes law. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is clear from this
application of customary law is made subject to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 relevant applicalj2je..arttile.
If it is determined that a statute relevant to the issue being litigated exists,
then that statute should be applied. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This gives rise to the question of whether every
statute that governs family law matters overrides customary law in its field of
sub trueapplication. In other words, do all family law statutes apply to all per
c uding those that would normally be governed by customary law? This issue cannot
be fully understood without considering its historical context. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under the choice of law rules
of the colonial state, statutes relating to certain specified areas of family law
did not affect the application of customary law to Africans unless otherwise
specifically provided. Section 2 of the African Law and Tribal Courts Act }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 237), in
defining customary law, provided that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?customary la}{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 , in relation to a
particular African tribe, means the legal principles and judicial practices of
such tribe except in so far as such principles or practices are repugnant
to\uc1 \u8212 ? (a) natural justice or morality; or (b) the provision of any
enactment: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Provided that nothing inany enactment
relating to theage of majority, thestatusof women, the effect of marriage on the
property of the spouses, the guardianship of children or the administration of
deceased estates, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 shall affect }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 theapplication }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of customary law, except in }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 so }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 far as such }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enactment has been specifically
applied to Africans by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that or any other }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enactment\uc1 \u8221 ? (emphasis
added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
This provision, which resulted in most of the twerity-srneorsocolonial family la w
sta lutes relating to the specified matters not applying to Africans, was repealed
by the Primary Courts Act in 1981. These statutes were in fact all silent
concerning their applicability to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Africans but as a result of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the above-quoted colonial
provision, they did not apply to disputes between Africans At the time of their
enactment they were clearly not intended to apply to Africans. However, with the
repeal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
provision that excluded their application, all or most of these statutes may have
become applicable to all Zimbabweans regardless of race. the numerous statutes now
apply to Africans is still an ambiguous issue as there has Supreme Court decision
to date. Clearly, legislative intervention is necessary In clarify the situation.
For the present, however, since statute law overrides both common law and
customary law, it would appear that all statutes apply to all Zimbabweans unless
the contrary is provided (or. In the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case of family }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law statutes, no contrary is provided for and as a
general proposition it should follow that all family law Aaiun% apply to Africans.
A brief discussion of the history of the marriage laws governing the marriagcsof
Africans is instructive in gaining a deeper insight into the ex tent of coverage
of family law statutes. From the early colonial period until the present time
Africans could contract two forms of valid marriages. The first of thew was a
monogamous marriage under the general la }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provided for in the Marriage Art (Chapter
371. The second was a potentially polygamous customary law marriage under the
African Marriages Act !Chapter 238!. Nevertheless, apart from the requirements for
the solemnization and dissolution marriage, all consequences of marriages
contracted by Africans under the general law were governed by customary law. This
was due to the combined effects of the above- quoted proviso to the definition of
customary law in the African Law and Tribal Courts Act, the choice of law rules in
section 3 of the same Act which sta ted that disputes between Africans relating to
custody, guardianship, status, devolution of property, marriage consideration,
seduction, adultery and all marriages under the African Marriages Act }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !Chapter 238) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 were to be
governed by customary law, and section 13 of the African Marriages Act which
provided that the solemnization of a marriage between Africans in terms of }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage Act }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter
37Iwould }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not
affect the property rights of the spouses which would be determined in accordance
with customary law. As Dr D Galen has put it: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0
\lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?About the only real
distinction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
het }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
different forms of marriage then available to Africans was that there }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 were }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 different requirements for
contracting a marnage, different grounds on which a divorce could obtained and
differences of whether or not a husband could lawfully take other wives while he
had an existing marriage.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Of the three above-cited provisions all
have been repealed by the Primary Courts Act, except for section 13 of the African
Marriages }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act
which still stands in our statute books. As a result of the continued existence of
this section, the Married Persons Property Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter .38), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Antenuptial Contracts Act !
Chapter 291, and the Deceased Estates Succession Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter 3021 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 remain inapplicable to
Africans. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Section 13 is not overridden by the new choice of law criteria contained in the
Primary Courts Act since section 3 of the Primary Courts Act begins with the
statement \uc1 \u8221 ?subject }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the provisions of this section and of any other
enactment Accordingly }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guidelines in section 3 of the Primary Courts Act apply
only subject to a releva }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 applicable statute, so that a court may not resort to
the guidelines it another statute tt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 uti want apply UM: law a> u }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 particularly, since section 13
of the African Marriages Act stipulates that the propel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0
\itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rights of
African spouses married under the general law shall be governed by eustomar }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law, Africans may not have the
proprietary consequences of their marriage governed I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 general law. Africans cannot,
therefore, execute the instrument referred to in section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Married Persons Property
Act in order to create a property regime that is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 community of property. Similarly, a
surviving African spouse cannot rely on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provisions of the Deceased Estates Succession Act to
inherit any property from the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of his or her deceased spouse.\uc1 \u8221 ? Regardless
of the type of marriage, if an African di }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intestate, the heir will be the heir
according to customary law.t If an African marries? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 non-African under general law or marries
another African while abroad,\uc1 \u8221 ? general lin }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 will control the proprietary
consequences of their marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It should, however, be noted that when an \uc1 \u8221 ?
African\uc1 \u8221 ? marriage under the Marriage Atli }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 African Marriages Act is
dissolved by divorce, the courts have the power to re-allocate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property of the spouses in
accordance with the provisions of section 7 of the Ma t rirtioni }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of
1985). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
The extent of coverage of the Guardianship of Minors Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 341, merits a }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 br }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 discussion here.c During the
colonial period this Act did not apply to Africans regardk of the form of their
marriage because of the restrictive provisions of theTribal Courts A }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 After the enactment of the
Primary Courts Act there was no provision in any law that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provided that disputes between
Africans in respect of guardianship, custody and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to children be decided in accordance with
customary law. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Chitiyo v Chitiyo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-14-201 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 83 (not reported in the 1983
Zimbabwe Law Reports) McNally J, as he then was, held that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Guardianship of Minors Act
now applies to custody disputes between two African] }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 43 D Galen, \uc1 \u8221 ?Internal
Conflicts Between Customary Law and General Law in Zimbabwe: Family }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Law as a Case Study\uc1
\u8221 ?, ZL Rev. Vol. 1 and 2, 1983-84, 3 at p.20. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The full provisions of section 13 state t
ha i:\uc1 \u8221 ?The solemnization of a marriage between Africans\uc1 \u8217 ? in
terms of the Marriage Act shall not affect the property of the spouses which shall
beheld, may; be disposed of and unless disposed of by will, shall devolve
according to African law and\uc1 \u8217 ? custom\uc1 \u8221 ?. This is achieved
by the combin&I effects of section 13 of the African Marriages Act, section 6A }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the Primary Courts Act and
section 69 of the Administration of Estates Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3011 46 Section 13 of the African
Marriages Act quoted does not apply it the marriage is solemnized }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 accordance with any law other
than the Marriage Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 (Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 371. For a fuller discussion of conflict of laws in
respect of proprietary consequences
of marriage refer to Ncube (supra), Chapter 4. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 47 A fuller discussion of the extent of
application of this Act together with a discussion of its }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 substantive provisions is found
in Chapter 7. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
INTERNAL OF LAWS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parents married under the
general law. Thus the Act now applies to Africans married under the general law of
the country\uc1 \u8221 ? and it would appear that the general law now governs all
issues arising from marriages of Africans under the Marriage Act with the
exception of proprietary consequences. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The more difficult question is whether the Act applies
to guardianship and custody disputes involving children whose parents are married
under the African Marriages Act. There is no statement in any enactment or law
that can be reasonably interpreted to exclude its application. However, the
position is unclear and requires legislative intervention. It is suggested that
such intervention should provide that all consequences of marriages contracted
under the Marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 371, be
governed by the general law and that all family law statutes should apply to all
Zimbabweans without limitation, including those who have contracted customary law
marriages. In other words, where a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that stall/le !hn of all Zimbabweans rerarclless }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouses who have contracted a cu stoma] by a statutory
provision. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
iage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 only }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 if the dispute is not covered }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 135 The application of the
choice of law guidelines }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 As a result of the racially neutral, socially based
choice of law criteria introduced by the provisions of section 3 of The Primary
Courts Act, customary law is now occasionally applied to non-Africans. The only
such case that has reached the Supreme Court is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lopez v Nzumalo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 115/85. This case was a
claim by an African widow for damages for the seduction of her daughter who had
been seduced by the defendant, a white man of Portuguese extraction. The defendant
contended that customary law was not applicable to him since he was not acquainted
with that system of law. The Supreme Court rejected the argument and held that
customary law was applicable to the case. The Chief Justice, Mr Justice
Dumbutshena, said: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?It must not be assumed that every white
man has an acquaintance with the general law of the land and is ignorant of
African custom. Some whites know African custom better than the Africans
themselves \uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thedetcrmination of which system of law applies to a
particular case will depend on the specific provisions of section 3 which are
discussed below. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 note that in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Musakwa a Musakwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 11 /84 the Supreme Court, in
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an obiter
dictum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
stated that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Africans who arc married under the Marriage Act could agree that customary law }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 would
govern their }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
disputes as to custody. Clearly such }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 obiter is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not supported by the choice }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of law rules which }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 state that where there is
an applicable statute parties cannot agree to oust }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the application of }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that statute. For a full
critique of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Musakwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 rulihg see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 D Galen,\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Arrear, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Maintenance and the Jurisdiction }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of Community
Courts
in Custody Disputes\uc1 \u8221 ?, ZL Rev. Vol. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and 2, 1983-84, 260. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Subject to the
provisions of case othenuise requires\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This provision has already bet:
family law statutes. All that ret the case otherwise requires....\uc1 \u8221 ?
Tribal Courts Act. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Print v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court, on the basis of the Europ }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 proprietary consequences of tl
riagcs Act which required the submitted that such an interprc of the Act.\uc1
\u8221 ? Similarly, it is sub of the Primary Courts Act cam a statute
specifically requires of sect:on \uc1 \u8217 ?t of the Pr arc t a court diiccti
court to refuse to apply custom far removed from the incident! of the case\uc1
\u8221 ? to apply customar In short, the \uc1 \u8221 ?justice of the am , .
and ignore a statute that requl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?justice of the case\uc1 \u8221 ? clause
sin cases where its application we }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Customary law shall be appl tikshould
apply\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cases in which parties have a problems.
Agreement to the al law, as the case may be, clearly However, it should be noted
th where anIpplicable statutory the agreement of the parties is power to agree
to have their di statutory provision controls ti choose to agree that a dispute
decided in accordance with Matrimonial Causes Act, divided in accordance with
right to settle a dispute abet with customary law since }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 49 For a fuller critique of tf
50 See also D Galen }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (suprof }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN ilMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar
\langfenp12297 1. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Subject }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the provisions of this section and of any other
enactment, unless the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 *gift }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the me otherwise requires }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This provision has already been
discussed under the extent of coverage of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 substantive }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 family }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law statutes. All that remains
is to discuss briefly the clause \uc1 \u8221 ?unless the justice of the case
otherwise requires....\uc1 \u8221 ?, this clause having also been contained in the
repealed Tribal Courts Ad. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jirira v Jirira }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1976 7 this clause was interpreted as
permitting a court, on the basis of the Europeanized lifestyle of the parties, to
apply general law to the proprietary consequences of their marriage and ignore
section 13 of the African Marriages Act which required the application of customary
law. However, it is respectfully submitted that such an interpretation of the
provision was not supported by the language of the Act.\uc1 \u8221 ? Similarly, it
is submitted that the \uc1 \u8221 ?justice of the case\uc1 \u8221 ? provision in
section 3 of the Primary Courts Act cannot be used to oust the application of
customary law where a statute specifically requires that customary law be applied.
This is so because the entire }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provisions ofscctIon3ofthe}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rrimaryCourtsAct,includingthe }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?
hist ice of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
case\uc1 \u8221 ? clause arc to a Contrary direction in any other enactment. it
would be wrong for a court to refuse to apply customary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law on the grounds }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the parties\uc1 \u8217 ? way of
life was so far removed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 from the incidents of customary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law that it would be contrary
to the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\uc1 \u8221 ?justice of the case\uc1 \u8221 ? to apply customary law to their
dispute as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
was done in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 *int }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 V }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jirira }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra). In short, the \uc1 \u8221 ?justice of the
case\uc1 \u8221 ? clause does not empower }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a court to apply general law }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and ignore a statute that
requires customary law to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be applied. It is submitted that the\uc1 \u8221 ?
justice }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the
case\uc1 \u8221 ? clause simply means that customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 should not be applied in }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cases where its
application would lead to injustice.50 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Customary law shall be applicable in any
civil case where the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parties have expressly agreed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -4 should apply\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cases in which parties have agreed that customary law
should }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
be applied present no }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 problems. Agreement to the application to a dispute of either }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary
law or general }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
law, as the case may be, clearly d isposes of the issue of which }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 system of law is
applicable., }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
However, it should be noted that parties cannot agree to t he applica }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tion of
customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
where an\uc1 \u8217 ?tpplicable statutory provision which governs the dispute is in
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 existence
since }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the
agreement of the parties is made subject to \uc1 \u8221 ?any }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enactment\uc1 \u8221 ?. Thus
parties have no }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 power to agree to have their dispute decided in accordance }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 with
customary law where a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 statutory provision controls their rights and/or duties. For }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 example,
parties may not choose }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to agree that a dispute relating to the division of
their property at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 divorce shall }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be decided in accordance with customary law for the
simple }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
reason that section 7 of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of 1985) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 requires that
their }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
property shall be divided in accordance with the guidelines therein }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provided. Similarly, }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parties
have no right to settle a dispute about the maintenance of an out of wedlock child
in accordance with customary law since section 12(48b) of the Primary Courts Act
governs the matter. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 49 For a fuller critique of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Print }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ruling see NI Ncube (supra),
p.222. 50 See also D Galen }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.11. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF LAWS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 dispute can unilaterally elect that his or her case be
governed by customary al law. Where there is no agreement it is the duty of
thecnurt to determine not law applies, and it must do so in accordance with the
giiidel pro v ed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 raring regard to the nature of the case and the
surrounding circumstances it appears votes have agreed that customary law }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 should apply\uc1
al ling under this provision are those where the plaintiff chooses a particular
defendant does not challenge forum or the jurisdiction of the court. In Is, the
defendant does not challenge the applicability of the system }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law he plaintiff. . In that
event, the court would apply as the system upon which the \uc1 \u8217 ?ear to have
agreed, the system of law chosen by the plaintiff and acquiesced efendant. If the
court entertains any doubt as to the applicability of the system the plaintiff and
to which the defendant appears to have acquiesced then it an evidentiary hearing
before hearing the merits of the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s claim. Every inherent
jurisdiction to determine whether or not a particular system of law the dispute
bef ore it. Further, every court has jurisdiction to determine whether as
jurisdiction to hear a case. A primary court (or local court if and when the ry
Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989 becomes law) may therefore hold an ry hearing on
jurisdiction where it is in doubt or where it is contended that ow and not
customary law should apply to the case beton. it. Thus, the court must fence on
the nature of the case and the \uc1 \u8221 ?surrounding circumstances\uc1 \u8221 ?
as defined :lion to determine which system of law properly applies to the
case.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
arising from a marriage contracted in terms of customary law would normally ned by
customary law because the \uc1 \u8221 ?surrounding circumstances\uc1 \u8221 ? would
point to ication of customary law. In other words, parties who contract a
customary law e under the African Marriages Act \uc1 \u8221 ?appear to have
agreed\uc1 \u8221 ? that customary law ;ovem their rights. Very strong contrary
factors would have to be shown for such lo escape the application of customary law
to their dispute. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 ere }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
having }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
regard to the nature of the case and the surrounding circumstances, it }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 appears }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 proper that customary
law should apply\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 )vision would be resorted to in those cases where the
defendant challenges the bility of the system of law chosen by the plaintiff.
Where the plaintiff has brought m before a primary court and the defendant
challenges the applicability oi ary law, the determination of which system of law
should apply also determines r or not the court has jurisdiction to hear the }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 case }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If the primary
court finds that ary law does not govern the dispute, it must dismiss the case for
lack of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.12 and W
Ncube, \uc1 \u8221 ?The Decision in Katekue v Mu: : A critique\uc1 \u8221 ?, a Rev
1 and 2, 1983-84, pp.222-223. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Calen }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.12-13. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW IN 7IMBARWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 jurisdiction. The burden of
proof as to the non-applicability of customary law lies on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 party claiming that general law
governs the dispute. In a primary court, therefore.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 defendant beats theonus of
provingthatcustomary law does not apply and that the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 accordingly lacks jurisdiction to
determine the merits of the dispute. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If the case is before a magistrates court or the }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 H }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 igh Courteand the defendant
contends }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
the system of law under which the plaintiff has made his or her claim is not the 5)
that applies to the dispute, the onus rests on
him or her to prove his or her amtentk }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Once the defendant has put the applicability of the
system of law chosen by the plait }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in issue, the magistrates court or High Court must hold
an evidentiary hearing) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 determine the proper system of law to apply to the
case. Since the magistrates court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the High Court both have jurisdiction to apply both
customary law and general }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 determination of which system of law applies to a
dispute is not a jurisdictional one }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that whatever the finding of the court, it would
proceed to determine the case }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 whichever system of law it found applicable. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In settling the choice of law
dispute Zimbabwean courts are required to examine }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nature of the case and the surrounding
circumstances in order to decide if \uc1 \u8221 ?it appearsj }{\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \lang12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and proper\uc1 \u8221 ?that customary law should apply.
Thus the court must consider the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roundingcircumstancrs\uc1 \u8221 ? when dealing with
internal conflict of laws disputes. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The term \uc1 \u8221 ?surrounding circumstances\uc1
\u8221 ? is defined in section 3(2) of the Primary Cot Act as follows: }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?For the purposes
of paragraph (a) of subsection (1)\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?surrounding circumstances\uc1
\u8217 ?, in relation to a case, shall, without limiting the expressiair }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 include\uc1 \u8212 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) the mode of life of the
oarties: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(b) the subject matter of the case; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (c) the understanding by the parties of the provisions
of customary law or the gener4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law of Zimbabwe, as the case may be, which apply to the
case; (d) the relative closeness of the case and the parties to customary law or
the gencrallas of Zimbabwe, as the case may be\uc1 \u8221 ? (emphasis added). }
\fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is clear that the factors
listed in the Act as constituting \uc1 \u8221 ?surroundingcircumstances\uc1
\u8221 ? an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
not exhaustive. Thus, in addition to the specified factors the court may consider
any othet }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
factors which it considers relevant to the case. No single factor is dispositive of
the chola of law dispute. All factors, each in turn, and weighed each against the
other, must Ix considered so as to establish the system of law which it is ptoper
to apply. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The mode of life of the parties includes their lifestyle, habits, cultural leanings
and soda }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
norms. The mode of life of an African peasant normally adheres to the norms, values
and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
beliefs of African traditional society. Likewise, the mode of life of the majority
working class is in accordance with traditional norms and values, notwithstanding
the, I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
urbanisation. Accordingly, the mode of life of these two classes Zimbabwe\uc1
\u8217 ?s socieq }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 CaNTUCT OF LAWS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 would normally prescribe the application of customary
law. The mode of life of the African petty-bourgeoisie on the other hand is rather
ambivalent. While this class enjoys a modernized lifestyle with all the comforts
and trappings of bourgeois society in the luxurious suburbs in the cities, some
significant elements of it retain an amazing attachment to African feudal and
traditional va lues and remain loyal to most of the feudal mystical beliefs about
ancestral spirits. Petty-bourgeois men and women often faithfully perform all the
traditional ceremonies required by the world of ancestral spirits, while enjoying
a mode of life that is typically modern
and petty-bourgeoisie. Be that as it may, their non-customary/traditional day to
day living in accordance with modern standards normally overweighs their mystical
attachments to traditional values. Accordingly, in the majority of cases, the mode
of life of the African bourgeoisie and petty-bourgeoisie would indicate
application of general law. In a dispute between an African peasant or worker and
a white, the mode of life of the African will normally indicate the applicability
of customary law, while that of the white will pull towards general law. In }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a case, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the mode of life
of the parties balance each other. Where the mode of life of each of the parties
indicates the same system of law as, for example, in a case between a westernised
African petty-bourgeoisie and a white, this would be a factor weighing kavily in
favour of the application of that system, in this example, general law. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 With respect to paragraph (b)
the subject matter of the case will often point decisively in one direction or the
other. In others the subject matter may be neutral. As Dr D Galen has }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pointed out: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?A dispute over a
negotiable instrument is not likely to fall under customary law. A dispute over
lobolo is likely to do so753 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 trhesubiect matter of most family law disputes would be
neutral. Thus disputes in respect }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 if. f seduction damages, adultery damages,
guardianship and custody of children, main- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enance, proprietary consequences of marriage and
paternity, arc all neutcal. However, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a dispute }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 arises out of a marriage contracted under customary law
in terms of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 African Marriages Actithe fact of the customary
marriage would stronglyindieate the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\afs22 \rtlch \alang1025
application of customary law. Indeed, it can be forcefully argued that where panics
have contracted a customary law marriage, it should be taken as given that they
have opted for customary law to govern their rights. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The non-existence of a cause of
action in one system as opposed to the other is not a relevant factor. Thus the
question of which of the parties will win or lose under one or other system is
totally irrelevant and must not be considered by the courts\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 With respect to paragraph (c)
the understanding of the parties of customary law or general law would hardly be
relevant in the majority of cases. A significant number of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?bid , }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.15. 54 See Ncube,
\uc1 \u8217 ?The Decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kildare V Muchabaiwa: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A critique\uc1 \u8221 ?, (supra ), p.222.
\uc1 \u9632 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
FAMILY LAW 7JMBASWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 peasant elders may know some customary law, but the
same can hardly be said of the younger generations. With the exception of lawyers,
virtually all urban people, black or white, rich or poor, have little
understanding of the law of Zimbabwe. be it customary or general law. For example,
before a man has sexual intercourse with a woman he hardly ever stops to think of
the law he does not know, let alone the applicable law of paternity or custody, be
it under general la w or customary law. I lowever, there air instances where this
criterion would be relevant in practice. An example of such an instance would be if
both parties to \uc1 \u8221 ?a contract have a clear understanding about how
customary law would deal with a dispute over it and no understanding about how
general law would deal with it, plainly this constitutes a strong indication that
customary law should apply\uc1 \u8221 ?.ss }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The cri teria of the relative closeness of the case and
the parties to customary
la w or genera law as provided for in paragraph (c) would be difficult to
distinguish from the factor of the mode of life of the parties. The two factors
are closely related and have overlapping constituent elements. The mode of life of
an individual is an abstraction from his or her culture, while these cultural
inclinations will also determine his or her relative closeness to either system of
law. Indeed, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
law constitutes part of a culture land] Zimbabwe has .... many cultures. A case
will have a relative closeness to that body of law and to the related culture to
which the case and the panics have the closest connection.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217
? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
Nevertheless, there are a number of factors that can be considered under the
\uc1 \u8221 ?relative closeness\uc1 \u8221 ? test. These include the lace where
actin arose, the nature-of-the caw? the place where the parties rest e, t }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 class position o Tie
parties and the language of the transaction.s\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 After the cou rt has consi
dered and weighed each of these gu idel i nes one aga inst the oth er, it must
make its determination as to the applicable system of law. The applicable system
of law would be that system towards which the preponderance of the factors point.
In cases where the factors balance out, neither weighing heavily towards either
customary or general law, the court must apply the system of law chosen by the
plaintiff. In that event, the defendant, on whom the onus of proof lay, would have
failed to discharge the onus resting on him or her and his or her challenge of the
applicability of the system chosen by the plaintiff would have failed. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 )t3.6 Conflicts between
different systems of customary law Many different systems of customary law are
applicable throughout the country. In this\uc1 \u8226 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 55 Galen }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.15. 56 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mid, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.13. 57 Obviously thisoverlaps with
the \uc1 \u8221 ?subject matter of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case\uc1 \u8221 ? criteria in paragraph (b) of sect) }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3(2). 58 For a more detailed
discussion of this factor sec! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Galen (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp\uc1 \u8226 ?15-16. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 CONN NT I AWS }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 conflict would fall, for
example, a dispute as to whether Ndebele or Shona rary law applies to a particular
case. Before independence this type of conflict was led by section 4 of the
African Law and Tribal Courts Ad, which provided that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?In }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 any }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case where customary law is
applicable }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
parties are connected with different tribes with different systems of customary
law, the court shall apply the cuseomary law by Which the parties agreed or May be
presumed to have agreed that their obligations should be regulated or, in the
absence of such actual or presumed agreement, the customs ry law of the place
where the cause of action arose or, if there is no customary law of that place or
it is not ascertainable, the principles of justice, equity and good
conscience.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 these colonial choice of law guidelines, the court was
obliged to ascertain whether rties had expressly or impliedly agreed to a
particular system of customary law. there was no such agreement the customary law
of the place where the cause of \uc1 \u8217 ?arose was to be applied. This implies
that the colonial state considered systems of nary law to be-territorially defined
and lacking inpersonal significance. Thus an n did not travel with his or her
system of law but became amenable to the law of ice where he or she
resided.\uc1 \u8217 ? The Primary Courts Act reversed this position so that no
system of customary law is restricted to any one geographical area. Customary now
considered a personal system of law and travels with the member of the kilar
ethnic group whose law it is. Consequently it can be applied in appropriate
regardless of where the cause of action arose or where the case is being heard. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ptermination of which system of
customary law is applicable to a particular }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is hied by section 4 of the Primary
Courts Ad which provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?In any case where customary law is
applicableand the parties are connected with different systems of customary law,
thecourt shall apply t he customa law by which the parties have agreed that their
obligations should be regulated or, in the absence of such agreement, the
customary law with which the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and the parties have the closest connexion and, if that
is not ascertainable the court shall apply that system of customary law which the
court considers it would be just and fair to apply in the determination of the
case.\uc1 \u8221 ?60 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e involving this provision has been heard by the High
Court, nor has any such case the Supreme Court since the Primary Courts Act came
into ef fed. Over the years (stems of customary law have developed strikingly
similar legal rules in virtually s
of family law with differences remaining only in areas of minor detail.
Accord;enuine internal conflict problems involving two or more systems of customary
unlikely to arise in practice. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 generally Bennett }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.88-90. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 if the Customary Law and Primary Courts
Act is repealed by the Customary Law and Courts Bill, 1989 if, and when, it is
enacted, this section will be re-enacted verbatim by cm 8 the Bill. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 2 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Seduction, breach of promise and return
of engagement gifts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2.1 Seduction under general law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Roman-Dutch common law
delict of seduction being }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 soli gowns }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is not bai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 actio injuriarum! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The delict is committed by a man on an
unmarried woman will }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 he has sexual intercourse with her consent. The consenting woman is
permitted }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
man for sedyclion.rtamages and the delict, being }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sui generis, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cannot be defeatet }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 defence of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The action for seduction is
thus \uc1 \u8221 ?available to a virgin who has been seduced, that i }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has parted with her virtue at
the solicitation }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 of a rip ntand the is that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as a result of the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In order to succeed a woman who
sues for seduction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 damages must }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 prove, on a t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of probabilities, that she and the
defendant had sexual intercourse. Upon proof }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intercourse, two presumptions MI-Media
tely_arise in her favour. She s presumed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 been seduced and to have been a virgin
until
the time of seduction. Once the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lions arise the onus shiftsro the defendant to rebut
the presumptions of seductit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or virginity. If he fails to he is liable in: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 daOlages }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d3.Qwoman. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Accordingly, the delict of
seduction has three requisites, namely: that there was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intercourse between the
plaintiff and the defendant; that the plaintiff woman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 seduced; and that she was a
virgin up to the time of seduction.\uc1 \u8217 ? Crony\uc1 \u8217 ?s 3.35.8 and
Voct 48.5.3. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .Bull
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1963 (4)
SA 29 (AD) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.34 which
was cited with approval by the Supreme! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of Zimbabwe in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe v Muchabaiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 87/81. See also }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bensimon v
Barton }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
A 1)13 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Claascen v van der Watt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1969 (3) SA 68 (T) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 71;-van den Heever, pp.41-43
and Pringle. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
3 Soar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
katekwe Muchabaiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
SC 87/84 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.17. }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF PROMISE AND OF }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, of these three only
the requirement of sexual intercourse needs to be proved and after it has been
proved the remaining two requirements are presumed in favour of the woman. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2.1.1 Proof of sexual
intercourse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
The onus of proving sexual intercourse rests on the woman alleging seduction. If
the I defendant admits the alleged act of sexual intercourse, the plaintiff
succeeds on the basis of her allegation and the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s
admission.\uc1 \u8217 ? If, however, the defendant denies the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 act of sexual intercourse, the
plaintiff must prove that sexual intercourse took place. Generally, proof of a
degree of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1
penetration sufficient }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 to sustain a charge of rape will }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Whereas proof of penetration
is essential proof of ejaculation is not, however, a requirement, nor is it
necessary that the penetration result in the rupture }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s hymen, }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In early cases the South
African courts took the view that a woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s evidence of sexual
intercourse should be corroborated by some independent evidence. Consequently, even
or if the court was satisfied that the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s evidence was true, as a
cautionary rule of evidence the court also required that her evidence be
corroborated by some independent }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 facts or circumstances inconsistent with the
defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s denial. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Schalk-Payer }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Poticiatee }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 De Villiers JP put it as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Having come to the
conclusion that the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s evidence is to be believed, the law
still imposes upon me the duty of seeing that there is sufficient corroborative
evidence, such evidence afthe law requires in order to enable me to give judgement
in favour of the plaintiff.\uc1 \u8221 ?7 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C, i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I leunisv Johnson }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 18 CTR 152; Voct 48.5.6;
var. den Hoover, p.51; and Pringle, p.97. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 generally CL Mercer, \uc1 \u8221 ?
Engagement, Breach of Promise and S..M..iction\uc1 \u8221 ?, 1971RW-Vol.1148, at
pp.64-68. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
See van den Hoover, p.46 and Pringle, p.97. 1916 TPD 188. See also }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Le Roux v
Neethling }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (9)
SC 247 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Klerk Drake }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1920 CPD 511. At p.191. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mackay v Ballot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1921 TPD 430 at p.432. Pp.51-60. See also Pringle,
pp.98-99. 1981 (3) SA 348 (AD) at p.351. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ing corroboration }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 aliande }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .__ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, van den Heevershaiaieuecl that
this rule }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
LW:lite 1143 uV ,e atn a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 WC C UllulnnI IUIC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 011U d3 CO 03 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 methods of proof. He concludes that by
misapplying the statements of Roman-Dutch }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1,1 A }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 WWI nil Milli I la \uc1 \u8226 ? }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 VV I able and cannot be
applied in practice.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Meyer v Williams9 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the South African Appellate Division
accepted van den Heever\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 b }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 L}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN AMBAMYE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 arguments and ruled that the: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -courts should no longer, as a
matter of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 insist upon corroboration of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 complainants_ in paternity or seduction
cases. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
As a rule of practice }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the trial court should?. . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 always warn itself of the inherent danger
of acting upon the testimony of the complainant411\uc1 \u8217 ?i }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in a paternity case-1\uc1 \u176
? (emphasis added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimbabwean courts have not pronounced authoritatively
on whether they are bound by this alleged common law rule.\uc1 \u8221 ? However,
section 19 of the Civil Evidence Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4/I provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?It shall be lawful for the
court by which any suit is tried to find on any issue of fact, and in respect of
finding to give judgement for or against any party to such suit on the evidence of
any single competent and credible witness.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This section appears to empower a court to
rely on the uncorroborated evidence of the if such court accepts the
truthfulnes&of such evidence., Thus, it would appear that Zimbabwean courts are
not bound by the Roman-Dutch common law rule - requiring corroboration }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a hurt& }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of a
woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s evidence in respect of allegations of sexual }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intercourse. However, in
practice, whether or not our courts are bound by the alleged Roman-Dutch common
law rule should make very little difference since: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 atter Nun panics ana men
witnesses nave et-en exarmnea anu cross-exammea unuer oath a judge who is fully
convinced of the truth of the plaintiffs allegations is so lacking in astuteness
that in the whole complex of surrounding circumstances he cannot find and
formulate a few considerations which are \uc1 \u8221 ?in some degree\uc1 \u8221 ?
consistent with plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s story and inconsistent with the innocence
of the defendant, he would probably never have attained the Bench. Moreover, he
would fail to do justice.\uc1 \u8221 ?I2 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2.1.2 Presumption of seduction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Establishment of the fact of
sexynintercourse between the parties raises a presumption that the woman was
seduced\uc1 \u8212 ?or that sheparted with her virtue at the solicitation of the
defendant. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Van den Heever\uc1 \u8221 ? has succinctly put it as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10 At p.352. 11 However, in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gate v
Ngoreta and Muringwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 SC 57/:: the Supreme Court, in a passage that is }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 difficult to follow and
understand, appeared to cite with approval the case of Meyer v }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Williams }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 even though in an earlier
case }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Hodges v Weak }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
SC 12/82 the Supreme Court appeared to have accepted that our law requires
corroboration of the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s evidence in seduction and paternity
cases. 12 van den Heever, pp35-56. 13 At p.45. See also Pringle at pp.?0-92 and
Mercer }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.64.
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 AND RETURN OF CATS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \{nscquently, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the presumption is that the
Ks.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ht must show that the plaintiff was in While the fact
that the woman is lisumption, it is an important factor may be raiser:VI-ern that
the woman intercourse she stipulated or received for the enjoyment of her body,
would ptancv of money or presents fmm the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 ned away ha }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 virginity\uc1 \u8221 ? in exchange for }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 urse with other men after her
seduction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
n. In Strad }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
it was stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r at the tlincof_such loss, and it is, therefore, be
said to have forfeited itagainsther seducer, tted herself with other men, and has
thus gone h he led her.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r as long as she states that she is
unmarried. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
id }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has proved
sexual intercourse, she }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Jinn of virpinita }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 difficult to rebut for the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Lout }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iminoraLcnnclocton the part
of the a virgin at the time of seduction)! The t the plaintiff had had sexual
intercourse lilted act of sexual intercourse with the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 images
where sexual intercourse has been proven }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p46. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 view that where Inc plaintiff has had she forfeits
the right to seduction damages. See that: \uc1 \u8221 ?on principle, the
plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s conduct a fter her claim or serves to aggravate
damages.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by rebutting either the presumption of
virginity or seduction. However, thereweft, defences available to a defendant who
has admitted to having had or has been prc, have had sexual intercourse with the
plaintiff. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
It is a defence for the defendant to show that the plaintiff continued to cohabit
wit in full knowledge that he ( thedefendant) was unable or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Estate dc Vries,\uc1
\langfenp12297 de Villiers CJ stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?The ca }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 use }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of action arose when she was deprived of
her virginity and de Vries\uc1 \u8217 ? subsoi intercourse with her did not add to
his liability. On the contrary, by deliberately electi receive favours from him,
instead of breaking the connection and suing for damage seduction, she reduced and
ultimately extinguished her claim for damages.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s
action extinguishes only after the lapse of a considerable period of time, only
ifshe is aware that the def endan t is unable or unwilling to marry her. I f she
contin with the vela tionship believing that the defendarins gbIligl6inarry her,
her right of act against the defendant remains intact and is not extinguished by
her continued cohab Lion with the defendant.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
It has been held that the fact that the woman knew at the time of the seduction
than defendant was unable to marry her cannot be a bar to her action.2\uc1
\u8217 ? This position haslx }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 taken by the courts in spite of the fact that }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Voet22
maintained that a woman who }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 seduce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Iwthas }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 no claim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 for seduction?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 \par }\pard \plain
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 \par }\pard \plain \li0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under the old Roman-Dutch
common law a seducer who tendered marriage could not) sued successfully for
seduction damages since it was within his choiceto either marryll, }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 stir }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 girl or to pay damages. However
in modern law it has been held that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 seducer\uc1 \u8217 ?s choice to marry the plaintiff has
been extinguished by the statutory abolit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the action to compel marriage that a
seducer who tenders marriage which is by the piaintiff would still be liable for
seduction damages to her?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 18 1906 SC 532. 19 At p.538-9. See also Pringle,
pp.94-95. 20 See, for example, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bull Taylor (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where the fact that the plaintiff had
continued t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
21 22 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfenp12297 WI IWIl ...... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ?}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for seduction
damages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !knsimon v
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Parton
1919 AD 13 and Mercer (supra), pp.65-66. 485.4. \uc1 \u8226 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2.3 See generally Pringle,
pp.89-90 and van den Heaver, pp.49-50. 24 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mulholland v smith }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1910 (10) CC 33 and }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Delport v Ah Yee
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1913 EDL
374. See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
pp.87-89 and var den Heever pp.47-49 where the decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Delport }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v An }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Yee }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 criticised as an instance of a hard case
making bad law. i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 2 SIDOCOON, I OF PRONINE AND RETURN
OF GIFTS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Thibieasure of damages }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 seduction damages are intended to compensate the
seduced woman for the loss of virginity and for the presumably diminished suitable
marriage?, the assessment of damages, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 social }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ending }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 theparitesis
considered, and Wny eilationslet that may have existed between-Me-parties is
viewed as an aggravat, ig factor. The fact that the defendant had fraudulently
represented himself to be single\uc1 \u8212 ? vhile married would also be an
aggra_vating_factor.\uc1 \u8217 ? In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matukidze v Matsinder }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in ipholding the court }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a quo\uc1 \u8217 ?s }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 award of $600 to
a seduced woman, the Supreme Court stated hut \uc1 \u8221 ?it is obvious that the
quantum of damages will be influenced by factors such as the haracter of the girl,
if she was a virgin }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (sic)\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and whether pregnancy folloisatt\uc1
Seduction under customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Inder customary law the delict of seduction is
committed by a man who has sexual ztercourse with an unmarried woman who is under
her lather or other relatives\uc1 \u8217 ? guardianship without the father\uc1
\u8217 ?s or guardian\uc1 \u8217 ?s consent? The delict is not committed gainst
the woman but against the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s father or guardian, the father or
guardian* sing the wronged party. The woman is regarded as merely the object
through which the did is committed and hence custonia law does not recognise a
woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s right to claim amages for her seduction Under customary law
such damages may only be claimed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ty }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s guardian? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unlike general law, the
customary Law action for sedscte whether or not the woman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nras a virgin.\uc1 \u8217 ? The
liability for damages attaches to the seducer regardless of whether he }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See Katekwe v Muchabaiwa }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 871/84 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.17;
Dave! v Swanepoel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1954 (1) SA 383 at p.389; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bull v Taylor (supra) at }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.39 and
Pringleat p.105,The value of virginity in the modern world is virtually zero, so
that a virgin woman has as much chance of a suitable marriage as any other non-
virgin woman. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Sec generally van den Heever, pp\uc1 \u8226 ?64-68. SC 118/87 at p.6. Note that
virginity is in fact a pre-requisite of the delict and where it is absent the woman
cannot recover seduction damages. Therefore, it follows that virginity is not a
factor in the assessment of damages under general law. See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muza v Mbunfwa }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1943 SRN 17. }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nira Marete and
Ngando }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SRN 175; Ncube -The Decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe v Muchabaiwa: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A Critique\uc1 \u8221 ?, ZL Rev. Vol. 1
and 2, 1983-84, at p.220; Stony, p.59. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sec }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe v Muchabaiwa (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.16 and Goldin and Gelfand,
p.209. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfenp12297 Muza v Mbunfwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1943 SRN 17; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Shadreck Chitima v Gideon Danatu }
and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe v
Muchabaiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(supra) p.18. Virginity is the only relevant factor in the assessment of damages -
see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
infra.. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note that
under old Ndebele law virginity was a requirement for the delict but now }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .% }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .PIW }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0 do }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 111,316 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5 V }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 uv }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 V}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af5 \loch \f5
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ok. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 corsa v4h }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 An }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ok }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wontt}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 c.....r }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 uc }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OIN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 w\uc1 \u8217 ?,._ v, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 m kAw U}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t must and }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ale s}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IWAV }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ova[ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par
}\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0
\itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ad }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .,e }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,C6D }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar
As a a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \'5cd in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\sa0 \lisa0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0 0 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ac }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 c }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ..Ac\uc1 \u8217 ? a an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I 3ctc to }{\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 l }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 P a6 dama }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tt at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of at\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ov, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .ntw }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 yi v Daiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of^d }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?\uc1 \u65533 ?}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M inga }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Mb\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 injua }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 m }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 34 (sup }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2Nc\uc1 \u8221 ?M\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (SUP }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 TO)- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 o}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch
\ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 OosaPib\uc1 \u8217 ? avWO\uc1 \u8217 ?s45 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 35 36 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 z }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 offers to marry the woman and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pay
room/lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
to the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s guardian or not. Accordingly, the seducer must pay
seduction damages before he tenders }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or before he is allowed to many the woman and such
damages, when paid, do not form part of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The del ict of seduction under customary
law is based on the assumption that a woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s seductiotage }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 and also }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 amount of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 lobate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a man would be prepa to in
hred Thus damages are awarded to compen\uc1 \u8212 ?sa guar ;an for both the
diminution in the he can expect on the marriage of his daughter and for any other
loss arising out of the seducer\uc1 \u8217 ?s wrongful }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 act.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2.2.1 The effect of the
Legal Age of Majority Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1,1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Legal Age of Majority Act, 1982 (No. 15 of 1982) co
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 ritv
status on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 all
Zimbabweans above the en years. African women, who}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 were_hitherto }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 18years. As a result all
African }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
women older than 18 years of age are autles who }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 pen)clual minors, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 acquired_mainUtif.sW= women
older than 18 years of age are emar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 could insist on being paid }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 seductiowdamages }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 upon the
seduction of their daughters. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kaiak-we v Muchabaiwa (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Supreme Court ruled that as
a result of the Legal Age }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of Majority Act African fathers
had lost the right to sue forstamage seduction their daughters if the seduced
daughter was a majsduction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 On the basis of this ruling, a father whose daughter is
seduced after she has attained the age of 18 years has neither the right of action
nor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
locusslam:1i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 sue for seduction damages. Consequently, the delict of seduction
under customary law remains only in relation to minor girls who are under the age
of 18 years?\uc1 \u8217 ? In such cases where the daughter is below the age of 18
years and therefore a minor, a father or guardian retains his entitlement to
seduction damages upon the seduction of his minor daughter?\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 From the above discussion, it
emerges that the requirements of an action for seduction damages under customary
law are : }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Ndebele law does not require virginity - see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe v Muchabaiwa (supra), }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.18, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mgwabi }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Malundu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1951 SRN 579, Goldin and
Gelfand, p.209, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Muza v Mbunfiva(supra)and Dube v Myinga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1965 AAC 1. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 33 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nyengerayi v Sandaram }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1949 SRN 205 and
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Boniface v
Johannes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SRN 9. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
34 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Percy
Budiyo v Peter Chumvedzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974 AAC 13; Storry, p.60; Goldin and Gelfand, p.209
and Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\lin0 \rin0 \itap0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 35 See pp.18-19 and 20-
21. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
36 See p.20 of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe ruling. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 For criticism of this pan of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ruling see Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.224-226. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lopez v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 115/85, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mwashita v Simango }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 116/87, and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chidentbo
v Machingambi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC50/87 where guardians of minor daughters were
permitted to recover seduction damages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 U }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SE:WIEN, BREAM PROM/SE AND RETURN }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;ourse between the girl and the
defendant man; girl at the time of seduction; intercourse without the
guardian\uc1 \u8217 ?s consent. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nen ts are satisfied, the girl\uc1 \u8217 ?s father or
guardian will succeed images against the seducer.\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? Being
the plaintiff he must prove place between his daughter and the defendant.
Generally, ether with overt sexual intemst raises a presumption that In proving
intercourse under customary law there ieduced girl\uc1 \u8217 ?s evidence be
corroborated \uc1 \u8221 ?Thus, a father }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 )ugh ter\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 si ngle }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a nd uncorroborated
evidence if this evidence }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !S }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lamages to award for seduction courts
should have regard to :es and factors of the case, including: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a virgin which
possibilityrispresurned until the contrary is this operates to increase the
quantum or tease them;\uc1 \u8221 ? r of the girl,\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?
occurred as a result of the seduction;44 f all the parties;4s sexual intercourse
took place;46 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
I requirements of the delict of seduction under customary law have }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 118/87 at p.5 and Goldin and
Gel land, p.211-212. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ZLR 121 at p. i 23 where it was ruled that where
customary law is the girl\uc1 \u8217 ?s testimony is not essential. See also }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Paul
Masembura v I uayo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 it was stated that: \uc1 \u8221 ?...there is no tribe in Rhodesia
which includes corroboration in seduction cases amongst its judicial
practices.\uc1 \u8221 ? at 29. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8226 ?2) at p.6. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t pp.3-9; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chic/mho v Machingambi }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 50 /87 at p.3; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Maus/ilia
v Sinkiang\uc1 \u176 ? Mthungwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1979 AAC 22. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1) at p.2; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Chingombe v Mudzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1973 AAC 32 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Edward Ndlovu v Dogo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 939-62) SRN 639. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nbi (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.3; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mwashita v Simango (supra) at }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.2-3, Goldin
; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Khumalo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mthungwa (supra)
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.24; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muushita
Simango (supra) at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 ) at p.2 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chingombe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Mudzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vi) whether there was any
relationship of trust between the defendant and the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vii) whether the girl had had
previous immoral assaciationsand whether shehadi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pregnant by other men before the defendant
seduced her.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Breach of promise under general law }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In the old law a person could
be ordered to fulfil a promise to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 marry that hear shell, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 made. In modern law a non-consenting party
can no longer be ordered to mat However, under the Roman-Dutch common law a person
who has had his or engagement-broken without just cause by the other party is
entitled to, receive corn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sation for the breaking }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of the engagement.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thus, a man or
woman who has been }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by his or her lover after he or she
hadbesnpmmisethnarriage by that lover has an acti }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for damages for brrach of promise to marry
if the promise }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 without }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 \par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 \par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 In the action, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the party alleging a breach must prove
that there wsA_ffomise to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 made to her or him by the defendant before she or he
can recover damage\uc1 \u8212 ?sTirrrei no breach of a non-existent promise. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The action for breach of
promise is a composite one, consisting of a claim for contr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 damages for the breacil\uc1
\u8217 ?of the promisna and delictual damages w }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 recoverable in instances where the
engagement is broken in contumelious circumsta }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or in a contumelious manner!\uc1 \u8217 ?
The manner\uc1 \u8222 ? place and circums\uc1 \u8212 ? the terminatij }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the promise would determine
both the question of whether ddictual damages arisi4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 out of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 claimable and their }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 quantu m. A man who
abandons a woman at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 church-door, in troriemaa II the invited gtratts-
would,OverythinicheTicingequal,belil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 For higher damages than one who breaks the engagement
in the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
privacy of his home. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 The test of whether or not a breach is is whether or not the breach
in circumstances which were }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 hurtful or injurious }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the innocent party\uc1 \u8217 ?s }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or reputation in the eyes of
reasonable people. The question of whether the breach }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contumelious or not is one
of fact to be determined on the facts of each case. Where }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 promise is terminated in
circumstances that are not imu nous tolhe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 erblings }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and image }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 47 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fames v Keyi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962 SRN 16 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and Chidembo v Machingambi
(supra) at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
p.4 where there was a go }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 breach of the healer and patient relationship. 48
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chidernho
v Marhingarnbi (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 at p.3. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 49 In most jurisdictions in the world breach of promise
actions have been abolished just as action }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to compel marriage have been outlawed }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5() See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Alice Ball Duncan John Watkin
Wilson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(1906) 27 NCR 624; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Walker }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 can }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wyk 1978 RLR I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 N\uc1 \u8217 ?gulube Siziba }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-11-08-88;
Bull v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Taylor (supra); Guggenheim v Rosenbaum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1961 (4) SA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Truscott v Smith-White }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1917 SR 47 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Pswaniyi v Pswarayi }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1960 (4) SA 925 (SR). }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Guggenheim v Rosenbaum (supra);
Bull Taylor (supra); Ngulube v Siziba (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and NI }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 other party, delictual damages would not
be claimable. It has been held that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mina Lion }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 engagemen t after the parties have lived together for
five years and have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a child is in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 itself }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 injurious or contumelious to the
Innocent\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LI }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Defences }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to an action for breach of promise }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ost of the defences
available for breach of promise }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 are }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 contractual. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Consequently }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 tear, fraud, drunkenness would }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 all constitute
good detences to an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 machatarnmise. When the above defencesare raised the
defendant is in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 fact }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -..}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8212 ?-._.__\uc1 \u8212 ?.\uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1
\u8212 ?- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
eging that he or she did not freely exercise his or her will in making the promise
to addition to the contractual defences there are two recognised special defences.
party who repudiatesapiamise to marry }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 for just causelfiustoe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 causat9 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has a full defence an action
for t marry. What would constituteriust }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 cause would }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pond on the facts of each }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However,
generally speaking, it may be said that a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 justa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is present whenever a discoven is made or
an event occurs which mason repudiating party to serious doubts that a happy and
harmonious marriage will by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rording to Voce\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 a change of religion }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by one party would justify
repudiation of the by the other. Similarly, disgraceful of-immoral }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 or intolerable
behaviour }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by one rty would
amount to a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
justa causa.5\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Voetv. furtlierritcludes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 following circumstancrs }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 his list of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 justae causae: }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i) ii) the existence of }
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 venereal disease; iii)
prolonged insanity; iv) intolerable incompatibility or implacable dislike. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 L1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Schnaar v lansens\uc1 \u176 ? a
}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 man pleaded }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as ;Lista causa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for breaching a promise to marry that ter
the engagement hediscovered that an unclear }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 plaintiff was married to an African }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ngulube v Siziba (supra) at }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.5-6. See also
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Guggenheim
v Rosenbaum (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 where it was held }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that a breach occuring after the \uc1 \u8221 ?
innocent\uc1 \u8221 ?party had flown all the...way_frothe ton-linietes }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to South Africa to find the man
who had promised her marriage, denying the promise is injurious to the \uc1 \u8221
?innocent\uc1 \u8221 ? party\uc1 \u8217 ?s feelings, pride and reputation. In }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bull v
Taylor (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s last minutedefection aft er a seven year engagement
was held to be contumelious. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Voet 23.1.4 and Mercer, p.62. See generally HR
Hahlo, \uc1 \u8221 ?Breach of Promise Actions in Modern Law\uc1 \u8221 ?, 1946 (63)
SA LI 379. 23.113. Voet 23.1.112 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Walker v van Wyk }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1978 RLR 175 where it was held
that the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s excessive consumption of alcohol at
parties,disgraceful behaviourin flirting with othermen when drunk }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and occasional }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 use of foul
language towards the defendant amounted to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 jusla causa. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 23.1.15. 1929 NLR 218. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 N }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7IMBAB1A\uc1 \u8217 ?E }
\lin0 \rin0 \itap0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 woman, that her brother had
been convicted of housebreaking and theft and that another of her uncles had
murdered his wife and been convicted and hanged for it. It was held that these
facts did not amount to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 juste }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 even though they should be taken into account in
assessing damages.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If, to the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s knowledge, the
defendant is already married, the promise to marry is not actionable because it is
in law void as being contrary to public policy.\uc1 \u8221 ? If }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the inDomt party is }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
ttnaware_thatibeother party is married, he or she would have an action against
him or her, not for breach of promise, but for fraud, since the promise itself is a
nullity. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
23.2 Assessment of damages }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The action for breach of promise is a composite one
embracing both contractual and delictual damages. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Guggenheim v Rosenbaum
(supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it was
Slated that even though the action is composite, combining both contractual and
delictual elements, as a general rule these elements should be separated in the
pleadings and in the assessment of damages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under contractual damages, the plaintiff
is entitled to recover all the actual damages or loss he or she has suffered as a
result of the breach. In addition, he or she can claim either }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 agsRective or }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 restitutionary damages but
not both. r_rospsctive_damages are designed to give the innocen\uc1 \u8212 ?
ifility the material or financial position he or she would have enjoyed had the
marriage taken place, whereas restitutionary damages are designed to give him or
or mancial position he or she would_hayeenjoyed if no promise of marriage had been
made. It is important to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 emphasizetbatthe plaintiff }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 must choose to claim either
rrestitutionarydamages.Heorshecannotobtainbotht obtain both since to do so would }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 amount
to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 duplication of
darnaRes.41 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Del actual damages are }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 daigned to compensate }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the jilted party for
embarrassment, hurt and injured feelings. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 AnysonZum conduct on the part }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 party would operate to
aggravate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 delictual
damages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
In practice the courts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 have shown little s man }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 who sues }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for damages for }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ac o \uc1 \u8226 ? , un ess t woman concerned is
shown to have been }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 59 In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bull v Taylor (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court was of the view that being
possessive and jealous does not amount to just cause. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Walker van Wyk (supra) }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.177 and }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Claassen v van der
Watt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
SA 68 (D. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
61 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Ngulube v Siziba (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 pp.3-5; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Guggenheim v Rosenbaum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), pp.37-40 and Mercer }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.58-60, }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 62 See generally Mercer }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 pp.60-61. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 63 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mocke v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1893) 3 LTR 313 where a male plaintiff was awarded
only one shilling in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 damages and Smit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v]acobs }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1918 OPD 30 where the defendant had
terminated the promise a few days before their marriage by telegram which also
announced her marriage to a wealthy }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 f\uc1 \u8217 ?(4\uc1 \u8217 ?7 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 PROMFF AN!) OF MIS promise
under customary law Arts took the view that an action for breach of promise is
unknown at In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Five v Mbambom }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
the majority of members concluded that African Jot\uc1 \u8217 ?s not recognize
actions for breach of promise to marry, while Parker iew that damages for breach
of promise arc claimable by the father or Red woman under customary law The
majority reasoning in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Five }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 lowed in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Frikanos Mupasiri v Maggie alb Mufandaedza.\uc1
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 - }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 g the clear decisions of the
colonial courts to the effect that actions for isc to marry arc unknown to
customary law, the post-independence are awarding damages for breach of promise to
marry. For example in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rahwe v Richard Kadiria }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the district court increased }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 community court for breach
of promise to marry to $110,00.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 engagement gifts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 irsons gi ve to
each other may be classi lied into three ca tegories. These are in contemplation,
expectation or a ntici pa lion of marriage, that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ispropter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ktionate gifts of small value, such aS
jewellery. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
m }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
sifts of high value such as a car or a horse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 inent is terminated by mutual consent or a
marriage cannot take place lot at tribu table to the fault of either party, all
gif is given in contemplation tiding engagement rings, are returnable to their
giver\uc1 \u8217 ? If, however, an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Aaintiff was awarded only 1100 damages even though the
court found the lave been heartless and mindless in her breach. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 T }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u176 ?c }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of Mutare appeal case no.20 of
1983. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
v Male and Male }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
unnumbered judgment of the Bulawayo District Court ember 1983. is a presumption
in the case of doubt that a gift of considerable and permanent in contemplation of
marriage - see van den Heever }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v.41. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 generally DAB Robinson, \uc1 \u8221 ?Engagement
Gifts\uc1 \u8221 ? 1975 RW 48 and H Snitcher Engagement Rings in South African
Law\uc1 \u8221 ?, (1934) 31 SAW 34.
\langfenp12297 ;urn) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 at p.30; Voet 231.19; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mackenzie v Bilbrough }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1906 TH 116; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cerson\uc1 \u8217 ?s Executor
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Levin v
Levin and Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1960 (4) SA 469 (W). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 engagement is unl fully
terminated owing to the misconduct of either party, innocent party isentitled to
recover alitiftssinnin con templation of marriage whit guiltypany has no right to
reclaim any of the gifts he or she has given.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Usual affectionate gifts\uc1
\u8221 ? and unusual gifts of high value exchanged between parties are not
returnable in any circumstances?\uc1 \u8217 ? These gifts are deemed to bawl,
donatedoutrightly and not in contemplation of marriage so that, not being candid
upon the parties\uc1 \u8217 ? marriage taking place, ownership in them passes to
thedo:veal thei of giving. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A separate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 category }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consists of gifts that are given by a
married person to his or herb in contemplation of the married person obtaining a
divorce and then marrying the Such gifts are covered by the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in part delictopotior est
conditio defendentis vdpossidenlist }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in that the understanding or agreement of marriage in
circumstances where oneot parties are already married to someone else is contrary
to public policy and then* void. Accordingly, on the basis that in equal guilt the
pdsition of the possessor is! stronger,\uc1 \u8221 ? the party who gives the gi ft
cannot claim it if the marriage does not material }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 72 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bebe v Mdinelwamba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1897) 12 EDC 6 at pp.11-12; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MacDuff
and Co v ICI }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
AD }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
Robinson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(supra) at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
p.51 and Snitcher }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 at pp.344-346. 73 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Pietzsch v Thompson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1972 (4) SA 122(R) where it was
held that a gold watch and certain sum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of money were usual affectionate gifts and therefore
not recoverable. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 74 See generally Robinson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp.50-52.1-ahlo in }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 The South
African Law of Husband an( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Wife, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4th ed, p.56, holds a contrary view which, it is
respectfulty submitted is incorrect and finds no support in the authorities cited
therein. 75 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Piet zsch v Thompson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1972 (4) SA 122 (R) where the plaintiff failed to
recover an engagemen }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ring, gold watch and certain sums of money given in
contemplation of marriage on the bail that the agreement of marriage was contrary
to public policy as it was made on theunderstanding that the defendant would
divorce her husband. The parties being in equal guilt the in pm }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 della\uc1 \u176 ? }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rule applied. }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Pa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 late\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fart }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chilat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 en }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1.\uc1 \u8212 ?) }{\rtlch
\f0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 art Two }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Children }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 , }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hap ter 3 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3.: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?aternity }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3.1 Introduction }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SU }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 do of Ma }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,w4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Paternity }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 is the legal determination }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of which man is
the father of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 a particular }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child.Tril }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 determination of fatherhood }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 is necessary primarily for
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 two
reasons namely the status }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 legitimacy or illegitimacy maintenance of the child
concerned. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
determinati }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
of paternity is necessary for questions of legitimacy because a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 child }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 conceived or born }
\par }\pard
\plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0
\ul1 paients_mtiaaralegilly-married each other is co_nsidered }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 legitimatt7Rv reas a chi }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 born to unmarried parents is
illegitimate. The determination of paternity is also centraan, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the law }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of rnaintenance_gf }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ildren because
the man who is found to be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the legal fathuA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of a particular child is legally
responsible for the maintenance of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that child\uc1 \u8217 ? ma }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In an action for the
payment of maintenance the law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provides that the maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 courPre }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 shall not make an order in
favour of a dependant unless it is satisfied that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?the person against whom the
order is sought is legally liable to maintain the dependant. - }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 len }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In so far as the
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1
maintenance of children is concerned, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the duty of maintenance rests on both parents.
Accordingly, it is necessary to determine }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 who thezarents }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of a dependak child are. The
determination of motherhood presents problems. It is th< determination of
paternity or fatherhood }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 that presents legal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 problems and is the maul subject of
thischapter. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1 The laws governing legitimacy and maintenance of children are discussed in
Chapters 5 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
6 respectively. 2 Section 6(2)(a) of the Maintenance Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 351, hereinafter called the
Maintenance Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 PATERNITY }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,2 Paternity under general law
.2.1 Children born in wedlock }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Roman-Dutch common law \uc1 \u8226 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !Ornate }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 children of
their moths }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
usband. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
This presumption is expressed in the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 \uc1 \u8221 ?Upton nuptiae
demonstrant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 which means that the husband }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of a married }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roman is }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 presumed to be the
father of all children born }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 to that woman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 during the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or ayjudnarriage. Thus, all
children who are born to a woman while she is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 subject alidly married are }
\par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the maxim. They are presumed to be the children of
the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
roman\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 husband and are consequen tly legitimate? Further,
termination of her marriage not terminate the. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 opetati onDfibis }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pAsumptiort }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 if
she is already }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
pregnantaLthe ti me (divorce.\uc1 \u8217 ? In the case of a woman entering into
two consecutive marriages in circuminvhere a child born in the second marriage
could havebeen conceived to either the S or the second husband, the presumption }
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pater
}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 cst }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 operates
favour of the second husband because by marrying within the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nnus luaus-Tyear }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nourning) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he exposes
himself to the risk that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wife may be pregnant her first }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iusbane E Spiro in }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 The Law of Parent and
Child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lifference whether the first marriage was }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 dissolved by death }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?
illation the second husband }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 has exposed himself }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 \par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 iusband being }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fathered von him\uc1 \u8212
? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 submits that it should make no
death or divorce\uc1 \u8217 ? In either }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the forttr }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 \par }\pard
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?he presumption }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pater est
quern nuptiac dtmonst rant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is rebuttable and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 maybe rebutted by }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .ny }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 interested _party, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 particularly by
the woman concerned and/or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 her husband.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 kfiibrdingly, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under Roman-Dutch law, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 In
interested party may }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 rove that a child\uc1 \u8217 ?s nother\uc1 \u8217 ?s husband. was
in fact not the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s father and that the child was there ore !
legitimate. Such actions are normally referred to as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 To_rebut the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 resumption that the
woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s husband is the father other child or children it is necessary
(Trove }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
that the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
husband }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 could
not possibly }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be
the father. kis not sufficient }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 merely }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to how that he is robabi not the father. It must be
shown on aWrababilities. hat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the husba t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not father }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the chilinalbse }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 paternity is in ispute.e t}
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 `eiT enee
endered by a husband disputing paterni ty must such thalitIvotirdlOtallyexdude him
mm having fathered the child or children if found to be true . For example, it
could be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Cronus 1,12.3 and Voct 1,6.6. Sec also Olivier, pp. 320-321. Woet 1.6.6 Voet
1.6.9. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
P.15. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Crotius 1.12.3; Voet 1.6.6. See also Spiro, \uc1 \u8221 ?Legitimate and
Illegitimate Children\uc1 \u8217 ?, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Ada luridica }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 k11964, at pp. 57-58. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mitlanga v Kateya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-427-86 and also the South
African case of van }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lutterveld v Engels }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 959 (2) SA 699 (AD). }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN ZIMBABWE }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 shown that the husband was
sterile, that he had had no access to his wife at the time that she had become
pregnant.\uc1 \u8217 ? or that blood tests exclude his paternity. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In the case of }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nfhlanga v
applicant had instituted anaction for divorce against the deteridant and further
prayed for custody and maintenance of the two minor children of the marriage. The
defendant did not oppose the dissolution of the marriage. He did, however, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 deny being
the second }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
child who had been born afterlhe parties }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 had been separated. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It appeared that the child
had been conceived at some time in September 1977 whereas the parties had
separated in 1976. The applicant gave evidence that the parties had had sexual
intercourse in September 1977 but the defendant denied this arguing that sexual
intercourse had taken place after their separation only during \uc1 \u8221 ?the
middle of 1977 and not in September 19777 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sama t la J held that the presumption }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 paler est
quern nuptiae demonstrant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 applied to the case and that it could only be rebutted, on a
balance of probabilities, by clear evidence that the defendant could not ssibl be
the father of the second child. In this case the defendant, on the evidence fore
the court, had failed to rebut the presumption. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar
The presumption of paternity cannot be rebutted by proof that other men had had
sexual intercourse with the woman concerned at the time that she could have become
pregnant since such proof would only show that the husband wasprobablynot the
father and not that he couldnOt.POSSIblibe the father. The \uc1 \u8221 ?
defence\uc1 \u8221 ? that other men had had sexual intercourse with the woman is
known as the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 exceptio plurium concumbentiunt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,1\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Blood tests }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 establish a man\uc1
\u8217 ?s non-paternity, but not his paternity. Tests involving a mother, a child
and the alleged father can conclusively show that the alleged father is not in
fact the father of the child. However, such tests cannot conclusively show that }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1
particular }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
man is the biological father of the cTtild in-question. They can only show that
the man concerned belongs to the group of men who are tlJepfissiblelathors.\uc1
\u8221 ? Zimbabwean courts have accepted the results of blood tests as }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 admissible }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 evidence whenevel
paternity in issue. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Brown v Knight,\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in remitting the case (or trial }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 de novo, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the the! }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9 Section 15 of the
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of 1985) permits spouses to }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 evidence of non-access to one a
not her during any period of their marriage. In English law it been held in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Russell v
Russell }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1922 AC687
that neither a husband nor a wife is permitted to evidence of non-access to
bastardize a child born in wedlock. This rule was followed with reluctance by the
South African Appellate Division in Surnion v Surmon 1926 AD 47. The African
legislature intervened through the Civil Proceedings Evidence Act, 25 of 1968
provided that spouses were com peten t to give evid ence% if non-access to bastard
ize a child in wedlock. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van Lutterveld v Engels (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10 The }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 erceptio plurium
concubentium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is
discussed in greater detail }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 infra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in this Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 paternity of children born outside wedlock
3.2.2). 11 For a discussion of the medical aspects of the use of blood tests for
excluding patemi W Darroll, \uc1 \u8221 ?We be of One Blood, Ye and I\uc1
\u8221 ?, (1965) 8 SAL) 317. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12 RAD 27/78 (unreported). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that this was a case where \uc1 \u8221 ?a
blood test should have been }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 teak\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Supreme Court accepted the results of
blood tests here wasa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 hizhdecrecof probability that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the defendant was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ig question is whether or not
our courts are competent to n to undergo a blood test to help establish the
disputed \uc1 \u8217 ?critically, are Zimbabwean courts competent to compel a rgo
a blood test where pa temity_ofachild born or conceived s no Zimbabwean case on
this point and the issue is therefore }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not our courts have_ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the power to order a child whose }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ldergo blood tests. This
issue is also an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 open question in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e been decided upon in other jurisdictions.ln.Seatland
the at they have no inherent power to compel a non-consenting st since such an
order would be an invasion of his or her an courts took the same approach and
held that a noncompelled to allow her blood and that of her child to be loses of
establishing paternity. The Court was of the strong ;rant the relief sought by the
man since \uc1 \u8221 ?the right of privacy }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Sty and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 should not be upon by any court in the
pcals4tutoor_authority.inn England it is settled that in no e1 an }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 unwilling }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adult to undergo a blood
test.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 py of the judgment. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 xid tests were first
accepted and admitted as evidence in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rarffith }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (3) SA 103 wymid later in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van der I tarsi v Vilpen }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1977 (1) SA 795
iariced,\uc1 \u8221 ?Plaintiff picked defendant as the father of her child long
one and these tests have shown an overwhelming probability that 796). }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 252, where the husband applied
for an order compelling his wife, tree on the grounds of adultery, to allow
samples of blood to be whose paternity was in dispute. The application was
refused. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
2 All ER 386, where Cairns J stated that: \uc1 \u8221 ?It was not contended, )
nteided that there is Inherent jurisdiction in the Court to order d, some
statutory authority must be found for them\uc1 \u8221 ? (p.70). This .111196613
All ER 560 and in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 In re }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 LI196712 All ER 1110; 19681\uc1 \u8217 ? it: \uc1 \u8221 ?it
isnowestablished that, Ma suit between husband and wife }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN 71MBAISIAT }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 48 There has, however,
been some controversy in the approach of the English courts, respect to blood
tests on children whose paternity is in dispute.\uc1 \u8221 ? The dominant apps
appears to be that since the court is the upper guardian of all minor children it
ha inherent power to order a blood test on a child. Notwithstanding, there has
been a at of ambivalence in respect of the principles that would govern the
exercise of theca an inherent power to order a blood test to be carried out on a
minor child. Ea rl ier cases, the view that the sole or paramount consideration in
deciding whether or not to the court\uc1 \u8217 ?s power to order a child to
undergo a blood test was the best interests Ti }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 liti\uc1 \u8221 ?InMvMand }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gn Lord Denning summarized
this early approach as follow! al\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Theca rd inal pri nciple, as
understand it, is that theCourt can order a blood testonmu of whenever it is in
the best interests of the infant to do so.\uc1 \u8221 ? ac cc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thus the earlier decisions were
to the effect that the interests of the child counted all else in deciding whether
or not to order a blood test on a child. However, latera most notably }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 B v B and E }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and W v W
1197011 All ER 1157 have taken the view that interests of the child are not
conclusive or even paramount, as these interests are t T measured against the
interests of justice and the search for the truth in respect of a chi h
paternity. Lord Denning expressed this new approach in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 McC and M (197011 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At 1162 as follows: }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\uc1 \u8221 ?Undoubtedly one of the important matters to be considered is the
interests of the do not think that it is the sole matter. But it is an important
matter... Over and abo\uc1 \u8217 ?t the interests of the child, there is the
overriding interest which must be considered, his interest of justice. Should it
come to the crunch the interests of justice must take b place...\uc1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The South African courts have rejected this English
approach that subordinates interests of the child to those of justice and truth.
In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Seetal v Pravitha and Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 applicant husband sued his wife for divorce on the
grounds of her alleged adultery }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for an order declaring that her four year old child,
who had been conceived during marriage while they lived together on intimate
terms, was illegitimate. The husband convinced that he was not the father of the
child. He believed the true father to be anot man although he did not know this
other man\uc1 \u8217 ?s identity. Moreover, he had no evide }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 relating to the paternity of a
child, the Court has no power to compel either party to submit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a blood test.\uc1 \u8221 ? (At
p.1626). See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 v Official Solicitor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1972 AC24 where Lord Reid is no doubt that a person of
full age and capacity cannot be ordered to undergo a blood t }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 against his will.\uc1 \u8221 ?
(At p.43D). 20 See W v W }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.72; H v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.563; and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In re L (supra) }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp.122-131. 21 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See B v B and
Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119681 2
All ER 1023 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 In re Usupra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 22 119691 2 All ER 242 at 244H. 23 H9691 3 All ER
1106. 24 At p.1164-1165. See also the remarks of Karminski at 1170D. 25 1983
(3) SA 87 (0). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 48 }
that his wife had committed adultery. His reason for believing that the child was
not his was that the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s physical features were purportedly so
unlike his own that they were incompatible with descent from him. He therefore
sought an order compelling his wife and the child to allow samples of their blood
to be taken and tested in order to reveal whether or not he could possibly be the
father of the child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The wife opposed the application but the court took the
view that as upper guardian of all minors, it had the power to order the child to
undergo a blood test notwithstanding the objections of that child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
parent. However this power was to be exercised taking into account }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 only the }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 interests of the
child. Thus, the South African approach is that the sole consideration in the
issue of whether or not to order a child to undergo a blood test is the best
interests of the child. On the facts of this particular case the court was of the
view that there was no great doubt concerning the pa temi ty of the child in
question and accordingly refused to exercise its power. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The case of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Seetal (supra) }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 left open the question of
whether or not a court in South Africa has the power to compel a non-consenting
adult to undergo a blood test for the purposes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of establishing a child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
paternity. The court, after reviewing numerous decisions fron/-c }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 other jurisdictions, merely
observed that a blood test on an adult without his or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consent is unquestionably an
invasion hl s or her on van/. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court was of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 view that the privacy of the individual is
not absolutely inviolable and hence the deb4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 about compulsory blood
tests amounts to a contest between the idea that the truth shouli }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be discovered whenever possible
and the idea that personal privacy should be respected. The court considered both
ideas important but neither sacrosanct. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 As already stated above, Zimbabwean courts have not
made any authoritative pronouncements on these issues to da te. lt is likely,
however, that Zimbabwean courts would take the view that they, as upper guardian
of all minors, have the inherent power to order a child to undergo a blood test in
the same way as English and South African courts have done. As to what test they
would apply concemi ng whether or not to exercise their power remains to be }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 seen. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 With respect to
the compulsory blood testing of adults, it is respectfully submitted that the
English, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Scottish }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and
Canadian approach is more sound than the South African approach. It is suggested
that our courts should take the approach that, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the absence of clear statutory provision, they have no
inherent power and authority to compel a non-consenting adult to undergo a
compulsory blood test. Indeed, edt is difficult to think of any basis upon which
our courts could claim the right to compel person of full age and capacity to
submit to a blood test without his or her consent. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 +3.2.2 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Children born out of wedlock }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e naternity of children
born out a wedlock is eoverned by the Roman-Dutch crimmnn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v:When osatemitv of an out of
wedlock child is in disoute. the take }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tiler of two oositions. Firstly. he may deny ever
havine had sexual int age wilh the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ides mother. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Secondly, he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 may admig t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 having had sextrakintercourse with the
woman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nonetheless deny }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that he is the fathetrI-74\uc1 \u8212 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 _ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW ZIMBABWE }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Where a man }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 completelydenies ever having had sexual intercourse
with the mother of a child whose rnity is in dispute, the Roman-Dutch common law
provides that the onus rests child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother to prove that she had
sexual intercourse with the defenda }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 relevant time, that is, at the time when the child
could have been }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The onus of proof would be discharged on a balance of
probabilities. Thus, a woman must prove on a preponderance of probabilities\uc1
\u8221 ? that she and the alleged father of the child had sexual intercourse at
the time when she could have become pregnant.\uc1 \u8221 ? If she fails to prove
that sexual intercourse took place between herself and the alleged father, the
defendant would be absolved from liability and found not to be the father. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It should be noted, however,
that as a result of the effectsof the Maintenance Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 351, a paternity dispute
takes the form of an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 inquisitorial:Loves\uc1 \u8217 ? iga t ion. Sect }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ion 13(b) of the
Maintenance Act gives the maintenance court power, at its own initiative, to
\uc1 \u8221 ?call such witnesses as it deems necessary for the purpose of
determining X v Y (supra) Lewis AJP commented on this power as follows: }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?That section
contains a special provision enabling the court itself to call such
witnesses as it deans necessary for the purpose, that is to say, for the purpose
of arriving at the truth in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the inquiry. It will be seen, of course, that this is a
special power in the court itself, which does in an ordinary civil action where it
is entirely up to the parties themselves to call ihyVisitnesses and the court
itself has no right }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mem motu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to call witnesses.\uc1 \u8221 ?2\uc1 \u176 ? }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ourt granted the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s
application for the remittal of the case for further }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 evidence to be led before the maintenance
court, on the basis that the trial magistrate had failed to exercise his power
under the then section 12(b) (now 13(b)) of the Maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 26 See X v Y 1973 (3) SA 118
(RAD) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.119; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I lodges v
Weak (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at
p.1 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 Kashiri v Muvirimi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 SC 55/88 at p.2. For South African authority see R v }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Swanepoel }
(0) at p.37. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 -11 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Mount ford v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mukukumidzi 1969 (2) SA 56 (RAD) at p.57H and X v Y
(supra) at p.1195 where }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lewis AJP observed that the
woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s claim \uc1 \u8221 ?had not been proved on a balance of
probabilities!\uc1 \u8217 ? For South African authorities for the same proposition
see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moodley
vCramani }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(1) SA 118 (N) pp.119-120. 28 In Zimbabwe it would appear that independent
corroboration of the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s evidence of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sexual intercourse is a requirement. The
Supreme Court decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I Weak (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 proceeded on this assumption. The court held that the
fact that there was a clear opportunity for sexual intercourse and that the
defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s immediate denial on the grounds that he had had a
vasectomy and was incapable of procreation when first confronted with the
allegation that he was the father of the child corroborated the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?
s evidence that sexual intercourse had taken place. The clai m about t he
vasectomy operation was incompatible with a total denial of sexual intercourse.
However, for a fuller discussion see pp.21-22 above. In South Africa in the case
of Meyer v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Wiliams }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
SA 348 (AD) it has been decided that the courts should no longer, as a matter of
law, insist upona corroboration of theevidence of the woman in paternity cases.
However, asa ruleof practice, thecourt should always warn itself of thedangersof
acting upon the testimony of a complainant in a paternity case. 29 At p.119C-
H. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
VMS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfenp12297 42n1.1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for the applicant had suggested to him
that such irt to help establish the truth. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 esJA quoted with approval the words of
Lewis Arquoted \uc1 \u8217 ?cited that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mind that the interests of a minor child
arc concerned in this sort n the circumstances be left to theparunt or t healleged
parent alone id to determine how the case is to be conducted. There is dearly
siding magistrate in the interests of the child, to ensure that there of the
matter. Such an investigation would enable him to arrive }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the case for a re-trial on the
basis that the trial magistrate inquiry in the detail required.\uc1 \u8221 ?
3\uc1 \u8217 ? Thus, a hearing in a w takes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the form of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 t\uc1 \u8217 ?nguu}{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 isitorial investigation and
is not prasiaingmagistrate has an obliga n to investigate the lot leave it to the
plaintiff to prove her case alone. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 al intercourserook place, the defendant is immediately
child in question and is accordingly liable to maintain the cannot possibly be the
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s father. Thus, as soon as a Kual intercourse, the onus shifts
to the defenda nt to provs, at he cannot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the fatherol_the child whose paternity is 3eadle CJ
put it as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the appellant, therefore, that he did have intercourse
with the w, and I do not propose to refer to authority to support it, that nus is
on the appellant to show that he was not the father of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 possibly be the father of a
child %Those paternity is in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is a xclu \uc1 \u8226 ?atemity. In
circumstances }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
M. sexual intercourse with the woman at the relevant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or maintenance by either
proving that ude him from the paternity of the child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 involve the alleged father, the mother
and the child. ed right to refuse to have her blood tested. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If the man admits having had
sexual intercourse with the woman at any }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 timehel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 immediately presumed to be the
father of the child in question until he provespoft }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 balance of probabilities, that he cannot
possibly be the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s father. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 P v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rhodesian Appellate Division quoted with
approval the following passage from page! of Mr Justice van den Heever\uc1
\u8217 ?s book }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 Breach of Promise and Seduction in South Akio }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Law: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is submitted, therefore, that the legal
position today is as follows; (i) If it is admitted or proved that the defendant
has had sexual intercourse with }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 plaintiff, whether only one month or a year before her
confinement, and she alkr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 defendant is the father of the child, he
is in law deemed to be the father even if he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that during the period of potential
insemination she had had intercourse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 other men. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (ii) The stuprator is liable for the cost of
confinement and maintenance of the child e }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where the action on denotation fails or where he proves
that the plaintiff at thc tirt conception was a prostitute. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (iii)Thc defendant can escape
liability on this head only by positive proof .... that thectil }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is not his. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (iv)The claim for lying-in
expenses and maintenance is conceived in the interest s of thectil }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not the mother, consequently it
cannot be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
defeated by proof of the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unwed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (v) It follows that juridically the claim
is based not on palm:nit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intercourse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (ex amplexu) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ex lege; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for otherwise proof of intercourse with
othern }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
would have destroyed the inference of causation. The action is therefore }
delIcto.\uc1 \u8221 ?tr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The approval of this passage from van den Heever means
that the law of Zimbabwe is the effect that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 35 Sec P v C }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (infra)and Mow }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Si/door }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 13/88 at vo.3-4.1n South
Africa the case of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1959 (4) SA 31 (0) decided that where a man who has
been pointed out as the father sexual intercourse with the woman, he is presumed
to be the father of the child only if he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that intercourse took place at the
relevant time. Thus if he admits sexual intercourse but }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at a time when in the ordinary course of nature such
intercourse could not possibly resulted in the conception of the child, the
presumption of paternity does not arise. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 decision was in spite of the earlier
decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
R }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Pie }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1948(3) SA 1117 which
clearly held an admission of sexual intercourse at any time raises the presumption
of paternity. Sunni was followed in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Samba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962 (4) SA93 (E) where it was decided that the period
of gestate is so notoriously unstable that a court may take judicial not ice of it
so that if a man admits sent intercourse only at an irrelevant time the
presumption of paternity does not arise. In S Oa 1962 (3)SA 704 (C) Rosenow J
citing }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Pie\uc1 \u8217 ?scasedeclined }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to follow the case on thispoll In S }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Swart }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1965 (3) SA 454 (AD) the
South African Appellate Division held that an admissi of intercourse at any time
by the man raises the presumption of paternity. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mohan Shaik }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1978 (4) SA 52.3 (W). 36
1978 RLR 80 (AD). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
37 At p.83A-B-C. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Movo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sifelani (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where it was clearly held that where in }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is admitted the onus rests on
the man to rebut the presumption of paternity (at pA) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?If a man admits sexual
intercourse, the woman is to be belies in identification of the father even
though she had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 sexual intercourse with others. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moreover, even if the man protested that the date of
intercourse was only a month before the confinement, or as much as a year before
the confinement, this could not avail him as he was not to be believed as to the
time, he might fix
upon to free himself.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 should be emphasised that the presumption of paternity
arises as soon as a man admits:). be act of sexual intercourse notwithstanding
when it occurred as long as it was before the of the child.\uc1 \u8221 ? Thus,
upon admission of intercourse the onus shifts to the man who mist \uc1 \u8221 ?
establish by a preponderance of probability that despite the admission made he
could not possibly have the paternity of the child ascribed to him.\uc1 \u8221 ?
4\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
l.23 Rebutting the presumption of paternity }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n the South African case of S }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Swart
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 held that to
rebut the presumption of mternity the man is required to prove that he cannot be
the father }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
child. The court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\uc1 \u8221 ?The admission of intercourse, at whatever period, by the man indicated
by the mother, creates a presumption that the man is the father and the onus rests
on him to prove that he cannot be the father\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? (emphasis
added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
n the Zikbi,vean case of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Green v Shirto (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 man) must show, at least on a
balance of probabilities (some eases putt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tie man must show, at least on a balance
probabilities (some eases putitsitisaiver }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 than
that, see for example S v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Swart)}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that it was not possible for him to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the father of thc }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child.\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Grotius 3.36.8. In S v Swart
(supra) the South African Appellate Division took the same approach. It was held
in Swan\uc1 \u8217 ?s case that in terms of the Roman-Dutch common law an
admission of intercourse, matter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 when it occurred, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 creates a presumption that the ad mitti ng
man is the father and places on him the onus to prove that he cannot be the father.
For the same ruling in Zimbabwe see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gate v Ngoreta and Muringtua }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 57/88 at p.4 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dube Masera }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 99/ 88 at p.2. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In X v Y (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the man admitted that
sexual intercourse took place after the birth of the child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and not before and this
admission was not used to raise the presumption of paternity (p.120A). See also }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moyo v
Sifelani (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 at p.3. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Stuanepoel (supra) at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.40. This position of the law of
paternity is most clearly laid down in the Supreme Court decision in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moyo v Sifelani
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp.1-5.
At p.457. The head note in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Swan\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case was cited with approval in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Catty
Ngoreta and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Aluringwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(supra) at p.4. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 At p.14G-H. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW N ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 53 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mr Justice Krick expressed the law most elegantly in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mohamed v
Sheik }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(supra) when he stated: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?although proof on a balance of
probabilities will suffice in order to rebut the presumption, such proof
hadtarelatc to alaalimpossibility that the person booing the onus could be the
cmstion.-0 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
This means that in order to rebut the presumption of paternity a man must lead
factual evidence that makes it impossible for him to be the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
father. He must exclude himself totally from the men who might be the father of
the child and to do so he requiresa defence that is absolutely exclusive of
paternity. Strictly speaking, there are only three defences which can show that a
man is not the father of a child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 non-acrto the woman time she }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 whose results show that the man
could not possibly be the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s fatherThe defence of non-ac-cess is
available to a man who admits sexual intercourse at a time }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 when the woman could not have
conceived the child whose paternity is in dispute. It is not available to a man
who admits having had sexual intercourse with the woman at a time when she could
have become pregnant of the child in question. For example, the defence of non-
access could be raised by a man who admits that he had sexual intercourse with the
woman in question two years before the birth of the child but not by a man who
admits that he and the woman had sexual intercourse ten months before the child\uc1
\u8217 ?s birth. It involves proving that the defendant did not have physical
access to the woman at or around the time of conception. He must prove, for
example, that he was:auto( theatuntry or in prison }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 gyring the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 time }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of gestation. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If he was within physical
access to the woman at the thffeof gestation then the defence of non-access is
defeated. For example in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Munhenga v Chakadenga4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the woman testified that she and the
defendant had had sexual intercourse during the months of November and December
1987. The defendant denied this and alleged that he had last seen the woman in
June 1987. He accordingly argued that if the child was his then it had been born
14 months after their relationship ended. By }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At p.525A. Further in his
judgment, Justice Krick stated that:\uc1 \u8221 ?The alleged father must prove on
a balance of probabilities .... that he could not possibly be the father .... and
not merely that he is probably not the father\uc1 \u8221 ? (pp.525-526). In S }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Swart
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Potgieter
AJA stated that the man can escape liability \uc1 \u8221 ?by proving that at the
time of conception he could not have had intercourse as he was out of the country
or for any other valid reason; or even if he had intercourse with her, but that he
could prove that he was sterile and thus could not make her pregnant; or by means
of a blood test it can be proved that he cannot be the father\uc1 \u8221 ?
(p.457). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In R
v Pie (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
van den [toyer JP stated that:\uc1 \u8221 ?In view of the nature of the
presumption and its iirrts:itibllows that the presumption can only be rebutted by
conclusive evidence that the man could not have been the father, for example, where
he is out of the country during the pregnancy (non-access); where a blood test
proves that he is not the father; where he was and is impotent\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (sic) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (p.1118). The
inadequacy of impotence as a defence is discussed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 infra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in \uc1 \u167 ?3.2.4. SC
38/87. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Is he was seeking to prove that
he had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had access
to the woman ould have become pregnant. The Supreme Court rejected his proved
that the parties had had sexual intercourse in November became pregnant.\uc1
\u8217 ? Thus, whether or not a man had access to the lime is a question of fact
which must be proved to the satisfaction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?dant admitted sexual
intercourse but challenged paternity on the th of the child was not consistent
with the dates on which he had with the woman. He alleged that he }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not had access to the n
conception most probably took place. In its judgment the court dant had elected to
be present during the birth of the child, had aby in his }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 name, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had quite happily
lived with and supported the d had vigorously asserted his paternity as well as
seeking custody mother left with the baby. He denied paternity only when d
against him. In these circumstances the court was of the view Id be estoppel from
denying paternity. It was accordingly held iof proved that he was not the father
of the child. In this case nonne was not proved. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rility is raised the fact of sterility
must be proved on a balance of man must show that he was incapableofprocreati }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on a }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t the time ve
taken place. It does not suffice to prove sterility at the time of time after
conception took place. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iished from potence. Sterility }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 refers to the inability to
procE_- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 )
tence refers to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
inability to perforntthe_sexual ad. Thus }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 account the awesome resemblance between
the respondent and the 3). In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mountford v Mukukumidzi (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where the mother of the child
the alleged father a coloured, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court took into account the fact that \uc1 \u8217 ?
coloured but bore a marked resemblance to the appellant\uc1 \u8221 ? (p37). The
that: \uc1 \u8221 ?Colour and resemblance are not factors to which too much be
given. Their weight must depend upon the circumstances of each }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -where the man sought to
challenge paternity on the basis rant time. In dismissing his appeal Gubbay at
ppl-3 of the cment observed: \uc1 \u8221 ?Theappellant\uc1 \u8217 ?s stand is
quite untenable. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 He made }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p the magistrate that he was the father, and he made
that admission \uc1 \u8217 ?child\uc1 \u8217 ?s birth. He also offered to pay
maintenance. It is clear to me pting to wriggle out of his obligation to maintain
the child by oondent\uc1 \u8217 ?s statement that she fell pregnant in April 1984,
Clearly ending to convey, if regard is had to her further statement that bvember
1983 to the end of A pri11984, was that she only became in April 1984.\uc1
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .Y LAW IN
4MBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
-He man has the capacity to have sexual intercourse and achieve total }{\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tis semen is unablei An impotent man cannot achieve
the\uc1 \u8222 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fact In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 some cases impotence }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (impotentia cocundi) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is accompanied by sterility
(bras }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfenp12297 proc-reandi). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In other cases impotence is not accompanied by
sterility so that the an impotent man may be capable of fertilisation. Thus proof
of impotenw does }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the presumption of paternity unless it is also shown
that that condition of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 accompanied by sterility. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, it should be noted
that in South Africa the courtsappear to have taken the that mere proof of
impotence is sufficient to rebut the presumption of paternity. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van den Heevcr3P stated that a
man would escape liability \uc1 \u8221 ?where he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was and is impotent.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1
\u8221 ?` With the greatest respect, it is submitted that proof of imps: }
\af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is not sufficient unless
such impotence is accompanied by sterility. This shoutclli }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 because impotence unaccompanied
by sterility does not completely preclude the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bility that the impotent man is the
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s tather.4an impotent man who admit. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he insottedhinis }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 into a woman\uc1
\u8217 ?s vagina, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 howevetslightly, Cannot pc liabilit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance of the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s
child unless he proves that his impotence was accomp4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by sterility. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 There are no Zimbabwean cases
on sterility as a defence. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 In South Africa the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is Mohamed v Shaik\uc1 \u8221 ?
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in which
the appellant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 admitted sexual intenzuttme }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 but alleged }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be the father of the child because he }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 was }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sterile. He called a
general }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
practitioner who, on the basis of two written reports-by a patholOgist who had
tested }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
of analysed the appellant\uc1 \u8217 ?s semen, testified that the cnancesot tne
appellant tieing the tirhestion of the respondent\uc1 \u8217 ?s child were \uc1
\u8221 ?highly likely.\uc1 \u8221 ? However, he g no reasons for his opinion. It
was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 held
that the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
medical practitioner\uc1 \u8217 ?s testimony did }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 show that-the appellant was sterile since
there was no record demonstrating that hr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 qualified to speak authoritatively on the
significance of the pathologist\uc1 \u8217 ?s reports }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 moreover, it was not possible
to conclude from the quality of his evidence that he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fact qualified to interpret the reports.
Accordingly, taking into account the totality }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 evidence, the court found that the
practitioner\uc1 \u8217 ?s opinions concerning the appeU alleged sterility at the
time of conception were merely statements of opinion consistently supported by the
medical evidence. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 Mohamed\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case is important for two basic propositions. The first
is that proof of sten must relate to the time of conceptioy. This is to say that
the appellant man must have b }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 48 P.118. It was the appellant\uc1 \u8217 ?s contention
that he was impotent. He admitted that he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 associated with the woman
and had also tried to have sexual intercourse with her. How he alleged that
because of impotence he was neither able to fulfil the sexual act nor imprell
woman, hence the child could not be his. The case was referred back to the trial }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for further evidence which the
man wanted to put before the court, which evidence }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hell }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 would prove his impotence and
inability to procreate at the time the alleged sexual into! took place between
himself and the woman. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 49 1978 (4) SA 323 (M. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 PATERNITY }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roe at the possible time of conception.
Secondly, there must be clear, unambiguous vedical evidence from a qualified and
expert medical practitioner or practitioners to the fleet that the man was sterile
at the relevant time, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tta of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 presumption of paternity through blood tests has
already been discussed bove in connection with children born inside wedlock. The
basic principles applicable rider that circumstance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mu tails mu tantlis }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 are equally applicable here. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2.4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Insufficient defences }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roof that a woman had sexual
intercourse with other men at the time that she could have mceived the child whose
paternity is in dispute is insufficient to rebut at the man she points out is the
father of her child. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Green v Shirto (supra) the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rhodesian ppellakepivision categorically stated that
\uc1 \u8221 ?Thesmere fict that other men were having intercourse with the
respondent at about the same time is not sufficient evidence to discharge that
onus. He must show ....that it was not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 possible for him to be the father of the child }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bus it is clear that in our law proof that
other men had sexual intercourse with the woman The relevant time is not
sufficient to rebut }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 preamplickaapaterni ty. . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 defence offered by a defendant who
alleges that other men had sexual intercourse $th the woman in chjestion is
technically knonas the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 aseptic) plurium concumbentium. excerdio plurium
concumbentium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
has had an ambivalent history in South African law, sinly because the early Roman-
Dutch authorities contradicted each other. The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 exceptio }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 accepted as a defence by Wassenaar,
Browner, Bort, van Leeuwen, Vroman, Ker- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an and van den Berg. It was rejected by Voct, de Groot,
van der Keessel, Hof van olland and van Zutphen.\uc1 \u8217 ? IR }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Coosa\uc1
\u8217 ?s\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 de Wet J stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it appears that the accused can escape liability only
if the Court is satisfied that the complainant had intercourse with some other
male at or about the time of conception.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MacDonald v
Slanders\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the point was left open. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Swart (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Potgieter AJ A said: 3ecause
of my views in this appeal, it is not necessary to decide whether the said
ception is part of our law.\uc1 \u8221 ? The Court went on to decide that where a
man admits that has had sexual intercourse with the woman, the onus lies on him to
prove that he is not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At p.14G-H. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 P v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pill See Olivier, p.324. 1948 (4) SA 211
at p.213. 1935 AD 325. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW N 7IMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the father of the child. It follows, then,
that mere proof that the woman had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 with other men does not prove that the allesjed father
is not in fad the father. AettIrdii }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by authority }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of Swart, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 plurium concumbentium }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is no longer a defence
in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
African la w?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 x As far as the position in Zimbabwe is concerned it
follows from the decision in Gren\uc1 \u8217 ?s case, that proof that the
womanWAssirisa-prastitute does not rebut the presumption. Indeed, in P v C }
Rhodesia Appellate Division accepted van den Heever\uc1 \u8217 ?s proposition
\langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?The snipe\uc1 \u176 ?r is
liable for .... that the plaintiff at the time of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 colwItion was a }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thus, the law takes the
approach that a woman is able to name the father of her child }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 despitepmmiscuous }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intercourse.
Further, it is the policy of the law that children shall be maintained by those
men who are the possible authors of their being. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The the presumption of paternity. This is
so because thereisno method of contraception tha t ca n be proved to be one
hundred percent effective in preventingpregnancy. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 feggels (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where it was part of the defenda nes
defence that during the admitted act of sexual intercourse he had applied }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 coitus
interruptus }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
in order to prevent conception, Rosenow remarked as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?The fact that some
form of preventive was used has been held not to be sufficient to rebut the
presumption, and this must particularly be so where the form of preventive used is
so peculiarly fallible as the one employed in the present case. (See R }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Swanepoet }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (4) }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SA 31(0); Watson v }
Watson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
PD 55; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
MacDonald v Stander }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1935 AD 3r, at p. 330)156 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The South African early cases of }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 de Wit v
Uyssi , }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Franks
Reit\uc1 \u8221 ? and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Nelson v Sch wider\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 took the approach that
the_presump_tio_n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 paternity could be rebutted if it were shown that the woman was }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 generally
unworthy of belief. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 Breach of Promise and Seduction in South African-Law }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
\langfenp12297 van den Heever commenting on these cases, states that: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 54 For detailed discussions of
the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 exceptio
see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Olivier,
pp.322-326; Hahlo, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 Annual Survey of South }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 African law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1954, p.55 and J E Scholtens, \uc1
\u8221 ?Maintenance of Illegitimate Children and the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
exceptiopluriumconcumbentium\uc1 \u8221 ? , }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1935)72 SALJ 144. See also S viegge/s(supra)where the
court observed that: \uc1 \u8217 ?The common law is very clear on this point.
Crotius states that, if a man admits intercourse, the woman is to be believed in
her identification of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 father }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 even though she has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had intercourse with others\uc1 \u8221 ?
p.706 (emphasis added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 55 P.83. 56 At p.706 G-H. 57 1913 CPD 65. 58
1924 WPD 329. 59 1930 WLD 177. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 PATERNITY }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sions a rc wrong. A prostitute is not generally worthy
of belief, case the presumption holds. From the nature of her situation e for her
to point at the actual father of her child; the same \uc1 \u8217 ?horn the }
\hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 exceptio }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .... Yet s
succeeds. The Dutch reports bristle with case; in which the a promise of marriage
or on seduction yet succeeded on this idibility must have been against her. It
isdifficult to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in our to
the conclusion that the plaintiff is worthy of belief when iy has been
rejected. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\uc1 \u8217 ?n is poverty. Moreover, poor girls are exposed to greater ivilcged
sisters. Consequently girls who become victims of rarely in a position to maintain
their illmitimate offspring. xomcchargesupon fhccommunity, it is the policy of
theta w y those men who are possible authors of their being. But for illegitimate
children. A man who engages in illicit sexual of having a child fathered upon him:
!opted in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
5 v leggels (supra) where }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Rosenow J found van swerable, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 R v Swanepod (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MacDonald v }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r that Zimbabwean courts
will take the same approach t where a man admits sexual intercourse the
woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s rant to rebutting the presumption of paternity. This is oman
as a witness does not show that it is impossible er of her child. Indeed, in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 P vC
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court
quoted tatement that: \uc1 \u8221 ?The claim for lying-in expenses and aerests of
the child, not the mother, consequently it unworthiness.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 policy of the law is that children will be maintained
ithors of their being. In capitalist countries where the cation are not the duties
of the state, the policy of the an who is a possible far is understandable
and :cess to material wealth and, therefore, cannot feed, put material
assistanceirom a man who frequently he law therefore places responsibility for the
major ng of children on those men who are the possible }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Hcever\uc1 \u8217 ?s book }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Breach of Promise and
Seduction in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ed at p.83 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 P v C }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW IN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
325 Presumption }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 of paternity in respect of ex-spouses }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Commenting on the Sarni case in
Annual Survey of South African Weil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 suggests that if a former wife sued her }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 former husband }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for the
maintenance01Q }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
conceived alter the dissolution of their marriage the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s
admission }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
sexual intercourse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 dunng the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
paiires\uc1 \u8217 ? marriage would raise }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lion that he is the father of_
the child. Ha hlo says: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Theabsurdities to which the new vile ....
may lead, areillustrated by the hypothda }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the divorced woman who gave
birth to an illegitimate child years after }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 suggested
that her ex-husband, who will hardly be in a position to deny intereounsi }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the marriage, should be
liable for maintenance, if pointed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 out by her as the father }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child, Imams he an satisfy the
court that ha be the father?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The answer to Hahlo\uc1 \u8217 ?s question
should be an unequivocal no. A careful readii Roman-Dutch common law authorities
shows that the presumption of paten* }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 out }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of an admission of illicit extra-marital }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sexual
intercourse. As van den Heeler }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it follows that juridically the claim-if& is baSed not
on paternity }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 illiciisexual intercourse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (ex amplexu) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ex lege .... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The action is, therefore, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 co }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 delicto.\uc1 \u8221 ?63 }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The policy of
the law is that those who engage in illicit sexual }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intercourse }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langfenp12297 at the risk of children being fathered upon them and they should
not, therefore, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 when they are called upon to contribute to the
maintenance of those children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intercourse during lawful marriage, however, is not
illicit so that its admission by husband does not raise the presumption of
paternity of a child conceived and bon after the marriage was dissolved. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is respectfully submitted
that where a divorced woman sues her ex-husband maintenance of her child conceived
after divorce, she must prove that sexual Interco took place between herself ier
ex-husband after the divorce. The husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s
sionoflawfulintercourseduringmarraages father of a child born to his ex-wife a
long time after their divorce unless he also post-divorce sexual intercourse. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3.3 Paternity under customary
law 3.3.1 Children born in wedlock }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In Africancustomary law children born in wedlock are
presumed tote the childr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 man to whom the woman is married. I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 n,Shona this }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is expressed }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the maxim meaning thatan }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1
adulteserotthekver of a mai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 no right to the children born }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to that woman. Only the
husband of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\dbch \af0
62 1954 at p. 61. 63 P. 63 C. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as the father. Consequently an adulterous man who
impregnates a married has no claim to his adulterine child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 even }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 if he can clearly prove his
fatherhood, \uc1 \u8221 ?tample, where the child was conceived during the
husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s absence. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s husband asserts his paternity
through the maxim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 harina mwana }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the has no formal legal remedy to challenge the
husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s paternity.TM However, if usband is willing to recognize the
adulterer\uc1 \u8217 ?s paternity he can do so by cha rging him Upon payment of
this penalty the adulterer acquiresall rights Custody of the child.\uc1 \u8221 ?
lt must be emphasized that a court has no it to compel the husband to accept }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maputiro }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and accordingly
his discretion to accept the adulterer\uc1 \u8217 ?s paternity is
unfettered.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (genial courts, in their resolution of paternity
disputes involving Africans, took the each that the Roman-Dutch common law was of
equal application to customary law In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Shawn n Sadoce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the husband sued his wife for
divorce and custody of the born to the wife during the marriage. The wife claimed
that another man and not t>lsband was the father of the child. The evidence,
however, did not exclude the ibility that the husban was the father. Hoffman J
held that where the paternity of a born in wedlock is in dispute and there is no
evidence to exclude the possibility that tusband is the father, the Roman-Dutch
common law maxim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 pater at quern nuptiae }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !rant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 applied. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Pommy Samson nuranga\uc1 \u8212
? me }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wnose
paternity was in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was born after the parents had separated. It was held
that in the absence of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 occluding the husband\uc1
\u8217 ?s paternity and notwithstanding uncertainty with }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the evidence as to who the
real father was, the husband was the father of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 . In this case the court again applied the
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pater cst
nuptiae dernonstrant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 maxim. These }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 indicate that the paternity disputes of parties
governed by customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ling children born inside wedlock arenevertheless
governed by the Roman-Dutch }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mon law and the general law. Thus all children born
inside wedlock are presumed e legitimate\uc1 \u8221 ? and to be the children of
their mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s husband.\uc1 \u8221 ? To rebut this }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note, however, that in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Vela v Mandmika
and Magutsa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1936 SR 171 where a man had lived for ten Mears with a woman who had deserted her
husband }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fathered
four children with her, the High Court, while accepting that the adulterer had no
legal right to the children, held that in ilese circumstances the husband would be
acting contrary to natural justice if he refused tasonable payment in cattle or
other compensation as damages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 leegenerally Holleman, p.95. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kanyuka Sixpense v
Egisita }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1967 A AC
37 where it was held An the husband of a wife who gave birth to an adulterine
child is entitled to claim its custody ugpt is not obliged
to do so and he can decline to have the guardianship and custody of the child. }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ate }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Tabitha v
Tawonzewi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SRN 33. 11961 SRN 15. 964 AAC 11. Idoro v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ma-plume }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1942 SRN 166. also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Male v Dziyakwi }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1938 SRN 34; }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Elizabeth and Mzeze v
Swandibva }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SRN 49; Child, p.73-74 and Stony, p.72 and pp.84-85. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 presumption it must be shown
that the husband could not possibly be the father of the child or children
concerned. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
331 Children born out of wedlock }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under customary law the father of a child born out of
wedlock had no duty to maintain his illegitimate child\uc1 \u8221 ? in the same
way- as he had no rights of gua rd ianshi p or custody over the child. The duty of
maintainence fell on the guardian of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother.\uc1 \u8221 ?
This guardian could, at his unfettered discretion,\uc1 \u8221 ? divest himself of
both the duty of maintenance and his rights of guardianship and custody of the
chile by accepting a payment called }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chiredzwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Shona, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 arnalobolo mu:lumina }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 isiMengo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Ndebele from the father of
the child.\uc1 \u8217 ? Acceptance of this payment by the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s
guardian conferrnd rights of guardianship and custody of the child on the
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s father who thereby became liable to maintain his child.\uc1
The customary law position with respect to maintenance of illegitimate children
meant that the father of an illegitimatechild who had not acquired guardianship
and /or custody over the child could not be legally compelled to maintain that
child. As a result it was never legally necessary to establish the paternity of a
child born out of wedlock where the man pointed out as the father by the child\uc1
\u8217 ?s mother was unwilling to admit paternity voluntarily. Accordingly, since
it was legally superfluous to do so as it was not necessary to ascribe paternity
to a particular man for the purposes of maintenance, customary law did not develop
clear rules for determining the paternity of out of wedlock children. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, the question of which
man was responsible for impregnating an unmarried woman arose in connection with
actions for seduction damages. If in an action for seduction damages the defendant
was also found to have been responsible for impregnating the seduced woman, the
quantum of damages payable to the plaintiff was increased.\uc1 \u8217 ? Thus,
where seduction resulted in pregnancy the damages payable by the seducer were
increased. Accordingly it was necessary for the courts to determine paternity of
children in connection with seduction claims. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Charles Ndlovu
Mkethwa Ndlavun }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
the plaintiff claimed seduction damages in the sum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 71 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ford son Manduna v Clara Khanye }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1977 AAC 9. See
also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In re
Robert }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SR47 where it was held that this rule of customary law was not contrary to natural
justice. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gunda
Alexander }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
AAC35 and also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Robert v Abraham }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1952 SRN 293. 73 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moses }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /Overige v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Emma Tafura }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974 AAC 9. 74 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muramwa v Majoni }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1947 SRN 165. 75 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Anderson v
Mariya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SRN 23. 76 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Kapisi v Magwayi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1937 (1928-62)SRN 90. See also Stony, p.70 and Goldin
and Gelb nd, pp.181- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 184. 77 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kainns v Tazvivinga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1973 AAC 28. 78 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Aggrey Chingombe
vTonderi Mudzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1973 AAC 32 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Eduvrd Ndlovu v Dog\uc1 \u176 ? Malaba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1959 SRN 639. 79 1971 AAC 37. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 laughter by the defendant. The
defendant admitted having e plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s daughter but denied paternity
on the basis that intercourse with another man who was the cause of the lip.
Pittman P held that the Roman-Dutch common law I to claims for seduction d amages
under customary to w. l ie Pendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?sic) put upon him the burden
of disproving
the presumption that la\uc1 \u8217 ?s (the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s daughter)
child. This follows the judgment in (1) SA 454 (AD) a case heard in the South
African Appellate d note reads as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an-Dutch law, where a woman claims
maintenance her mission of intercourse, no matter when it occurred, by the man r
creates a presumption that that man is the father and it places that he cannot be
the father.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Roman-Dutch common law of paternity and required
xual intercourse \uc1 \u8221 ?to prove that he was not the father of the }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mary law courts have followed
the reasoning of their :ase of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moses Gwebu v Stewart Sibanda, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an unnumbered t of Bulawayo
dated 9th November, 1983, the presiding hat: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?9-cement with his (community
court presiding officer) findings, ire satisfied with the finding of the court
that the defendant did Ns daughter but he is also responsible for her pregnancy.
As the hinted out, the defendant having admitted sexual intercourse, of proving
on a balance of responsibilities }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (sic) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that hecould the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s daughters
ehild\uc1 \u8221 ?82(emphasis added) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Roman-Dutch common law as expressed in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Swart\uc1 \u8217
?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case of }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Green
Shirto (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Alias
Moyo Bathwell Mabasa, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 District Court of Bulawayo dated 2nd August, 1983, the duction
damages for the seduction of his daughter who birth to a child. The defendant
admitted the seduction lhat the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s daughter had conceded that
she had leConstin Madzanain holding that thedefendant was District Court stated
dgmcnt. The case involved a claim for seduction damages }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ft }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 *pair }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?W. }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lank the. }
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vine
that in a cawnf thic }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 --}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8212 ?-_ _.- ---\uc1 \u8212 ? -\uc1
\u8212 ? \uc1 \u8212 ? - \uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1 \u8212 ?--.,..
\langfenp12297 nine when conception could }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rule in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 this regard is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 application n, }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has the }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 onus }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of proving }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he could }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the tattoo. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Although these }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cases were }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 concerned with
dame a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
dinar indiraiinn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I.... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law actions for maintenance }{\rtlch
\af0 \lang12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12(40) of the Customary Law and Primary }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ...... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?my }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 110i wit }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the father }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of. a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 being }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 primarily }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Asa result of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rhanen . }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 taw wedlock }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 it is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to determine paternity toattach liabilit
for the maintenance of a child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 _ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hurther, with the incorporation of the customary law,
the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
_ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 out of wedlock under customary law are }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law. That the principles of
Roman-Dutch }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
wherry Jaw has now been confirmed by the 88 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cubbay }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IA in deciding a paternity (lisp* }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 *sr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r1,10.40.;11 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 83 P1 ni }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nn copy of the judgment en, }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 got appellant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [ann.,. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 me presumption aetendant
although denying sexual intercourse had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 blankets with }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s daughter. The }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
defendant and the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 If }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the 5th draft of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Customary Law and Local }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 discussion }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ministry of Justice, Lent }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 anA }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 oecomes law in its form, this _ Maintenance Act }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 olio read thus: \uc1 \u8221 ?
(3) ... a maintenance court I which shall be a magistrtk, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (b) the father of a child as
being Primarily }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 until the child attain. - - }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thisamendmeni,r. , _...a ago of
majority \uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Local }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ...t.: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -\uc1 \u8226 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 achieved }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1989 (which will
repeal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by
Da }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
or i\uc1 \u8217 ?art of the Schedule }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 - aw }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?What isclear on these facts is that the
appellant accepted that over the pet 1979 to March 1984 he and the respondent
frequently had sexual intercourse The onus was therefore on him to prove that he
was not the father of the two child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3.4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Claim for lying-in expenses }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 finder both general law and customary law
a mother of an illegitimate child is entitled to waver from the father of }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the child }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tang-in expcnseo connected
with the pregnancy the birth of the child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hide Souza v Munjoma1\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it was held that
lying-in expenses may to included in theclarnages-awarded}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 ardian of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 woman in respect of her }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 eduction. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, the court }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 ruled }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that these lying-in
expenses could not be calculated }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 mtil after the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 birth of the child. Another customMy aw
hat it is proper to include an amount brave maintenanceof the woman under the
general cad of lying-in expenses. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ender Roman-Dutch common law both parents of an
illegitimate child are responsible, ecording to their means, for the lying-in
expenses arising out of the pregnancy.\uc1 \u8221 ? The ring in expenses may
\uc1 \u8221 ?inclde sum for maintenance of the mother of the child during period }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 immediately
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 before an
a terthe birth of the child and .... this sum may, but ;ill necessarily, be to the
mothe-r-rsloss earnings during this period.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t Sager v Bezuidenhout
awarded the woman lying-in expenses under the :ads of maternity home expenses,
medical expenses, maternity clothing expenses and \uc1 \u176 ?thing and food for
the child.\uc1 \u8221 ? However, in Card Spars (supra) the court was of the view
at she is not \uc1 \u8221 ?entitled to claim from the defendant a refund of the
expenses she has curred in respect of her own person\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ?
such as maternity wear and toiletries. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 conclusion it should be noted that \uc1 \u8221 ?the
lying-in expenses are regarded as being for the neat of the child, the same
applies to maintenance for the mother during the period tmediately before and
after the birth of the child.\uc1 \u8221 ?91 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At p.2. 1951 SRN 260. 1949 SRN 216. }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sager v
Bezuidenhout }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(3) SA 1005 at p.1009. Per Zietzman J, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Card v Sparg }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1984 (4) SA 667 at p.671 while summarizing
the decision of Erasmus; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Sager v Bezuidenhout }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra). At p.:009. At p.671. Per
Zietzman J in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Card }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Sparg (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.671. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Laurens v van Biljon }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1967 (1) SA 703 where
Jansen J put it as follows:\uc1 \u8221 ?It is clear from these cases and the
authorities which they quote, that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 right of the woman to claim maintenance before, during
and after the confinement is in the interest of the child and further that this
right to maintenance is then regarded as part of the lying-in emenses\uc1 \u8221 ?
(at p.713). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter
Termination of pregnancy, domicile and registration of birth and name of child }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4.1 Termination of pregnancy }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Prior to the enactment of the
Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1977 (No. 29 of 1977), hereinafter called the
Termination of Pregnancy Act, the termination of pregnancy or abortion was solely
governed by the common law. Under the common law abortion or termination of
pregnancy is acritninal offence. The common law, although there are no cases
decided on this point, probably recognised the defence of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 r_sceily }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to a criminal prosecution
for abortion.\uc1 \u8217 ? \uc1 \u8226 ? - }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Termination of Pregnancy Act was
enacted in 1977 following the recommendations of the Comm; scion of Inquiry into
Termination of Pregnancy contained in its 1976 Report. According to the Act, no
person may terminatea pregnancy except in accordance with the provisions of the
Act.\uc1 \u8217 ? The Act states that a pregnancy may only be terminated by a
medical }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
practitioner }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in a
hospital\uc1 \u8217 ? under the following circumstances: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1 if the continuation of the
pregnancy so endangers the life of the woman concerned or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 so constitutes a serious threat
of permanent impairment of her physical health that the termination of the
pregnancy is necessary to ensure her life or physical health (section }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4(a)) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (emphasis
added); }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
2 if there is a serious risk that the child to be born will suffer from a
physical or mental }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 defect of such a nature tha t it will be permanently
and seriously handicapped (section 4(b));
}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SeeVoet47.11.3and Matthaus
(ad.475.1.5) where it is stated that anabortion performed to save the life of a
mother is lawful. See also the Rhodesian }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Feport of the Commission ofInquiry into
Termination of Pregnancy }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1976. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 3. Section 5(1). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?A11ON OF
PREGNANCY, DOMICILE AND REGISTRATION OF MI MI AND NAME OF }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 reasonable possibility that the
conception took place asa result of unlawful (section 4(c). }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 course is defined in the Act as
meaning rape, incest or intercourse with a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or idiot which latter ad is an offence
under section 3(d) of the Criminal ent Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 59). For a pregnancy to be lawfully
terminated under the ful intercourse a certificate issued by a magistrate stating
that the alleged course has been reported to the police and that an examination of
the \uc1 \u8217 ?mined to him or her by the police indicate, on a balance of
probabilities, ntercourse which possibly resulted in the pregnancy was peipetratcd
lust be presented to the medical practitioner who is to terminate the he alleged
unlawful sexual intercourse was incestuous the magistrate\uc1 \u8217 ?s t further
state that the woman concerned is related within the prohibited riage to the man
with whom the sexual intercourse took place\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pregnancy based on the ground
of threat to the pregnant woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s life or or on the ground of threat
of serious and permanent physical or mental ild may be lawfully carried out only
upon production to the superintenvan t hospital a certified opinion to that effect
by two medical practitioners t be members of the same partnership.\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that the threat to the
pregnant woman must be one of permanent her health and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 not mental }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 health. Although the Report of the
Inquiry into Termination of Pregnancy included a recommendation that regnancy
should be allowed where its continuance posed a grave danger ermanent damage to
the pregnant woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s mental health,\uc1 \u8217 ? this was not
cordingly is not part of the Termination of Pregnancy Ad. It follows, pregnancy
cannot be terminated in Zimbabwe if it poses a threat to only h of the pregnant
woman. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\lin0 \rin0 \itap0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nnot be lawfully terminated
on the ground that the mother seeking stitute and would be incapable of supporting
the child\uc1 \u8217 ? or on the ground (ready have a very large family which they
are incapable of maintaining hort, no pregnancy can be terminated on socio-
economic grounds, rounds may be. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ) and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Report. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 member of the Commission of Inquiry into Termination of
Pregnancy, had tied this to be a ground but it was not accepted. }{\rtlch
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY IN }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4.2 Domicile of child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fl ... . ll..\uc1 \u9830 ?..L }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 concept }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0nminn\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law. Domicile is
a question of and a person can only haveontt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at a time. A child takes the domicile of
his or her guardian. This guardian- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 father so that the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile is the
country where the father is domiciled all }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s birth.\uc1
\u8217 ? This domicile which the child acquires at birth is knosi }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 domicile of origin. An
illegitimate child takes the domicile of its }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 mother by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 _virtue of the tato }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 illegitimate child\uc1 \u8217 ?
s mother is the legal guardian of that illegitimate child. A }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 change his or her domicile
since aThange of domicile requires an intention to( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 physical arrival at the }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nev/place }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of
domicile. Thos, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
a child\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 d }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 omici lc can only bec }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by a change\uc1 \u8212 ?in his or her guardian\uc1
\u8217 ?s domicile. In such cases the guardian\uc1 \u8217 ?s! }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 domicile automatically changes
the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile so that a child\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicikisi }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the same as his or her
guardian\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Favard v Favard (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the parents of a child were domiciled
iaEngland at thell }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the-ctilaWurAccordingly thechild\uc1 \u8217 ?sdomicile
of origin was Englaratheparat divorced at which time the mother }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 obtain0 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 custody and later brought
the di Zimbabwe leaving the husband in England. It was argued that since the
mother, custodian parent had changed her domicile to Zimbabwe, it followed that
thet domicile had also changed. The then General Division of the High Court
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile had not changed since the father as the guardian of
the child,. changed his domicile. Accordingly, England remained of the }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4.3 Registration of birth }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Births and Deaths
Registration Act, 1986 ( No. 11 of 1986) provides for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sory\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u176 ?
registration of all births and deaths in Zimbabwe. The father and mother }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 have a duty to register the
birth of their child within forty-two days after its 1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
In the case of an illegitimate child the father is not required to give information
the birth of the child.\uc1 \u8217 ?2 Further, the registrar shall not enter the
name of any }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
father of an illegitimate child except at the joint request of the mother and the]
acknowledging himself in writing, in the presence of the registrar, as the
father.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9 Sec }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Favard a Favard }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1951 SR 10 Section 10. 11 Section 11(2Xa). 12
Section 12(1). 13 Section 12(2)(a) and OA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF PREGNANCY, AND REGISTRATION OF BIRM AND NAME OF CI
HID }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
is no requirement for the mother of an illegitimate child to allow the child\uc1
\u8217 ?s father to participate in the registration of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
birth. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
If an illegitimate person becomes legitimated by operation of law, section 19(1 )
provides for the re-registration of the birth effective as though the parents of
such person were married to each other at the time of his or her birth. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4.4 Change of child\uc1
\u8217 ?s surname }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Changing a child\uc1 \u8217 ?s surname requires the
consent of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s legal guardian even in instances where the
mother and not the father is the custodian parent. In M }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v A and Another\uc1 \u8221 ?
commenting }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
on this issue Gubbay J (as he then was) stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?.,..Iamconstrained
toconcludethat at common la w the right and duty to repmsentorassist a minor child
in executing a notarial deed changing his surname remains with the father as
natural guardian where only custody of the child has been awa riled to the mother.
By virtue of the provisions of section 2 of the Guardianship of Minors Act ....
however, this particular right of the gua rdian father must be exercised in
consultation with the mother either }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 stante matrimottio }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or after divorce ....\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In this case the court decided
that the custodian mother was not competent to change the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child\uc1 \u8217 ?s surname. C
hut iSV }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfenp12297 Pt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 ZLR 30 (CD,HO. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 5 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Legitimacy and adoption }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5.1 Legitimacy under general law }{\rtlch
A legitimate child is one who is conceived or born to parents who are legally
married to each other at the time of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s conception or birth)
On the other hand an illegitimate child is a child conceived and born to parents
who are not married to each other. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5.1.1 Presumption of legitimacy }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In terms of the Roman-Dutch
common law all children conceived or born to a married woman are presumed to be
the legitimate children of the man who is married to the mother. This presumption
is expressed in the maxim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pater }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 esf }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 quern nuptiae danonsirant, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which simply means that a
woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s husband is presumed to be the father of any children conceived
or born to the woman during the parties\uc1 \u8217 ? marriage. Accordingly, such
children are presumed to be legitimate. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The presumption of legitimacy can be
rebutted by proof that the husband of the mother is in fact not the father of such
child or children. For example proof that the husband was gerile at the time of
conception or that he had not had access to his wife at the time conception could
have taken place would rebut the presumption of legitimacy. If the presumption is
rebutted the children become illegitimate. However, only the High Court can enter
an order declaring a child illegitimate and a child must always be represented
by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a
curator ad Went }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
in an action seeking a declaration of illegitimacy. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note should be made of the fact that a
child during wedlock is legitimate eve when it is bon after its parents have
divorced. Si milarly, children who are bon legiti remain legitimate if their
parents subsequently divorce. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1 See Olivier, p.320; Voet 1.6.6 and de Groot
1.12.2. 2 De Groot 1.125. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 dren and methods of their
legitimation }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ren are They cap he legitimaited by the nts. Such legitimation is referred to as }
Jegitimatio }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
per parents of an ilIctitima to child marry each other at any legitimate for all
purposes and any egitimation fall away? Pre-marital children can also be which
such adopted children become the legitimate ts? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of parents one or both of whom were
married to option. Accordingly, an adulterine child is a child horn ntercourse. }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ate since are born to parents who arc not
crinc child born to a married woman is, by virtue of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roust rant }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 presumed to be legitimate
until its adulterine tated, only the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can declare a child born to a this the High Court may
only do after it has been proven other could not possibly be the child\uc1
\u8217 ?s father. Thus, an d woman does not beCome legally }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 illegitimate until he }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 High Court. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e legitimate through the cm
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Legitimacy
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which
provides }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
an illegitimate person was married to a third person when in, and the parents of
the illegitimate person marry or have birth of that person, the marriage shall
render that person, if c of that porsdn\uc1 \u8217 ?s birth.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
pith legitimation by subsequent marriage he says: \uc1 \u8221 ?By this much in
accord with nature, the defect of birth is so cured 0e children in t he entirety
just as though they had not been 1..7. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ea NO }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962 (2) SA 160 (SR) at as trite that
pre-marital children are legitimated by the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adoption are discussed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 infra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (\uc1 \u167 ?5.4). }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Adoption Act }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?
Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 351. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN
ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
It will be noticed that this provision applies }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 only if one }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 adulterine }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child was married }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 at the time
of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
birthsLThc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The seCtion, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
operate to allow the legitimation of an adulterine child born at a time when }
\ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parents are no longer married to someone else. In other
words, an adull }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 conceived to a married woman or a married man, but born
after the woman or! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has divorced does not become legitimate under the
provisions of section 2 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Legitimacy Act by virtue of the subsequent marriage of
its parents. Whether or. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a child becomes legitimate upon the marriage of its
parents by operation of Ow Dutch common law has not been pronounced upon by
Zimbabwean courts. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In South Africa, however, the issue has been pronounced
upon and the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
authorities are in conflict. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Green Fitzgerald& }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Appellate Division held that was no
longer a crime in Roman-Dutch law since prosecutions for it had fallen Wok, This
opened the way for the Appellate Division in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Estate lithutmann and Heinamann7 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to decide that since
adultery was no longer a crime it followed that; penalties and impediments
associated with adultery fell away and consequvtth prohibition placed upon the
subsequent marriage of adulterers also fell away. Now [14...adulterers were able
to marry each other, the question of whether their adult 1yd-children could be
legitimated by their marriage became an issue. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Hoffman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Estate Mechate }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Cape Court was of the
view that adulterine children legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their
parents. However, theOrangeFR.6 Court took the opposite view in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ex park r }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and decided that the
subsequent adulterers legitimated their adulterine children. De Beer J stated
\ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch \af0 \lang12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?But if all the other penalties and
disabilities have becomeobsolete, it isdifficult tow any logical or other reason
why only the inability to become legitimate should force.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This reasoning was followed by Dowling J in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lessing v
Lasing.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 The reasoning in the two cases is preferable and more logical.12 It
is, therefore, respectfully submitted Zimbabwean courts should follow the
reasoning in these cases and hold subsequent marriage of parents of adulterine
children has the effect of legit\uc1 \u8217 ? \uc1 \u8217 ? adulterine children
even in those circumstances not covered b section 2 of the macy Act. Adoption
would appear to be another me hich adulterinechii can be legitimated.
6 1914 AD 88. 7 1919 AD 19. 8 1922 CPD 179. 9 1951 (1) SA 665
(0). 10 At p.671. 11 1958 (3) SA 115 (1N). 12 See generally Olivier,
pp.331-336. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A\'5c1) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Incestuous children }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Incestuous children arc
children born to parents who are not competent to marry each other by reason of
their close blood relationship. The question of whether incestuous children can be
legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their parents cannot arise Because the
pi-eras of such children cannot lawfully contract a valid marriage with each
other. There seems to be no reason why incc,,tuous children should not be legi
timated by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\uc1 \u176 ?Indio of a void marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch
\af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Children born to parents who have
contracted since their parents arc, in law, not married to one another. However,
the Roman-Dutch common law permits a child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 bore of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 void marria }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ich at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 least one of the spouses }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M fidcbclieved }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in the va id i
of c concc a child cannot be declared legitimate if neither of the parents were }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bona
fide }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at the
time of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s conception. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 &marital; ikwhich is called }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a putative marriage. The
normal practice with respect to legitimating children born in such a marriage is
that in the action to declare the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 putative_marriapy void, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 one or both }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3 parents also applies for a declaratory
order to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
the children otihe inarriacci }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Children whose parents\uc1 \u8217 ? marriage is
annulled }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
In terms of the Roman Dutch common law, children born of a voidable marriage
were }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
legilimateduringtheperiod that the marriage existed. However, upona }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the nnulment of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 their \uc1 \u8217 ?Pa rents\uc1
\u8217 ? voidable marriage, such children became illegitimate since such annulment
had the effect of retrospectively effacing the marriage as though it had not
existed)\uc1 \u8217 ? Section 14 of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of
1985) has changed this s\uc1 \u8217 ? non by providing that: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /4 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Wherea decreed
nullity is gra nted in tweet of a voidable marriage,any child who would have been
the legitimate child of the parties to the marriage if it had been dissolved
instead of being annulled, at the date of the decree, shall be deemed to be their
legitimate child notwithstanding the annulment.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 As a result of this enactment,
children born of a voidable marriage remain the legitimate children of the parties
to the marriage upon the annulment of the marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5.1.3 Disabilities of illegitimacy }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Illegitimate children cannot
succeed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ab intestato }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 to their father or their }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 father\uc1 \u8217 ?s relatives. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 13 See M v M 1962 (2) SA 114
(GW). 14 The children could then be legitimated by an order of court. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ANT) AW$11Ct }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?I }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Incestuous children }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Incestuous children arc
children born to parents who am not competent to many each \uc1 \u8222 ?filer by
reason of their dose blood relationship. The question of whether incestuous
children }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be legitimated
by the subsequent marriage of their parents cannot arise because the Direr:is of
such children }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 cannot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 lawfully contract a valid marriage with each other. There seems to
be no mason why incwuous children should not be legitimated by }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chi of a void marriage }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Children born to parents who
have contracted. o fill _itimat since their parents arc, in law, not
married to one another. However, the Roman-Dutch common law permits a child }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 born
o_f_p_veklmarria }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 i ich at least one of the spouses }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fide }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 believed in the val id i of the mania e
t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 le }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 time of the c
\uc1 \u8217 ? nce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 legit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 child cannot be declared legitimate if neither of the parents }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 were bona
fide }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at the
time of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s conception. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mania e called a putative marriage.
The normal practice with respect to legitimating children born in such a marriage
is that in the action to declare the putative-wathad, one or both parents also
applies for a declaratory order to \uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ? t \uc1 \u8226 ?
t at-e3 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Children whose parents\uc1 \u8217 ? marriage is annulled }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In terms of the Roman Dutch
common law, children born of a voidable marriage were legitimate during the period
that the marriage existed. However, of their parents\uc1 \u8217 ? voidable
marriage, such children became illegitimate since such annulment had the effect of
retrospectively effacing the marriage as though it had not existed!\uc1 \u8217 ?
Section 14 of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of 1985) has changed
this t ion by providing that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Wherea decree of nullity is granted in
respect of a voidable marriage, any child who would have been the legitimate child
of the parties to the marriage if it had been dissolved instead of being annulled,
at the date of the decree, shall be deemed to be their legitimate child }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not withstanding the
annulment.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Asa result of this enactment, children born of a
voidable marriage remain the legitimate children of the parties to the marriage
upon the annulment of the marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5.1.3 Disabilities of illegitimacy }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Illegitimate children cannot succeed }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab intesfata }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to their father or their
father\uc1 \u8217 ?s relatives. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 13 See M 1462 (2)SA 114 (GW). 14 The children could
then be legitimated by an order of court. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMIT.Y LAW N 71MSABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
Similarly, the father and his relatives cannot succeed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intr.:tato }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the illegitimate
childrenis However, an illegitimate child suffers no legal disabilities in respect
of intestate succession from its mother. An to succeed to its the as if it were
legitimate.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 An illegitimate child suffers no legal disabilities in
respect testate succes.sion. A father or any of his relations }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 freely, without
restriction, will any y to an illegitimate child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 An illegitimate child falls under the
natural guanhanship\uc1 \u8221 ? of its inot ler and she alone is entitled to its
custody.\uc1 \u8221 ? The ill___._ child-has no stranger claim to the
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s custody than any other suitable third parlyi\uc1 \u176 ? It
should be noted that the law does not regard such a child as illegitimate insofar
as its legal relations with its mother are concemed:Me child\uc1 \u8217 ?s legal
disabilities rela to only to its rights with respect to its lathe r./\uc1
32 Legitimacy under customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under African customary law the concept of legitimacy
embraces two distinct aspects. Firstly, the concept defines parental rights and
duties towards a child. For example, the status of legitimacy determines which of
the parents has rights to custody, the duty to maintain and protect the child, the
right to receive }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 or provide }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobo/o }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for a son. Secondly, the status of legitimacy or
illegitimacy determines a child\uc1 \u8217 ?s membership or otherwise of its
father\uc1 \u8217 ?s patrilineage?\uc1 \u8217 ? For purposes of the status of
legitimacy or illegitimacy under customary law children can be divided into three
categories: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
15 Voct 38.17.19 and Olivier p.329. 16 Olivier p329. 17 See Spiro, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Law of
Parent and Child, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 3rd ed. at pp.425-426 and also I\uc1 \u8217 ? Q R Bober& }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 The Law Persons and
the Family }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
at pp.333-346. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
18 See the judgment of Muchec het }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ereJ in Douglas v Mayers }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1987 (1) SA
910 (ZI IC). Seealso }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Wilson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Ely }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1914 WR 34; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mathews v I laswari }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1937 WLD 110; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Docrat v Ilhayat }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1932 TPD 125 and Spiro
(supra), at pp.425-126. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lbid }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.915 where Muchechetere) stated that: \uc1
\u8221 ?.... my conclusion is that there is no inherent right of access or custody
fora father of a minor illegitimate child but the father, in the same way as other
third parties, has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 right to claim and will be granted these if he can satisfy the court
that it is in the best interests of the child.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Douglas v Mayers (supra) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.12 where
the court quoted with approval the following passage from Boberg }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 top }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.333: \uc1 \u8217 ?The
legal position of the illegitimate child is founded upon the philosophy hat }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 een mailer
maakt seen bastaard }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 i.e. as far as the mother is concerned the la w does not regard
thechild as illegitimate; his disabilities relateto his rights }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 viz a }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 viz his father and third
parties.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See generally Holleman, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Shona Cu.:ternary Law, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.242\uc1 \u8226 ?259. }
\af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I/CITMIACY AND }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 born of lawfully married
parents; ital children; and ne children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wfully married parents am legitimate. As a result the
husband of the Cher has guardianship, custody and other parental rights and duties
irimary duty to maintain the children.n Such children are members of the neage and
sons are entitled to succeed to the name and genealogical eir father. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Under_4Eatfitionlaw }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the mother of
legitimate o rights of guardianship over the chi Idren, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nor couTdshe claim }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 custodyof ent of
divorce.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ildren are illegitimate in relation to their father
under customary law, and no rights of guardianship or custody which rights are
enjoyed by the her\uc1 \u8217 ?s father. Under traditional customary law a father
has no duty to egi timate child.zf However, a father of pre-marital children can
legitimize paying (in Shona) or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 amalobolo omtwaria }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 isihlengo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (in Ndebele). is accepted by the
woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s father, who has an unfettered discretion to t it, the
children\uc1 \u8217 ?s father acquires all the rights to his children and the ne
legitimate. In the absence of an agreement on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mapufiro }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 amalobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iother\uc1 \u8217 ?s family enjoys all
parental rights over the children including the and receive }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in the case of a female child.
Idren born to a married woman are presumed to be the children of the and and,
therefore, legitimate. Accordingly adulterine children fall under cip and custody
of their mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s husband until their natural father\uc1 \u8217 ?s
;nowledged and accepted by the husband. If the husband accepts the adulterer he,
at his unfettered discretion, may charge and accept the form of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maputiro. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In that event the natural
father (the adulterer) I to the guardianship and custody of his adulterine child.
It should be !ovisions of section 2 of the Legitimacy Act are applicable to
customary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
accordingly, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
operate to render I egi ti ma to an ad u I ter ine child upon the arents to each
other, provided that one or both of the parents were ne else at the time of its
birth. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
m born to parents who arc associated with each other in an unregistered
trriage(customary lawunion)which i sin law invalid,arelegitimateby virtue DI
section 3(3) of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 !Chapter 2381. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 host likely been changed by the Legal Age of Majority
Act. See Chapter 7 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ?en changed by sect ion 12(4)(b) of the Customary Law }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Primary Courts
FAMILY LAW IN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 53 The status of children conceived through artificial
insemination }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Human artificial insemination is a relatively new
medical procedure. As a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimbabwean cases to date have decided the status of
children born as a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 procedure. However, the usual principles that determine
legitimacy conclusions as to the approach our courts would be likely to take in
such cases conceived asa result of homologous artificial insemination, that is
theartificial Lion of a woman with her husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s semen (All I), would
be legitimate since conceived to parents who are married to each other. The status
of childnt through heterologous artificial insemination, that is, artificial
insemination of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 with the semen of a donor (AID) is slightly more problematic.
However, it is submitted that a child conceived through this method is
illegitimate by the simple that its biological parents are not married to each
other at the time of its conaTt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 reasoning finds support in the
South African case of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 V v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
It 1979 (3) SA 1006 it was held that a child conceived through heterologous
artificial inseminatiotti }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 without the consent of the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s
husband, is illegitimate and that thereforeir4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s consent is required
for the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s adoption. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5.4 Adoption }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Roman-Dutch common law did not recognize
adoption of children as a legal inst4 even though adoption had been part of Roman
law. Asa yesul the insti }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 did not become part of Zimbabwean law }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 until it was }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 introduced by }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 \par }\pard
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rrotection and Adoption Act,
1929 (No. 22 of 1929) on 1st November,1929.\uc1 \u8221 ? I lvs.k later repealed
and replaced by the Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Protection and Adoption Act (Chap of
1972, Part VI of which governs questions of adoption. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LikeRoman-pptellcommon law,
African customary law did not recognizethein.% }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of adoption. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfenp12297 Section 2(2) of the repealed Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Protect ion and
Adoption Act IC 1551 of 1939 pnvided that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provisions of that Act would not apply to
Africans_ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 result that the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 institution of adoption was not available to Africans .until 1972141
\ul1 provision }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
was repealed. Today all the provisions of the Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Prot( }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Adoption Act }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 331 (hereinafter called the
Adoption Act) apply }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimbabweans without qualification and children can only
be adopted in h }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Adoption Act. Any agreement tosive custody and control
of a child to a third }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is not in accordance with the adoption procedures of
the Act cannot be enfot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 25 In South Africa adoption was introduced by Act 25 of
1923 and is presently corm }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Act 33 of 1960. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 26 Sec }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van der West hu izen v van Wyk
and Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
195212) SA 119 (GWLD) where t runt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
of a child had given their child to the respondents. No order of adoption was
apF }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
granted. The respondents had had the child christened in their name. After the }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ANV }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The institution or a device
which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
person }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or
persons to adopt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 dthrougn utcauuLu on a IC ltba an c1 n }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1111u }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parent or
parents and the adopted child. Granting an adoption is one of the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mirka ni things a court can do
to a child. Adoption removes the rights and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lions of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s natural
parents and transfers them to its adoptive pa rents? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (%c }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 effects aaoption }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8226 ?}{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 II I }
\ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (an
infant?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Thechild is removed, oncea nd for all,
from its natural parents and becomes the child of the adoptive parents as if it
had been born to them in lawful wedlock. All rights and liabilities existing
between the child and its natural parents are terminated. It takes the surname of
the adoptive parents in substitution of its own\uc1 \u8221 ?The natural parents
thencefmm have no rights whatsoever with respect to custody, control, education or
religious upbringing of the child, and cannot even have access to it unless by the
grace of the adoptive parents; and the child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 no longer expect from the natural parents
any of the benefits which the natural relationship ordinarily yields.\uc1 \u8221 ?
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Tbusadoption where the child was previously
illegitimate. This allows the adopted child to inherit from its adoptive parents }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab
intectato }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as if
it was their lawful child born in wedlock. Put simply, the adoptive parents stand
in relation to the child, and to each other in all matters }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 concerning the welfare of the
adopted child,as if they were the natural and lawful mother and father of the
child.32 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
However, an adopti ve }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 parent }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 may many his or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 her adopted child }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at any }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 time after that child has
reached the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
age of 18 years.n An adoption does not permit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nCA3 L\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Aict }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch
\langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 husband the natural mother of the child applied for the
return of the nine year old child. The application was granted on the basis that
there had been no legal adoption and that the agreement between the parties was
unenforceable. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
27 The term adoptive parents is used here to refer to a person who adopts or has
adopted a child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under the provisions of the Adoption Act. The term
adoptive parents is used in preference to the term \uc1 \u8221 ?adopter\uc1 \u8221
? which is used in the Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 28 CB69-80 at p.3. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 29 See section 65(1) of Adoption Act
which states that \uc1 \u8221 ?An adoption order shall, unless ot herwise thereby
provided, confer the surname of the adopter on the adopted child!\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 30 This is achieved by
section 65(4) of the Adoption Act which states that: \uc1 \u8221 ?Upon an adoption
order being made, all rights, duties, obligations and liabilities of the parents or
guardians of the person to whom the order relates shall be extinguished, and all
such rights, duties. obligations and liabilities shall vest in and be exercisable
by and enforceable against the adopter as if that person were a child born to the
adopter in lawful wedlock; and in respect of those matters that person shall stand
to the adopter exclusively in the position of a child born to the adopter in
lawful wedlock.\uc1 \u8221 ? Note that in a case where an applicant who is the
spouse of the natural parent of the child adopts the child, the adoption does not
terminate the rights and duties existing between the adopted child and its natural
parents (section 59(3). 31 Section 65(2). 32 Section 65(5). }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,J4t,,!ft, }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or prohibit a marriage betwcrn
an adopted person and any other person which no have been nermitted or nrohibited
if the adoption had not taken }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8226 ? el- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mina: awtn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a am\uc1 \u8217 ? sociological
aspects of adoption are as important as the legal aspects, the Adoption Act
requires that a probation officer be appointed guardian }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ad litcm }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 over a minor who is the
subject of an adoption process? Social welfare services playa large part in
investigating the suitability or unsuitability of potential adoptive parents. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Adoption hearings must always
be held in private and no persons other than those permitted by the court may be
present during the proceedings of an adoption application.\uc1 \u8221 ? Before an
adoption order can be made, the applicant adoptive parents are required to make an
application in the manner and form prescribed in the Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s
Protection and Adoption Regulations, 1972? The publication of any advertisement to
the effect that any person wishes any minor to be adopted, or that any person is
willing to adopt any minor, is prohibited unless such advertisement is published
with the permission of the Director of Social Services in the Ministry of Labour,
Manpower Planning and Social Services.\uc1 \u8217 ?0 All forms of consideration or
payments in connection with adoption are unlawful, except those made or received
with the consent of the juvenile court.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Before a juvenile court makes an adoption
order
it must satisfy itself that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a) the consent of a parent, where necessary and not
dispensed with, has been given in the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 prescribed form and has been signed by the parent
before a magistrate. The consent document must state that the parent has consented
that his or her child be adopted by the applicant or applicants whose full names
must be known to him or her.\uc1 \u8221 ? There must also he }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 certificate endorsed by the
magistrate stating that the parent understands the nature of the adoption and its
effect of permanently depriving him or het of all his or her parental rights with
respect to the minor who is the subject of the adoption application:\uc1 \u8221 ?
33 Proviso to section 72(a) 34 Section 72(9). 35 Section 59(1). 36
Juvenile courts are established in terms of s.53(1) of the Adoption Act. 37
Section 58(2). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Section 58(3). Section 590). Section 73(1). The Director of Social Services is
permitted, however, to keep a register of names persons who wish to adopt ch::dren
(s.63(1)). Section 69. - }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12 Section 62(aXi) and (W. 13
Section 62(aXiii). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 AND }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 w it h,of any person other than a parent lerstands the
nature and effect of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 interests and welfare of the child, due wishes of the
minor having regard to his }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ved a ny consideration and that no person ica nt in
consideration of the adoption\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rt may impose any terms and conditions arents to make
for the adopted child any }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adoption hearing are not available for them except
with the permission of the pinst the publication of any information rent or
adoptive parent or parents of an to publish, except with the consent of the d
where he or she is a major, the fact that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lin restrictions on the making of adoption
fictions operate so that an adoption order }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 es and the other spouse has not given his that if that
other spouse cannot be found :onsent or the spouses have separated ith that other
spouse\uc1 \u8217 ?s consent-50 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (RAD) where the juvenile court had refused it the
applicant had refused to make certain of the application. The Appellate Division in
ed that: \uc1 \u8221 ?There is no inherent reason why, in lade to immunize the
adopted child from the Id must take in his stride.\uc1 \u8221 ? (p.383). }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 s of the opinion that the
publication would be n. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW N 7IMBALIWF }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (2) Where the applicant is not resident and }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 domiciled }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Zimbabwe. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 applicant and the child arc
within prof-owed degrees of consangui, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court can make the adoption in favour of theapplicant
notwithstandin- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\par }\pard \plain
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 she is not resident or domiciled in
Zimbabwe;\uc1 \u8221 ? (3) Where the applicant is not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a citizen }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of Zimbabwe }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Minister of }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Manpower Manning }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Social Services has not
given his or her consenlini }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adoption. However, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 crud can }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 grant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adoption order without the Mir
consent if the child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the applicant are related within the prohibileti }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ngu ni y ;52 (4) Where the
sole applicant is a male and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child in respect of whom the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 order is sought is a }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 female. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In these
circumstances an adoption order }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 only if the court is satisfied of the existence of
special considerations justifyir }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 making of an adoption orders\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (5) Where the minor child has
not been medically examined and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 medical\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nation report furnished to the
court\uc1 \u8221 ? (6) Where the Minister has not given his consent }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and: }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) the applicant is under the age of 25 yrars,55
or (6) the applican t is less than 21 years older than the minor }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 whose; }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is sought. Provided that: (0
the court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
can }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 grant an
adoption order notwithstanding that the applit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 less than twenty-one years older than the
minor child where the chili }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the applicant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 arc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 related to each other }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 within the }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 prohibited di }
\af4 \dbch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consanguinityf }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouses may join tly adopt any minor
child born of one o }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 f them even }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 one or both of them }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 are }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 age }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of 25 years or }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 even }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 though one ort }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of them are less than 21 years
older than the minor child;\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (iii) the spouse of the minor child\uc1
\u8217 ?s natural parent may adopt any minor, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 born of one of the spouses even though one
or both of them }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 are }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
under thet }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
of 25 years, or even though one or both of them }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 are }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 less than 21 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 yearsi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 than the minor child-59 }
\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
51 Subsection (5). 52 Subsection (7). 53 Subsection (2). 54 Subsection
(6). 55 Subsection 1(a). 56 Subsection 1(b). 57 Paragraph (i) of
subsection (1). 58 Paragraph (ii) of subsection (1). 59 Paragraph (iii) of
subsection (1). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 ACY AND }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (iv) any person may adopt a minor child born of him or
her where he or she had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 previously given that minor in adoption notwithstanding
that he or she is under the age of 25 years or is less than 21 years older than
the mince\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (v) no person shall adopt, otherwise than jointly
with his or her spouse, a minor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 less than 25 years younger than the said person, unless
the minor is of the same sex as that person or that person isa widower, widow or
an unmarried or divorced person or is the natural parent of the minor.\uc1
These provisions provide for special adoption facilities for the adoption of close
relatives, especially for the adoption by a natural father of his out of wedlock
children who would otherwise be illegitimate. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (7) Where the consent of every person
who is a parent or legal guardian of the child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has not been given!\uc1 \u8217 ?2 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 only the consent of
the mother }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
is required.\uc1 \u176 ? Where the mother of the illegitimate child is herself
still a minor she is nonetheless competent to consent to the adoption of her
child.\uc1 \u8221 ? The provision that permits a minor mother of an illegitimate
child to consent to her child\uc1 \u8217 ?s adoption was inserted into the
Adoption Act after the South African Appellate Division had held, in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 DIumabak-ium
Subramanian and Another,\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that a minor mother of an illegitimate
child was not competent, without the assistance of her guardian to consent to the
adoption of her illegitimate child.\uc1 \u8220 ? To allow minor mothers of
illegitimate
children to consent to the adoption of their children and avoid the consequences
of the ruling in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the Dhanabakium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case our Legislature enacted section 60(3)(1 )(b) of
the Adoption Act. Section 61 was also inserted in order to make valid and
unassailable all adoptions that had been made prior to the enactment of section
60(3)0 Xb) in 1973 with only the consent of a minor mother unassisted by her
guardian. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Where theconsent of a parent is required and for whatever reason this consent is
not being given, the court may dispense with such consent .\uc1 \u176 ? }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In re (an
infant) (supra) the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 court was asked by the applicant adoptive parents to dispense with
the consent of the natural father of the daughter who was the subject of the
adoption application. It appeared that the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s father routinely
assaulted the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother and the last assault had occurred the }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 60 Paragraph (iv) of subsection
(1). 61 Paragraph of subsection (1). 62 Subsection (3). 63 Subsection 3(1)
(a). 64 Subsection 3(1)(b). 65 1943 AD 160. 66 The ruling was premised on
the fact that under Roman-Dutch common law a person who is a }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 minor is disqualified from
being a guardian and it followed that a minor mother of an illegitimate child was
not the guardian of a child born to her and could not consent to her adoption
without assistance. See Cronus 1.7.6. 67 Subsection (3)60 and (iii). }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 evening before the child was
born. This last assault was most serious and protracted. The child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
father also admitted having assaulted other people. Before going into labour, the
mother had resolved that she would have the baby adopted as the marriage had broken
down irretrievably. The father first promised to give his consent to the adoption
but later changed his mind whereupon the application to dispense with his consent
was made. In upholding the juvenile court\uc1 \u8217 ?s decision to decline to
dispense with the fathers consent Gubbay J has he then was) said: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in the present case the
father\uc1 \u8217 ?s matrimonial t ransgressionsa really no worsethanthrew
encountered with regrettable frequency by this court in uncontested actions for
divorce, f he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a
currently bad criminal record of offence; involving dishonesty
or violence, or a propensity to commit indecent acts upon women or young girls,
then would not hesitate to hold that his consent should be dispensed with, See for
instancy, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Re infant)119771 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1 All ER 145 (HL) where the father of a child had homosexual
tendencies and the Australian case of Maw }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Murray (1954-55) 92 CLR 370, where the
mother of an illegitimate infant was a person whose sexual morals were extwmely
loose.\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ln In 5\uc1 \u8221 ? the natural father of an infant
had, five days after its birth, assaulted and raped a woman three times. He had
been convicted and sentenced and a previous suspended sentence for another assault
on a young woman had been brought into operation. The child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother
had divorced the natural father and re-miarriixi another man who wished to adopt
the child. The natural father refused his consent. As a South African citizen, he
was to be deported to South Africa upon his release from prison. While appreciating
its wide discretion on the matter, the juvenile court nonetheless refused to
dispense with the father\uc1 \u8217 ?s consent. On appeal the High Court agreed
with the juvenile court, holding that the irrevocable extinction of the parental
relationship was not warranted in view of the fact that the father would be a
prohibited immigrant and therefore would have little or no contact with the child
during its formative years and also taking into account that the father might well
be rehabilitated. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
In S S a father wanted to adopt the two children he had had with his second wife.
The children had been born while all parties were living in England and while the
man was married to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 woman. After the birth of the children the man divorced
his former wife and married the mother of the two children. If this had happened
while the parties were domiciled in Zimbabwe, the marriage would have legitimized
the children and given the man the status of being their legitimate father.
However, the subsequent marriage of the natural parents of children in England at
that time did not affect the status of the children who remained illegitimate.\uc1
\u8221 ? The husband, the wife and the two children had moved to Zimbabwe abou t a
year of ter the marriage and were resident and domiciled in Zimbabwe at the time
of the action. However, as a result of matrimonial differences, the wife had taken
the children and left the matrimonial home. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 68 At p.14. 69 HC-S-4-82. 70 1955 SR
245. 71 Since the child had been born in England and the marriage contracted
there, it followed that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IJIDDAACY }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for the children and, wishing to secure
his position with hem. The mother was not willing to agree to the adoption
levered her parental status with respect to the children. Even de no statement on
the matter, the adoption would have custody of the child ren or gi ven him right
of access to them tcome the children\uc1 \u8217 ?s guardian and thus would have
been in naval from Zi mba bw e. It was probably for these reasons that Option.
Even though theadopt ion would have benefitto.1 the eel that it should dispense
with the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s consent in this }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that Zimbabwean courts regard the
relationship between rents very seriously, and would not extinguish this rela
lionlompelling reasons. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
ct allowsan application for a rescission of an adoption order Inds: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parent of the child did not
consent to the adoption?? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iced by fraud, misrepresentation or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 just us }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 error or the child nental
disorder or defect or a serious physical defect which t the order was made?? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 icial to the interests of the
child.\uc1 \u8226 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ade by either a parent of t he adopted minor child, the
person ardian at the time }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the making of the adoption order, the a }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Minister. }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is determinable under English law and not Zimbabwean
nth African casco( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Siliiya a Commissioner for Child Welfare Wants), }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SA 347 (T) where an
adoption order was set aside on the been granted without notice being served on
the mother of the thereto. An adoption order cannot be rescinded on this ground is
brought more than 6 months after the date upon which the aware of the adoption
order made without his or her consent Sec also subsection (5) of section 68 and
proviso (0 thereof. at no rescission will }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he made }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on this ground if the application for
after the expiration of six months from the date on which the c facts upon which
the adoption order }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
be set aside (proviso noviso (ii) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 68(5). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at no application can be made on this ground more than
5 years adoption order was made (proviso (iii) of section 68(1)). }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 6 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6.1 Children born out of wedlock under
general law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Undcr Roman-Dutch common law both parents of an illegitimate child have a }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 according to his or her means,
to maintain their child. thus, even though in illegitimate children arc regarded
as having no father,\uc1 \u8217 ? which is to say their hi* }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 father has no rights of
guardianship over them,2 they are nonetheless entitled }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintained by their biological
father. In short, the father of an illegitimate child has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to maintain his illegitimate
child under Roman-Dutch common law, in the same }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother\uc1 \u8217
? has the duty, with the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rent }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 determined by his or her
means.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 The father of an illegitimate child retains his di }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintain his illegitimate child
even if he is married to another woman who is nog }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mother of the child concerned.\uc1
The determination of which man is the father of an illegitimate child and therefore
to maintain that child is governed by the rules for ascertaining paternity disco
Chapter 3. Thus, once a man has been adjudged the legal father of an illegitimate
he is liable at law to maintain that child in accordance with his means. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dharuzbakium v Subramanium }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1943 AD 160 at
166. Voct 9.4.10, Grotius 3.35.8. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Vogt 25.3.6; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Murimo v Tsivai SC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10/86; Spiro, pp367-368 and
p.14 and Olivier, p.328. See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 P C }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1978 RLR 80 (AD) and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rata v Mudimu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 56/87 where, in considering
a claim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
maintenance, Manyarara JA (at p.1) said: \uc1 \u8221 ?that the child is
illegitimate is unimportant? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chirume v Chivizhe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 104/87 at p.3. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kangausam v Marere }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 101/87. See also }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 resole }
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Motsi }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 105/87 where the father
d illegitimate child was ordered to maintain that child, even though he had three
other chilai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
born to him and his former wife. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6.2 Children born out of wedlock under customary law }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under traditional customary law
the father of a child born outsiotamailocklaathuLduty }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8226 ? \uc1 \u8226 ? y.
\u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\u8226 ? \uc1 \u8226 ? \uc1 \u8226 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 6-guardian and &satiable to maintain }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it.\uc1 \u8217 ?
Thus,\uc1 \u8217 ? under traditional customary law the father of an illegitimate
child could be compelled to maintain his child only if he were awa Med custody.
Accordingly, the colonial courts held in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fordson Manduna v Clara Kliany? }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that the father
of an illegitimate child was not a \uc1 \u8221 ?responsible person\uc1 \u8221 ?
for the purposes of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s maintenance in terms of section 6(2)
of the Maintenance Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ICh.apicr 351- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, this customary law
position has been superseded by the provisions of the Customary Law and Primary
Courts Act which provide that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?For the purposes of an order for
maintenance in terms of subsection (3) a communitycourt\uc1 \u8226 ? shall,
notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in customary law, regard\uc1
(b) the father of a child as being primarily responsible for the maintenance of
that child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
until the child attains the age of mOority.\uc1 \u8221 ?4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This effect of this legislation
is to render the customary law rule that the father of an illegitimate child is
not responsible for the maintenance of that child obsolete. Accordingly, in a
maintenance dispute governed by customary law, the father of an illegitimate child
is now liable to maintain his child in accordance with section 12(4)(b) of the }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moses v Emma Tattoo }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974 AAC 9 for the
proposition that it is the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s maternal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par
grandfather (the guardian of the mother) who has the duty to maintain the child if
custody has not been given to the father and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kainos }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Tazvivinga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1973 AAC 28 for the proposition that the
duty to maintain the child falls on the father only if he has been awarded custody.
7 1977 AAC 9. 6 The jurisdictional problems created by the wording of this
provision are discussed infra. 9 Section 12(4Xb). The provisions of this
section will be moved to the Maintenance Act [Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 351 to become section 6(3)(b)
thereof, if the Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989 is enacted into law.
This Bill is likely to come before Parliament in August, 1989 and if the 5th draft
passes through Parliament unamended, section 6(3Xb) of the Maintenance Act will
provide that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\uc1 \u8221 ?For the purposes of determining whether or not a person who is subject
to customary law is legally liable to maintain another person, a maintenance court
shall regard\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) (b)the father of a child as being primarily
responsible for the maintenance of that child until the child attains the age of
majority or becomes self-supporting.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This will be achieved by paragraph 4 of
Part III of the Schedule to the Bill. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In this regard a maintenance court will be a
magistrates court as provided for in section 3 of the Maintenance Act. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW IN }{\rtlch
Customary Law and Primary Courts Act. Obviously, since this provision is }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a statute, its applicationby a
communitymutt would amount to the a pplication }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law and not customary law.\uc1 \u176 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a As a result of this change
in customary law, both the father and mother of an illt,gitimate }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child are liable to maintain
their child rega miles% of which system isapplied to the dispute. Thus in Zimbabwe
today the parents df an illegitimate child have a duty, each in accordance with
his or her moms, to maintain their child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6.3 Children born inside wedlock }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under both customary law\uc1
\u8221 ? and general laW12 both parents of a child born inside wedlock have a duty
to maintain their child, each according to his or her means.\uc1 \u8221 ? This duty
commences as soon as the child is born or adopted. In practice, very few claims (or
maintenance of children are made while the parties are living together. However,
there is no ruling in law to prevent, for example, a wife suing her husband for
maintenance of their children while the parties are living together as long as it
can be shown that the husband, even though able to do so, is not contributing to
the maintenance of the children. Such an action for maintenance would normally
take the form of a wife claiming that part of her husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s income,
earnings or salary be paid directly to her by his employers. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In cases in which the parties
are married in community of property, the duty to maintain the children falls on
the husband in his capacity as administrator of the joint estate.\uc1 \u8221 ?
On }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
10 This new law has been applied in numerous cases including }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mmtfu v Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Case No. 3/84 of }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the District Court of Bulawayo. 11 See }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Msfuta v }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 163/87; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matipiti
and Julia v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1946 SRN 94; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Remba v Rcmba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C/ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A 22/75; Stony, pp.68-69 and Child, p.82 where it is
stated that: \uc1 \u8221 ?....the duty of parents to support the children is
reciprocal, t he only factor which determines the distribution of this duty
between the parties is the circumstances of the parents themselves.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12 See Dwnisiov }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dionisio }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1981 ZLR 118
(AD) a t p.119 where it was stated that: \uc1 \u8221 ?under the common }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law both have a legal duty to
maintain their children according to their respective means.\uc1 \u8221 ? Sec also
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Hartman v
Krogscheepers }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1930 (4) SA 421 (W) and Spiro at pp.367-368, where it is stator( that: \uc1 \u8221
?The duty of support is incumbent on both parentsanddistributableaccording to
their means and income\uc1 \u8221 ? (p.368). 13 Voct 23.3.6; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Woodhead v Woodhead }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1955 SR 70 at p.72 and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Coho v
Coho }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NCH-387-87
at p.4. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
HC-H-404-86 it was held that it was an established principle that both parents
have a d mai\uc1 \u8226 ?ain their children in accordance with their means and in
van Zyl v tun }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Zyl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
87 Greenland J observed that: it is trite that the responsibility to maintain
children must be shared by both parents in accordance with their respective
means\uc1 \u8221 ? (p.2). Sec also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muzondo v Muzondo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 98/85 at p.4 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Romani v Romans }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC,GD 113/76 where Davies
J awarded custody of the child to the husband and ordered the wife to pay
maintenance for them. 14 See Spiro at p.369. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MAINIVNA,CCT. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 community of property, the
mother has a duty to children of the marriage and in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cases }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where she husband is wi thou t
any means, she alone would }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he parents of legitimate children have separated )
Jaolataircepaceedings, the parent who has the im a contribution for their
maintenance from the a minor child separate, the mother is entitled to an order
regulating the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s custody is made titled to make an application
to the juvenile aturt y reasonable maintenance for the child for the he child)*
However, the mother may be ordered es in which the juvenile court has awarded the
!he custody and maintenance of minor children ction that has been instituted maybe
made. Such tion for main }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tenancepcndente litc.\uc1 \u8221 ?In }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 explaining }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 im and temporary remedy
available to an applicant has failed to adequately maintain the applicant and ing
operation to ensure that the applicant and the tip while awaiting final
determination of the main }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintena }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ncependerile Mc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for his or her children win action.\uc1 \u8217 ? The
rule that a person who applies that he or she has a reasonable prospect of
icable only when the applicant seeks main telot required to show that there is a }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 prima fade
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nis Kanis }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974 (1) RLR 17S. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter 341. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act. Act: when the divorce
proceedings have not been 49-251 and p.379and Hah}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 lo,TheSouth African }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ? (supra) and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chard v
Chard }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-1-
1-392-87. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
FAMILY LAW INMIME }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case for d i yore\uc1 \u176 ? if ma intena }{\rtlch
ncepatdentelite }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
is sought only for thechildren. It h., . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that an order of maintenancepc/dente }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 file }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is not competent
where an order }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
o }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nancr court a treacly exists.- appear mat
in a case the proper ar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a person seeking an increase of maintenance ce is to
apply to the maintenance , }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 variation of the original order. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 An order of maintenance }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pcndenie
We }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is
discharged upon its substitution hu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance granted at the final determination of the
main divorce action. It }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tuted by another maintenance Omer covering toe post
uivurcu period. . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unacr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 allu vl a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is not terminated by the dissolution of their marriage.
The duty to maintain the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the marriage is a continuing one that attaches to
the parties for as long as their }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 arc minors or arc unable to support themselves,
notwithstanding the status, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marital relationship. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Insofar as maintenancr of child
mn is amccmcd. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cause of
the di vorce Or thei }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 blameworthi ness of the parents is irrelevant. This was
expressed most clearly in I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nowt\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) by Baron JA when he stated
\uc1 \u8221 ?It }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 a fundamental nrincinle of our common law that the sins and quarrels
not visited on the children. Where in the course of matrimonial disputes questi }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 concerning me cnitaren new am
paramount. \uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fault is accordingly not a relevant factor in the
making of maintenance orders int }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of children. Hence the blameworthiness of the parent
who has custody of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 does not affect the other (innocent) parent\uc1
\u8217 ?s duty to contribute to the ma inteniu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 children. In an action for divorce, judicial separation
or nullity of marriage, an al }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ate court has the power, at its own initiative to
require evidence to be produced }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the spouses for the purpose of determining whether
or not proper provision has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 made for the maintenance of the children of the
marriage?\uc1 \u8217 ? After hearing wl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 evidence has been placed before it the court has the
power to make a maintenance) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van Zyl van }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zy! MC-H-485467; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muchina 4.Muchina }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-672-87 (at pp.8.9) and Ha
hlo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1 }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.426 of 5th ed. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chibaya v Chibaya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1-1C-H-357-85 and }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Palha v Palha }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-558-87 at
p.16. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In
Run] }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Runyouta }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-355-85 it was held that the High Court has no
jurisdiction to maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pendente life }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where there is in existence an order of
maintenance made) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
maintenance court. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 26 At pp.121-22. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gsvarhiwa v Gurarhitva
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where
McNally IA observed that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child cannot be penalised in maintenance by reason of
its custodian mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s alleged }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section ma rimonla }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /Alt, 1 I7wt. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to section\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 appropriate court means the
High Court Mallon to any mamage or a community }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 relation to a marriage contraCtect in
terms }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n . }{\rtlch
\af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in favour of the
children?\uc1 \u8217 ? The cougs ha }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
.vorcetuitil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
,sausfactory_arrangpments have been made concerning the custody and maintenance of
Section 7(1) of the Matrimonial Causes Act. 1985 (No. 33 of 1985) provides that: }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in granting a decree of
divorce, judicial separation nullity of marriage, or at any time thereafter, an
appmpriate court may make an order with regard to\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) the payment of
maintenance, whether by way of a lump sum or by way of periodical payments, in
favour ofany child of the marriage:- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In making the order for maintenance at the dissolution
of a marriage, be it a customary law marriage or a marriage under general the
court is required to have regard to the gu idel i nes set out in section 7(3).
These guidelines include the income, assets, financial needs, obligations and the
standard of living of the parties, together with the physical and mental condition
of the parents and the children?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is clear that the \uc1 \u8221 ?general
principles are that a child of divorced parents is entitled to be maintained by
them, and they are correspondingly obliged to provide it with everything that it
reasonably requires for its proper living, according to their means, standard of
living and station in life. That obligation attaches to both parents jointly, but }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 inter
se, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 their
respective shares of that obligation are apportioned according to the financial
resources of each of them.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This general proposition is
true under both customary law and general law?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Grandparents of children born
in wedlock and even great-grandparents have a duty to support the children where
the parents are unable to give the necessary support. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
28 Section 10(2)(b). However, these provisions \uc1 \u8221 ?shall not be deemed to
derogate in any way from }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the powers conferred upon an appropriate court by any
other law in respect of custody and maintenance of children\uc1 \u8221 ? (section
10(3)). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
29 Sec definition of \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage\uc1 \u8221 ? in section 2 which covers
both customary law and general law marriages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 30 These guidelines are discussed more
fully in Chapter 10 in connection with the division of matrimonial property at
divorce. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
31 Extracted from the head note in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 &1st v ferfst }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1964 (4) SA 127 at p.130 32 For the
application of the principle to customary law see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mafuta v Muketiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 163/87 where }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Korsah JA stated that under
customary law: \uc1 \u8221 ?Ibloth parents are obliged to maintain their children.
And it is the duty oft he court to distribute the burden between the parents
according to their means\uc1 \u8221 ? (p.2 ) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW 63.1 Maintenance of step-
children Under Roman-Dutch common law there is no duty on a stepparent to support
a stepchild.\uc1 \u8221 ? However, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 syrLion 83 of the Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s
Protection and Adoption Art }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 imposesa duty on a step-parent to maintain his or her
step-child until thechild attains the age of 18 years. The step-parent has a duty
to maintain the step-child only if the natural parents are unable to support the
child adequately:\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In Wr WisCubbay p (as he then was) held that the
word \uc1 \u8221 ?step-partmt\uc1 \u8221 ? as used in section 83 of the
Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Protection and Adoption Act was intended by the legislature
to describe the relationshipaa husband to his wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s child born to the
wife and another man other than the husband. Accordingly, an illegitimate child
of the wife is a step-child and the husband is a step-father for the purposes of
the Act. Consequently the term \uc1 \u8221 ?stepparent\uc1 \u8221 ? as used does
not include a step-mother but refers solely to a step-father. The consequence of
this decision is that there is no legal duty on a step-mother to maintain her
step-child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The obligation of a step-father to maintain a step-
child terminates if the mother of the child deserts thc step-father and removes
the child from his custody\uc1 \u8217 ? and on the d i yore\uc1 \u176 ? orjudicial
separation of the spouses if no order of maintenance is made at the ti me of such
divorce or judicial separation?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6.4 Procedure and jurisdiction in
maintenance claims }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Maintenance Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 351 establishes mai ntenance mons and the
procedures for the prosecution and enforcement of maintenance claims. A dependant
person or a probation officer or some other person having the care and custody of
a dependant child may institute an action for maintenance by making a complaint to
a maintenance officer that a responsible person\uc1 \u8217 ?s is not providing
reasonable maintenance for his or her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Founir }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Food }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 G-3-84-76 where Goldin J stated that: \uc1 \u8221 ?...
under Roman-Dutch law a step- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parent is not liable to maintain step-children\uc1
\u8221 ? (p.3). A step-child is the child of one spouse with another person other
than t he ot her spouse. This includes children born in and out ofwed lock. For
example, a child born to a woman or man before marriage with another person other }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 than }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the husband or
wife is a step-child. 34 Proviso (0 to section 83. 35 1976 RLR 429. 36
Proviso lia(a) of section 83. 37 Proviso (iiKb) of section 83. See also }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Fount }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C-S-84-76 at p.2 where
Goldin J remarked }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
that lithe d ivorce had been granted without an order of maintenance in favour of
the step-child, its entitlement to maintenance from the step-father would have
been forfeited. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 38 A \uc1 \u8221 ?responsible person\uc1 \u8221 ? is
defined in section 2 of the Maintenance Act as a person who is legally }{\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 liable to maintain another. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 li`\uc1 \u8221 ?7 }{\rtlch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 such a complaint being made
to him or her the maintenance officer arts requiring the responsible person to
appear before an appropriate to show cause why an order for the maintenance of his
or her not be made against him or her.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ks a maintenance order against another
person he or she is claiming in is: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 :%rson in respect of the dependant child, which is to
say that he or she to maintain the child; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the maintenance of the child; but
glected to do so. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a maintenance claim cannot make }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance order in favour of it is
satisfied on the above matters, namely, that the person against aught is legally
liable to maintain the dependant, that he or she is able maintenance of the
dependant and that he or she has failed or e reasonable maintenance for the
dependant.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 h an application for maintenance is heard is unlike an
ordinary civil Dud takes a more active role and has a duty to investigate the
matter ssary, of itself calling witnesses.\uc1 \u8217 ? The fact that the hearing
is not an ;en tially an inquiry to determine the issue of maintenance in the best
ndant\uc1 \u8221 ? allows the court great flexibility in arriving at a decision. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 period all cases where the
dependant for whom maintenance was can }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 were }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 heard in a district commissioner\uc1 \u8217 ?s court
whereas caws went to a magistrates court. This was achieved by the then iriate
maintenance court- in section
2 of the Maintenance Act which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Maintenance court\uc1 \u8217 ? means\uc1 \u8212 ?
dependant in favour of whom an order for the payment of maintenance lade or is
sought, as the case may be, is an African, a court of a district her; eases, a
magistrates court.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ins Act repealed this definition of \uc1 \u8221 ?
appropriate maintenance Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 c Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Maintenance Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court\uc1 \u8212 ? DUI not any
an rice village Courts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 courts had jurisdiction to apply only customary Mn, a
person making, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 claim based on customary law was a village court or }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If the claim was under general law, however,
appropriate court vras a 1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court designated as a maintenance court by section 3 of
the Maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 amendment by section 32 of the Primary Courts Act in
1981. This meant that; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 whose cases were governed by general law went to the
magistrates }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
maintenance for their children and themselvess. As }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 result the mair }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 became overwhelmed with
maintenance claims and the Customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Courts Amendment Act, 1982 (No. 21 of
1982) Nssed. This Act at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Primary Courts Act and the Maintenance Act. The 1982
amendment }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
intern }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section 12(3) and (4) to the Primary Courts }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ad }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and repealed section 6(3)of
nance Act. It also added a definition of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?appropriate maintenance
court\uc1 \u8217 ? to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Maintenance Act. The added section 12(3) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and (4) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provided as
follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -(3) Without derogation (rum its powers make any other
order for mai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
community court may make an order for nce in accorda nce with the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Maintenance Act /Chapter }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (4) For the purposes of an
order for mamossy in terms of subsection (3) a col court shall, notwithstanding
anything to the con tained in customary law, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) the person who, according to customary
taw, is the husband of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 woman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 primarily responsible for the maintenance of that woman
during the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
marl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 after the dissolution of their marnagt\uc1 \u8222 ?
until her remarriage.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (b) the father of a child as being primarily
responsible for the maintenance t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 until the child attains the age of (emphasis added). }
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par
The importance of this provision with respect to the mai n tens nee of children is
that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
community courts the power to make a maintenance order against a father rega
whether the child was born in or out of However, the difficulty }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provisions of section 12(4) is
that they are font in such a way that they cane }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 applied by a community court. The
provisions everride customary law only if a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ni ty rt is hearing the case. This means
that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ra les court,
sitting asa court, cannot apply the provisions of section Xa) and (b) of the
Primary Court Thus only a community court can order the father of an illegitimate
child to maim child if the parties in a maintenance suit are by customary law. If
Met came before a magistrates court sitting as a court, the court would power to
order the father of an illegitimate child to maintain that child.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 44 This provision is discussed
in more detail in with maintena nce ()Espouses }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouses in Chapter 9. 43 It will be
recalled from earlier in this Chapter that under traditional customar }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 father of an illegitimate child
has no obl tonstuitain his illegitimate child unless been awarded custody of the
child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 46 See D Ga len \uc1 \u8221 ?Internal
Confl icts bet weenond General la w in ZimbabWC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Law as a Case Study\uc1 \u8221 ?, Rev.
Vol.] and 2, al p.35. This difficulty, togethei }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Another technical difficult in respect of
jurisdiction arises from the definition -appropriate maintenance court- which is
defined as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?appropriate maintenance court means\uc1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) where the claim for maintenance is determinable
according to customary law, a community court; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (b) in all other }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cases }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a magistrates court: }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thus, a community court would
be an appropriate maintenance court only if it is applying customary law or if the
maintenance claim before it is determinable under customary law. However, the
substantive law contained in section 12(4) of the Primary Courts Act is a
statutory provision and therefore part of the general law and not customary law. A
community court applying the provisions of section 12(4) in making a maintenance
order would be applying general law and not customary law and to that extent would
not be an appropriate maintenance court. The definition of appropriate maintenance
court therefore needs to be amended to include community courts circumstances,
including when applying the provisions of section 12(4) of the Prima }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LOUTTS ACE. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 12(4) of the Primary
Courts Act itself requires to be amended so that its provisions can be applied by
any court and not only by a community court. Doris Galen\uc1 \u176 ? has suggested
that the section be amended to read as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?For the purposes of an order
of maintenance any court shall, not withstanding anything to the contrary
contained in customary law, regard\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) the person who, according to customary
law, is the husband of a woman as being }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 primarily responsible for the maintenance of that woman
during the marriage and, after the dissolution of the marriage, until her
remarriage; (b) the father of a child as being primarily responsible for the
maintenance of the child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 until the child attains the age of majority.- }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 this amendment were made it
would empower any maintenance court to award }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lintenance to an illegitimate child and/or
a wife in an unregistered customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Effect of the Customary
Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 jurisdiction in maintenance claims }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At the time of writing the
Ministry of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs is working }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ion a Bill that will
substantially affect jurisdiction in maintenance claims. This Bill is the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iY}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?\uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 >\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 REM04 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 one discussed immediately before, will
fall away if and when the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Customary Law and Local }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Courts Bill, 1989 is enacted into }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law. Its }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 possible effects
on these }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
problems are discussed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 infra. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ibid. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989 which is
expected tonameWore Patti }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in August }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1989 and become law thereafter. All references that
follow are to I draft of the Bill which, it is understood,
is the draft that will come before Pathan }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Bill, through section 33, will repeal the Custonury
law and Primary Courts will abolish the present primary courts, namely the village
courts and the comr courts and in their place, through section 10(0, will
establish local courts, to be primary courtsand community courts. According to
section 1 (a) a primary court, will be the lowest court, shall be presided over by
a headman whereas a communitl shall be presided over by a Chief. Section 15(1)(a)
provides that local courts will h jurisdiction to hear a matter which is not
determirubleby customary law, whereas! 15(1 kb) fixes the limits of their monetary
jurisdiction at $250 for primary courts an (or community courts. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 These }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 local courts shall, as is
provided in section 15(1)(0 have no jurisdictii \uc1 \u8217 ? dett;rrnine tilt
liability of any person to maintain another.\uc1 \u8221 ? Accordingly, the re-1 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 courts to be presided over by
chiefs shall have no jurisdiction &Mimi ne main tenance claims. All maintenance
claims whet her determinable }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law or general law shall go to the magistrates courts,
which will }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Maintenance courts for all purposes. The definition of -appropriate maintenance\uc1
\u8217 ? in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 2 of the Maintenance Act will be repealed by paragraph 1 of Part
Schedule to the Bill and accordingly, a community court will no longer be a mai }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nk }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court for cases
determinable under customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 By virtue of section 3 of the Maintenance Act, as read
with }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6(3) of
the sar which will be inserted by paragraph 4 of Part III of the Schedule to the
Bill, magi\uc1 \u8217 ? courts will thereafter become the sole maintenance courts
in the country and have jurisdiction to hear all maintenance claims whether
determinable under ousti law or general law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The magistrates court sitting as a
maintenance court shall have the authority to rega father of any child, even if
the parties are governed by customary law, as pit responsible for the maintenance
of the child concerned. This will be achieved th paragraph 4 of Part Ill of the
Schedule to the Bill which will amend section 6 Maintenance Act by the insertion
of subsection (3) which will provide that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?(3) For the
purposes of determining whet her or not a person who is subject torts law }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 legally liable to maintain
another person, a maintenance court shall regars\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) the person who, according
to customary law, is the husband of the woma }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 primarily responsible for the
maintenance of that woman; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (b) the father of a child as being primarily
responsible for the maintenances until the child attains the age of majority or
becomes self-supporting.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Accordingly,all the ju
risdictional and technical difficultiesdiscussed above if the Customary Law and
Local Courts Bill, 1989 becomes law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MAINIVNANX1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Supreme Court of Zimbabwe ruled that a parent lit
assistance from the other parent is not entitled to recover foe by the other
parent unless there was in existence a prior g aside an award of arrear
maintenance that had been court Mr Justice Dumbutshena stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 theorderof ma i ntena nce shou
Id beset aside. However, the order nears of maintenance in the sum of 5480 was not
competent. The ion to make that order if the arrears had arisen as a result of the
ay in terms of an existing maintenance order. That was not the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 against the order of
maintenance is dismissed but the order for the maintenance is set aside.\uc1
\u8221 ?e9 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tot explain the process of reasoning by
which it came to the arrear maintenance was not competent in the absence of an
zr. However, what is important is that the Supreme Court came hstanding and
without considering the provisions of section Act which provides that a
maintenance order: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Yard as to the maintenance court seems reasonable (or
the payment of s in arrears.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 naintenance order is necessary before a maintenance
court can maintenance under section (6X6Xc). Indeed, where there is an tr there
would be no need to claim for arrear maintenance since y would be to enforce the
existing order under the enforcement once Act which permit the enforcement of a
maintenance order rder or a civil judgment. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dutch common law recognized claims for
arrear maintenance. the General Division }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the High Court of Rhodesia ruled that ildren was
claimable by a spouse who had maintained children he other. Beadle (as he then
was) stated\uc1 \u8221 ? that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rerefore that la wife who had maintained children
without assistance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Pairikins }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1953 SR 24 at p.28. For a fuller discussion of the }
A1u5akwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Maintenanceand theJurisdictionolCommunityCourtsinfustody and 2, 198343, 260 at
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW LN ZIMBABWE }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 from her husband should be able to recover from her
husband the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 expended on maintaining the children up to
the amount which the court, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 reasonably represent the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s share of
the reciprocal duty of malt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 With respect it is submitted that the Supreme Court
ruling in theMusa/anal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of arrear maintenance was legally incorrect, because
both the Roman-Dutch i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and section 6(6)(c) of the Maintenance Act permitted
the recovery of arrears }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 without the cxi stencv of a mai ntenance order as a
pre-amdition of recovery. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be noted that in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 PvC,52 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which was not referred to in the }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Musakwa }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case, the then\}
Appellate Division had ruled that arrear maintenance was recoverable by they }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an illegitimate child who had
supported the child without assistance train the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Muzondo Muzmuio\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he Supreme Court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 sought to avoid being }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by thtd }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 naa maae in h7 case oy
unrealistically stretcning Inc ianguageOls of the now repealed Matrimonial Causes
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !Chapter }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 391u which
provided }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\uc1 \u8221 ?Where a wife who has been deserted by her husband has provided for the
any minor children of the marriage, she shall be entitled to recover in at }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 husband such maintenance as the
murt may consider just or equitable in thecit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 McNally JA, with the concurrence of
Dumbutshena CJ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
and Gubbay JA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 words who has been deserted by her husband\uc1 \u8221 ?
did not limit the category or may benefit in terms of the section since \uc1
\u8221 ?desertion\uc1 \u8221 ? as used could not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?beet }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 malicious desertion\uc1
\u8221 ? but simply meant \uc1 \u8221 ?a failure, even temporarily, }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to pt }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 necessary
financial support which the law enjoins.\uc1 \u8221 ?% }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This
interpretation of desertion was strenuous. If the legislature had intended }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?desertion\uc1
\u8221 ? with failure to maintain one\uc1 \u8217 ?s children, then the section
would not I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
worded as it was. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muzondo\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case the court could have easily used the
pros }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
section 6(6)(c) of the Maintenance Act to come to the conclusion that an order }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance was competent where
one spouse has maintained the children assistance from the other. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Musakwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ruling on arrearmaintenance in
respect of children born in wedlock\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 been overridden by section 11(1) of the
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 oft }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?0) Where a spouse
has provided for the maintenance of any children of the mar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025
of a Conner marriage of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 one }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or other of the spouses, that spouse shall be entitled
52 1978 RLK 80 (AD). 53 See p.87. 54 SC 98/85. 55 It was repealed by the
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of 1985). 36 At p.5. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tmarrear nom the other spouse such
maintenance or such portion of such maintenance as an appropriate court may
consider just or equitable in the circumstances: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 effect ockvrpy to courts competent }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 to
award }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iiiinnly MC COI MC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouses without assistance from other. It
is submitted, that the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 effects }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of section 11(1) of the Matrimonial Causes Act. 1985.
and sect inn (46)(r) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Maintenance Ad is to make a
rrear maintenance recoverable by any parent who has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nett DC [Hey legit or assistance tmm the other }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;even in circumstances wnere no
prior maintenance order exists.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 terms of section 11(2) of the Matrimonial
Causes Act, 1985, an appropriate court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 may }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 eke an order for arrear maintenance in
favour of a dependant child in an application by !custodian parent for maintenance
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pada: fc
lift }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pending an
action for divorce, judicial paration or nullity of marriage, or may include the
order for arrear maintenance in the al order of divorce, judicial separation or
nullity of marriage, as the case may be. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6 Assessment of maintenance payable }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he amount that each parent
contributes to the maintenance of their child is determined y their respective
means and resources. In computing the actual figure, the awl has to Bake a value-
judgement based on the income and assets of the respective parties\uc1
\u8221 ??\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 heoretically, both parties in a maintenance case should
furnish the court with their \uc1 \u8217 ?formation concerning earnings, income,
savings and other resources together with heir current obligations and monthly
expenses. Balancing each parents\uc1 \u8217 ? earnings, \uc1 \u8217 ?come and
resources against his or her obligations and expenditure, the court should hen
assess the amount of maintenance each parent should contribute to the support of
heir child or children. In practice, the parent who has custody of the child or
children movides the court with the cost or estimated cost of maintaining each
child per month. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n computing the figure that
must be contributed by the non-custodian parent, the court s required by section
6(4) of the Maintenance Act to have regard to: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) the general standard of living of the
responsible person and the dependant, including }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 their social status; (b) the means of
the responsible person and the dependant; (c) the number of persons to be
supported; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
57 Notwithstanding the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Musakwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ruling the High Court continues to award arrear
maintenance. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
For example see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 v Mbwanda }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-404-86 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muc/wila }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A1uchada }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-346-86. 58 Per Beadle C) in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Barrass v
Barrass }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1978 RLR
384. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Strathearn v Strathearn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp.3-4; Goho }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Goho (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.4 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thomson v Thomson }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-89.87. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAME y flMBAB%fl }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (d) whether the dependant or any of his parents are
able to work }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and,
if so whether it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 desirable that they should do }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\fs24 \afs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In considering all these
factors the court should always he cognisant of the fact that children of the
parties are supposed to be supported at the level which they have a rig }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to
expect }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in
view of the means, resources and social standing of their parents. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gwachiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Supreme Court adopted the
arithmetic or actuar approach in computing the amount }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of maintenance.\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 According to
this approach: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Where the dependants consist of a wife and children
[Mel method of division allocate equal shares of the income to each parent and
half a share to each child,\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thetwoparentsareallocated }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 two shares of
the net i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ncome }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 each
and the children oneslu each. Whatever figure is produced by this arithmetic
approach can be adjusted upwa or downward to take into account the realities of
the parties. As McNally J A emphasis in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gwachiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 this actuarial approach is only a starting
point. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Gmachiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
formula was applied in Chirumc v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chitizhc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) where McNally reiterated the fact that the
formula is only a starting point in the following wools: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in n Supreme Court Judgment No.
134/86 I drew attention to virtues of simple arithmetic in cases of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 this nature. I }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 also suggested,
as a very rough start i point, a calculation based on dividing the total available
income on the basis of two sha for an adult and one share for a child. }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I repeat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 here that this is only a starting point
and not be suitable even as a starting point in all cases.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217
? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6.7 Variation of maintenance orders }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 According to section 8(51(b) of
the Maintenance Act an existing maintenance order in be varied by a maintenance
court upon application\uc1 \u176 ? if the court is satisfied that: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ramhewa Mudimu }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 56/87 at p.3. In }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Quickfall
v Swan }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(3) SA 82 (R) it was held tl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in assessing the amount which a person must pay for his
children, regard should be had to fact that maintenance payments qualify as a tax
deduction. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
60 At pp.4-5. 61 Extracted from p.88 of the 3rd edition of Corbett and Buchanan,
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 The
Quantity of Damq }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 \par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 J3odily and Fatal Injury Cases. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 62 At pp.2-3.See also }
FegedevMotsi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SC105/87 where t he application of the formula sugger }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the father of an
illegitimatechild should not payany maintenance. The court, emphasi the formula
wasonly a rough starting point ordered the father of thechild to pay }{\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mai }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in the sum of
525 per month }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 even }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 though he would not have had to pay anything if th had been
strictly applied. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
63 See subsection (1) of section 8. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the .... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 approprimade in ction shall, or resets- }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1ers falling High Court
enance Act, orders of an order of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tat the means maintenance a rtics rests on ceedings
in a that a change variation order }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he interests of and theability }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 reased, or that }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rt at divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .ourt in terms of n 8(5)
(b) of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
y marriage and riages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dort to make an or judicial }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !son v Donaldson }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 :41-295-87 and }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1\uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1
\u8226 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?Ilsfr\uc1 \u8221 ?)\uc1 \u8217 ?\'5cn,r }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 VI }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 E }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the parties\uc1 \u8217 ? essential
obligations have increased or decreased would all changed means or circumstances.
Man4fu v Maya (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Georges CJ (as he then was) stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Them is South African }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 authority
supporting }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
proposition that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the effect of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be regarded as good cause for variation in SO-OW
African law. In Prophet SA 325 at 329 (0) Horwitz said: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?accepting that the
onus rests upon the applicant to show good cause for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 till uIc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I am CIr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 311V 1(1117 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it is common cause that the
cost of living has risen appreciably since thedate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 oIWritann EMIT S }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 While it is true that
inflation affects both the husband and the wife, if it can be show\uc1
\u8217 ? the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s income al lows some room for an increase
taking into account his max expenditure, then it would be justifiable to hold that
there has been an alteration }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 circumstances justifying a variation.\uc1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The court went on to award an increase to the original
order of maintenance on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consideration that the cost of living had risen since
the original order was made. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This reasoning in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marufu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /Novo (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was followed in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Donaldson v
Donaldson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
where Samatta J said: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Mr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chatikoba , }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for the applicant, urged me to bear in
mind in coming to my decision\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 figure of $75 was agreed in 1979 and since then the
cost of living has gone up con. Citing }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marufu v Moyo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1983(2) ZL R 386, Mr }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chat ikobo }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 went on to
contend }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 that
theri }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 alone justifies an increase in the amount of
maintenance. 1 agree. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chodokula v Chodokufa (supra) Adam }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 J granted an increase in
the amount of main] on the basis that since the granting of the original order
there had been an inemai price clothing, rent and other items.72 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In Mayo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Mayon }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mfalila J stated that: }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 As to the cost of living, I do
not think the change within a twelve month rang warrant a variation order, and it
would be disastrous if at every change in the cost index the applicant were to
come to court for a variation order.\uc1 \u8221 ?n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 69 At p388113-C. 70 The
court was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
satisfied that the respondent\uc1 \u8217 ?s income could bear the increase. }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 71 At
p.10. Sec also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Webb Webb }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 154/86. 72 Sec also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Black v Black (supra) at }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p3 and p.7 and }
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Palha
v Pal ha (supra) at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.116. 73 HC-H-241-84. 74 At pp2-3. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 di }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M AIMMN A }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 itural growth of children can be a relevant change in
circumstances that would }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it a variation. Normally, as a child becomes older the
cost of maintaining it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 On this point Mfalila J had this to say in Moyo Mow
(supra): }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
-That thechiid is older after one year there }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be no doubt, but what effect would this
have on thecost of ma i ntena }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nee? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The consent paper was signed in January 1983 - would
the minor child within a year have outgrown the maintenance sum so much that an
increase is necessary? Indeed, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 as the child grows older the cost of feeding it
becomes less as it moves, away }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 from specialised foods and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 is able to }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 cat }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 the same
food as the adults. The hems for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which the eu\uc1 \u8212 ?-increases with age }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 are
clothing }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I
therefore do not think the applicant is just it withir of twelve months in
demanding an increase in the maintenance for the minor child on the basis that it
is older.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 general principle a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 husband musLocit_feather his nest at
the expense of his first wife }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d family.Th The effect of this principle is that_a }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 man }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cannot taking on
new wives d producing children and use this to have the amount of maintenance due
to his first and children reduced.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tignificant change in the financial
position or in the income or resources of the parties uiNounts to good cause for
purposes of varying a maintenance order. However, the facts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fist }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 show a
real change in the financial position of any of the parties. In }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wilson v
Wilson\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 then General Division of the High Court refused to increase the
amount of maintepayable for a man\uc1 \u8217 ?s two sons. The man had received an
inheritance after the nal order of maintenance had been made. He invested in
property which did not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a te mu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ch }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 income. The applicant contended that he cou Id have
invested more wisely t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?thereby obtained more income. The court
said it had to look at the facts as they were u) the fads showed no real
improvement in the man\uc1 \u8217 ?s financial position and accord- }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 refused the application for an
upward variation. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At p.2. SecaIse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Webb v Webb }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC154/86 whereMcNally JA stated that: \uc1
\u8221 ?on the faceof it the mem passage of time bringing with it both inflation
and the growing up process would more than justify so limited an increase.\uc1
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Daises v
Daises and Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1980 ZLR 141 in which the leading South African case on this principle }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van der Walt v
van der Walt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(4) SA 854 (0) was cited with approval }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cherlokufa vChodolcufa (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court refused to take into
account the fact that the respondent man }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 had remarried and had had two other }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 children with his second
wife. However, see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marufu (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where Georges CJ (as he was then) said he
did not think it was necessary to examine closely the order of priorities of the
man in relation to his dependants. This seems inconsistent with the idea that a
man cannot feather his nest at the expense of his first }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wife }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and children. 1981
ZLR 21. Section 18(1) and (2) of the Maintenance Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u9632 ?\uc1 \u9632 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 V6.8 Enforcement of maintenance
orders }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The cleric of the maintenance court hasa duty to
register all maintenanceorders made the maintenance court and those made by the I
Ugh Court and tendered for registrati to the maintenance court.\uc1 \u8221 ? Once
the order is registered by the cleric of the maintenaz court it has the effect of
a civil judgment.\uc1 \u8221 ? If the order is registered by the clerk e
maintenance court which is a magistrates court it shall have theeffect of a civil
judgm of that magistrates court and be enforceable in accordance with the
provisions of Magistrates Court Act The-aides made thereunder relating to
enforcement of a civil judgment.\uc1 \u8221 ? Similarly, if the order is registered
by the clerk t maintenance court which is a community court, it shall have the
effect of a civil judgm of tha t ccmmunitycourt in favour of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 clerk of that commu nit y
court and the provisi of the Primary Courts Act, and the regulations made
thereunder relating to the enfo merit of a civil judgment shall apply to the
maintenance order.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The clerk of the maintenance court has a duty, on
behalf of the person in whose favor registered order was made, to take all
necessary measures for the civil enforcement of order.\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In issuing an order of
maintenance in terms of section 6 of the Maintenance A< maintenance court may
direct that payments in terms of the order shall bemade thro the clerk of the
maintenance court.\uc1 \u8221 ? The order can be issued later if it is shown that
person against whom the order was made is not complying with it in cases when
direction was made at the original issuing of the maintenance order.\uc1
In making a maintenance order, the maintenance court may give a direction that
maintenance payments he paid by the employer of the responsible person from
responsible person\uc1 \u8217 ?s earnings, salary, wages, remuneration or
allowances.\uc1 \u8221 ? Hoven such a direction against an employer cannot be made
unless the employer consents! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 80 Section 22(1)(b) and 19(b). 81 Section 22(1Xb). 82
Section 22(la)(b). if the Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989 is enacted inn
\dbch \af0
enforcement procedure will fall away since community courts would not longer b
nance courts. Only magistrates courts will be recognized as maintenance courts, tht
tuted community courts presided over by chiefs having been denied jurisdiction
nance claims. See section 15(1)(f) of the Bill as read with section 3 of the
Maintenaf }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
83 Section 22(2). 84 Section 6(6)a. 85 Section 19(1) and (2). A person against
whom an order has been made can also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or she be directed to make all future payments through
the clerk of the main( (section 19(3) and (4)). 86 Section 6(5). }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tion or has been given notice of the
proposal to make such a direction tportunity to appear and show cause why such a
direction should not son in whose favour an order has been made may apply fora
direction the employers of the responsible person in terms of section 9 of the
direction against the employer of a responsible person, made in terns he
Maintenance Act, takes precedence over any other order of court Its to be made
from the earnings, salary, wages, remuneration or the responsible person.\uc1
\u8221 ? Further, where a direction has been made yen no portion of the
responsible person\uc1 \u8217 ?s earnings, salary, wages, Ilowances shall be
applied to the settlement of any debt whatsoever due in terms of the direction
have been effected.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ade by a maintenance court shall have the effect of a
garnishee order of court in favour of the clerk of the maintenance court and shall
be 3rda nee with the provisions of the Magistrates Court Act or the Primary case
may be, relating to the enforcement of garnishee order\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to comply with a ma intenance
order commi ts a criminal offence which sanction of up to one year\uc1 \u8217 ?s
imprisonment.\uc1 \u8217 ? A person convicted of this tved of the payment of
maintenance which is in arrears nor of future person who, after conviction and
imprisonment still fails to comply ance order can be prosecuted, convicted and
imprisoned again and s he or she fails to comply with the maintenance
order.\uc1 \u8221 ? However, proof iply with a maintenance order was due to lack
of means and that such not due to unwillingness to work or misconduct or the
unreasonable is a good defence to a criminal prosecution.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I offence for an employer
against whom a direction has been made to h that direction. Such a failure can
attract a fine of up to one hundred nment of up to one year or both such fine and
such imprisonment.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
subsection (3) of section 6. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 te, however, that a responsible person\uc1 \u8217 ?s
tax obligations take precedence over enance obligations - see proviso to
subsection 2 of section 7. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and (1a)(a) of the Maintenance Act. c also S }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Rahman }
(RAD). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
ce also section 25 which allows convicted and imprisoned maintenance oly to be
released upon payment of all amounts that are in arrears. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN 7IMBAISWE }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6.9 Discharge and termination
of maintenance orders and/or directions }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 uy dgreernent }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 without an order by a competent
court. Only a competent court can disc/ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of maintenance.\uc1 \u8217 ? A maintenance court may
discharge upon application maintenance order or direction if it is satisfied that
there is no longer reason tn. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or direction to remain in force.\uc1
\u8217 ? However, the discharge by a maintenance, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 oraer maae oy Igo Loon is automatically
supra to review Dy a judge01 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Court-n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The permanent removal of the children, in whose favour
a in tenance order i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimbabwe is not, without more, a good cause for the
discharge of a maintenar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The circumstances under which an order of maintenance
in favour of a chit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 automatically terminate are provided for in section 11
of the Maintenance Ac }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?0) Subject to the provisions of subsection
(4), an order made in favour of a child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 respect to that child, cease and terminate if and
when\uc1 \u8212 ? \uc1 \u8221 ? (a) that child dies or is adopted by another
person; or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (t) in respect of the marriage between his
parents, an order of divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 separation or of nullity is made which includes an
order for the main }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the child; or (c) the child marries; or }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (d) subject to the provisions
of subsection (2), the child attains the age of eightc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (2) A maintenance court where
an order is for the time being registered may, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 application being made to it by or on
behalf of a child who attains the age of eighte }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and in whose favour an order has been made
and upon due inquiry to which the pr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section eight }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 shall, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mutatis mutandis, apply, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 extend the order for such
period and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
terms as the maintenance court deems fit.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The provisions of section 11 apply only to
those orders that have been mac }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance court in terms of section 6(1 ) and do not
apply to a registered mini( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 order made by the High Court in terms of section 7 of
the Matrimonial Causes Act11 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 termination of maintenance orders made by the High
Court is provided for in st }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 96 See Kanis v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kanis }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974 (1) RLR 129 at pp.135-6. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 97 Section 8(5) of the
Maintenance Act. A maintena nce order made in the absenceof a resi }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 person may be }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 discharged }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 upon application
in accordance with the provisions of section, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Maintenance Act. 98 Section 18(4)
of the Maintenance Act. 99 Sec }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Burgess v Iknatar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1975 (1) SA 782 (R) at p.78311. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 100 See section 18(3) of the
Maintenance Act which does not subject orders of the High Court! }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matrimonial Causes Ad, 1985 (No. 33 of
1985) which provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Subject to the provisions of subsection (3), an order
for the periodic payment of maintenance in respect of a child shall cease\uc1
\langfenp12297 (a) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
when the child dies or marries; or (b) when the child is adopted; or }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (c) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 when the child
attains the age of 18 years; or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 when the child becomes self-supporting; whichever
occurs earlier. (3) An appropriate court may direct that a maintenance order
referred to in subsection (2) shall extend beyond the date when the child
attains the age of 18 years\uc1 \u8212 ? * (a) if the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ch }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ild is or will be receiving
education or training beyond attaining that age; or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (b) if there are special circumstances
which justify such direction.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is important to realize that the provisions of section
8(2) and (3) of the Matrimonial auscs Act, 1985 normally apply to orders that have
been made by the High Court or itpmmunity court at the granting of an order of
divorce, judicial separation or nullity of carriage and, therefore, generally
cover children of married parents and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 those of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 na Med pa rents.The termination
of maintenance orders made by a maintenance court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r of children of unmarried parents would
accordingly be governed by the above }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ned provisions of section 11 of the Maintenance
Act.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 will be noticed from the above quoted
provisions of the Maintenance Act and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 itrimonial Causes Act, that a maintenance court or
an \uc1 \u8221 ?appropriate court\uc1 \u8221 ? as defined }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ithe Matrimonial Causes Act,
has the power to extend a maintenance order beyond a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 attainment of 18 years.ge In this respect,
in terms of section 18(3) of the Mainte- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a maintenance court has the
power, upon application, to extend an order of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;h Court which has terminated or is due to
terminate upon the child having attained }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a t ia n ng the age of 18 years. }
\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (tins been held that an order
of maintenance of a child continues until the child is selfpporting if no age limit
is imposed and does not necessarily terminate when the child ches the age of
majority. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
^fig }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\uc1 \u8212 ? have been registered with a maintenance court to the provisions
of section 11 of the Mainte- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nance Act. Sec also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kanis v Kanis (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where Lewis AJP (as he then
was) stated that: \uc1 \u8221 ?the provisions of section 11 in Part I relating to
automatic termination of the maintenance order for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0\uc1 \u8221 ? a child were not intended
to apply to ran orderl made by the High Court\uc1 \u8221 ? (at p.135C-E). }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 )71,S. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cmpnasisea mat section i
applies to au cullers or maintenance mane me }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 notwunstancung Inc martial
relattonsntp or tne parents or crutoren }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 particularly sect ion
8(3)of the Matrimonial Causes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and section 11(2) of the Maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Kanis (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 APR 2006 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 artship, custody and access }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e concepts of guardianship, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 custody and access }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 According to Professor
Hahlo in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
The South African Law of Husband }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 concept of: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Igluardianship in its widest sense
includes custody, and embraces the can the minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s person as well as
the administration of his property and business air; custody and guardianship a
rescpa rated. the custod ia n parent has the care and co minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s
person, while the guardian parent administers his property and busit (\uc1
\u8217 ?guardianship\uc1 \u8217 ? in the narrower sense),\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
\langfenp12297 Thus the term guardianship, in its generic and widest sense,
includes not incidents of \uc1 \u8221 ?guardianship\uc1 \u8221 ? in its specific
and narrower sense, but also the in custody as distinct from guardianship. This
generic and wide sense of guard ia only apply where married parents and their
children are living together asa sins However, guardianship and custody can be
separated and where this is the cas guardianship acquires a a}{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1
nirngglimitedtorepresentingorassi}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 _ktingtl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 or a5.5ing }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the performance of }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 juristicaets_arld }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 her property and
a ffairs.2 A guardian parent\uc1 \u8217 ?s assistance would thus be required to
provide a tEelegil capacity to performituirdicactsincluding furnishing him or her
with in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
judicio }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and
contractual capacity. Put differently, guard ianship in its specific S4 remnant of
parental power or \uc1 \u8221 ?natural guardianship\uc1 \u8221 ? that remains when
cu; been excised from it. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1 4th td, p.438. 2 Sec Al v A }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1981 ZLR 306 at p.310-311.
See also Olivier at p.304 where }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 gut }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is defined as \uc1 \u8221 ?the capacity of a person to
administer the property and assets of a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 min }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 after his financial affairs and to conclude contracts
on his behalf or assist him contracts.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nr, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 AM) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 custody refers specifically to the
physical of \uc1 \u8217 ?Ms of custody or the duties and rights of }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 custodian parent }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 are moot a
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ssed by
Gubbay J (as he then was) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in M a A and Another (supra): }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -Custody is but an incident of
parental power or natural guardianship }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and flow a as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 awarded to the mother on
divorce and no order is made as to guardianship, the father is aptly termed
\uc1 \u8217 ?residuary guardianship\uc1
\u8217 ?, that is, those aped\uc1 \u8217 ? of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the psi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 power that remain after custody has been
excised from it. The embodiment of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 awarding custody to a mother is nowhere more lucidly
defined than in the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 woad\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Solomon) in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sirnleit p Cunliffe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1940 TPD 67 at 75-76: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1.... the court entrusts to her
all that is meant by the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 rut-tamand }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 upbrir }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 children. In this is included all that makes up
iheoidinary daily life of the child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nourishment and the training of mind ... The child by
virtue of the order }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 home of the mother and there it must find all that is
nececsary to its growth it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 body ...\uc1 \u8217 ? The mother as the custodian
parent has, therefore, the right and duty to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 regulate\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the child; to choose and
establish his residence }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Landmann v Minnie }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1944 ON) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 resolve with whom he should be allowed to
associate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(Wolfson v Wolfson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1962 (USA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at 37C-I-0; todirect thelines on which his secular
educat ion sh ould proceed! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra ) at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 76, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Scott }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Scott }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1946 WLD 399 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 401), including the choke of the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r Mason }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1949 (1) PH 119 (N)) to decide
upon his religious instruction (Ryan a I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 356 (SR) at 368A); to determine what
medical advice, supervision or assistanceASS sought in the event of his becoming
ill or sustaining an injury (Oesthuiun r Ru 65 (W), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kustner v Hughes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1970 (3) SA 622 (W) at 62513).
The father as non-cum:dim right of interference in these matters.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1
n summary, guardianship,as distinct from custody, refers to a parent or duty to
clothe the minor child with legal capacity, assisting him }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or la the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 >erformance of acts and i }
\u8226 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\uc1 \u8226 ? is.rh \uc1 \u8226 ? \uc1 \u8226 ?t \uc1 \u8226 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Iffaiu. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thus, a guardian is
entitled to enter into legal transactions on the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iuying, selling and investing the
minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s property as he or she sees fit. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 towever, that he or she acts }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bona fide }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in the interests
of the minor. On the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ustody, where it is separated
from guardianship, refers to the physical carei }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the child on a day to day basis. The
custodian parent therefore has the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 right }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 decide on all the issues concerning the minor\uc1
\u8217 ?s education including which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 schoolbeer I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 will attend.\uc1 \u8217 ? The minor
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s religion, his or her residence and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 II other matters affectin_ is
or h \uc1 \u8226 ? I ntertainment, also fall to the custodian parent to
decide. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
he terms \uc1 \u8221 ?sole guardianship\uc1 \u8221 ? and \uc1 \u8221 ?sole
custody\uc1 \u8221 ? were created by the Guardianship of final\uc1 \u8217 ?s Act }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 34], hereinafter
called the Guardianship of Minors Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 , }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Olivier defines custody as \uc1 \u8221 ?the capacity of
a person to have the actual physical of the minor, to live with him, to take care
of him and to assist him in his daily M }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At pp.309-310. See also Bober& }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 The Law of Persons and the
Fa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.460-
6: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mee. v Mee
83 at p.6. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW
ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Sole gua rdia nshi cr. which can onbt be
awarded }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
an ore \uc1 \u8217 ?engin., }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Guardianship of Minors Act,
refers to that \uc1 \u8221 ?guardianship\uc1 \u8221 ? under which all of a common-
law euardian are exercisable the nne narent whn hag been }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardianship after the
separation or divorce of the parties. A sole guardian can }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 au an. a }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nfrcrencv to me outer
parent wncreas an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 gua ru la n exercises ni s or ncr powers in
consultation with the other parental:urn guardian is vested with the power to
appoint by testamentary disposition al }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nvrIlminn of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nthnr cr./Alia% hie nr u.m.ccnr ac\uc1
\u8221 ?crag. 7 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Sole custody\uc1 \u8221 ? is the term used
simply to distinguish the \uc1 \u8221 ?sole custody\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 acquires by virtue of an order
of court when the spouses are separated or divot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the joint or shared custody the parents of
a minor enjoy while living together.\uc1 \u8217 ? It it the custody acquired by
the mother of a child upon the separation of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by virtue of the provisions of
section 40 the Guardianship of Minors Act\uc1 \u8217 ? Solei }{\rtlch \fcs1
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 differs from common-law custody in only
one respect, namely that the pai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 possesses it is vested with the power of appointing by
testamentary disposition }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 successor as custodian to the exclusion of the other
spouse!\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of a non-custodian parent to visit,communicate with
orlii }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
his child for specified periods, for example, during school holiday }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 month-ends. The right of
reasonable access is always implied in an order of unless the contrary has been
expressly provided for in the order.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.2 Guardianship of illegitimate children
under customary lawl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under customary law the father of an illegitimate child
born to an unmarried wor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 no claim to its guardianship, which guardianship }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vests in
the father or guardian! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
mother.\uc1 \u8217 ? 2 However, the father of an illegitimate child could acquire
guardii }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
over his child by paying }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chiratzwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (in Shona) or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 amalobolo omntwana }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 isihlt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ndebele) to the father or
guardian of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother, the father or guardian hat }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unfettered discretion to accept
or reject such payment.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6 Section 2. 7 Section 3(3)(a) of the
Guardianship of Minors Act. 8 Section 30). 9 Section 4(1) is discussed in
detail infra (\uc1 \u167 ?7.9) 10 Section 3(3)(a) and 0:)). 11 See also section
5(a) which contains the definition of \uc1 \u8221 ?access order\uc1 \u8221 ?. }
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fordson Manduna v Clara
Khanye }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
AAC 9; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
In re Robert }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
SR }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
47 at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
49;Storrysi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Goldin and Gelfand, pp.183-184 where it is stated that: \uc1 \u8221 ?An
illegitimate child\uc1 \u8217 ?bot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unmarried woman belongs to the guardian of such a
woman. The seducer acquires to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child born as a result of intercourse between him and
an unmarried woman ...\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\afs22 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 13 Moses /Avenge v Emma Tap ra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974 AAC 9; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Maida and Stephen v Libona }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1964 AAC 32; Ms }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t ttel
110.1l\uc1 \u8226 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ry law-position in which a woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s guardian
was also the guardian of her mate child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ren }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 may now have changed where unmarried women
above the age of are concerned. It would appear that the father or guardian of an
unmarried n was gua rd ia of her it legi ti ma te children because women were,
under cu stomary till minors and as such could not acquire guardtanshipof their
children. Bei ng.k tutelage themselves they were legally incapable of being
guardians over theirW }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Legal Age of Majority Act, 1982 (No. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 15 of 1982) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 conferred
Zimbabweans regardless of sex upon the attainment of 18 years of Thus women,
including women governed by customary law, become majors on ng the }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 age }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of 18 years and
consequently acquire full legal capacity, including the \uc1 \u8226 ? to }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hold }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardianship
over minors. Moreover, being majors themselves, such n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 do not have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardians so that it wou
kfappear that their hitherto customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fans can }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 no longer acquire guardianship over their children. }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 le here is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the question :whetheror not unmarried
mothers of illegitimate children disqualified from being the guardians of their
children solely on the ground that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 themselves tinder }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardianship. If their lack of
guardianship over their }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rn was founded solely upon }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 their perpetual minority
status, then it should follow }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 itch women would acquire }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardianship over their children once that
condition p1 tual minority }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is terminated. It is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 submitted that unmarried mothers of
illegitimate en were denied }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rights of guardianship }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of their children on no other
legal principle that they were perpetual
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 minors, }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 always
under the guardianship of one man or le-. Now that women }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 become majors at }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 18 years of age, it
follows that they acquire gal capacity }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to be guardians at that age. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Consequently, it is submitted
that the legal ion today, because of the effects of the Legal Age of Majority Act,
vests the dianship of an illegitimate child born to a major woman in that woman
under unary law. The child\uc1 \u8217 ?s father is Mill denied any iishts of
guardianship over his ring. Moreover, he cannot acquire such rights by making the
customary payments person who would have been the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s guardian had
the Legal Age of Majority }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lot been enacted as such person no longer has the legal
capacity to perform any acts . would diminish the rights of the mother who, as a
full adult and sole guardian of bet C itimate children, has all the powers
attendant thereto. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ould appear, however, that the guardianship of an
illegitimate child whose mother ill hers/ a minor would, in accordance with
customary law, vest in her guardian. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Guardianship of illgitiniate children under general law
rpt for purpOses or maintenance the Roman-Dutch common law regarded an illegitite
child as having no father. All parental rights to the child vested in its mother.
This }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Maioni 1947 SRN 165 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Anderson Mariya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1929 SRN 23. See also Storry, p.70 and Cold in
andHand, n.184. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sect ion 3(1) and 3(2). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAIL Y LAW IN 13MtIABWI: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 position of a father with
respect to his illegi t ima techild is summarized effect( in The }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Law of Parent and
Child\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297
in the following words: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the natural father is not possessed of the parental
power and is not the minor child.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thus the guardianship of illegitimate
children under Roman-Dutch romn with the mother!\uc1 \u8217 ? This position
concerning a mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s guardianship is flea by Boberg in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 The Law of Persons and
the Family }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
in the following words: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Whereas the parental power over a
legitimate child rests in his father, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 illegitimate child it is his mother who,
unless she is herself a minor hi guardianship and custody over him and whose
surname and domicile he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This view was ci ted with approval by Muchecheterr J in
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Douglas }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 uMayers (s;
also expressed in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Dhanahathim a Subramanian and Another\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 when Watermc }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Now though the mother, and not
the father of an illegitimate child is, gem the natural guardian of the
child ..... a person who is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 minor is disqualific guardian; see Grotius, 1.7k; van
der Linden\uc1 \u8217 ?s Institute 13.1720 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it is clear from the above that under the general law
the sole guardi illegitimate minor child rests with its mother if she is hersel }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 f a major.
Incas( mother is herself a minor, however, a guardian dative would be appointed
by the court?\uc1 \u8217 ? It would also appear that the court, as upper guardian
of all r power to deprive a mother of her guardianship and award it to any suitat
it issatislig0 that the motheeszuardianshil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 15 3rd Edition, at p.425. 16 This
statement of the law was cited with approval in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Douglas v Mars }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.912. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Edtvrds Flemming }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1909 TI I 232 where it was
held that the legal guardian }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child is the mother and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Doc-rat v Shayat }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1932 TI\uc1 \u8217 ?D 125
at p.127 where dc W mother of the lillegitimatel child was the natural
guardian.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 18 At pp.333-334. See also section 12(2) of the
Births and Registration Act, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which provides that the Registrar of births shall not
enter the name of any of an illegitimate child except upon the joint request of
that person and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 19 1943 A0 160. 20 At p.168. See also Olivier,
p.327 and Spiro, p.423. 21 Note, however, that a minor mother of an illegitimate
child is, by sin }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Protection and Adoption Act,
empowered to consent, wit adoption of her illegitimate child. Note also, that a
minor motheris not. granted custody of her child if such custody is in the best
interests of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Edwards v Fleming (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 F v 1. and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Attrjtyri987 (4) SA 525 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 CDARDIANSHIP, CUSTODY AND }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 x1 that the law of guardianship
of illegitimate children is now uniform rhich law is applicable so that an
illegitimate child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother is its natural tr both customary and
general law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ay and access to illegitimate children under customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ustomary law position with
respect to custody and access is that \uc1 \u8221 ?a natural right to the custody
of his illegitimate child these rights of custody in the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s guardian which guardian could relinquish his rights accepting
thcchiredzwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(Shona) or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
amalobaloomntwana }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 or isildengo(Ndebeic) n the natural father who thereby acquired the
right to the custody of the ight of custody vested not with the child\uc1 \u8217 ?
s mother but with her guardian }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 oration of the Legal Age of Majority Act would appear
to have changed this t the mother of an illegitimate child is the natural
custodian of her child if }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 major since she, being a major, has no guardian over
her who could claim he child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it withstanding the above general rule that the mother
of an illegitimate child an, the prime consideration in any custody dispute should
alwa ys be the best he child. This is laid down in section 3(4) of the Customa Law
and Primary which provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 withstanding anything to thecontrary in this section,in
anycaserelating tothccustody ldren the interests of the children shall be the
paramount consideration, irrespective ich law or principle is applied.\uc1
\langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mary Law and Local Courts Bill,
1989 which will repeal the Customary Law \uc1 \u8217 ?Courts Act and which is
expected to come before Parliament in August, 1989 to la w, the prov isions of
this section will be re-enacted as section 5 of that Bill/ read thus: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case relating to the custody
or guardian ship of children, the interests of the children ned shall be the
paramount consideration, irrespective of which law or principle is }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Alexander }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1973 AAC 35; }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 re Robert (supra) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.49; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kainos v
Tazvivingo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1973 AAC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Nudzimu v Kenneth Comte }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1975 AAC 16; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chikololere v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1969 ACC18; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Robert v }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 152 SRN 293; Storry, p.70
and Goldin and Gel fa nd, pp.183-185. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vMudzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1973 AAC 32 and M Maboreke, \uc1 \u8217 ?The of a
Mother: Problems of Custody in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Women and Law in Southern Africa }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 edited by A Armstrong and W
Ncubc, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
re, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1987 at
LS 71MBARWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Thus, regardless of the system of law applicable to a particular case, the, }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?custody shall
always be in accordance with the child or children\uc1 \u8217 ?s best int }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it is submitted that the above
section does not give the father of an illegitir }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 right to claim custody of his
child in cases governed by customary law. It }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that in such cases a father remains
without }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 en
inhnrnni }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 illegitimate chili }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 no }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 withstandavisions }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 of section 3(4) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the Ct }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and Primary section 5 of the
Custer }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
Billl and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
tltat his right to claim custodyisaatei- than the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tnira party woo la. tins
proposition iscorrect, it would i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the of an i I legi lima to child under its }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 mot }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 merely being .i \uc1
\u8226 ? \uc1 \u8226 ? t. child in the .i as a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 third_party, Accordingly, to succeed in
his claim for custody, a father must }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 there are \uc1 \u8221 ?strong
and compOiitig\uc1 \u8221 ? grounds }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 for interfering with }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 To do so he mung6 further and
show that the mother should bed( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8212 ?natural custodial rights because her
retention of custody represents a \uc1 \u8221 ?danger }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 limb, health or rut:Mats of the
child.\uc1 \u8221 ?27This is to say that a father cannot claim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of right witivtfie result that
the court merely makes an assessment of which of I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parents isbetter able to take care of the
child, as is the case in custody disputes\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the pa rents of legitimate
children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
P }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
The question of access of the father of an illegitimate child under customary
lav }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
arose since he had no rights towards the ch ild as long as the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s guar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not accept his paternity and/or his payment of }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chiredzwa or
amalobolo. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Cons }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
under customary law, the father of an illegitimate child has no inherent right
his child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
7.5 Custody and access to illegitimate children under general }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under Roman-Dutch common law
the natural custodian of an illegitimate chit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mother? The legal position in respect of
the custody of and access to illegitimatel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is aptly stated by Muchechetere J in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Douglas }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mayers (supra) }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in the words: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Douglas v Mayers (supra) at }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ppSl4-15 }
\af4 \dbch \af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
27 Extracted from }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Calitz }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Calitz }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1939 AD 56 at 64. The Supreme Court appears to have }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 this approach in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Groatirera v Nculxe }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 74/88 where
Manyarara JA stated: \uc1 \u8221 ?The crisp }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 whether the appellant had proved on a
balance of probabilities that the respondent }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fit and proper person to have custody of
the children\uc1 \u8221 ? at p.2 (emphasis added). This poi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was reaffirmed in Mudzimiriva v
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kamuuga }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 52/89 where
Manyarara }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
JA, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 observed:
It }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
that under our law the natural father has no right to the custody of his
illegitimate child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 starting point is therefore thecardinal common law
principle that the mother of an illegitri }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child is its legal custodian from its
birth until some special order of court is made\uc1 \u8221 ? (pp\uc1
\u8226 ?!\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See Dona!
v Bhagat (supra); Dhanabakium v Subramanian (supra); Olivier. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 borekc, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) at }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 58. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I ; III I\uc1 \u8217 ?, }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cannot }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 my conclusion }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 illegitimate }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1932 TPD 123 it was held that
the father of a minor illegitimate child m custody of the child \uc1 \u8217 ?as of
right\uc1 \u8217 ? after the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s deathFrom the above, }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is that them is no inhemnt
right ofacccs<or custody for a father of a minor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chili but the lather, in the way as other
third hasa right to claim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
and will thew if he ca n satisfy t he court that it is in the interests the ch
ild. The icon the applicant, in thi% case the father, to satisfy the on the matter
and ly the court will not intervene unless there is some very strong ground
compelling it so. The uandard usually applied by the court is that used before
interfering with the custodial rights of a father of a legitimate child }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 test used todeprivc a parent of
custody and award it to a third party was lucidly laid }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in W IV 1981 ZLR 243 (AD) by
Goldin AJA (as he then was) when he said: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?A court will only deprive a
natural wont of custody and award it to a third party Moon special grounds. Such
special grounds include detrimental or undesirable effects or the physical, moral
and psychological or educational welfare of a child. The test is still not whether
a third party can provide better materially or possesses more desirable
attributes, but whether the parent or parents should be deprived of custody for any
reason involving harm }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 danger to the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s welfare as mentioned
above.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 custody will be awarded to a third party only if the
parent or parents are found to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unsuitable custodians in that their custodianship would
be a danger to the welfare of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ild. It follows, then, that the father of an
illegitimate child can succeed in obtaining }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 y over his child only if he shows that the
mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s custodianship is a danger to the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 re the child, will not succeed
by merely showing that he would be a letter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\sa0 \lisa0 \sl240
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tan than the mother since he has no inherent right of
custody or access. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 same test was applied in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Douglas v Mayers (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to determine whether or not
rights of access to the father of an illegitimate child. The father of an
illegitimate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
had applied to be granted rights of access to his child and the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
mother had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
the application on the basis that acquaintance with its natural father was not
in \uc1 \u8217 ?s interests because this might jeopardise her future efforts to
have the child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
by her future husband. In rejecting the application, on the basis that a father of
mate child has no inherent right of access, the court stated that the applicant can
mly: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\uc1 \u8221 ?If he satisfies this court that it is i n the best interests of
thechild that the court interferes with the custodial rights of the respondent and
grant reasonableaccess to him In my view, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 application has not gone beyond saying
that the applicant wants access because he is a natural father and because he }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pays }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance.
This, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 my
view, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is
the same as applying foraccessasof right or t he grou nd of a n inherent right of
access which, as! have stated above, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is non-existent in the case
of a natural father.\uc1 \u8221 ?31 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At p.247. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Scealsoinfra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (\uc1 \u167 ?7.9.3) the discussion of the
award of custody of legitimate children to third parties. At p.914-915. This
position has also been taken by the courts of South Africa wherein }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 F v L and }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY IN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This basic Roman-Dutch common law position is not
fundamentally afkcled in any respect by section 3(41 of the Customary Law and
Primary Courts Act (or its possible successor, section 5 of the Customary Law and
Local Courts Bill, 1989) which states that, notwithstanding which law
isapplicable, the interests of the child concerned shall al ways be the paramount
consideration in custody d ispsites. The section does not operate to give the
father of an illegitimate child an inherent right of custody to his child. Without
an inherent right of custody to his illegitimate child, a father can only claim
for custody as any other third party, in which case he must show that the
mothersnatun Icustodianship is a danger to the wel fa of the child, and not simply
that he would be a better custodian. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The a bove d iscussion of and access to illegi t ima te
chikl under both customary law and general law, clearly shows Brat thereare no
fundamental differences be t ween the w of custody of illegitimatechildrenunder
the two systems. In either system, the mother is regarded as the natural custodian
of her illegitimate child while the father has no inherent rights of custody
and/or access. Thus, a father }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 regardlesssaLthe fact thcit he has a duty to
maintain his child\uc1 \u8222 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 stands in the same position as any other third party
with respect to the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s custody and/or access. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.6 Adulterine children }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The position of adul terine
children born to an unmarried mother by a married man is the same as that of
ordinary illegitimate children. Under both general law and customary law, as
discussed above, the guardianship and custody of such children vests in their
mother. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
However, under customary law the guardianship and custody of adulterine children
born to a married woman by a man other than her husband vests in the woman\uc1
\u8217 ?s husband.\uc1 \u8221 ? Further, upon divorce the guard ianshi p a nd
custody of such children remains predominantly with the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s
husband as though the children were legitimate?\uc1 \u8217 ? However, the
biological father of the child or children could acquire rights of guardianship }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 custody if the
woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s husband acknowledged his paternity and accepted his payment of
compensatory damages?\uc1 \u8217 ? On the other hand, an adulterous woman\uc1
\u8217 ?s husband could refuse to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 anything }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 to do }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 with his wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s adulterine children even }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Another (supra) }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Harms J held that the
father of an illegitimate child does not acquire any of the incidents of parental
authority including the right of access. Accordingly, such a father has no right
of access to his illegitimate child. This case disagreed with the earlier cases
of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Mathews v I laswari }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1937 WLD 110 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wilson v Ely }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1914 WR 34 in which fathers of illegitimate children
were granted access to their children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lydia v Masumbu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1939 SRN 74; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kam.angira v Jengera and }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Murapi 1940 SRN 92; Stony,
p.71 and Goldin and Gelfand, p.185. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fransisca a/b Simon v Matupe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1953 SRN 250 and Maboreke, p.145. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Tabitha v Tatvonzewi }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chilingwa
v Mwamba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(1928-62) SRN 144. The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 husband has a right to refuse to
acknowledge the adulterer\uc1 \u8217 ?s paternity and to refuse to accept }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C1J5TODY ANT) ACCESS }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 h he was entitled to claim guardianship
and custody over them if he so wished event it would appear that the mother would
become the guardian and custodian adulterine children as there is no legal ground
upon which the adulterous father laim these rights. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 light of the Legal Age of Majority Act and
section 3(4 ) of the Customary Law and Ty Courts Act (or its possible successor,
section 5 of the Customary Law and Local s Bill, 1989), it would appear that the
mother of an adulterine child governed by Mary law would have an equal entitlement
with her husband to claim the custody child upon separation or divorce. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r general law, the position of
adulterine children born to a married woman is med by the maxim }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 paler est quern
nuptiac demnnstrant and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the guardianship and dy of such children falls to
their mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s husband as if they were legitimate ren. If the maxim is
rebutted, the adulterine children become illegitimate and their lianship and
custody is determined in the same manner as the guardianship and dy of any other
illegitimate children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Guardianship of legitimate children under general
guardianship of legitimate children under general law is governed partly by the
an-Dutch common law and partly by the Guardianship of Minors Act. The guardiip of
all legitimate children born to parents who are married in terms of general law !
ermined in accordance with the general law regardless of their ram.% }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r the common law a father is
the natural guardian of his legitimate children.# ever, by virtue of section 2 of
the Guardianship of Minors Act, a father\uc1 \u8217 ?s rights of iianship must be
exercised in consultation with the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother both during the
stence of the marriage and after divorce unless he has been awarded sole guardianIn
this case, he can make decisions relating to the incidents of guardianship without
\langfenp12297
s compensation. However, it was held in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Vela Mandinika and Magutsa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1936 SR 171 that it as
contrary to natural justice for the husband to refuse to accept a reasonable offer
of impensation from the adulterer. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nyuka Sixpence v Egisita a/b John Natvker }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1967 A AC 37. c }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chitiyo v
Chitiyo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-20-83
where McNally ) (as he then was) held that the provisions of Guardianship of
Minors Act applied to Africans married under general law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 oti us 1.6.1; Spiro, p.37; Ha
hlo, p.462 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
M v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and Anotber
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.312D
Sec also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lynch
ynch }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
SA 49 (SR) where Young ) stated that \uc1 \u8221 ?By the com mon law the paramount
right guardianship of a legitimate child, including custody and education and the
control of the ld\uc1 \u8217 ?s property, belong to the father, subject to the
power of the court, as upper guardian, to 2rru le the claim of the father in the
interests of the child where the parents are living apart\uc1 \u8221 ? p.51). }
LN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consulting the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother. If a
father\uc1 \u8217 ?s decision on any ma t ter ti n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is contrary to the wishes of the child\uc1
\u8217 ?s mother to the extent that she thir }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 decision would belikely toaffect the life,
health or morals of the minor advers, apply to a judge of the High Court who may
make any order that he or she thir }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.7.1 Sole guardianship }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The concept of sole guardianship is a
creation of section 3(1) of the Guar& }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\sl240 \slmult1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Minors Act. It provides that the High Court may, on
the application of either }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 minor whose parentsarescparated or are bei ng granted
an order of divorce or ire; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 divorced, grant to either parent the sole guardianship
of that minor if it is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 would be in the interests of the minor to do so. Such
an order made in favour of al }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 former wife effectively deprives the child\uc1 \u8217 ?
s father of his natural guardianship }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardianship, although not defined in the Act, includes
the power to consents }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 minors marriage and generally empowers its holder to
perform all the it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardianship necessary to the exclusion of and without
reference to the other }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thecourt will not lightly deprivea parent of his or her
rightsof g,uardianshipbyav }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sole guardianship to the other parent. This is only
done in cases in which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 refuses to perform the functions of a guardian or is
proved to be irresponsit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 neglectful of the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s interests or
where his or her guardianship is shown to be I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the material, moral and/or social
welfare of the minor!\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.7.2 Transfer of guardianship }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under general law a minor whose
deceased parents had not appointed a testa guardian before their deaths is left
without a guardian and can only acquire }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 appointment of the court. Unlike under customary law,
general law does not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the automatic transmission of guardianship upon the
death of a minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s parents }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a minor child who is governed by general law and whose
parents are deceased }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardian until one is appointed by the court unless one
or both of his or her parel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 appointed a testamentary
guardian. Such appointments are provided for by sectiol }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 40 4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 2 of the Guardianship of Minors
Act. If the father is deceased and he has appoi testamentary guardian, such
testamentary guardian would be a joint guardian with the and if there is any
disagreement between the two the wishes of the mother shall provided that the
testamentary guardian has the right to seek the court\uc1 \u8217 ?s intervention
3(4)). It is doubtful whether a court could ever permanently deprive a father of
the guardiansh his children at common law. See Hahlo at p.462 and }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Walters
Walters }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
SA 906(01. courts are reluctant to deprive a parent of the guardianship of his or
her children, see Ryi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ryan }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1963 R&N 356; 1963 (2) PH B 26. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See Olivier, p.305. See Hahlo,
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Guardianship of
Minors Act which empowers a \'5ccourt, subject to the pow High Court as u pper
guardian of all minors, to appoint a guardian fora minor guardian. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In of customary law
guardianship of any minor children is automatically transm ted the father\uc1
\u8217 ?s heir upon the death of the minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s parents without the
necessity of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
court order. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.8 Guardianship of legitimate children under customary
The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
customary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law
of guardianship generally applies to all those children born to Africa parents
married in accordance with customary law. This includes marriages contracts under
the African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter 2381, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and customary law unions. However, th
full applicability of the customary law rules of guardianship depends on whether or
no the Guardianship of Minors Act applies to customary marriages. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The question of whether the
Guardianship of Minors Act applies to Africans married in accordance with
customary law under the African Marriages Act is a vexed and difficult }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 question which has not been
decided by the courts. The problem arises as a result of the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 repeal of the Atncan Law and I
nbal Courts Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 [Lharer }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 which operated during the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 period and whose section 2 provided that:
nothing in any enactment relating to ... the guardianship of children ... shall
affect the application of customary law, except in so far as such enactment has
been specifically applied to Africans by that or any other enactment\uc1 \u8221 ?
(emphasis added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
law was also deemed by section 3( 1 Xa) to apply to any case between Africans }
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 UIC Fell . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 restrictive provisions prevented the appl
ica tion of the Guardianship of Minors Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Africans so that this Act did not apply to Africa ns d
uri ng the colonial period. However, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 restrictive provisions of the African Law and Tribal
Courts Act were repealed by the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 :ustomary Law and Primary Courts Act, the latter
containing no reference to the extent }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the applicability of family law statutes, including
the Guardianship of Minors Act, which had previously been excluded from
application to Africans by the now repealed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 restrictive clauses. The question remains,
then, as to whether the Guardianship of Minors }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act is now applicable to Africans married
under the African Marriages Act, since the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Primary Courts Act contains no provision limiting the
application of any statute to any }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sty! group of Zimbabweans. The question will still
remain if the Customary Law and Local }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1),t Courts13111, W89 which will repeal he ustornary
Law and I \uc1 \u8217 ?nma ry t_ourts Act and which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ryi is expected to become law before the
end of 1989 passes through Parliament since that Bill, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 like the Cu stomary Law and
Primary Courts Act, does not contain any provisions limiting the application of
any statute to any particular group of Zimbabweans. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ?]MBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Discussing this issue in \uc1 \u8221 ?
Internal Conflicts between Customary Law and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimbabwe: Family Law as a Case
Study\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? Doris Galen comes to the Act probably does not
apply to Africans married under the African Marriage the other hand, M Maboreke,
in \uc1 \u8221 ?The Love of a Mother Problems of C Zimbabwe\uc1 \u8221 ? (supra)
comes to the conclusion that prima }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 babe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Act app argument is that the only reason
theGuardianshipof Minors Act did not applyl was the existence of the ouster
clauses in the African Law and Tribal Court concludes: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?
TheGuardianshipof Minors Act did not apply to Africans before bccause 0 provision
specifically ousting its application. Now that this ouster has been n Act must
apply. Therefore, facie the GuardianshipolMinors Act applies to. between all
couples validly married.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Indeed it is difficult to find a plausible
legal argument that would exclude thea }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Guardianship of Minors Act to Africans,
particularly in view of the fact ti law overrides both customary law and the
common law, and that all slaty general application unless otherwise provided. In
this respect, the general ru statute dealing with a particular area of the law
applies to everyone unless is provided for in that statute or any other enactment.
There is no legislation to that custody and guardianship disputes between Africans
must be decided customary law. On the contrary, section 3 of the Primary Courts
Act, which co internal choice of law rules, makes i, clear that customary law
would apply or was no statute dealing with the issue. It is accordingly
respectfully subm Maboreke\uc1 \u8217 ?s argument seems to be unassailable. }
\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, not withstanding
the above reasoning, it should be noted that the pos respect to the extent of
coverage of the Guardianship of Minors Act is unclear at been authoritatively
ruled upon by the courts. The following discussion of guardianship as well as
custody under customary law assumes that he Guardi Minors Act does not apply.
However, if the Act did apply the position under c law as discussed below would be
subject to the provisions of the Act in the sae has been discussed earlier in this
chapter in connection with guardianship undo law. It should, however, also be
noted that the Guardianship of Minors Act not apply to an unregistered customary
union since theGuardianship of Minor supposes a valid marriage whereas a
customary union is not a valid marrig purposes of the general law.\uc1 \u8221 ?
Such unions would therefore be governed customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 42 ZL Rev. Vol. and 2, 1983-84, 3. 43
See p.21. 44 See p.150. 45 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ibid. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 46 See also Maborekc, p.150 and Galen, p.22. The two
authors agree that the Ad }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 apply to customary law unions. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C1J5TODY AND }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ship and custody }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 were }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not, it seems, sharply
demarcated in as a result of developments during the colonial period, the heral
law has now been fully incorporated into customary law. w a father is the natural
guardian of all children born of his Sous or polygamous in cases in which }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has been
paid.\uc1 \u8221 ? ch }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobe\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has not been paid, the guardianship of the
children of jst in their father but in their mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s father or
guardian.\uc1 \u8221 ?, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 husband was not only the guardPan of his children but
was also mot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
of legiti ma te children, as a perpetual minor herself under ship, could not be
guardian of her children. However, now that majors upon attaining the age of 18
years it is possible for women Ins of their children. Community courts have been
awarding h women since the Legal Age of Majority Act became law. There titative
decision on the matter even though in Lopez }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nxumalo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3u rt allowed a widowed woman to,sue for
seduction damages for guardian has a cause of action for seduction damages under
although the issue was not directly addressed, by allowing the he matter the
Supreme Court implieclly accepted that she was her ardian. Be that as it may, now
that African women become majors of 18 years, there is no reason why an African
woman should not he guardianship of her children, particularly }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 in cases in which th& }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rased .\uc1
\langfenp12297 !gitimate children under general law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tildren under general law is
partly statute law and partly common relevant to custody are the Guardianship of
Minors Act, the ct, 1985 (No.33 of 1985) and the Childrens\uc1 \u8217 ? Protection
and Adop- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
tmon law provides that spouses have shared or joint custody of while their
marriage is in subsistence and the pair are living }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;old in and Gelfand. p.183; Galen, p.27; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ndebe/e v
Miele:a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
23 at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Id }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
28 at pp.29-30; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Chiduku v Chidano }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1922 RLR s5 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 keno }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1972 CAACC 9, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in note 47 and also }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Daynnano v
Kgaribaitse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1931 SR 134. Now that the 18 years, has no guardian }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 position may be that where }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has not herself
becomes the guardian or perhaps, since }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is no longer a legal 1omary law marriage,
the position }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 may }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
be that the payment or nonno effect on guardianship. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1.27. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY JAW IN 7IMBANWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The custody of a child upon the
separation of its parents is governed by }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ltianoansnip or minors }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MCI }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ponnues mat: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Where either of
the parents of a minor leaves the other a nd such parents< }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 apart, the mother of that minor
shall have the sole custody of that minor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 regulating the custody of that minor is
made under section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 three }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 of this }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 superior court such as is referred to in subparagraph
(ii) of paragraph (a) of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A mother who is entitled to the custody of her minor
child in terms of this pro is denied or deprived of such custody by the fa Cher or
any other person has a rig to a juvenile court for an order declaring that she has
the sole custody of that rn this application the juvenile court may make such an
order and, if necessary, the child be returned to its mothers\uc1 \u8217 ?
Similarly, upon application by the lathe court may make an order depriving the
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother of the sole custody of and granting the sole custody to
the father if the court is satisfied that it i interests of the minor that its
father be granted such custody.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is clear from these provisions that a
mother is entitled to_the sole custod children upon the separation of spouses. It
is also clear that any act-denyin her of such custody is contrary to the
provisions of section 4(1) of the G Minors Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and-ipso jure }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unlawful. However,
notwithstanding the clear section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4(1), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in cases in which a mother is unlawfully denied or
deprived of her minor children upon her separation from her husband, our courtshai
approach of refraining from ordering the return of the children to their me
entitlement in terms of the law without first carrying out an investigatic
interests of the children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Upon the separation of the parties in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lynch v Lynch }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the husband, wit
consent, placed the only minor child of his marriage in the custody of the
grandparents with instructions not to hand the child over to his wife. \uc1
\u8217 ?V demands for the child were met with refusals, she applied for an ord:
grandparents to give her custody of herchild in accordance with the provi section
3(3) of the Guardianship of Minors Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter 174), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which is }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Her counsel argued that under
the section the court had no discretion bt order the grandparents to deliver up
the child to the mother forthwith, counsel argued that the court was legally bound
to order compliance wil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 50 Sec Maboreke, p.156. 51 Section 4(2). 52
Section It has been held that the onus is on the father to show that it is }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the minorthat the mother
bedeprived of custody in such an application. HC-H-625-87 at pp.6-7. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 53 1965 (2) SA 49 (SR). }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 GUARDIA:N.51 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HP, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1STODY AND
ACCTSS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
section without an investigation into the best interests of the child. The court }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 argument with the following
statement: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
question is then whether the effect of section 3(3) is to remove all discretion
from the commas upper guardian of the nsinor, to modify the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s
right of custody pending an order under
section 3(1) or action \uc1 \u8217 ?under the Child rens\uc1 \u8217 ? Protection
and Adopt ion Act. For, if Mr Gubbay \uc1 \u8217 ?counsel for the mother) is
right, the sole function of the court is to give effect to the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?
s claim to custody without regard to the interests of the child. It is said on
behalf of the wife that this is indeed the inexorable consequence of section 3(3);
and that in proceeding to give effect to the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s right to
custody, the interests of the minor are irrelevant. On this view the court would
have to order the delivery up of the child in all circumstances, even if such a
course would endanger the health or even the life of the child; and in cases where
the feelings of the child ought to be considered, to ignore those feelings. If
this is the meaning of section 3(3) then the court must give effect to it; but I am
not persuaded that such is the true interpretation of the sub-section .... To give
effect to Mr Gubbay\uc1 \u8217 ?s argument would (so it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 seems }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to me) be to make an inroad on
the principle that it is the dutyof the court to control theexerciseof the
incidentsof guardianship, and especially the custody element, in the best
interests of the child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 c }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court went on to hold that the proper interpretation of
the subsection was that it crely transfers the \uc1 \u8221 ?predominant right of
custody from the father .... to the mother\uc1 \u8221 ? and nsequently in an
application to give effect to the provisions of the subsection it was :oiler for
the court to consider the best interests of the child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he same issue arose in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mutseriwa v
Mutscriwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
113-85 where Mr Justice Reynolds dopted the same approach as in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lynch v Lynch (supra)
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 when he
stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\uc1 \u8221 ?I agree with MrGreenC/ that the provisions of section 4(1)of
theCuardianship of Minors Act are designed to ensure that the custody of minor
children remain with the mother pending final determination by a competent court.
But the situation which applies in this easels that thesethreechildren are
presently with the father ....,and it is for this court to settle the question of
their custody for the immediate future now. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t would be absurd, in my view, for this
court approached in terms of section 4 of the Guardianship of Minors Act, to }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 act }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as a mere
rubber stamp as it were directing the return of the minor children to the custody
of the mother, without considering the interests of the children at all. I
consider it necessary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 therefore, in the present matter to have regard to die
interests of these children as far as this may }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 possible, in determining the question of their
custody }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
pendente Iite.\uc1 \u8221 ?ss }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u176 ?This passage was cited with approval by
Chidyausiku J in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Marira v Marira }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-167-87
livelien he refused to order that children who had been in the custody of their
father for about a year, be returned to their mother in terms of section 4(1). lie
observed that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\uc1 \u8217 ?The views }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of both }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 counsel in this matter appear to be, whenever a court
is approached in a matter such as thisoneall that is required of it is todinxt the
minorchildren of the marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 54 At no.51 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At p.2. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to be returned to the mother,
thus acting, as it were, as a rubber stamp. There no the court to examine or
consider the issue of the best interests of the children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I do not accept that this is
the correct approach. In my view, where an applicant comas to court to enforce her
rights in terms of section 4 of the Guardianship of Minors Act the }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court will }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 examine the
issue of the bat interests of the children before granting such an
application.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
In refusing to order the children to be returned to their mother the court had
regard to the fact that a year had elapsed without the mother seeking to invoke
the provisions of section 4(1) and to the fact that the pleadings in the main case
were almost closed so that the trial court would soon resolve the question of
custody. Furthermore, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 order from the coot granting the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s
application while the trial court awarded custody to the father al the conclusion
of the main trial would result in the children being shuttled from parent to the
other and would be disruptive and detrimental to their interests? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is clear that the courts have taken the
approach of not simply ordering a child to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 returned to its mother as per her entitlement under
section 4(1) without having regard the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s interests. It is
respectfully submitted that this is not an entirely correc interpretation of
section 4(1) of the Guardianship of Minors Act. The correct interpret. tion, it is
submitted, is that a mother is entitled to the custody of her children in terms c
the subsection, and the court should give effect to the subsection except in
exception. circumstances in which it can be shown that the mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s
custodianship is or would a danger to the welfare of the child. It should not be
sufficient in a mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s applicatio to enforce her rights under
section 4(1) for the children\uc1 \u8217 ?s father merely to show that would be a
better custodian. He should further show that their mother is unfit to be
children\uc1 \u8217 ?s custodian. The question of who would be the better custodian
can only decided in an application for custody by the children\uc1 \u8217 ?s
father in accordance with tl provisions of section 4(3)(b) of the Guardianship of
Minors Act and not in an applicatio by their mother to enforce her rights under
section 4(1). If the children\uc1 \u8217 ?s father believi that their
mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s custodianship in terms of section 4(1) would endanger their
welfar he should bring an urgent application for an order depriving the mother of
her so custody and not unlawfully seize custody of the children forcing their
mother to go court to enforce the rights which have been conferred upon her under
section 4 (1) of t Guardianship of Minors Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 56 At p.4. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muyambo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Muyambo }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-466-87 where this
approach was adopted, it t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 held that mothers who sought to avail themselves of the
provisions of section 4(t) o Guardianship of Minors Act had to act timeously and
if they delayed and came to court the children were settled with their father they
ran the risk of the court refusing to acct their application as this would not be
in the interests of the children, In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Makamute v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mat HC-H-143-86 Sandura JI\uc1 \u8217 ?
refused to order the return of children to their mother wl surrendered their
custody voluntarily to their father. The court was also of the view application
for custody by a mother in terms of section 4(1) had to be brought Oman that
changes of custody }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pendente lite }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 should be avoided unless there were
compelling }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\par }\pard
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 57 See p5. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lady on divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in under the old Roman-Dutch
common }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
tats }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 red
the custody of the children of their he marriage remained undissolved and this 1
cases. Further, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 dissolution of the M spouse as a reward kw virtue.\uc1 \u8217 ?
This old cur,., essively changed the courts so that the f the custody of minor
children be deter,\uc1 \u8217 ? mcerned.\uc1 \u8221 ? This progressive iudicial
innovataul ceived statutory recognition in a number of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Peel the Guardianship ot Minors
Act pro }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
High Court or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 a ridge may- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?a) on the application }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of parent of \uc1
\u8226 ? mama }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 separation in which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as =Oa of or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on the appl ication }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 eitherparent }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of a minor }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 apart; is proved that it }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 would be S
interests the guardianship }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or sole custody }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the minor }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ision is reinforced }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by section land (2) at in an
action for the court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 on on its own }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 initiative to determine v, . , his respect. In its
determination the court f such of the parties or such other person as
custody\uc1 \u8221 ? (emphasis added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the ultimate statutory recognition of the twat ection
3(4) of the Courts Act which, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Not wit hstand tng to the oantrary tot od y of
children the interns }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the child }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on irrespective }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 te }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ary Courts Act is repealed by
the Customary it isenacted into kw theprosisions this . I/Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cap }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1939 AD 56; }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 W (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.248 where is
that are the paramount }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sole wit dot.. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Fletcity 1943 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t11SA 13D (AM }{\rtlch
\plain \li0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3(1). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The provision embodying the
\uc1 \u8221 ?best interests of the child\uc1 \u8221 ? concept mustbeas courts in
all custody disputes. Thus, at divorce the question of custody of determined by
the best interests of the children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In determining the best interests of the child all
circumstances of the can, account, including the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s sex, age,
health, its educational and religiimo social and financial position of each parent
and his or her character, temp past behaviour towards the child!\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Considering the infinite
variety of circumstances which arise in real life, important to realise that each
and every case must be determined on circumstances merits. Accordingly, precedents
must be resorted caution. However, certain basic principles or guidelines can be
extract decisions of the courts. Custody of young children and girls of all ages
1st to their mother except in exceptional circumstances where it is shown that an
unsuitable custodian.\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A parent who leads an immoral life may be deprived of
the custody of his children\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? A parent\uc1 \u8217 ?s
adultery alone, however, does not in itself revc unsuitability unless it involves
moral baseness beyond the ordinary transgi average individual.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A parent who is a salesperson
or who is often away from }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 home because o }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bailey v Bailey }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C-S-266-80; Hahlo, (4th
ed), pp.460-462 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wilburn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Daggo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \fi720 \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \fi720 \li2160 \ri0
\lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin2160 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \fi720
\li4320 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin4320 \rin0
\plain \fi720 \li4320 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin4320
\par }\pard \plain \fi720 \li4320 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.9, where the court took into account the respective
means of the parties, attitudes and the educational and accommodation needs of the
children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Bailey v Bailey (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where it was stated that: \uc1 \u8221 ?I have also
particularly bei }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in general a mother\uc1 \u8217 ?s affection is better
adapted to the care of a young child t ....\uc1 \u8221 ?(at p.6); }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mafara v
Mafara }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
431-87 where the tender age of the childn they have the maternal care and
attention that only a mother could give; Nya B-161-87, where the court accepted
that the female sex and age of the child physical and emotional development would
best be served by themother:Don 87 where McNally JA said: \uc1 \u8221 ?It is trite
that, other things being equal, young chil girls, should be with their
mother\uc1 \u8221 ? (at p.17); and Musimurimtou v Musimurim where Manyarara J (as
he then was) said: \uc1 \u8221 ?I am of the firm view that in compelling reasons
to the contrary, the natural mother of a very yound gir person to whom custody of
such should be entrusted\uc1 \u8221 ? (at p.3). See also Myn (1) SA 203 at 204
where Price J stated that: \uc1 \u8217 ?There is no person who quite talc
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother. There is no person whose presence and natural affection
can sense of security and comfort that a child derives from its own mother :..tand
A 1964 (4) SA 348 at pp.352-353. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 63 Voet 27.2.1; Spiro, p.244; Maboreke, p.157 and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mohaud v
Mohaud (supra) at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 p }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mohaud v Mohaud (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp.352-353; Musimurimwa v Musimurinnoa
Maboreke, p.158. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moyo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sithole }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-B-35-85 at p.4. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 GUARDIANSHIP, CUSTODY AND
ACCESS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
nr for any other reason\uc1 \u8217 ? is unlikely to he a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pm\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?
However, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Muronda v Muronda }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the awarded custody to a father }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n.unvtwunscangtnsntslong }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 . hniirs he
would he a better nmtnd }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ian }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rntireS the environment at the ?manor mother\uc1 \u8217
?s home }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
to the \uc1 \u8221 ?healthy and disciplined\uc1 \u8221 ? upbringing of the
children. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
nor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
L \uc1 \u8226 ? \uc1 \u8226 ? S \uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8226 ? \uc1
\uc1 \u8221 ?1 need }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and advice of their father\uc1 \u8221 ? while they
are }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 crowing up.\uc1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the children, if they a re grown up, are taken into
account but are not decisive. also regard the fact that one or both parents consu
me alcohol to excess thus }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 supervision and disciplining of children dill
icult,\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? as a negative factor. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sigh the material advantages
that children would enjoy in living with one parent as ,sed to mlother are
relevant, they do not override the best interests of the children that a parent is
unemployed is a factor not to be taken into account against that Maintenanceawards
can be made to adjust the financial inequalities between the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 its are very reluctant to
disturb a child\uc1 \u8217 ?s existing environment?\uc1 \u8217 ? or to separate }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nyathi v Nyathi (supra) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court, in
awarding custody to the mother, took into account the fact that the father was a
Parliamentarian who was often away from home on Parliamentary business. }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chanctsa v
Chanetsa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
32-85, where the court was of the view that the applicant\uc1 \u8217 ?s penchant
and urge for foreign travel was not in the interests of the children }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I HC-H-300-85. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Paid v Paul }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC24/87 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.3. However see In }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Re C (A)
(a n infant )1197011 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 All ER 309 where it was held that there is no principle in custody
cases that a boy of eight should, other things being equal, be with his father; in
all cases the paramount consideration is the welfare of the child. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0 For both propositions see }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lamb v
Stander SC }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
58/82 at p.2 and pp.3-4
respectively. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rosa v Rosa 1980 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ZLR 387 (CD) in respect of views of
children. 71 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Malara v Mafara (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p3 where the court held that the fact that the husband
lived alone in a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spacious three-bed roomed house while the mother lived
in a two-bedroomed house with nine other people was not decisive of the issue of
custody. Indeed, the court went on to award }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 custody to the mother who was also
unemployed on the basis that the tender ageof the children required that they live
with their mother who could look after them personally as opposed to the father
who would have employed a domestic worker. Contrast with }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chanetsa v Chanetsa (supra)
where }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
fact that the applicant lived with her mother in over-crowded conditions was taken
against her in awarding custody to the father. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mutamba v Mutamba }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where the mother lost
custody on thebasis that she lived in near abject poverty in thecommunal lands
whereas the husband lived in a spacious six-bed roomed house in Harare. }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mafara }
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mafara }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), at p.6. See }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mutamba v
Mutamba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
(supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
LS ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 children\uc1 \u8221 ? except in atypical circumstances
where it is shown that the interests of the children require that they be moved or
separated. A parent who seizes or claims the custody of a child in order to defeat
a maintenance award or claim does not receive the court\uc1 \u8217 ?s sympa thy.n
The fact that the mother is a minor or young is not a relevant factor, unless,
perhaps, if it is shown that she is so immature that it would be contrary to the
interests of the children to award custody to her. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 All the personal circumstances and
idiosyncrasies of the parties are relevant consideraticms that must be taken
in:octant.\uc1 \u8217 ? However, it must always be borne in mind that the value of
precedents in y disputes is minimal since each case normally has its own peculiar
circumstances. Ultimately each case is decided on its own merits bearing in mind
that the interests of the children are the paramount consideratidn, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.9.2 Effect of an award of custody }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Where custody only has been
awarded to a child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother, the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s father retains the
guardianship of the child which, however, he must exercise in consultation with the
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s mother? As indicated earlier the custodian parent is entitled
to live with the child, to control its daily life, to decide all questions
relating to its educational and religious needs and to decide with whom the child
should associate.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.93 Award of custody to a third party }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The custody of a child whose
parents are living can only be awarded to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 third party under special circumstances
in which it is proved that the natural parents are unsuitable so that their
custodianship would be a danger to the welfare of the child.\uc1 \u8221 ? In Wv W
(supra) Goldin AJA (as he then was) stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?A court will only deprive a
natt7:al parent of custody and award it to a third party upon special grounds.
Such special grounds include detrimental or undesirable effects or influences upon
the physical, moral, psychological or educational welfare of a child. The test is
still not whether the third party can provide better materially or possesses more
desirable attributes, but whether the parent or parents should be deprived of
custody for any reason involving harm or danger to the child\uc1 \u8217 ?s welfare
Rosa Rosa (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rosa }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case contains a
good discussion of some of the factors that should be considered in deciding
custody cases. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moyo
v Stihole (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 at pp.9-10. 76 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rosa v Rosa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 77 See M v A and Another (supra) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp311-312.
(bid }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.310. 79
See section 4(6) of the Guardianship of Minors Act which permits a court to deprive
natural }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
parents of the custody of their child if they are unfit and unsuitable for such
custody. 80 At p.247 E-F. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Samuriwo v Kahari }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1-1C-H-207-87 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chitiyo v Chitiyo (supra) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp.3-4. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (N) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 CUARDIANSIIW, CUSTODY AND
ACCESS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
h in Z v Z, HC-B-17-87 the court deprived both parents of the custody awarded
custody to their paternal grandfather who was a priest, n was) observed that: }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tubt that both parties love
their children, but whereas, for the purposes of me is made unsuitable because of
his extra-marital relations and want of a my, the other is rendered equally
unsuitable because of her volatile temper ill-treatment of the children. Clearly,
as matters stand, it would not be for welfare to be in the custody of either
parent }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
f legitimate children under customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nary law position is that legitimate
children belong to their lather with no rights to their custody at divorce if }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has been paid In
1969 1Tribal Courts Act changed this basic position by providing in section
inding anything to the contrary in section 3, in any case relating to the n the
interests of the children concerned shall be the paramount )ective of which law or
principle was applied. This change in the law \uc1 \u8221 ?decide for itself where
the test interests of the children lie\uc1 \u8221 ?.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?endayi Moyo\uc1
Pitman J was able to state that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 phasized, as it has often been before, that section 3(5) strips the
father of the nt to custody he used to have in the past.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 )(5)ofthe African Law and
Tribal Courts was taken u p by section 3(4) is Act which provides that: }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ng anything to thecont raryin
this section, in any case relating to the custody nterests of the children
concerned shall be the paramount consideration, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af6 \ltrch
\fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af6 \hich \af6 \dbch \f6 \lang12297
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hich law or principle is
applied.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 try Courts Act is repealed by the Customary Law and
Local Courts ovisions of section 3(4) of the Primary Courts Act will be re-enacted
r Bill/Act which will read thus: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Machinga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1979 CAACC 16; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I\uc1 \u8217 ? ockonia v Simanga }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1967 A AC 34; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ida and
Ben }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 157;
Maboreke, pp.1313-139; Storry, p.65; Goldin and Gelfand, pp.186- }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lnge }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1949 CAACC 207 where it was
stated that the \uc1 \u8221 ?father of the children, r mother... his right to
custody of the children is therefore indefensible\uc1 \u8221 ?. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 AC 46. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In any case relating to the
custody or guardianship of children, the interests of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consideration. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
concernea snail in, -r \uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ?I
applied. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
It is clear that the interests of the children concerned are the paramount }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 regardless of which la
wisapplicableor is in (act applied to any particulara }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nn by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 itshouta not matter LWgeneral
the best interests of the children shall determine the question of custody in each,
is most accurately expressed by Korsah J (as he then was) in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Moyo v Sithole }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (st }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that whereas prior to this
enactment, children may have belonged to their I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the payment of lobola }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (sic), }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 after }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the coming into force
of the Primary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Courts 1981, the issue of custody was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 dependent not upon the payment of lobola }
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (sic)
\alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 best interests of the
children, irrespective of which law or principle is applied. hi }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 therefore, that in this dispute
over the custody of children, the paramount cons being the welfare of the children
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a
determination whether the parties }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 matrimony under customary law or any other law would
not affect the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(emphasis added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The factors that would be taken into account in determining a custody dispute i
parties are generally governed by customary law would be the same as thosei }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in connection with general law
above. The fact that the question of custody of a* }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 child depends on the particular facts and
circumstances of each case, always I mind that the best interests of the child are
the paramount consideration, overemphasized. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.11 Access Under both Roman-Dutch common
law\uc1 \u8221 ? and customary la a non-custodian }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 entitled to reasonable access to his or
her child. Where a custody order is silent question of access. the non-custodian }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 na ron tic
riah to anint, rnacnnahln }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 in it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is
implied? If }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
a non-custnclian }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 narant elanjai en hie nr child hp }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 apply to the court to have his
or herrigcts;iaccessdcfinedOleng has the power to deprive a custodian parent of
his or her rights where he or shed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 we non-custocuan parent his or her rights
access.\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? However, such measures }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 only wnen It is in the
interests of the child to do so. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 85 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mutasa Mutasa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-40-85 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gennani v ler! and
Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
SA 887 (AD). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 86 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Goldin and Celfand, p.187. 87 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mutasa v Mutasa (supra). }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 88 See section
5 of the Guardianship of Minors Act and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mutasa v Manisa (supra). 89 Ibid. }
CUARDIANSInr, CUSTODY AND }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 int!. to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 de4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 frequency }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of access is a matter to be
determined by due consideration of the facts of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 each case, always }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 having regard to the best
interests of the child. As Squires J succinctly put it in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bottger v Bottgerg\uc1 \u176 ?
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Thc object of access is to nurture the
affection and companionship between non-custodian parent and child, and while on
the one hand it should not be of such frequency as to trespass on thecontrol and
direction of thechild\uc1 \u8217 ?sdaily life that is vested in the custod ian
parent, on the other it should not be so confined as to stultify thecontinuing
link bet warn child and noncustodian parent.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The same point is made by de
Villiers A) in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Marais v Manus\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Within thesebroad limitsaccessarra
ngementsaremattersof degree, due regard being paid to each corner of the triangle.
The interests of the child would naturally be paramount, where their dictates are
clear; but the human needs and feelings of either parent are not to be overridden
unnecessarily, particularly where, as so often happens, thecapacity of custodian
or non-custodian lis fortuitous].\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The views of the children
are usually taken into account but the weight attached to them depends on the
facts of each case. Generally our courts are reluctant to deny a parent access to
his or her children on the basis that the children themselves refuse to submit to
this access.\uc1 \u8221 ? Thus the fact that a child refuses to submit to access is
not, on its own, sufficient reason to deny a parent access. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.11.1 Variation of custody and
access }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
The general principle is that a custody or access order can be varied at any time
if it is shown that such variation is in the interests of the child concerned.\uc1
\u8221 ? The test for the variation of a custody order is laid down most clearly
in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Njovana v Chitambo\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where the court stated that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?the mere showing
that the of the children will improve if custody is changed to the other parent is
not enough unless it is further shown that the condition and circumstances of the
parent currently having custody have changed for the worse to the detriment of
proper development of the minor children. For if improvement in the welfare of the
children were to be the only consideration, in the words of Grossman AJ in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bason v
Kane: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?the ridiculous and quite undesirable
situation would arise that children would be shuttled back and forth between
parents\uc1 \u8217 ? depending on who at the particular moment is able to afford
better facilities ..... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 91 92 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 94 95 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-405-82, at p.7. 1 g60 (I) SA 844 (C) at 847 D-E.
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See
Bottger v Bottger (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Gennani v Herf and Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra). See section 4(8) and subsections
(I) and (3)(c) of section 5 of the Guardianship of Minors Act which permit
variations of custody and access orders respectively. HC-H-275-86. At p.6. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN \uc1 \u8217 ?
The Court further observed that whereas the paramount }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consideration }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and interests of the
children courts would be slow to disturb the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 status qt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was \uc1 \u8217 ?over-whelming evidence
that thechildren stand to gain some perinea transient or temporary
benefits.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The courts will vary or deny a access to his or her
child if it is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
shown }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 acts
is detrimental to the welfare and interests of the child. Generally, will not
lightly deny a parent access to his or her child.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7.111 Enforcement of custody
and access orders }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The court has the power, in cases in which an order of custody }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 been I of a parent or
person who is not in \uc1 \u8221 ?possession\uc1 \u8221 ? of the child, to direct a
enforce the order by physically removing the child from the custody of such
custody and handing over the child to the person who has been gray the
court.\uc1 \u8221 ? Any person who hinders or obstructs a police officer in the en]
order of custody shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not hundred
dollars or to imprisonment for a period not exceeding three mon common law wilful
failure to comply with a court order amounts to the c of contempt of court. }
\lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A custodian parent who, without
reasonable excuse, fails or refuses to custodian parent access to his or her minor
child as required by an acct guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not
exceeding two hundred dolla non-custodian parent who abuses his or her rights of
access shall be ha exceeding two hundred dollars.\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8221 ?
Further denial or abuse of access rigl court to vary a custody or access order in
whatever manner that may be interests of the child concemed.\uc1 \u8217 ?,\uc1
\u176 ?2 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
7.113 Removal of children from Zimbabwe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It sometimes happens that the custodian parent wishes
to leave ZimIN another country, taking with him or her the child or children under
his }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ibid. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See also }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jansen v }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jansen HC-H-48-
86; and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
B v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 K 1983 (1)
ZLR 212 at the test for variation of a custody order is also laid down. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Putter v Rutter }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-185-84. 98 Section
6(1) and (2) of the Guardianship of Minors Act. In this regard a authority to use
any reasonable force to secure the custody of the child. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 99 Section 6(3) of the
Guardianship of Minors Act. 100 Section 5(3)(a) of the Guardianship of Minors Act.
101 Section 5(3)(b) of the Guardianship of Minors Act. 102 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for example, section S(3)(c). }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 GUARD. ANSI nr, CUSTODY AND
ACM% }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
stodian parent objects to the removal of the child or children from Zimbabwe
[whether the custodian parent may take the child or children out of Zimbabwe
luently out of the jurisdiction of the court is decided by the High Court.\uc1
\u8217 ?\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lining factor in such cases is the welfare of the
child or children concerned. The parent who seeks to remove the child or children
from Zimbabwe must show mova is in the child or children\uc1 \u8217 ?s best
interests.10\uc1 \u8217 ? In this respect the Supreme in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dolby v Lewis }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) that the removal of
a child to South Africa would not rterests of that child considering the social
and political philosophy predomit country which has an \uc1 \u8221 ?atmosphere
charged with racial hatred and political }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t papers on custody of children contain a
clause to the effect that the child cannot rom the jurisdiction of the court
without the consent of the non-custodian parent, irs often contain a similar
clause. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
vis(supra)at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.2
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 16;i/olden
v I Wien }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
38-88 at p.2 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 I fyggins }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fuggins }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Part Thtt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MarriagE, matrimonial property righti }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and divont }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Part Three }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage matrimonial property
rights }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
and divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Chapter 8 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Formation of marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8.1
Types of marriages in Zimbabwe There are two types of voamarriages that can be
contracted in Zimbabwe, namely a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 monogamous marriage under the Marriage A 371
(hereinafter called the Marriage Act) and a customary law potentially marriage
under the African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter 2331 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (hereirca-lier called the African
Marriages Act). There is yet a third type of \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage\uc1 \u8221 ?
which is not a valid marriage except for certain purposes provided for in the
African Marriages Act. This type of \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage\uc1 \u8221 ? is an
unregistered customary law marriage commonly referred to as a customary law union.
8.1.1 Monogamous marriage under the Marriage Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 All Zimbabweans are competent to contract
this type of marriage. A marriage under the Marriage Act is a general law marriage
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 and
consequences ari2_eovemed by t al law, that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Roman-Dutch common law and
statute law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
flees, if the marriage is between Africans, are governed by customary law by
virtue of . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
. A . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
frican }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
Marriages Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The formalities and requirements for the conclusion of this type of marriage are
discussed below, whereas its consequences in respect of children have, already
been dealt with in Part Two and its consequences in respect of the spouses
themselves and their property are dealt with in Chapters 9 and 10. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8.1.2 Customary marriage under
the African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Only Africans are competent to marry each other under
the African Marriages Act.\uc1 \u8217 ? Two non-Africans or an African and a non-
African cannot marry each other under the African Marriages Act. A marriage
contracted under the African Marriages Act is a customary law }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I See
defin it ion of \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage\uc1 \u8221 ? in section 2 which states that
marriage in this Act means a marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 between Africans. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FORMATION OF MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i,am compelling reasons to the
contrary, a marriage is potentially polygamous. inclusion of a customary marriage
are discussed below, whereas its consecen discussed in Part Two and its conseihe
spouses themselves and their property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 purmsesfortataing to the status and rights itomary law
marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
which meets all }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the w, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 vropt regbtratioq }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in terms of the iw }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 all the rDuirements required by
customn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 terms of
section 3 of the African Marriages be legally categorized as a customary law n
3(1) of the Act states that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 African law and custom ...... shall be regarded as a }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ems of this Act }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the Legislature went out of its
way to provide }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Erican law and custom which is not a valid marriage purposes of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Africaniaw and custom
relating to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
the children of such marriage, be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 eated as alyalidLustomatylanumathageioLthe iodyand }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 rights }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of succelsion of
children so that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 me rights as those enjoyed by children born in }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 purposes of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 customary }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law such children are
Ship ssion_to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\ul1 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
property eir-parents and their ts ve of l }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 led as a valid marriage for the purposes of ife in a
customary law union is entitled to be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nd Primary Courts Act, 1982 (No. 21 of 1982). The s
discussed in Chapter 9. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 AMIJABWI: her husband as if their \uc1 \u8221 ?
marriage\uc1 \u8221 ? was fully valid.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ipurposes except those sta abov5 a
customary law union }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cannot recover adultery damagei from his wife\uc1
\u8217 ?s seducer\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 garded as married to her,\uc1 \u8217 ? likewise; he
cannot divorce her beta }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t married to each other? the \uc1 \u8221 ?wife\uc1
\u8217 ?s\uc1 \u8221 ? father cannot sue the hui }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the agreed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobate.\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ly stated above, a customary
law union is that \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage\uc1 \u8221 ? in which i hplied with all
the requirements of a marriage recognized by cyst( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 failure to comply with the statutory
requirement of registering the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section 3 of the African Marriages Act. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ?.-requisites for the creation
of a customary law union befom the Legal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ty Act came into force were that: the
intending spouses must agree or consent to marry each other; the guardian of the
woman must consent to the marriage; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the intending husband and the guardian of the woman
must reach an ai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to be paid by the intending husband; ) there must be a
formal handing over of the woman by her guardian.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 See for example. SC158(87.
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jefita v lames }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1961 (1937-62) SRN 29; 1%1 NAC 966 in
which the \uc1 \u8221 ?husband\uc1 \u8221 ? in act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law union failed to recover adultery
damages against a man who had had sexual inter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 with his \uc1 \u8221 ?wife\uc1 \u8221 ? on
the basis that he was in law not married to her. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Joseph Tinga v }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Shekede }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1970 A AC 30 where it was
similarly held that the husband in an unregistered cu; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 union has no action for
adultery damages against the seducer of his wife because hell }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 regarded as being married to
her. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Joseph Tinga v Joshua Shekede (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Choto Matiye }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1974 RLR 302 in which the court held that all the
incidents of a customary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 union except those provided for by statute
arc a legal nullity and unenforceable. Conseq }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an agmement to pay }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 room }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in a customary law union is a nullity and
unenforceable. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
For all these requirements see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimunu v Chalcawarika (supra); Abigail Kurangwa v
Elijah Char }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1966 AAC 29 in which it was held that all these
elements must have concurred at one point I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 there to be a customary law union; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 John
Paradzayi a Nyiwo Dzirutwe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1964 A AC 73 where it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 held that an agreement to pay }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roora }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 need not be
express; an implied or tacit agreement understanding to pay what-ver amount should
be agreed upon in future or fixed by the cot. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 subsequent to the marriage would suffice
to satisfy the clement of agreement on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Choktmtarara }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1945 RLR 88 and }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dumase and
Saulosi Chekani v Adamu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1958 NAC 594, in which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was held
that if the circumstances show that the parties intended that a customary ma\uc1
should subsist and had acquiesced in the situation, the formal handing over of the
woman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
be deemed to have been dispensed with if it had not been performed particularly wl
parties had lived together as spouses for 7 years. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?vita }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cus ;intol }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 inga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 custo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ause he hi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 their union. The facts also
disclosed that there had not at any tin4e been an nt or a promise to pay }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 room }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The appellant
\uc1 \u8221 ?husband\uc1 \u8221 ? contended that since he it paid nor agreed to
pay }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 room }
his relationship with the respondent \uc1 \u8221 ?wife\uc1 \u8221 ? was not *may
law union but merely a concubinage relationship and accordingly he was not /Aged
to pay maintenance for the \uc1 \u8221 ? wi fe\uc1 \u8221 ? since she was not his
wife in terms of customary as required by section 12(4)(a) of the Customary Law
and Primary Courts Act. If the pstomary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989 (5th
draft) which at the time of writing is still /nder discussion is enacted into into
law as it stands, the said section 12(4ga) of the Pn.sent Primary Courts Act will
be moved to the Maintenance Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 35) and ,become section 6(3)(a) therein. This will be
achieved by paragraph 4 of Part Ill of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /Schedule to the Bill. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Without clearly addressing the pointsof
law raised by the husband, M r Justice Manyarara kid that the relationship was a
customary law union and that the husband was accordingly liable to maintain his
wife. With respect, unless the Supreme Court implied an agreement or understanding
to pay some lobolo (which it did not) the facts did not disclose a customary law
union since it was clear that the appellant husband had not at any time paid, or
agreed or promised to pay }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roora. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Since the Legal Age of Majority Act came into force, a
major woman who wishes to marry is no longer restricted by the customary law
requirement of consent of her guardian since }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in law she has no guardian. Similarly,
since a major woman can lawfully marry without her former guardian\uc1 \u8217 ?s
consent, an agreement as to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roora }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is no longer a requirement for the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 conclusion of a marriage under
customary la w.10 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ustornal Conscq }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 able }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lijahC
}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t one }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The fact that both the consent of the woman\uc1
\u8217 ?s father and an agreement as to roora arc no burr essential elements of a
customary law marriage if the woman is a major raises new }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 questions concerning the
requirements of a customary law union. The issue is rendered more complex by the
fact that the fourth and last element of a customary law marriage, the consent of
the intending spouses, has not been affected by the Legal Age of Majority }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act. Does this mean that the
association of a man and a woman who are both governed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by customary law, who agree to
marry each other and live together as man and wife }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 would have the status of a customary law
union? Taking a purely legalistic approach the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 answer would appear to be affirmative
since the three other elements of a customary law union have impliedly been
rendered unessential by the Legal Age of Majority Act, and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3 wher-4ft would logically
follow that the only remaining essential, that is the consent of the parties }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 themselves, would suffice to
constitute a customary law union. However, public policy }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by the4would seem to be
against recognising such associations as customary law unions with the }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mat tney woula regaracia as Lei WM
purpustm, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
ch unions are not customary; for they are tnchstingutsliable from concubinage
associa._ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
manwons. na wver }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Tat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See Katekwe v Muchabaiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 87/84 pp.1S-16 and pp.19-20. Sec also
Ncube, \uc1 \u8217 ?The Decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe v Muchabaiwa: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A Critique\uc1 \u8221 ?, ZL Rev. Vol. 1
and 2, 1983-1984, at pp.226-227. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN 7IMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 position, in the absence of
an authoritative ruling from the Supreme Court. is unclear. Legislative
interventibri is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 necessary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to clarify the law on this aspect. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8.2 Formation of marriage }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A marriage can be defined as
a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sui
generis }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contract
by which two persons }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the opposite }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sex, who are not only competent to marry
generally but are also competent }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to marry }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 each other, consent to marry each other in terms of a
ceremony prescribed by law before a marriage officer, thereby conferring upon
themselves a legal status of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a public character }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and creating between themselves a legal
relationship by virtue of which they are obliged to remain so married to each
other and to observe conjugal fidelity towards each other exclusively, until their
marital relationship is dissolved either by the death of one or both of them or by
an order of a court of competent jurisdiction. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This definition indicates three essential
requirements for the creation of a valid marriage. These are: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i) the competency of the
parties to marry in a general sense and to marry each other in particular; }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ii) the formalities of the
marriage; iii) the consent of the parties to marry each other.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 These essential requirements
are discussed below. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8.3 Competency to many }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 As indicated in the above definition of marriage, the
parties to a marriage must be competent not only to marry but also to marry each
other, those being unable to marry anyone at all being described as absolutely
incompetent to marry and those being unable to marry each other being described as
relatively incompetent to marry. . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Any person below the minimum legal age of marriage,
which is 18 years (or boys and 16 years for girls\uc1 \u8221 ?, suffers from
absolute incompetency to marry and, accordingly, cannot contract a valid marriage
except with the written consent of the Minister of Justice, Legal and
Parliamentary Affairs (hereinafter called the Minister) which the Minister may
grant in any particular case in which he considers the marriage desirable.\uc1
11 See also section 3 of the African Marriages Act. 12 These ages are fixed by
section 23(1) of the Marriage Act. Under the common la w.t he ages were }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 14 years for boys and 12 years
for girls. 13 Section 23(1) of Marriage Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cr MARRIACI- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 below the minimum age of
marriage without the void }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tab untie. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, such a marriage can be Allister subsequently
giving his written consent if he In these circumstances, the Minister can give his
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 post }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has been
solemnized in accordance with all other }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ging of girls under the age of 12 years is prohibited
by ges Ad, there appears to be no fixed minimum age of Accordingly, it would
appear that any minor above the id marriage in terms of the African Marriages Act
as long lardian consent to that marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 persons also suffer from }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 absolute incompetency }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to marry. y a person who
was insane or mentally disordered to such unable
to understand the nature of the contract he was Indeed, even if the person
understands and appreciates the carriage ceremony and understands its
consequences, the be void }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab initio }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 if such person\uc1 \u8217 ?s consent was motivated or
=ion-caused by mental disease.\uc1 \u8217 ?s This is the position under mary law,
since in either case insanity operates to negate the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Validly married under a monogamous
system such as exists annot validly contract a second marriage. Consequently, a,
acted under the Marriage Act is null and void!\uc1 \u8217 ? A bigamous null and
void at the instance of either party, regardless of Light by the person who
knowingly contracted the bigamous }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 woman who is already married is absolutely incompetent
to I man is not since customary law marriages are potentially who is married
under the African Marriages Act can contract iges under the same Act as long as he
disclosey . It has been held that a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 failure by theman_to disclose that }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage Act. 332. Sec also
Olivier, pp2M-2111 and Hahlo pp.65-66. 08 and Hahlo pp.64-65. SA 485 (W) and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Morrison v
Morrison 1972 (3) SA 185. These two }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cases }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ngobeni v Gibitravo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1946(2) PH 1358(W) where it had been held
that contracted a bigamous marriage could not obtain a decree of nullity :came to
court with clean hands. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Locke v Locke }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1951 (1) SA 132 (W) t open. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 - vi_c\uc1 \u176 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t5-( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW [N AMBAHWE }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 alread }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 has another wife the }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 manage }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 he is
contracting }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 \par }\pard
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 A person of
either sex who }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
is already married under the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 African }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriaees }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 validly contract another marriage under the Marriage
another personi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 his or her spouse. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Similarly, a person married under the
cannot: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
second marriage under the African Marriages Act. However, two persons mai }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 other in terms of }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 customary law under
the African Marringys Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 can, if they }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 convert or ster it convethrtg it into a
monogamau,s__gasepal4aw marriage. The reverse procedur }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 peayrissiW. Hence parties
married under the Marriage Act cannot convert or do; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or upgrade (whatever the case may be)
their marriage into a customary law mai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 registering it under the African Marriages Act. }
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage being a union
between a man and a woman, it follows that two persons }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 same sex cannot contract a
valid marriagei\uc1 \u176 ? A purported marriage between two }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the same sex is accordingly
void }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lib
initio. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The South
African courts have ruled }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 person\uc1 \u8217 ?s sex is determined once and for all
time at the time of his or her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 accordingly a sex change operation however successful
it maybe in medical terms\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 legally change a person\uc1 \u8217 ?s biological sex
which remains as determined at birth.\uc1 \u8217 ? Zil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wean courts arc likely to
follow the approach adopted by the South African courts fc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 simple reason that a sex change
operation does not change a person\uc1 \u8217 ?s biologic }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 determined sex. It merely
supplies the transexual person with artificial attributes of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sex opposite to
her or his sex as determined at birth. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Persons who are related within the prohibited degnvs of
marriage cannot validly I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 each other and any marriage between such persons is
void }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 al)
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Prohibited
dcgr }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
of relationship for general law or monogamous marriages are regulated by the
come }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
law as modified, so far as relations in the collateral line arc concerned, by
section 25 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Marriage Act. Persons can be related to each other within the prohibited degrees }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage either by blood
otherwise known as consanguinity or by marriage otherwise known as affinity. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Roman-Dutch common law rule
is that ascendants and descendants in the direct line }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ad infinitum, that is, }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 father and daughter, mother
and son, mother and grandson, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 grandfather and granddaughter and so on, are prohibited
from intermarrying, without }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
regard to whether the relationship arises out of legitimate or illegitimate
descent?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Blood relations in the collateral line are prohibited
from intermarrying if either Of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is related to a common ancestor in the first degree of
descent. Accordingly, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 mar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nyandoro v Mbungiwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 38/87. 19 See Olivier p.208 and
Hahlo, p.66. 20 W v W 1970 (2) SA 308 (W). See also Hahlo, p.66, footnote }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 18. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 21 See generally Hahlo,
p.69 and Olivier, p.209-210. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IORMATION OF MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0 as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?C }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 prohibited between a brother and a sister,
a half-brother and a half-sister, uncle and niece, grand-uncle and grand-niece.
Cousins may intermarry because they are more than one degree removed from a
common ancestor.22 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under customary law ascendants and descendants in the
direct line are also prohibited from marrying each other. In fact, the general
rule under customary law is that an 1 incestuous relationship cannot be turned
into a marriage so that close blood relations whether in the direct line or
collaterals are prohibited from marrying each other. Thus, I cousins cannot
lawfully marry each other as they are close blood relations\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e Blood relations who are
related remotely are permitted to marry each other after they undergo a }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 kucheka
ukama }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
ceremony which is a public ceremony that severs the relationship between the
related parties?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In accordance with the Roman-Dutch common law a man
or woman cannot marry any of the ascendants and descendants in the direct line ad }
infinitum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
his or her former 1 spouse. Thus a man cannot marry his former wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s
grandmother, mother, daughter, granddaughter and so on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ad infinitum. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Similarly, a woman cannot
many her former husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s grandfather, father, son, grandson and so on
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ad
infinitum.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Insofar as collateral relations created by affinity are
concerned, a man can marry any of his former wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s collateral
relations. Likewise, a woman can marry any of her former husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s
collateral relations. Thus, a woman can marry her former husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s
brother orany male related to her through her former husband in a more remote
degree of affinity than his brother, for example, a brother\uc1 \u8217 ?s son or
an uncle. These possibilities result from the operation of section 25 of the
Marriage Act which abolished the common law position }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which provided that a man could not marry
those blood relations of his former wife whom she herself would have been
prohibited from marrying had she been a man, nor could a woman marry those blood
relations of her former husband whom he would have been prohibited from marrying
had he been a woman?` }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In short, section 25 of the Marriage Act has modified
the Roman-Dutch common law position in respect of prohibition of marriage between
persons related to each other by affinity only in respect of collaterals and,
accordingly, the common law prohibitions continue to apply to persons related to
each other by affinity in the ascending and descending order }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ad infinitum. }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C .. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 22 Fiahlo,aLnd Olivier, p.210. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 din and CcRand, p.192. }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sitio& }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1929 SRN 9. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and Olivier, p.212. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law position see Hahlo, p.69
and Olivier, pp.211-212. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4 z z }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
FAMILY LAW LN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 141 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It should be noted that there is no prohibition of
marriage between the relations of one spouse and the relations of the other. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The customary law position in
respect of persons related to each other by affinity is not as clear as that under
general law. Generally, a man or woman cannot marry any of the descendants or
ascendants of his or her spouse or former spouse. Thus, relations by marriage in
the ascending or descending line }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ad }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 infinitum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 are also prohibited from marrying each other under
customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
There is no prohibition of marriage between collateral relations created by
marriage. Thus, a man can marry his wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s sister or wife\uc1 \u8217 ?
s cousin. Similarly, a woman can marry her former husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s
brother. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Section 72(a) of the Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Protection and Adoption Act }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter 331 }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provides that
the adoption of a person shall not prohibit or permit the marriage of such an
adopted person to another person if that marriage would not have been prohibited
or permitted had the adoption not taken place. This provision is subject to the
proviso that no marriage shall be contracted between an adopted child who is under
the age of 18 years and his or her adopter. This simply means that an adoptive
parent can marry his or her adopted child after that child has attained the age of
majority. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Most legal systems in the world prohibit a marriage between an adoptive parent and
an adopted child? It is suggested that our law has lagged behind other modern
jurisdictions in this respect and should be amended to prohibit marriage between
an adoptive parent and that parent\uc1 \u8217 ?s adopted child. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8.4 Formalities prescribed
by law under the Marriage Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter 371 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In order to be valid a marriage must comply with the
formalities prescribed by law. A marriage may be solemnized only by a marriage
officer.\uc1 \u8221 ? For the purposes of the Marriage Act, every magistrate by
virtue of his office, is a marriage officer\uc1 \u8217 ?, while ministersof
religion can be designated marriage of fi cers by the Minister upon application by
the religious organisation to which the minister of religion belongs?* }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 27 See section 82 of t he
Children\uc1 \u8217 ?s Act No. 33 of 1%0 of South Africa and Spiro, 1961 SALJ 331
for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
references to a number of countries that have prohibited marriage bet weep an
adoptive parent and an adopted child. 28 Section 90). 29 Section 3. 30
Section 4(1).A person who has solemnized a marriage is presumed to be a marriage of
ficer until }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
the contrary is proven. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FORMATON OF MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sized by a person who is not a
marriageofficerat the time of the marriage However, if the Minister is satisfied
that the purported marriage officer }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bona fide }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 belief that he or she was a marriage officer, he or she
may direct :he person shall be deemed to have been a marriage officer during the
so that all marriages that person solemnized are valid.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at this stage that a marriage
which is void by mason of a failure to comply ed formalities would qualify as a
putative marriage if the parties }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bona fide }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 validity. The children of such a marriage can be
declared to be legitimate Kercising its common law powers. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iage officer can solemnize a
marriage the law requires that any one of the s be performed: ation of banns by
both parties; or :anon of a notice of intention to marry by both parties; or
cation of banns by one party and of a notice of intention to marry by the other; }
\ri0 \lisb0 \sa0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 urement of a marriage licence.\uc1
ibove formalities have been complied with the marriage officer may solemnize ige
at any time\uc1 \u8221 ? and at any place approved by him or her. The solemnization
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in the presence of the
marrying parties and at least two witnesses who must Marriage by proxy is
specifically prohibited by section 23(3) of the Marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !(1) of the African Marriages
Act provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 henever Africans desire their marriage to be solemnized
in terms of the Marriage Act h Africans shall appear before a community court
presiding officer for the purpose of aining a certificate stating that there is no
bar to such marriage by reason of lack of sent of the parents or guardian of the
woman .-\uc1 \u8221 ? (emphasis added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n 2 goes on to say that a marriage between Africans
which is solemnized in terms rriage Act without such a certificate shall be
invalid. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
6(1). Note that the marriage cannot be saved from nullity if the purported marriage
acted in bad faith and /or if the marriage was not in all other respects solemnized
in ance with the law - section 6(2). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10. Note that where the provisions relating to
publication of banns or notice of intention Ty or the issue of marriage licences
have not been strictly complied with by reason of an mission or oversight on the
part of any person responsible for such publication or such he marriage, if there
was no other lawful impediment thereto, shall be as valid as if such aion or issue
of licence had been strictly complied with - section 19.1f the error is due
iarties themselves the marriage shall be void. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FORMATION OF MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
FAMILY LAW IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Since the Legal Age of Majority Act came into force,
Africans have bet tinder the Marriage Act without producing the enabling
certificate r 12(1) of the African Marriages Act on the belief that the said sect(
repealed by implication by the Legal Age of Majority Act. This Act, by women
majors upon the attainment of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 age }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of 18 years, permits As marry without the
consent of their parents. It is submitted that this Intel by the State in respect
of \uc1 \u8221 ?enabling certificates\uc1 \u8221 ? is correct because the
requirement of an \uc1 \u8221 ?enabling certificate\uc1 \u8221 ? was to determine
that \uc1 \u8221 ?there is marriage by reason of lack of consent of the pa rents
or guard ian of the wort a major woman has no guardian and does not require the
consent of her pad guardian, it follows that the issue of an enabling certificate
becomes super can be no bar to her marriage by reason of her former guardian
withholdi as this consent is no longer a legal requirement?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Before concluding discussion of
the formalities of marriage required interesting to consider in brief the issue of
when exactly during the ceremon comes into being. Does the marriage become valid
and binding immediate parties ha ve agreed to take each other as husband and wife
but before the mar has declared them to be duly married, or does it become valid
only after th0 officer has declared the parties to be married? That this question
is not entirely is borne out by the facts of the Australian }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case of Quick v Quick }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sin this case
the begun to put the ring on the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s finger }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 after }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 both parties had agreed to
mar other, when she suddenly snatched it off, flung it to the floor, and said \uc1
\u8221 ?I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 will not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 you\uc1 \u8221 ? as she ran out of the
house. This happened before the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mar; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the couple \uc1 \u8221 ?man and wife\uc1 \u8221 ?. The
court, in a majority judgment, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 married since in accordance with the common law all }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 acceptance by the panics of each other before a
marriage 0(11 done when they answered \uc1 \u8221 ?2 will\uc1 \u8221 ? to the
question of whether tin }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or husband. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It would seem that the marriage tic is
created when }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
wedded husband, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
marriage officer\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 declaratioq }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 being merely confirmatory of
the married }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
statute }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 submitted that the decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Quick v Quick (s }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by our courts.37 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 33 34 35 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 26(1). Section 26(2).
For }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 view that doubts the
correctness }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
of this }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Customary Law and General Law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Zimbab }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and 2 1983-84, at pp.22-23. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A woman under, }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 certificate to marry under
the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage
Act\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Majority Act. 1953 VLR 224. For a contrary view see
Hahlo, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
p.79. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Icer prone. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parti }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FORMATION OF MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0
Since the LegalAgcol Majority Act cam have been allowed to mat }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under the Marriage Act without
certificate required by sect }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12(1) of the African Marriages Act on the the said
section 12(1) has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
repealed by implication by the Legal Age of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This Act, by making Afri }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 women majors upon the
attainment of the age 14 permits African women }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marry without the consent of their
parents. It }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
isniUed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that this
interpretation ta4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by the State in respect of \uc1 \u8221 ?enabling
because the reason for it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 requirement of an \uc1 \u8221 ?enabling certificate\uc1
\u8221 ? was that \uc1 \u8221 ?there is no bar to Ott marriage by reason of lade
of consent of the pareaftorguardian of the woman.\uc1 \u8221 ? Now }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a major woman has no guardian
and does }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rn }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the consent of
her parents or for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardian, it follows that the issue of an enabling
certificate becomes superfluous as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can be no bar to her marriage by reason other farmer
guardian withholding his con! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as this consent is no longer a legal Before concluding
discussion of the formalities of marriage required by law, it }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 interesting to consider in
brief the issue of when exactly during the ceremony a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 comes into being. Does the
marriage become valid and binding immediately after }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parties haveagreed to take each
other as husband and wife but before the marriage of ficer has declared them to be
duly married, does it become valid only after the marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 officer has declared the
parties to be married?That this question is not entirely academic is borne out by
the facts of the Australian case of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Quick v Quick }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 this case the man had begun to put the
ring the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s finger after both parties had agreed to marry each
other, when she suddenly snatched it off, flung it to the floor, and said \uc1
\u8221 ?1 will not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 marry }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 you\uc1 \u8221 ? as she ran out of the house. This
happened before the marriage officer pronounced }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the couple \uc1 \u8221 ?man and
wife\uc1 \u8217 ?. The cou rt, in a majority judgment, held that the pa r t lc, }
\plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar \lin0
\langfenp12297 married since in accordance with the common law all that was
required was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 acceptance by the parties of each other before a
marriage officer, which they }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 done when they answered \uc1 \u8221 ?I will\uc1
\u8221 ? to thequestion of whether they took each oil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or husband. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It would seem that the marriage
tic is created when a woman takes a man as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wedded husband, the marriage officers declaration that
the parties ire husbar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 submitted }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by our court }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 33 34 35 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 36 17 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 2t,! Section 26(2).
Foravicwthatdoubts }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Customary Law and General Law in Zimbabwe: Family }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and 2 1983-84, at pp.22-23. A
woman under 18 years of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 certificate to marry under the Marriage Act, her
Majority Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1953 VLR 224. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ontrary v it w 1, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
IORMATION OF MARRIACI: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5 Formalities under the African Marriages Act }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter
238] }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\par }\pard \plain \li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 al }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 , customary law marriage under the African Marriages
Act can only be solemnized by cemmuni ty court presiding officer. The officer of
the district in which the woman or her guardian resides\uc1 \u8221 ? is the
designated marriage officer for the purposes of the Act.\uc1 \u8221 ? In addition
to the marrying couple the presence of two witnesses who are majors is
required.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The African Marriages Act does not require the parties
to a customary marriage to publish a notice of intention to marry or to obtain a
marriage licence. However, internal regulations issued to African marriage
officers by the Ministry of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs require the
parties to publish a notice of intention to marry. This notice must be displayed
in respect of both parties for a period of 4 weeks before the marriage takes
place. Failing this, the parties may obtain a special licence which, according to
the regulations, can only be issued in exceptional circumstances.\uc1 \u176 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 These regulations have not been
promulgated as a statutory instrument and therefore do not have the effect of law.
Parties intending to marry must, however, comply with the regulations although, of
course, the regulations are void where they conflict with the provisions of the
African Marriages Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 3 of the African Marriages Act provides that an
African marriage officer may not solemnize a marriage unless he is satisfied that:
a) the intending spouses consent to marry each other; b) the guardian of the
woman consents to the marriage; and c) the guardian of the woman and the intending
husband have agreed on the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 payable for the woman. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 L4rThe last two requirements were designed
to operate under a marriage system that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sand inner] the ?merriment
miner-4u of women and Cannot nnera le in a system that does not }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 __.._.._..__ r._.\uc1
\u8217 ?._..._... _.......}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .,....,..._.. ___.._. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 4(1 ). Note, however, that the
internal regulations issued by the MinistryofJ ust ice, Legal and Parliamentary
Affairs allow an African marriage officer to solemnize a customary law marriage in
a district agreed upon by the parties. Clearly this regulation is contrary to the
provisions of the Act and if followed the marriage so solemnized may be invalid.
SeLtion 2. It must be noted that if the Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989
is enacted into law, a magistrate shall become a n African marriage officer so
that customary law marriages will then be solemnized by magistrates. This will be
achieved by amending the definition of \uc1 \u8217 ?African marriage
officer\uc1 \u8217 ? by repealing paragraph (a) thereof and the substitution of }
\u8221 ?(a) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
a magistrate; or\uc1 \u8221 ?. Section 4(2). See generally Galen (supra), pp.25-
26. The regulations also require that minors must produce written parental consent
signed by both parents or the surviving spouse. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 EAMILY LAW IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sanction the perpetual minority of women.
Consequently, in the light of the Legal Age of Majority Act which confers majority
status on all women who are 18 years old or older, the two requirements havebeen
repealed by implication. Africanscan now marry under the Act without the consent
of the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s former guardian and without an agreement on if the
woman is over 18 years }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8.6 Consent of the parties }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage
requires the voluntary consent of both parties. Without this consent the marriage
can be annu fled\uc1 \u8221 ?Consent is vitiated by insanity, duress and mistake
about the identity of the other party but not by mistake about his or her
qualities. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
If one of the parties is incapable of understanding the nature of the marriage
ceremony or is incapable of appreciating the obligations which he or she is
undertaking as a result of insanity, a mental disorder or the effect of alcohol or
drugs\uc1 \u8221 ?, consent is vitiated and the purported marriage is void.\uc1
\u8221 ? In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Lange }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lange
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the South
African Appellate Division went further and held that even though the defendant
understood the nature of the marriage ceremony, and appreciated the essence of the
obligations he was undertaking, the marriage was nonetheless void }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at, initio }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on the basis
that the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s volition in concluding the marriage was
influenced by auditory hallucinations caused by mental disease. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Metus }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or fear, which includes any
form of duress which might be brought to bear upon the consent of one or other of
the marrying couple, renders the marriage voidable at the instance of the coerced
spouse.* Fear or duress renders the marriage voidable and not }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ipso jurc }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 void as does
insanity. Thus such a marriage is valid and unassailable if it is not impugned by
the coerced spouse. As to the quality or quantity of fear or duress necessary to
negate consent, proof from the petitioner that he or she was reduced to a state of
mental incompetence, it not mattering that a person of stronger intellect or more
robust courage or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 person of ordinary courage and resolution would not ha ve yielded to
the fear, duress or intimidation\uc1 \u8221 ?, is sufficient to negate consent.
Whether the fear or duress results from coercion by the other spouse or a third
party is immaterial\uc1 \u8221 ? as long as the fear which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekwe v Aluchabaiwa
(supra); }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ncube
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.277 and
Galen }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.25.
43 Hahlo, p.81. 44 Note that the courts will not readily annul a marriage on the
ground of self-induced intoxica- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tions, especially where the marriage has been
consummated. 45 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Uys v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Uys 1953 (2) SA 1 (EDL) where it was held that even though the
defendant was able to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 understand that he was entering into a marriage, he did
not appreciate the obligations which\uc1 \u8217 ? he was undertaking and therefore
the marriage was null and void. 46 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Smith v Smith }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1948 (4) SA 61 (W). See generally Hahlo,
p.82. 47 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Scott v Sebright }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LR 12 PD 21 at p.24. 48 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Parojcic v Parojcic }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119591 1 All ER 1 and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Buckland }
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Buckland }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1196712 All ER 300. }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IVRMM1ON a= ARRIAGI }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 induced the marriage was
imposed in order to force its recipient into entering the marriage. In this
connection, it is submitted that a general fear not connected with the marriage
would not vitiate consent since, in order to negate consent, the fear induced must
relate to consequences expected to flow directly from a failure to go through with
the ceremony.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 As a general rule a marriage cannot be annulled on the
groUnds of fraud, misrepresentation or mistake except where a party is misled or
mistaken as to the very nature. f the transaction or the identity of the other
party. Thus, if one of the parties goes through a ceremony of marriage under the
belief that he or she is concluding some form of contract, or is only registering
an engagement or an intention to marry in the future, he or she can have such
marriage annulled.wHoweVer, where the parties both know that the ceremony they are
performing creates the status of marriage but one or both of them are mistaken
about its definitive effects, then such a mistake will be irrelevant and has no
effect on the validity of the manlage.51 Similarly, if one party goes through a
ceremony of marriage believing that he or she is getting married to A and it tuns
out that he or she in fact married B because he or she mistook B for A, that party
may have the marriage annulledm on the basis that the parties were never }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ad idem }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 about each
other\uc1 \u8217 ?s identity. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 On the other hand a mistake as to the qualities of the
other party, even where the mistake was induced by fraud, does not render a
marriage subject to annulment. Thus, a mistake made by a husband that the girl
whom he believed to be a respectable spinster in fact turned out to be a much
divorced woman would only be a mistake as to the qualities of the woman and would
not be a basis for the annulment of the marriage. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Stander v Stander }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it was held that the fact that
the wife, at the time of the marriage and unknown to her husband, hada living
child born as a result of illicit sexual intercourse with another man, did not
entitle the husband to have the marriage annulled. Similarly, a mistake,
even when induced by fraud, about the religion of the other party is not
sufficient for annulment of a marriage.5\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 49 For support of this approach
see Hahlo (1954)71 SALJ and J Mcl Young 27(1954) Australia n }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Law Journal 614. For a contrary
approach see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1953 (3) WLR 849 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Szechter v Szechter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1197013 All ER 905. See also C Davies,
\uc1 \u8221 ?Duress and Nullity of Marriage\uc1 \u8221 ?, 88 (1972) LQRS 49 for a
fairly detailed discussion of duress as it affects the validity of marriage. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 50 See Ruberts }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Rubens and Anar }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1909 (26) SC
617; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Benjamin v Salkinder and Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1908 (25)SC 512; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kartatopsky v Kanatopsky }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1935 EDL 308; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Hall v
lall }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 24 TLR 756
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mehta v
Mehta 1194512 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
All ER 690. See also Olivier pp.203-204. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kassim v Kassim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119621 3) All ER 426. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 52 Seethe cases of }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Allardyce v
Mitchell }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(1869)6 WEB 45 and Cv C1942 NZLR 356 which had similar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
facts but were decided differently. See also P A Hunt, \uc1 \u8221 ?Error in the
Contract of Marriage\uc1 \u8221 ?, (1963) 80 SALJ 231-248. 53 1929 AD 349.
Leighton v Roos NO and Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1955 (4) SA 134 (N). See generally Hahlo, p.83 }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN
However, there are two common law exceptions and one statutory exeeptioo principle
that a mistake as to the quali ties of the other spouse is no basis for thean }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an 8.6.1 Common law exceptions }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A husband can have his marriage set aside if his wife,
at the time of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unKnown to mm, was pregnant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 oy }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 111411. Ile ur }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 annulment is f that the
woman would have attempted to foist off another man\uc1 \u8217 ?schiId on an }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 husband For the husband to
succeed in having such a marriage annulled, it ist }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to show that the pregnancy was a result of
antcnuptial stuprum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 which is illicit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297
\langfenp12297 intercourse and that he was unaware of the pregnancy at the time of
the mar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
A marriaec can also be annulled on the eround that one parts, to the maniacci }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 suffering from permanent
impotence at the time of the marriage. The test for permare }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 impotence is practical
impossibility of consummation of the Marriage? It isimpgal that the impotence
existed at the time of marriage and that it be permanent, that is tog }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 incurable. If the impotence
afflicted the defendant after the marriage and/or is curabletti }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriaee would nOt be annulled.
It shntild he nnted that imnotence renders the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 voidable and not void. and ha t thr local
hacic fnr the vniti tv is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 error in substantia, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is mistake as to some escontial
a ttriho 58 wife. lennw of the imnotence. she cam\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 __ __-__
____.. .....}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \uc1 \u65533 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .. .... \uc1 \u8221 ?-r }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nave we marnage set aside since
she would not have laboured under any error me }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 atultb t le rnarnage.
I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
South African courts have delivered conflicting decisions as to whether sterility
comnanied by incanaritv mon t of a marrint }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or not. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Venter v Venter\uc1 \u8221 ? it }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was held that it
was not, except possibly ad }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where it h fraudulently concealed In }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7MM }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hold that }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sterility was a ground for the
annulment of a marriage even where it had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 frandillontlyrnnrnalrwi 61 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It may be noted at thic stain,
that ern }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
u3ai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NluII
I1IUIIIa\uc1 \u8217 ?VJO }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the annulment of a marriage at the instance of the innocent
spouse.\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? The fact that the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
55 However, the fact that the wife may have been unaware of the pregnancy does not
in any }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
oar me nusoana rrom naving tne marriage annulled. 56 See generally Hahlo, pp.504-
505. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Smith v Smith }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1%1 (3) SA 359 (S12),. a decision which was reversed on appeal by the\uc1 \u8217 ?.
Supreme on the ground that the Zimbabwean court did not have jurisdiction in the
58 See generally Hahlo, pp.504-505. 59 1949 (4) SA 123 (W). 60 1959 (4) SA
658 (SW). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
61 Professor Hahlo (p.502) prefers the decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Venter\uc1 \u8217 ?s }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case. It is
submitted that the decision }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Venter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is more in keeping with the general principles of
marriage than the one in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NiekerA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?IS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IURMATION OF MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 effect on the }{\rtlch
\lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consummate the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parties had previously had
sexual intercourse before the marriage has no Anion for annulment as long as the
defendant has wilfully refused to con }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nuniagc af ter its solemnization .\uc1 \u176 ? 8.6.2
Statutory exceptions Section 13(1) of the Matrimonial Causes Act provides as
follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\uc1 \u8221 ?13.(1) In addition to any other ground on which a marriage is by law
voidable, a marriage shall be voidable on the ground\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (b) that either party to the marriage was
at the time of the marriage mentally disordered }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or defective within the meaning of the
Mental Health Act, 1976 (No. 23 of 1976): }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Provided that, in the case specified in
paragraph (b), an appropriate court shall not grant a decree of nullity unless it
is satisfied\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i) that the plaintiff was at the time of the marriage
ignorant of the facts alleged; and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ii) that the proceedings were instituted within a year
from the date of marriage; and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iii) that marital intercourse with the consent of the
plaintiff has not taken place since }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the discovery by the plaintiff of the existence of the
ground for a decree.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 These provisions are clear and need no further
explanation.\uc1 \u8221 ? Their operation is qualified, however, by section 13(2)
which provides that nothing contained in section 13 \uc1 \u8221 ?shall be
construed as validating any marriage which is by law void, but with respect to
which a decree of nullity has not been granted.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In practical terms, this means
that a spouse cannot sue fora decreeof nullity under section 13(1)(b) of the
Matrimonial Causes Act in circumstances where he or she discovered that his or her
partner was mentally disordered at the time of the marriage or before but
nevertheless proceeded to have sexual intercourse with his or her partner after
making this discovery. In such cases a decree of nullity can be obtained on the
common law ground that the marriage was null and void }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab ludic) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on the basis of the
insanity of the spouse as provided in subsection (2). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 62 Section 13(1 )(a ) of the
Matrimonial Causes Act, 19Ki (No. 33 of 1985). See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 C C }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1954 (2) SA }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 74 (SR). }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1956 (3) SA 698 (SR). }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be noted that the old
Matrimonial Causes Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 393, which was repealed and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by the current Matrimonial Causes Act,
1985 (No. 33 of 1985) in section 14(1)(c) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage shall be voidable on the ground
that the defendant was at the time }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I disease in a communicable form. The new Act abolished
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW IN ZIMBABWE
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage of minors }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 21(1) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the Marriage Ad prohibits
the solemnization of a minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s marriage without the written consent of
the minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s legal guardian or guardians.\uc1 \u8221 ? Where a legal
guardian refuses to give his or her consent, application can be made to a judge of
the High Court for his or her consent in lieu of the consent of the non-consenting
guardian.\uc1 \u8221 ? A judge\uc1 \u8217 ?s consent should be given in lieu of a
guardian\uc1 \u8217 ?s consent only when the court is satisfied that the proposed
marriage would be in the interests of the minor. Whether the guardian refuses his
or her consent reasonably or unreasonably is immaterial. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A marriage of a minor
contractei without the consent of that minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s legal guardian }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guardians or the
consent of a judge, is not void }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 initio. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Such a marriage is voidable only at the instance of
the minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s legal guardian or guardians. However, annulment at the
instance of the legal guardian or guardians is permissible only when the guardian
or guardians bring the application for annulment within a period siz weeks from
the date on which they first had notice of the marriage? This regulation\uc1
\u8217 ?isrsUbject to the provision that no application for annulment may be made
against the wishes of the minor if the minor has attained the age
of 18 years since the date of the marriage.\uc1 \u8221 ? If the minor\uc1 \u8217 ?
s guardian or guardians fail to apply for annulment, the minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s
marriage \uc1 \u8221 ?shall be valid in all respects as if it were a marriage
contracted between persons both of whom were of full age.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It will be recalled that boys
under the age of 18 years and girls under the age of 16 years are incapable of
contracting a valid ma rria ge save with the writ ten consent of the M in islet It
will also be recalled that the Minister may grant this consent only in cases in
which he or she considers the marriage desirable.\uc1 \u8221 ? Nevertheless, a
minor who is younger than the minimum age of marriage and who has been granted the
Minister\uc1 \u8217 ?s written permission to marry still requires the consent of
his or her legal guardian to contract a valid marriage?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 such cases the Minister\uc1
\u8217 ?s permission compensates for the deficit in the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 For purposes of consenting to a
minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s marriage the mother and father enjoy equal rights of
guardianship, unless one of them has been granted sole guardianship by an order of
court in terms of section 3 of the Guardianship of Minors Act !Chapter 341 - see
section 22(4) of the Marriage Act as read with section 2 of the Guardianship of
Minors Act. Section 2 of the Guardianship of Minors Act. Proviso (i) to section
21(1) of the Marriage Act.See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ex Parse L v L }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 GD Civ 17-71 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 D v D }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1946 EDL 140 at pp.141-142.
Section 22(1) of the Marriage Act. Proviso to section 22(1). Section 22(2) of the
Marriage Act. On a strict interpretation section 22(2) means that only legal
guardian or guardians of a minor can have the marriage set aside. The minor himself
herself cannot, except through his or her legal guardian or guardians have the
marri annulled. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 23(1) of the Marriage Act. to section 23(1) of
the Marriage Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
OF }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
the legal guardian\uc1 \u8217 ?s or guardians\uc1 \u8217 ? consent compensates for
the written authority of the Minister is not required incases in which a m iw the
minimum age of marriage has obtained the consent of a judge or her legal
guardian\uc1 \u8217 ?s or guardians\uc1 \u8217 ? permission!\uc1 \u8217 ? In these
Lars }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 th }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 deemed to
compensate for the minor\uc1 \u8217 ?s age deficit in addition to rrpl f the legal
guardian or guardians. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contracted by minors who are also below the minimum
age of mar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section
23(2) and (3) of the Marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 however, provide ;es may be retrospectively validated
by the Minister granting hi sion }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 post facto, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that is, after the marnage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had been solemnized. The elk }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 granted to the
Minister under these }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 subsections of section 23 of the Mar }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 render valid a marriage which
was preriaasiy }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
sold }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Void and voidable marriages }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ands for the annulment
ofmarriageaelbetintided }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 into two }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 categories, nan ch render a marriage null and those
which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
render a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mar
dable, in which case the parties }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wildly married until an order of a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 been granted. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage would be void }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab initio }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 any }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 followang
circumstances: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
where there has been a failure to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 prescribed formalities; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where persons of the same }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sex including
where there }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
has change operation; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in cases of bigamy where }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 one or bolt the parties were already
married person; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where one or both parties are
beim* the minimum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 age of marriage and th }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is contracted without the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Minister\uc1 \u8217 ?s \uc1
\u8217 ?Airmen approval: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 one party has consented t< }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the carnage either as a result
of a mista nature of the marriage crremom was the identity of the other party; }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where one or bo t h parties }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 disordered at the t i me o f th
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where the parties are related tr. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Idler }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 within the prohibited
degrees ;hip. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 oid marriage is a total nuliiti Ind ,7roduccs none of
the legal conse riage. Thus children born w tie larriesare illegitimate, the wife
does not band\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile, the parties at lot reciprocal duties of
support n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [bid }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN 71MI3ABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 succeed to each other\uc1
\u8217 ?s property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 intestato. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Sexual relations by a third party with, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 them does not constitute
adultery. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The effect of an order of nullity in respect of a void
marriage is merely declaratory constitutive. While the courts have no
discretionary powers to declare an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage valid, they nonetheless have the power to
declare the children of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage legitimate if one or both of the parties }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bona }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fide believed }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the validity
marriage at the time the children were conceived.\uc1 \u8221 ? The }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nullity }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of a void marriace }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 absolute, it may be relied upon
by any interested person, even after the death o( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 both parties. A marriage is voidable in
any of the following circumstances: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a) where one or both parties are minors and have
contracted the marriage with* }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consent of the legal guardians thereof or without the
consent of a judge; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 b) where one of the parties has been intimidated or
coerced into the marriagebyte }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 imposition of fear or duress; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 c) where one of the parties suffers from
permanent impotence; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d) where the woman was at the time of marriage, unknown
to her husband, pregnanlas a result of illicit sexual intercourse with another
man; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
e) where the marriage has not been consummated owing to the wilful refusal of
omit the parties; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 f) where either party was at the time of the marriage
mentally disordered within the meaning of the Mental Health Act, 1976 (No. 23 of
1976).74 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
A voidable marriage is valid for all purposes unless and until a decree of
annulment is obtained. Until the marriage is annulled children born of the
marriage are legitimate; sexual intercourse by a third party with one of the
spouses is adultery, the wife acquires the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile, the
parties succeed to each other\uc1 \u8217 ?s property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab intestato. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Voidability being relative and
not absolute, an action for nullity can be brought only by the aggrieved party or
person. if the person or persons who are entitled to have the marriage annulled
choose to abide by it, the marriage is ratified and becomes unassallableindeed,
failure to take action within a reasonable ti me after the di scovery the facts
which make the marriage voidable amounts to ratification.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 73 See generally Hartle,
74 This is by virtue of section of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1983 (No. 33 of
2! }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
a marriage
is also void under the common law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 75 The action for nullity can be brought only during
the lifetime of both }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 them dies prior to annulment the marriage becomes
unassaname. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 di }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 di }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 When an order of nullity is
granted in respect of a voidable marriage its effect is retrospective to the time
of the marriage ceremony, thus retroactively altering the status of the parties as
if they had not at any time been married to each other. Under the common law the
children of the marriage become retrospectively illegitimate from the timeof their
birth. However, this position has been changed by section 14 of the Matrimonial
Causes Act which provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?-Where a de,. of nullity is granted in respect of a
voidable marriage, any child who would have been the legitimate child of the
parties to the marriage if it had been dissolved instead of being annulled, at the
date of the decree, shall be deemed to be their legitimate child not withstanding
the annulment.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Accordingly, the annulment of a voidable marriage does
not affect the status of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 children remain legitimate in all otner respects,
nowever, tne annulment or a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 voidable marriage serves to efface the marriage as
though it had never extstecti\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;cncrally Hahlo, pp.490-493. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 9 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Personal consequences of
marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
The conclusion of a valid contract of marriage has certain consequences with
respect to the spouses\uc1 \u8217 ? status, personal duties and rights and
pmprietary rights. This chapter deals only with the personal consequences of
marriage. Proprietary consequences are discussed in Chapter 10. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Consortium omnis vitae }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The contract of marriage
creates a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
consortium omnis vitae }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 between the husband and the wife, which means that the spouses owe
each other \uc1 \u8221 ?companionship, love, affection, comfort, mutual services
and exclusive sexual intercourse.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Flowing from }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consortium omnis
vitae }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 are
the duties of fidelity, cohabitation and loyalty. The proper remedy in the event
of a breach of these conjugal duties is an action for divorce or judicial
separation. No damages may be claimed by one spouse from the other for
adultery\uc1 \u8217 ? or desertion, nor will the courts enforce the duty to live
together by an interdict restraining a wayward spouse from committing adultery or
deserting the other spouse? However, there is an action against a third party on
the ground of procuring, enticing or persuading a wife to leave her husband. This
action takes the form of an application for an interdict to restrain the third
party from interfering and enticing the applicant\uc1 \u8217 ?s spouse. To succeed
in such an action, the applicant must show that the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s
conduct was likely to cause or had caused his or her marriage partner to desert\uc1
\u8217 ? and that the defendant is enticing or has enticed his or her partner to
turn against him or her and to withdraw his or her love.5 The applicant must
further show that the defendant acted }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Best v Samuel Fox Co Ltd }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1951(2) KB 639. 2 }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ex parte
AB }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1910 TPD
1332 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Champion v Morkel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1971 (2) SA 121 (R). 3 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 INassenaar v Jameson }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1969 (2) SA 349 (W) and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Amra v
Amra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
SA 409 (13). 4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van den Berg v poste }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1960 (3) SA 71 (W). 5 See }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Grobbelaar v
lavenga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
SA 522 (N) and Wassenaar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Jameson (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 PIRSONAL }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intention
of persuading his or her (applicant\uc1 \u8217 ?s) spouse to leave him or her and
depriving the applicant of his or her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 consortium.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, this remedy will
he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 only in exceptional
circumstances\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 an action }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for adultery damages against a third party
who }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 sex u
a intercourse }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
willthisorlierspouse For thisactionjolie thc defensianimust. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 intended to commit }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adultery with
the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s Since an intention to at adultery is a pre-requisite
for the action no action will lie if the defendant did not that his or her
paramour was a married person. (See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Shongc v Shongc and Sifelani }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ) at pp.11-13.) The fact that
the innocent spouse forgives the guilty spouse and does ue for a divorce has no
effect on his or her rights to claim damages against the third y adulterer.\uc1
\ul1 thery damages are intended }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to compensate the innocent spouse for the injury or }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !umclia }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 inflicted upon
him or her by the defendant who has had sexual relations with or her spouse and
also for the loss of consortium the plaintiff may have suffered by son of the
withdrawal of the comfort, society, love, companionship and assistance his her
spouse was providing. Thus adultery damages are awarded under two heads: }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 itumclia }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and loss of
consortium.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the assessment of damages a variety of factors are
taken into account. The state of the larriageat the time the adultery was
committed is very important because it has a plaintiff suffers and the loss of
consortium he or she }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 iictains }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 areagvravated if the spouse who has gone astray was
a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 nd
caring husband or wifeprior to the adultery }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and has since grown cold, unloving and nx\uc1 \u8226 ?
aring Lesser damages are awarded if the marriage was already strained piior to the
ict of adultery being committed. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Johnson v foubcrt (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 plaintiff wife claimed Images for }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contumclia
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and loss
of consortium arising out of the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s adultery vial her
husband. The court held that in assessing the quantum of damages it was }
\i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wood }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iwiss }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1958 (3) SA 609(N). See also }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rosenbaum }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Margolis 1944
WLD 14 and van }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 den Berg v poste }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wassenaar Jameson }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra). }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See also
Hahlo, \uc1 \u8221 ?Interdicting Adultery, (1969) 86 SALJ 267. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Viviers v Kilian }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1927 AD 449
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Biccard v
Biccard and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Fryer (1982)9SC 473. See generally Hahlo, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 The South African Law of Husband and
Wife, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
pp.3E13-385. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
See Hahlo, pp.384-385;Smit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Arthur }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1976 (3) SA 378 where the court stated that: \uc1
\u8221 ?It is trite law that damages in this connection fall to be decided under
two heads viz (i) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 contumelia }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 viz the insult or injury inflicted }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 upon }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the plaintiff and (ii) the loss of
consortium namely intentional interference with the consortium ...\uc1 \u8221 ?; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sidubi v
Middlemiss }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
HC-B-130-87 at pp14-15 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Shorty v Shonge and SifelaniHC-H-414-86, }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.14. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Johnson Joubert }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1976 (1) PH B 2 (2). }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sidubi v Middlemiss (supra)
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.15 where
the court had regard to the fact that the plaintiff }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 husband \uc1 \u8221 ?enjoyed the blissful consortium of
his wife\uc1 \u8221 ? prior to the commencement of the adulterous relationship
between the defendant and the plaintiffs wife. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW N }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 necessary to examine the state
of the marriage at the time of the adultery. As it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 shown that the relauonshtp had broken down
even betore the act adul }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 committed, the plaintiff was entitled to less damages
for loss of consortium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 would otherwise have been awarded.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gross imprudence and insult to
the plaintiff would aggravate the injury and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 quenny attract greater czamFmr w }
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 V }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 awarded
substantial damages because the defendant had been \uc1 \u8221 ?plainly brat }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i ninon }
inwardc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
thr tit 1\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 he had shown \uc1 \u8221 ?a wanton and flaerant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \lang12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s feelings\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 &a:Wishing his
adulterous relationship\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 - }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Pc hn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Where the innocent spouse has condoned the adultery and
marital relations haN }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 resumed, damages maybe awarded for }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contumelia }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 but not for
lossolconsortium; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
much as damages for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contumelia }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 may be a warded but not for loss of consortium wl }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage was already brDken
down prior to the act of adultery.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The courts have also had regard to the lad
that \uc1 \u8221 ?society\uc1 \u8217 ?s attitude towards }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 changed and nowadays the modem
tendency is to look at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contumelia }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 less severs* hitherto has been the }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?1\uc1 \u8221 ?
9.2 The married status Upon
marriagetheoartiesexperienceachanecorstatuswhichaffectstheirleeal. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in la w. The wife assumes her
husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s rank and dignities.\uc1 \u8217 ? She assumes her hur }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 domicile and cannot acquire her
own domicile of choice in any circumstances }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 when the parties are not living
together.\uc1 \u8221 ? She may assume her husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s surnanwk1 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not obliged to do so.\uc1
\u8221 ? While th.\uc1 \u8226 ? marriage subsists neither party may validly }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12 See also Chapman }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Chapman }
(NC) and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Shonge v Shonge and Siphon }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.14-15. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 13 See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Val ken /3erger }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1948 (3) SA 532 (W) where it was considered an
aggravating A$ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the defendant had enticed the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s
husband away from the plaintiff and him, pretending to be his wife and }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nolan v Mwmo }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-B-22-88, at
Viviers }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kilian }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1927 AD 449 at
p.456 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Doyle v Salgo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1957 R&N 840. 15 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Johnson v loubert (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sidubi v Middlemiss (supra) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.15. Sec
Muller v Vink }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1972 (1) PH 3 Mx }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adultery has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 been }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 abolished in other jurisdictions is also a
relevant factor, set: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and Sifelani (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.15. 17 Voet 1.913.5 and 1-lahlo, p.106.
Bendel, Bendel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1914 CPD 899 and Olivier, p.225. 19 See Hahlo, p.100. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fri }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1132SaVAI. OF MARRIACX }
\af4 \dbch \af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
another marriage with another person. The marriage establishes ties of affinity
between each spouse and the relations of the other. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Attainment of majority }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thesolemnizationof a valid
marriage antlers maiority status on any party to the marriage who may have been a
minor prior to the marriage. if the marriage is dissolved by death or divorce
while the spouse or spouses are still below the age of majority, they remain }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and do not revert to minority
status.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.4 Reciprocal duty of maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under Roman-Dutch common law.
and under African customary lawn spouses have a reciprocal duty to support each
other during the subsistence of their marriage. This reciprocal duty of support
includes providing accommodation, clothing, food, medical expenses and other every
day necessities. The question of whether in any particular case the wife must
support the husband or the husband the wife naturallydepends on the facts of each
case including the personal circumstances of the spouses.23 Where both spouses }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 have the means, thny must both
make a pro contribution for their mutual maintenance and the upkeep of the common
household?\uc1 \u8217 ? The scale according to which support must be provided
takes into account the social status, financial means and standard of living of
the spouses.Th }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The common law or customary law reciprocal duty of support does not come to an end
upon the separation of the spouses or upon the break-up of the joint household. The
duty of support continues beyond separation of the spouses or the break-up of the
joint household so that a spouse who is in need of maintenance is entitled to
obtain a court order for his or her maintenance even after the spouses have
separated. The cause of the break-up of the marriage is relevant in an application
for post-separation maintenance?\uc1 \u8221 ? Under the common law an innocent
spouse is not obliged to maintain the spouse who was responsible for the break-up
of the marriage. The result is that under }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 common law a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 20 Voct 13.13 and Grotius 1.6.4. See also
Olivier, p.220. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 21 Voct 24.3.8 and Woodhead }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Woodhead 1955 }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (3) SA 138 (SR) at 139-140,
also reported at 1955 SR 70 see p.72. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 22 This customary law duty is now reinforced by
section 12(4)(a) of the Primary Courts Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Woodhead v Woodhead (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp.139-140 and p.72. See
Muchina v Muchina }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 HC-H63287 at p.9 and Hahlo, p.112. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Doyle v Doyle }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1957 (2) SA 577 (SR). See also
Olivier, p.226. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Oberholzer v Oberhoher }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1947 (3) SA 294 (0) at p.297and Hahlo, p.113. 26 Voct
242.19 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Alarakha v Alarakhis }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1975 RLR 247. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 deserting?\uc1 \u8217 ? or
adulterous\uc1 \u8221 ? spouse cannot claim for maintenance because the innocent
spouse\uc1 \u8217 ?s reply to such a claim would be that food and shel ter a re
available to the offending spouse in the matrimonial home.?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The common kiw position in
respect of adultery is tempered by section 10 of the Maintenance Act which
provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\uc1 \u8221 ?Wherea spouse is proved to havecommitted adultery
beforeoraftcrthemakingofanorder and such adultery has not been condoned the
maintenance court may, in its discretion, refuse to make an order for maintenance
in favour of such spouse..\uc1 \u8221 ? (emphasis added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This means that the court, if
it sees fit, may in the exercise of its discretion award maintenance to a spouse
who is proved to have committed adultery. In respect of other matrimonial wrongs
or other misconduct including adultery, section 7 of the Matrimonial Causes Act
gives a court the discretionary power to consider the conduct of the spouses
before making an order of maintenance which would effectively place the parties in
the position they would have occupied had the marriage not broken down.\uc1
\u8221 ? Thus conduct is relevant only if the court seeks to achieve the statutory
target of putting the partners in the same financial position as they enjoyed
prior to the breakdown of their marriage in so far as this is practicable,
possible and just, having regard to the conduct of the parties. In England, where
the wording of the statute is similar to ours, it has been held that conduct would
not be considered unless it is obvious and gross?\uc1 \u8217 ? The approach of the
South African courts has been ambivalent. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Swart vSwartu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the English approach was
rejected on the basis that the purport }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the English statute was different from section 7(2) of
the Divorce Act, 1979 of South Africa. Therefore, the court would have regard to
any conduct that was relevant to the breakdown of the marriage even if that
conduct was not obvious and gross. However, without reference to }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Swart v Swart, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Baker) in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Singh }
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Singh?? }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 approved Lord
Denning\uc1 \u8217 ?s approach in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wachtel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wachtel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra)that conduct would not be taken into account
unless it were obvious and gross. Baker J also cited as examples of gross
misconduct, adu I tery and desertion in spi to of his approval of Lord
Denning\uc1 \u8217 ?s view. In England the act of desertion or adultery }
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 per
se }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 would not
amount to conduct that is obvious and gross?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 27 Voct 24.2.18 and }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Behr v Minister
of Health }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(1) SA 629 (SR); 1460 R&N 715. See also Hahlo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.114. 28 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Peck v Peck }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1888)9 NLR 195; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cook v Cook }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1911 CPD 810 and }
Carstens v Carstens }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1985 (2) SA 351 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (SE). 29 See Hahlo, p.114 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Annual Survey of South
African Law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1983 at pp.97-98. 30 Note that the power of the court under section 7 applies at
divorce or in an action for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pendente lite. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See definition of \uc1 \u8221 ?
action for divorce\uc1 \u8221 ? in section 2(1) of the Act. See }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 also Mucking v
Mucking (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 31 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wachtel v Wachtel 1197311 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 All ER 829 (CA). 32 1980 (4) SA 364
(C). 33 1983 (1) SA 781(C). 34 For a fuller discussion of the relevance of
conduct in the re-allocation of property and in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 PERSONAL Of M AGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.4.1 Maintenance of spouses }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pendente
lite }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A needyspouse has a right to claim for maintenance }
peruientelife. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Hcor she would suet in his or her claim for maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 pendente life }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 only if the court is satisfied that: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i) he or she has a fair and
reasonable prospect of success in the main action for divorce or, if he or she is
the defendant in that action that he or she has a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bona fide }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 defence to the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s
action for divorce; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ii) he or she does not have sufficient means to
support himself or herself; iii) the defendant has the means to support him or
her\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Since the scale on which support must be rendered
depends upon the social position, financial means and standard of living of the
spouses, in an application for maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pendente lite }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the applicant is entitled to an
award of maintenance that would enable him or her to maintain a standard of living
reasonably comparable to the standard he or she enjoyed when the parties lived
together as husband and wife.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In determining an application for maintenance }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pctidenfe
lite }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
must have regard to theguidelines set down in section 7(3) of the Matrimonial
Causes Act.\uc1 \u8221 ? These guidelines which, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intera/la, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 include the i nco me, assets, financial
needs and obligations of the spouses, t he standard of living of the family,
theage of the spousesand their children, the duration of the marriage and the
direct or indirect contributions of the spouses to the family, are discussed in
detail in Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 in connection with the reallocation }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the property of the spouses.
Suffice to note that after considering these factors the court, having regard to
the conduct of the parties, should seek to put them in the financial position they
enjoyed during marriage, insofar as this is just and possible in the
circumstances. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
maintenance awards see W Ncube, \uc1 \u8217 ?The Matrimonial Property Rights of
Women during and after Marriage in Zimbabwe: A Study of Property Relations
Domestic Labour and Power Relations within the Family\uc1 \u8221 ?, M.Phil Thesis,
UZ, Harare, May 1987. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nyahasha v Nyahasha }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-358-85; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Charova Charova }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-52-86; }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van Zyl v van }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zyl HC- }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 H-485-87, at pp.1-2; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Johan v
Mohan }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
160-86 at p.5; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Muckinav Muchina (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.8-9 and Hahlo, p.426. See also the South African
case of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Carstens v Carstens }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1985 (2) SA 351 (SE) where Mullins J invoked public policy to
refuse maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 pendente lite }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to a wife who had formed an association with another
man, was living with him and had borne him an ad ulterine child. In Zimbabwe the
position would be governed by section 10 of the Maintenance Act. See }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ibid. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wood v Wood }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 141/86 at p.4 and p.6; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 BavraS5 v
Ban-ass }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1978 RLR
384 at p.386; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Paints Paints }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1980 ZLR 141 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.142-143; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muck* Muchina (supra)a at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.9; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cltarova v Charova }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC14-52-86; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nyahasha v Nyahasha (supra);
Chaniwa v Chaniwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 HC-H-31-85; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Strathearn v Strathearn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-325-84 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chirunda v Chirunda }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-I-1-298-85. See also
section 7(3) of the Matrimonial Causes Act. 37 See definition of \uc1 \u8221 ?
action for divorce\uc1 \u8221 ? in section 2(1) of the Matrimonial Causes Act,
which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
definition includes an application for maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pendente lite. }{\rtlch
\hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 f,!
ze,uM01.MistitIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.4.2 Arrear maintenance for spouses }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A spouse cannot recover
maintenance that is in arrears in the absence of an agreeta }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an ordereramrt.This situation i
s due to the operation of the common law maxim nom }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 quisquam in practeritum aut
alendus }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 est which
means that a person does not lives }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 have to be maintained in at-rear? However, the spouse
has had to incur debts to li }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has had to borrow in order to live, he or she may
recover }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
an appropriate contribution }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the defaulting spouse. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In Woodhead v Woodhead }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) Beadle J, as he
then was, explair }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
the legal position as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in the absence of any agreement or any
court order if (a spouse) has sucroxitil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintaining herself (or himself) without
incurring debts she (or he) has no claim to at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance from her husband.\uc1 \u8221 ?
19 However, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Muzondo p Muwndo4\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cibiter dictum }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mr Justice McNally express }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 reservations about the
suitability or applicability of the maxim in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 praeteritum non rira }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in modem day conditions. He
observed that the maxim: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If it is a principle, it seems to be a remarkably old-
fashioned and unenlightened one. Indeed, according to Gane, the expression was
taken by Voet from theCodeofJustinianand }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 relates originally to an-ear maintenance
due under a will. Spiro makes the interesting point, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at page 364 of the 3rd Ed. of his Law of
Parent and Child, that the import of this maxim has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 still to be ascertained. have adopted (the
maxim) without comment over the years, most recently St rydom
J in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Africa v Africa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1985(1) SA 792. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fortunately perhaps it is not necessary on this
occasion to look afresh at the rights of wives in relation to arrear maintenance
for themselves. The reason is that we are concerned with arrear maintenance for
children.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 These remarks indicate that the Supreme Court may, when
faced with a claim for arrear maintenance by a spouse, refuse to follow the
\uc1 \u8221 ?old-fashioned and unenlightened\uc1 \u8217 ? maxim.0 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.43 Maintenance of ex-spouses
The reciprocal duty of support that exists between spousesduring the subsistence of
their marriage is terminated by divorce under both common law and customary law.
Conse- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Woodhead v Woodhead (supra) at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.139-140. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Oberholzer v Oberhoher (supra) at }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.298 and Hahlo, p.115. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 39 At p.1391). See also
Africa v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Africa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(1) SA 792. 40 SC 98/85. 41 At pp.3-4. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 42 It is possible to argue that a maintenance court has
power to award a spouse maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is in arrears under section 6(6)c of the Maintenance
Act, notwithstanding the maxim. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an
law and custc\uc1 \u9632 ?mary law, divorce pu is an end }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on law and customary law
positions have been }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ionial Causes Act, whose scvtion 7(1)(b) empo }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 decree of divorce, judicial scparation or
nullity of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Ito) make an order with regard to\uc1 \u8212 ? avment of maintenance ___ in favour
of one or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
of the marriage\uc1 \u8217 ? (emphasis added) a spouse is entitled to maintenance
even a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
that he or she can bring an action for main }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rte.\uc1 \u8217 ?s Under the old
Matrimonial Causes Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance order in his or her favour at the time of
suing for maintenance.
This was so because the reel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lapsed at divorce without being replaced by an order }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matrimonial Causes Act, which
had partially cha }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
he court power to award post-divorce maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at the time of divorce.\uc1 \u8221 ?
,ing post-divorce maintenance a court must have regard }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 those outlined in section 7(3)
of the Matrimonial Causes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ctors the court must endeavour in so far as it is just
and possibletodo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 so, having }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 their conduct, to put the spouses in the same financial
position as that which id prior to the breakdown of their marriage.\uc1
faintenance in a customary union }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;h a customary union is not a valid marriage, the
\uc1 \u8221 ?husband\uc1 \u8221 ? of a wor.un in a try union has a duty to
maintain his \uc1 \u8221 ?wife\uc1 \u8221 ? during the \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage\uc1
\u8217 ? and also after ics have terminated their \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage\uc1 \u8221
? or association. This is due to the operation 12(4)(a) of the Primary Courts Act
which states that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 <irk v Kirk }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1970 (1) SA 128 (R) and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Joseph v
Joseph }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(4) SA 268 C3R3. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section 1 2(4Ha) of the Primary Courts Act which makes
a husband in a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
primarily responsible for the maintenance of his wile clunng the manage and }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or ne ma mage u nor \uc1
\u176 ?earn or remamage. note 48 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 infra. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 To }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 98/88, at pp.2-3. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ler the old law, that is section 9 of the
repealed Chapter 39, see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Watson V leaton- Watson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I SK }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1953 SR }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,1952 SR 146. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 issue see Chapter 10. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?For the purposes of an order
for maintenance in termsof sub-section (3) a community court shall,
notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in customary law, regard-- }
to customary law, is the husband of a woman as being }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 primarily responsible for the maintenance
of that woman during the marriage and, after the dissolution of their marriage,
until her re-marriage?\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9.4.5 Variation and discharge of
maintenance orders in favour of ex-spouses }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 An order of maintenance in favour of a spouse or ex-
spouse may be varied or discharged in terms of section 8(5) of the Maintenance Act
or section 9 of the Matrimonial Causes Act. Section 8(5) of the Maintenance Act
requires that there be an alteration in \uc1 \u8221 ?the means and circumstancrs
of any of the parties\uc1 \u8221 ? before an order of maintenance }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be varied. On the other
hand, section 9 of the Matrimonial Causes Act requires that \uc1 \u8221 ?good
cause\uc1 \u8221 ? be shown before an order of maintenance may be varied. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It has been held that the
term \uc1 \u8221 ?alteration in the means and circumstances\uc1 \u8221 ? of the
parties is not necessarily identical with the term \uc1 \u8221 ?good cause\uc1
\u8221 ?.\uc1 \u8221 ? The term \uc1 \u8221 ?good cause\uc1 \u8221 ? may include
factors other than the financial means of either spouse and could allow moral
considerations to be weighed.5\uc1 \u176 ? For example, it may amount to good cause
that the exspouse in favour of whom a maintenance order exists is living in an
adulterous or concubinage relationship,5\uc1 \u8217 ? thus entitling a party under
section 9 of the Matrimonial Causes Act to a variation of the maintenance
order. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
48 For the application of this section see Karambakuwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Mabaya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 158/87 where the Supreme }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Court ordered the \uc1 \u8221 ?
husband\uc1 \u8221 ? in a relationship which was found to be a customary union to
maintain his \uc1 \u8221 ?ex-wile\uc1 \u8217 ? Section 12(4)(a) will be moved to
the Maintenance Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 351 to become section 6(3)(a) therein if and when the
Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989 is enacted. This move will be effected
by paragraph 4 of Part III of the Bill\uc1 \u8217 ?s Schedule. The wording of the
section will also be slightly changed so that it will read thus: }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?(3) For the
purposes of determining whether or not a person who is subject to customary law is
legally liable to maintain another person, a maintenance court [which will be
exclusively magistrates courts] shall regard\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
to customary law, is the husband of a woman as being primarily responsible for the
maintenance of that woman.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The essence of the changed wording coupled with the
repeal of the definition of \uc1 \u8221 ?appropriate maintenance court\uc1
\u8221 ? in section 2 of the Maintenance Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 351 as read with section 3 thereof is to
render magistrates courts the sole maintenance courts so that community courts
(which the Bill abolishes and reconstitutes under the authority of chiefs) will no
longer be maintenance cou*s. Indeed the new chief\uc1 \u8217 ?s community courts
are expressly denied jurisdiction to determine maintenance cases \uc1 \u8212 ? see
section 15(1)(f) of the Bill. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Owen-Smith v Owen-Smith }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1981 ZLR 514 at p523. 50 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ibid. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See also }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Hughes NO v The
Master and Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1960 (4) SA 936 (CPID) and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Watson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Watson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1959 (1) SA 185 (NPLD). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ibid. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MARRIAC I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Prior to the enactment of
section 9 of the Matrimonial Cadses get WhichalloVes variation on good cause being
shown, Zimbabwean courts refused to-VarY Maintenance orders on the basis of moral
considerations such as that the recipient of maintenance lived in a relationship
of concubi nage. The courtsrposi lion then was that moral.c8nsiderations did not
amount to changed circumstances within the meaning of section 8(5) of the
Maintenance Act.\uc1 \u8221 ? Even after the enactment of section 9 of the
Matrimonial Causes Act, Zimbabwean courts, unlike their South African
counterparts,\uc1 \u8221 ? appear to have taken the approach that moral
considerations do not amount to good cause\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The fact that a former husband has, since
the gt4nting of the maintenance order in favour of his former wife, re-married
another woman, does not amount to changed \uc1 \u8221 ?means and circumstances\uc1
\u8221 ? and accordingly he is not entitled to have the order of maintenance
varied.\uc1 \u8217 ? As to the discharge as opposed to variation of a maintenance
order, section 8(5) of the Maintenance Act empowers a competent court to discharge
the order if it is satisfied that there is no longer any reason for the order to
remain in force. The grounds for the discharge Ma maintenancecircler are therefore
quite }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
different }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 from
the grounds on which a maintenance order can be varied. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Owen-Smith v Owen-Smith
(supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IleneIce v Beneke }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1965 (1) SA 855 at 856H where it was held
that \uc1 \u8221 ?good cause\uc1 \u8221 ? means \uc1 \u8221 ?any reason
which ....would render it equitable for the court to exercise its discretion in
favour of the applicant ....\uc1 \u8221 ? and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Watson v Watson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1959 (1) SA 185 (NPD). }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chi famba v Chi famba SC }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 149/87 at p.23
and Benny }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
v Benny }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
86. However, it must be noted that in these cases the point was not specifically
argued nor did the courts refer to the differences in wording between section 8(5)
of the Maintenance Act and section 9 of the Matrimonial Causes Act. }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dawe v Dawe }
(ZR). See also the South African case of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dreyer v Dreyer }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1984 (2) SA 483 (0). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 10 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matrimonial }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property rights of spouses, }
\af4 \dbch \af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
10.1 Introduction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
It is a settled principle of Roman-Dutch common law that the pmprietary }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of marriage are governed by the
law of the country of the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in cases whem them is no
antenuptial contract.\uc1 \u8217 ? This rule is absolute and admits }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 exceptions so that the law of
the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile at the time of marriage det the property regime
of the spouses for all time\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It follows from this rule that if a man
contracts a marriage while domiciled in Zimbabi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the proprietary consequences of that
marriage would be governed by the law of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 babwe, even if the marriage is contracted
in another country and/or the wife is domicil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 outside Zimbabwe. It would not matter that
the spouses intended to acquire a domicil }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 different from that of the husband at the
time of the marriage. The new intended don* is irrelevant. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10.2 Internal conflict of
laws re proprietary consequences of marriagel }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Once the above rule of private
international law has been used to determine the country whose law is applicable
in resolving a matrimonial property dispute the specific ruleof }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This chapter is based on W
Ncube, \uc1 \u8221 ?The Matrimonial Property Rights of Women during and after
Marriage in Zimbabwe: A study of Property Relations, Domestic Labour and Power
Relations within the Family,\uc1 \u8221 ? M.Phil Thesis, UZ, Harare, May 1986. See
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Brown v }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Brown1921 AD 478
where I nnes CJ stated that:\uc1 \u8221 ?lt is a clear rule of our law that the
rights of spouses in regard to property must be regarded as regulated once and for
all by the law of the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s domicile at marriage\uc1 \u8221 ?; }
Frankel\uc1 \u8217 ?s Estate and Anor vThe Master and A nor 1950 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1) SA 220 (AD); }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sperling v
Sperling }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(3) SA 707 (AD); Haiti\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?, pp.627-632 and Ncube }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1 at
pp.201-202. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 See Sperling v Sperling (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and Forsyth and Bennet, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Private International
Law, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M
rROSTRTY MCI ITS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kes age no nes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ve, Red ile ile }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law of that country which
applies to such disputes must be determined. If the husbanc was domiciled in
Zimbabwe at the time of marriage the next question Would be lc determine which
system of Zimbabwean law, customary law or general law, applies to the }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The applicable
system of law would depend on the type of marriage the parties had contracted.
This is to say that the applicable system of law would depend on whether the
marriage was a customary law marriage or a general law marriage and on whether the
parties were Africans or non-Africans, and if they were Africans, on whether they
were married under Zimbabwean law or some foreign law. In general, however,
questions of which system of Zimbabwean law applies to a particular case are
answered by utilising the choicenf law rules contained in section 3 of the Primary
Courts Act.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The proprietary consequences of the marriage of a non-
African male domiciled in Zimbabwe, whether in terms of the Marriage Act or some
other foreign law, are governed by the general law of Zimbabwe. This law provides
that a marriage contracted without an antenuptial contract shall be out of
community of property All consequences of the marriage of non-Africans in terms of
the Marriage Act, including proprietary consequences, are governed by the general
law. Thus such marriages do not give rise to any internal conflict of law
problems. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The proprietary consequences of a marriage between an African and a non-African
under the Marriage are generally governed by the general law on the basis that the
parties\uc1 \u8217 ? choice of a general law marriage strongly indicates that they
wished to be governed by the general law. Indeed, it is doubtful whether any
marriage involving a non-African and an African could ever be governed by
customary law\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 13 of the African Marriages Act provides that:
\uc1 \u8221 ?The solemnization of a marriage between Africans in terms of the
Marriage Act shall not affect the property of the spouses, which shall be held,
may be disposed of and, unless disposed of by will, shall devolve according to
African law and custom.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This means that the proprietary rights of two Africans
married under the Marriage Act are always to be determined by reference to
customary law. The choice of law guidelines in section 3 of the Primary Courts Act
have no application where there is a controlling. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4 See Chapter 1. 5 Section 2 of the
Married Persons Property Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !Chapter 381. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6 Note, however, that where, for
example, an African man marries a non-African woman and the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 parties proceed to live in accordance with the dictates
of customary la w and become overwhelmingly enmeshed in customary rites, norms and
rules, it is possible to argue that the proprietary consequences of the marriage
of such parties are governed by customary law because, notwithstanding the
parties\uc1 \u8217 ? choiceof a general law marriage, their lifestyle indicates an
intention to be governed by customary law, hence the application of the choice of
law guidelines in section 3 of the Primary Courts Act would indicate the
applicability of customary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 statutory provision such as section 13 of
the African Marriages Ad.\uc1 \u8217 ? In the words of Gubbay JA in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lenah n Nyembe }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of whether Africans enter into a marriage ineterms the
Marriage Act, African la wand custom continues to apply to their proprietary
rights. It is not open to them to elect to have the property consequences of their
marriage governed by the general law. They are not permitted, much they may desire
to do.so, to choose to be married either in community or out of
community......\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 13 of the African Marriages Act has no
application where the African parties are married not in accordance with the Mart
age Act, but in accordance with any other law including some foreign law or the
African Marriages Act. Thus, the proprietary consequences of the marri age of two
Zimbabwean Africans who have contracted a marriage in terms of some foreign la
w,are not necessarily determined by reference to customary law. The applicable
system of Zimbabwean law would depend on whether the parties had contracted a
monogamous foreign general law marriage or a foreign customary law marriage
equivalent to a Zimbabwean customary marriage. Africans marrying in accordance with
some foreign general law are competent to enter into an antenuptial contract
creating a property regime that is in community of property under the general law
of Zimbabwe.\uc1 \u8217 ? Thus, the property regime of Africans who have
contracted a foreign general law marriage will be determined in accordance with
the general law of Zimbabwe unless. perhaps, where their lifestyle and other
factors relevant under the choice of law rules in section 3 of the Primary Courts
Act, decisively point to the application of customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It would appear that Zimbabwean
Africans who contract a foreign customary law marriage would have their property
rights determined under customary law, unless, perhaps, where there are compelling
reasons to the contrary as laid down by the choice of law rules in section 3 of
the Primary Courts Act. The point is that the parties\uc1 \u8217 ? choice of a
customary law marriage strongly indicates that it was their wish that their marital
rights }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
This is so because section 3 of the Primary Courts Act begins with the words:
\uc1 \u8221 ?subject to the provisions of .... any other enactment ...\uc1
\u8221 ? thus preserving the validity and dominance of section 13 of the African
Marriages Act over the choice of law guidelines contained in section 3. This will
remain the case even if the Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989 which will
repeal the Primary Courts Act is enacted into law, since section 3 of the said
Bill merely restates the provisions of section 3 of the Primary Courts Act without
any amendments whatsoever. For a fuller discussion of this point see Ncube }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, pp.219-
225. See also DCalen (supra), pp.10-11. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich \af4 \dbch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 49/86 at p.3. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zvarctva v Zwrewa }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 19i9 AAC 37 where it was
held that: (i) the proprietary consequences of a marriage contracted by a
Zimbabwean African in terms of the general law of South Africa was governed by the
general law of Zimbabwe since section 13 of the African Marriages Act has no
bearing on the matter, being applicable only to African marriages contracted in
terms of Zimbabwe\uc1 \u8217 ?s Marriage Act; (ii) it is open for an African
contracting a foreign general law marriage to comply with the provisions of
section 2 of the Married Persons Property Act [Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 381, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and thereby create a property regime which
is in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
community }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
property. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
MATRIMONIAL Murton Y RIC ITS OF SPOUSES }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ovemed by customary law. Similarly, the choice of a
general law marriage is a strong cation that the parties intended their marriage
to be governed by the general lawi\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 African and a non-African may not marry
each other in terms of the African Marriages t. Only two Africans can contract a
marriage under the African Marriages Act.\uc1 \u8221 ? .,nerally, the proprietary
consequences of a marriage contracted between two Africans terms of the African
Marriages Act are governed by customary law on the basis that cir choice of a
customary law marriage strongly indicates that the parties intended the
insequences of their marriage to be governed by customary law. However, strictly
peaking, the choice of which system of law applies to a particular case or to a
particular flarriage contracted in terms of the African Marriages Act should be
determined }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ipplying
the choice of law criterion laid down in section 3 of the primary Courts Act. In
case where parties are married under customary law the courts are most likely to
hold that the \uc1 \u8221 ?surrounding circumstances\uc1 \u8221 ? indicate that
the parties have agreed that customary law should apply or that it appears just and
proper that it should apply. Thus it is submitted that very strong \uc1 \u8221 ?
surrounding circumstances\uc1 \u8221 ? pointing towards the applicationof general
law would be required fora court to rule that the proprietary consequences of a
marriage under the African Marriages Act be governed by general law instead of
customary law.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10.11 African marriages and immovable property }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Rhodesian
and Zimbabwean judiciary consistently took the view that the ownership of
immovable property is a form of ownership totally unknown to customary law and
hence all disputes in respect of immovable property were lobe determined in
accordance with the general law.\uc1 \u8221 ? The result of this has been that the
immovable property rights of African spouses whether married under customary law
or general law have always been determined in accordance with the general law.\uc1
10 See generally Ncube (supra), Note 1, at pp.225-230. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 II This is because section 2 of
the Act defines marriage as meaning a \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage between Africans\uc1
\u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
See also Chapter 8. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12 For a fuller and more detailed discussion of
conflict of laws problems in the proprietary consequences of marriage see Ncube }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, Chapter
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Komo
and Leboho v Holmes NO }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1935 SR 86; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dokotera v The Master and Others }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1957 R&N 697; }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matambo v Matambo }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1969 (3) SA 717; }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jirira v )
(rim }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
RLR }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7; Chiromo
v Katsidzira }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
ZLR 87 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
fenah v Nyemba (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 at p.4. See also Goldin and Gelfand, pp.155 and 278; Storry, p.79
and Child p.93. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 14 Section 13 of the African Marriages Act has no
application since customary law has been held }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
not to have any rules to determine disputes in respect of immovable property. In
other words, as was held in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jirira v Jirira and Another }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) at p.15 and in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dokotera v The
Master and Others (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp.701E and 702-703, section 13 must be construed as
referring only to movable property since there is no customary law applicable to
the resolution of disputes involving immovable property. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The practical consequence of
this would appear to be that Africans marrying }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriage Act are competent to execu lc an
antenupttal contract to estat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property regime that is in community of property. if
the parties do not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 antenuptial contract their immovable property regime
will, in accordance with }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the Married Persons Property Act, be out of
community of property, so that each( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of them owns that immovable property which he or she
acquires out of his or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hero }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
resources15 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
On the other hand, it would appear that the immovable property rights of }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 married in accordance with
customary law are always determined as if no marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 taken place. This is so, it is
submitted, since parties married under customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 incompetent to execute an
antenuptial contract creating community of property as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 regime that is in community of
property is irreconcilable with potentially polygar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriages such as arc permissible under
customary law.\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 101.2 Proprietary consequences of
customary law unions Customary law unions, being invalid marriages by virtue of
their non-registration, have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 no proprietary regime. The partiesare unmarried in the
eyes of thelaw and therefore their property is treated as the property of
unmarried individuals. Upon separation each party takes with him or her the
property which he or she acquired and therefore owns. Any joint property is shared
in accordance with the shares the parties hold in it. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10.3 General law consequences
of marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\ltrch \loch \af4
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Until 1929, the proprietary
consequences of marriage in Southern Rhodesia were erned by the Roman-Dutch common
law which provided that all marriages }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 automatically in community of property unless, at the
time of the marriage, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 entered into an antenuptial contract, creating a
property regime that was out of commu- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nity of property. This position was reversed in 1929 by
the Married Persons Property Act [Chapter 38], (hereinafter called the Married
Persons Property Act) whose, section 2 provided that all marriages shall
automatically be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 out of community of property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unless the parties executed an agreement
creating community of property. The Married Persons Property Act is still on the
statute books. It follows, therefore, that all marriage\uc1 \u8217 ?s governed by
the general law are automatically out of community of property and profit and loss,
and exclude the marital power, unless the parties enter into an antenuptial
contract, in accordance with section 2, creating community of property. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Komo and Leboho v 1 iolmes NO
(sups/ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MeOu
Mvududu and Others }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1981 (4) SA 456 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Z) for the proposition that the general law st
immovable property regime of African }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouses married unaer the marnage ACt. 16 For a
detailed argument see Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note ljat pp.232-234. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MATRIMONIAL PROPIRTY OF }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langfenp12297 Marriage in community of property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marital property regime is virtually non-
existent in Zimbabwe today. Records show between 1929 and 1984 only three
antenuptial contracts were registered with the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Deeds. The full title of this type of marriage is
\uc1 \u8221 ?community of property and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ama loss. tins pi Icf,uuc tit: ty vi }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 6aied, present and future,
movable and immovable, including debts, is merged into a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 kint estate in which the
spouses hold equal and indivisible shares regardless of their }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hie join t estate automatically falls
under the administration of the husband by virtue of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marital power. As administrator of the
joint estate, the husband has power to alienate, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 jncumber or otherwise deal with it as he
sees fit. He is not obliged to give an account of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 administration or to indemnify
his wife for any loss due to his maladministration. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under the marital power a husband can
sell, donate unwisely, or deliberate; y dest my his his wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s joint
property without liability to his wife for damages.\uc1 \u8217 ?\uc1 \u176 ? It is
clear that the sband\uc1 \u8217 ?s power of administration is very strong and the
wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s protection minimal.19 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e marital power is the greatest drawback
of community of property. It has caused rdship to countless wives and is probably
the reason why community of property imes arc unpopular in Zimbabwe. Aube
dissolution of marriage by divorce or death, community aromatically comes to an
end and one half share in the property goes to ch spouse, or to the heirs of the
deceased spouse. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 031 Marriage out of community of property }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is property regime arises
automatically when both parties to a marriage are nonAfricans and the marriage took
place with no a ntgDuptial contract. Under this regime, the property rights of the
spouses are unaffected by their marriage since both retain their }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 separate estates which increase
or decrease according to the transactions of each one of them. There is a rigid
separation of property, with mutual and total legal independence. The wife retains
complete legal control of her estate and has full legal capacity.2\uc1 \u176 ? At
of a marnage by divorce or death, each of the spouses retains his or her }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rty. Under the common law and
the Married Persons Property Act, a court has no }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to alter or adjust the property rights of
divorcing spouses in accordance with }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 equity and justice?\uc1 \u8217 ? Therefore, it was held
Chiromo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katsidzira
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that a }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 23.2.85. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tun Vliet 1892 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (9) SC 273. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a fuller discussion of the
marital power and the difficulties faced by women married in }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tmunity of property see Ncube }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, pp.68-73
and Hahlo, pp.161-198. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !generally Olivier at p.235; W }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Hosten,Introduction to
South African Law and Leg I Theory }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p313 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Boyes v Verzigman }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 9 Hoch 229. Note that the courts now have
the power to order an equitable re-allocation in terms of section }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7 of the Matrimonial Causes
Act, 1985, which is discussed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 infra. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
FAMILY LAW IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wife who had directly contributed money towards
extending the matrimonial home and also solely supported the family from her
personal resources had no claim to coownership of the matrimonial home since she
had not contributed to the initial purchase of the house. Her only claim was one
for the return of her contributions and reimburse-, ments of her increased
contributions to the maintenance of the family. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 While community of property provides a
fair and equitable re-allocation of community assets a t the time of divorce or
death, it causes hardship to a wife during the marriage due to the excessively
powerful marital power of the husband which incapacitates the wife in respect of
the acquisition, management and control of marital property. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 At the beginning of the
twentieth century total separation of marital property won many converts
throughout the world, particularly in Europe. In England it was assumed that only
separation of property and separate administration could guarantee a wife\uc1
\u8217 ?s equality and independence from her husband. The same assumption was made
in the USSR immediately after the 1917 socialist revolution, with the result that
the first postrevolution Family Code provided for a rigid system of separation of
property. That this assumptionawas unfounded has since been proved by the numerous
reforms reconciling equality of the spouses with the sharing of property between
them. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
The two advantages of separation of property are said to be theoretical simplicity
and the absence of community of debts, preventing a prodigal spouse from ruining
his or her prudent marriage partner. Theoretical simplicity is said to derive from
the fads that during the marriage each spouse owns and administers his or her
separate estate without interference from the other and that at the dissolution of
the marriage each spouse retains his or her property. However, the reality of
married life challenges this theoretical simplicity in two respects. Firstly,
separation of property completely disregards the practical circumstances of the
vast majority of households where a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 de facto }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 merger of the estates of the spouses takes place. In
practice the spouses\uc1 \u8217 ? estates are normally merged and intermingled to
such an extent that it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish
and disentangle property belonging to each spouse. Secondly, in many marriages
spouses normally agree to let one spouse take responsibility for the payment of
the everyday subsistence needs of the family, while the income and resources of the
other are saved and utilized for purchasing durable property. In such circumstances
separation of property is ill-suited to do justice between spouses and the argument
that it has advantages of comparative simplicity cannot be sustained. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Perhaps the greatest injustice
of separation of property occurs in those marriages where the wife works in the
home taking care of the family as a housekeeper and tearer of children. Her very
important role as housekeeper is totally disregarded by a system of separate
property. The failure of separation of property to take into account the
homemaker\uc1 \u8217 ?s role and contribution to the family\uc1 \u8217 ?s
prosperity nullifies the philosophical/ arguments which insist that separation of
property is based on the principle }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u176 ?quail admitting no power or privilege
on one side nor disability on the other. The reality of t urban situation in
Zimbabwe today is that in most households the husband provides t, }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MATRLMON1AL R)CI ITS OF }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 income while the wife earns
very little since she works as a housewife. This lity should be the point of
departure fora progressive legislature Seeking to introduce !alit), between the
sexes. The crucial role of the homemaker must be recognized since her domestic
work and contribution which frees her husband to work outside the Marriage,
whether or not both spouses work outside the home, should be viewed a
collaborative enterprise of both spouses. Thus, where there is an internal division
of rour between spouses, the respective roles of the spouses should be perceived
as mplementary and equal. As Gray succinctly points out, -the wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s
domestic effort riould be) regarded as a dynamic causal factor in the acquisition
of matrimonial operty, since the performanceof her supportive and complementary
role isa functional }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 qua non }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the viability of the family as an economic unit.\uc1
\u8221 ?22 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
t conclusion, the law of matrimonial property under the general law fails to treat
women tirly and equitably. In the community of property system, the husband\uc1
\u8217 ?s marital power auses hardship to the wife, and in the separation of
property system the realities of the vay spouses deal with their property and the
substantial contribution of women who do tot work for wages arc ignored. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10.4 Customary law proprietary
consequences of marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Customary law rules governing the ownership, control
and re-allocation of matrimonial property were formed and shaped by the feudal
relations of production under which men, because of their control of productive
resources, assumed a dominant role over women. As a result, the customary rules
governing matrimonial property rights of spouses inevitably reflect the dominant
position of men within the feudal production process. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under customary law women were
perpetual minors with neither contractual nor proprietary capacity. Thus married
women lived under the total guardianship of their husbands. Insofar as any
property they acquired automatically vested in the husband unless it fell within
specific recognised categories, they can be said to have worked (or their
husbands. As Justice Gubbay put it in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jenah v Nyernba (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?property
acquired during a marriage becomes the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s property whether
acquired by him or his }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The two most important exceptions to this rule are
the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 menthe yohurnaifinkorno yohlanga }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or motherhood
beast, and the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
mavoko/impahla zezandla }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or hands property. Both Shona and Ndebele women are
entitled to own property falling within these two categories at customary law. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 K }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Gray, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Reallocation of Property on
Divorce, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Prof.
Books, London, 1976, at p.35. 23 At p.5. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mombe yokumailinIcarno
yohlanga, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or
motherhood beast, is the property which a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 woman acquires upon me marriage uI a }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 statUS aS }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the daughter. Upon the
marriage of her daughter, one head of cattle payable; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roorallobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or brideprice, is given to
the mother of the bride. She receives the beast }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 absolutely, although before she deals with
it in any way she has to obtain the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 her maternal ancestral spirits.
\langfenp12297 Mavokorimpairla zezandla }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or hands property is property which a woman
acquiresl }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
her own personal labours or by making use of her skills in such Its aspottery1 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as a midwife or herbalist.24 A
woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s wages or salary would fall under this cat }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property and thus belong to her
in their totality. A woman is entitled to retain }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property at the dissolution of her
marriage. The difficulty faced by women in this\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 isthatof
provingthatapieceofproperty fallswithinthe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mavokolimpahla zezandla cat }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 An African woman may also
own immovable property under general law. This is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 result of the somewhat strange view of the
colonial legislature and judiciary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ownership of immovable property is a form
of ownership totally unknown to custc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 la Since customary law had no rules to govern immovable
property rights, it loll }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that the immovable property rights of Africans,
regardless of the form of their mar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 were governed by general law?\uc1 \u8217 ? In practice,
rights of African spouses to Unmet }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property were determined as if the spouses were married
out of community of prof }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 since Africans did not execute a n ten u ptial
contracts to create community of property.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 result is that African women have always
been as capable of owning immovable pro/ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as men. However, this did not affect many
women in practice since the great majority( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 them lacked the means of acquiring
immovable property. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under customary law all meaningful property is owned
and controlled by the husbat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Women are often, if not
always, reduced to the status of property-less dependants wt }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 have to submit to the will of
their husbands in order to survive. The customary lawsi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 matrimonial property perceive a married
woman as an unpaid servant of her husbar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 She works for him, looks after his family,
acquires and preserves property for him. At I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 end of the marriage she leaves the
matrimonial home property-less and destitute lii }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sacked employee. She has no claim to share
in his property. All she can claim is her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 yohumai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mavoko }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property. For the majority of
women this comes to nothing since }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 are rural women or urban housewives who do not have the
opportunity to acquire I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 categories of property. Rural women spend their married
life working extremely hard fc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the subsistence needs of their families.
However, despite all their hard work of up to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hours a day, they rarely accumulate any }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mavoko }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property because
the bulk of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
communal lands are characterized by acute poverty and underdevelopment with most]
families subsisting from hand to mouth, year after year. The urban woman without an
24 See Holleman, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 Shona Customary Law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.351-353. 25 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matambo v Matambo (supra) }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lirira v (supra). }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 26 For a fuller discussion
see Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(supra), Note I, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 pp.231-240. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MATIUMON1A1. PROPIRTY RICI OS OF 9\uc1 \u8217 ?OVSFS }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 her own is not in a better
position. She has no }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mombeyohumai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property, nor does }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 have any }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rnavoko }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property since she works as a
housewife. Customary law does not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 her aomcsnc role as entitling ncr to snare in property
acquirea ny ncr nusoana that she usually leaves her marriage with virtually
nothing. It is only the pmfessional ban woman who can point to some }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mavokolimpahla }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 zeza }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
\langfenp12297 nil fa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 property if her income was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 utilized for subsistence purposes while
that of her husband was used to acquire }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ow be seen that customary law, like
separation of property under general law, fails to Ike into account the realities
of married life in which spouses form a real partnership in owed of their
different but equal and complimentary contributions to the welfare of the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It was the recognition of this
inadequacy and inequality that motivated Zim- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \}ewe\uc1 \u8217 ?s legislature to enact
the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1985 as an attempt to create }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fairer and more equitable
formula for reallocating property at divorce. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0.5 The property rights of spouses at
divorce: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
the effect of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the enactment of the Matrimonial
Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of 1985) (hereinafter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ed the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985) which
became law on 10 February 1986, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 perty rights of spouses during marriage and at its
dissolution depended on whether }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ral law or customary law applied to their case. If
general law applied, their property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ime during marriage was either in community of property
or out of community of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 y. This is still the case today since the provisions of
the Matrimonial Causes Act, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 apply only when a maniaee is dissolved }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 divorce. Thus. the property
rights of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
spouses are determined by their propnetary regime while marriage subsists. At
dissolution of marriage their ppperty rights depended on whether they were married
in community of property or not. If they were married in community of property
they,, shared their property equally and it they were married ou t of community of
property each }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
,look the share that belonged to him or her. The courts had no power to make an }
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Itstrit\uc1 \u8226 ?
ution under these circumstances and it is this system of reallocation affected by
the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If customary law applied to a marriage, all the
family\uc1 \u8217 ?s property, except property falling within the }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mombe
yohumailinkomo yohlanga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mavokolimpahla zezandla }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 categories belonged to the husband. This
is still the case while the marriage subsists. The husband owns all the family\uc1
\u8217 ?s property except property falling within the recognized categories which
belongs to the woman. However, as a result of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985
the court has power to reallocate the property of the spouses in accordance with
the provisions of the Act at the dissolution of their marriage by divorce. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The preceding discussion shows
that the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 has affected the reallocation of property
between spouses under both general and customary law in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW LN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 certain specified circumstances. It must,
however, be emphasised that the provisions of the Act do not affect the property
rights of spouses during the subsistence of the marriage nor upon the dissolution
of their marriage by the death of either or both of them. Under these conditions
the spouses\uc1 \u8217 ? rights continue to be determined in accordance with their
matrimonial property regime, be it under customary law or general law. The
provisions of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 and the reallocation formula it
contains are superimposed on their existing property regime only at the dissolution
of their marriage by divorce? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 7(1) of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985
\uc1 \u8221 ?Subject to the provisions of this section, in granting a decree of
divorce, judicial separation or nullity of marriage, or at any time thereafter, an
appropriate court may make an order with regard to\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) the division, apportionment
or distribution of the assets of the spouses including an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 order that any asset be transferled from
one spouse to the other; (b) the payment of maintenance, whether by way of a lump
sum or by way of periodical payments, in favour of one or other of the spouses or
of any child of the marriage.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The most important point to note is that the courts now
have the power to order the transfer of property from one spouse to another when
dissolving a ma rriage or separating spouses from each other. The provisions of
the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985, apply equally to all valid marriages under both
customary and general law. This general application is achieved through the
Act\uc1 \u8217 ?s definition of the term \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage\uc1 \u8221 ? as
including \uc1 \u8221 ?a marriage solemnized in terms of the African Marriages Act
238].18 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
Accordingly, the formula for the re-allocation of matrimonial property contained in
section 7 is applicable by all courts\uc1 \u8221 ? which have jurisdiction to
dissolve the parties\uc1 \u8217 ? marriage. These powers are extensive. A court
may make any order it deems fit for the division, apportionment, distribution or
transfer of property from one spouse to another when granting a decree of divorce,
judicial separation, or nullity of marriage, or at any time }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ri }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 27 Note, however, that by a
recent amendment to the Deceased Persons Family Maintenance Act, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1987 (No. 21 of 1987) a court
is row empowered, insofar as the division of the estate is concerned, to take into
account the position the surviving spouse would have been in had the manage ended
by divorce and not death. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 28 See section 2(1). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 accordance with section 2(1) of the Act, \uc1 \u8221 ?
an appropriate court means - (a) the High Court in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 relation to any marriage; (b) }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 community court .... in
relation to any marriage entered into in accordance with customary
law.\uc1 \u8221 ? The Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989, through Part VI
of the Schedule thereto, if enacted into law, will amend this definition of
appropriate court so that a magistrates court will be the appropriate court in
relation to any marriage entered into in accordance with customary law. Thus the
competency to dissolve a customary law marriage and to reallocate the property of
spouses so married will be vested in the magistrates court. The magistratekcourt
will be given this jurisdiction by paragraph 1(b) of Part II of the Bill which
amends section 13 of the Magistrates Court Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In addition, the court may make
maintenance orders either by way of a lump >eriodical payments. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t which arises from the
formulation of section 7(1) is the relationship between the dower to make
maintenance orders in favour of one or other of the spouses and er to make
property division orders_ It is clear that the guidelines laid down in 7(3) apply
equally to both property and maintenance orders. The question is r our courts
should seek to counter-balance property orders with maintenance So that, for
example, a substantial order of maintenance in favour of a wife may to scale down
her entitlement to the family\uc1 \u8217 ?s assets. Since section 7 does not e an
answer, it is instructive to look at how courts of otherjurisdictions have dealt
its problem. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
7 of the Zimbabwean Matrimonial Causes Ad, 1985 was taken directly from 125 of the
English Matrimonial Causes Act 1973, prior to its amendment by the nonia Family
Proceedings Act 1984. The English Ad, like i ts Zi mbabwea n counterioes not give
any guidelines as to the relationship between maintenance and rty orders. In }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wachtel v
Wachtel 3\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Lord Denning ruled that the division of family cannot, in general,
take place without reference to the \uc1 \u8221 ?reallocation of the earning r of
the former spouses\uc1 \u8221 ?, namely, maintenance payments. Lord Denning
accordscaled down the wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s share of the matrimonial property to a
third in order to ye \uc1 \u8221 ?a proper balance\uc1 \u8221 ? with the
provisions made for her maintenance.\uc1 \u8221 ? The Austraourts have adopted a
similar approach?? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 approach of the New Zealand courts contrasts sharply
with the English and ralian approaches. These courts, in interpreting similar
provisions,\uc1 \u8221 ? have drawn a functional distinction between the
apportionment of property and an award of ,tenance, refusing to allow the granting
of periodical and/or lump sum maintenance gents to have any bearing on the
property division orders.\uc1 \u8221 ? Thus the New Zealand ts have refused to
integrate property and maintenance provisions as complementary ns of adjusting the
financial and property rights of spouses at the dissolution of riage. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 English and Australian approach
is based on the reasoning that the wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s entitlement laintenance is
compensation for her role in bringing up the family during the iage, and her other
various contributions .o the marriage. These contributions }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,973)1 All ER 829. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he English Courts have
consistently followed this approach initiated by Lord Denning. Sm. so }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cumbers v
Cumbers i1974) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1
WLR 1331. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 Osborne v Osborne }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1972) 1 NSWLR 496 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kaljo v Kaljo (1974) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3 ALR 130. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e section 41 of the New Zealand
Matrimonial Proceedings Act, 1963 in respect of rnainteince orders and section 5 of
the Matrimonial Property Act, 1963 in respect of property orders. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 / 11971) NZLR 1020 and }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Long }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Long }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119731 1 NZLR 399. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ha crl: alo the }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cot sat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 do }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 include giving up an independent career to
bear and rear children, thereby herself unable to support herself. It would,
therefore, according to the En }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Australian approaches, be unrealistic to ignore
maintenance oruers when making }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 _ \uc1 \u8226 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
erty orders. Acconaing to DC cor alongside property division orders in order to
achieve the grea test level of justice\{ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the spouses. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 thn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, the tact is mat }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wife. In addition, they are
notoriously difficult to enforce. In this context, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pvide adequatecomp continuing
financial obligation cannot tiesa toy retied upon to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 annortionment of family assets. It is
hoped therefor, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sci an courts will adopt the New Zealand approach, and
not allow a maintenance award to scale }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 down a spouse\uc1 \u8217 ?s enti tlemen t to a fair and
equitable dist ribu lion of family assets.The just approach would be to divide the
property of the spouses in accordance with their entitlement, needs and
contributions, and then after such division determine whetheror needs to be
maintained by the other. Thus it is submittal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintenance orders should follow property
division. This approach appears to have be% }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muinti Muiati }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In its discretionary powers of
re-allocatinR the property of the spouses. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court is required to consider \uc1 \u8221 ?all the
circumstances of the case\uc1 \u8221 ? including the following\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a) the income, earning ca
pacity, a sset s and other financial resources which each spouse and child has or
is likely to have in the foreseeable future; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 b) the financial needs, obligations and
responsibilities which each spouse and child hater is likely to have in the
foreseeable future; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 c) the standard of living of the family, including
the manner in which any child wasbeing educated or trained or expected to be
educated or trained; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d) the age and physical and mental condition of each
spouse and child; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 e) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the direct or indirect contribution made by each spouse to the
family, including }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
contributions made by looking after the home, caring for the family and other
domestic duties; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 f)
the value to either of the spouses or to any child of any benefit, including a
pension or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
gratuity which such spouscor child will lose as a result of the dissolution of the
marriage; g) the duration of the marriage; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and in so doing the court shall endeavour
as far as is reasonable and practicable and, having regard to their conduct, is
just to do so, to place the spouses and children in the position they would have
been in had a normal marriage relationship continued between the spouses }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 35 HC-H-505-87, at p.6. See
Masocha v Masocha }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 I-IC-H-183-87 at pp.9-10. 36 Section 7(3) (a)-(g). 37 These
guidelines area verbatim transcript of the English guidelines set out in section 25
of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
English Matrimonial Causes Act 1973, except for the reference to children in the
various }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NI
ATRIMONI AI. OF }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t the court may have regard.to any circumstances it
considers relevant, :se expressly stated. In this regard, past, present and future
circumstances levant. In England, the following factors have been held to be
relevant: that since rernarried!* that the husband had accumulated most of the
property p of another woman after the separation of the spouses\uc1 \u8221 ? that
the husband had ght up the children of the marriage\uc1 \u8217 ? that the wife had
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a number of
years r married status and depended on her individual resources!\uc1 \u8217 ? that
the husband his wife and thereby disabled her from resuming her professional
career!\uc1 \u8217 ? and pousc had recklessly indulged in spendthrift
behaviour!\uc1 \u8217 ? The guidelines s are discussed in greater detail below. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 come, earning capacity, assets
and other financial resources which each spouse and child is likely to }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hurt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in the foreseeable future. }
\ltrch \dbch \af0
deline requires the courts to assess the realities of the parties\uc1 \u8217 ?
financial positions, actors such as whether the wife has an income of her own,
whether she works or i her employment prospects can be considered. It is
interesting to note that English have taken the view that the court should
consider not only what financial ces a person has, -but also what would reasonably
be available to him if he d.\uc1 \u8221 ? Consequently, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wan z\uc1 \u8217 ?
McEwan\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 the court held that it was proper to order island to pay over to
his wife his entire weekly pension receipt of six pounds since I been shown that
he could easily obtain employment and earn much more.4-5 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rnain difficulty with
thisprovision is the determination of the factual truth abouteach y\uc1 \u8217 ?s
property. The court cannot carry out an independent investigation of its own and }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rely on the
evidence before it. In practice, the parties may hide the reality of their racial
circumstances or an honest spouse may not have the financial means or the lily to
carry out an investigation to determine the true position of a dishonest spouse\uc1
\u8217 ?s werty.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 paragraphs of the Zimbabwean Act. The English Act makes
the re-allocation formula subservient to the interest of minor children by
directing the court to have first consideration }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the interests of any minor children.
Our act contains no sucn direction. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119751Earn Div 9. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lombardi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119731 1 WLR 1276. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1 WLR 927. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 meets and financial resources
of any child are relevant. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where the husband sought to mislead the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 matrimonial home had realised
on its sale and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in England has also borne out this difficulty. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN ZEMBABWE }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 h) The financial
needs.obligatiorm and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 nzionsibilitinc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which each spouse and child hasor likely to have in
the foreseeable future. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Normally the most urgent need in the majority of cases
is the need for a secure
home in which to bring up the children of the marriage. English law has held,
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fonts
v /ones? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that
the most urgent need of a wife who had been assaulted by her husband and had
suffered serious injuries which drastically reduced her employment prospects wasa
secure home. Consequently, she was granted the matrimonial home. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A difficulty presented by this
guideline may be the assessment of present and likely \uc1 \u8221 ?obligations and
responsibilities\uc1 \u8221 ? of the spouses. For example, a court may have to
consider the possible future obligations }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 man will have if he remarries. Thew future
obligations may include the maintenance of a wife and children and it is obviously
not easy to take proper account of such future obligations. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 c) The standard }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 living of the family, including
the manner }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which
any child was being educated or trained or expected to be educated or trained. }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is inevitable in almost all marriages that the standard
of living of the parties, including children, will drop at the dissolution of the
marriage. This is so since a single family\uc1 \u8217 ?s income and resources have
to be divided to support more than one household. For this reason, it is likely
that our courts will take the view that a reduction in the standard of livingof
the parties is unavoidable, and that the education and manner in which any child
was being raised would have to be adjusted to the new standard of living of the
parties. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfenp12297 d) The age and physical and mental health of each }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouse }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and child. }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is likely that, in practice, the significance of
the age, physical and mental health of the spouses will be subsumed under the
consideration of financial needs, obligations and resources. For example, a young
and healthy wife is likely to have less needs and more present and future
resources than an old and infirm wife who is unable to secure employment because
of her age or poor health. The responsibilities and obligations of the parties are
also likely to be influenced by their ages and/or health, just as much as their
and future financial resources are likely to be affected by these factors. }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NRIcTeEdirect or indirect contributions
made by each spouse to the family, including contributions ;OM I-hi-made by
looking after the home and caring for the family and any other domestic duties. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is guideline s tne most important innovation in the
new Act, for it recognizes the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 importance and value of domestic work as a contribution
to the acquisition and preservation of matrimonial property. Prior to the
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985, a wife could only successfully claim a share of
family assets if she could show that she had made direct financial contributions
to theoriginal acquisition of the property in dispute. The performance of domestic
work and the fact that the wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s work in the home freed the husband
to work outside the home were not relevant considerations and did not entitle a
wife to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
47 119751 2 WLR 606. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M ATRLMON1 AL PROPERTY IOU ITS OF SPOUSES }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a share of the matrimonial
property. In the same way a wife who contributed directly or indirectly to the
improvement of property acquired by her husband had no claim to a share of it
beyond her claim to a return of her contributions. The difficulties faced by women
under this old law are illustrated by the Supreme Court decision in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chiromo v
Katsidzira (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
where it was held that a wife who had made direct financial contributions to the
improvement of the matrimonial home and had also taken on the entire
responsibility of maintaining the family while the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s meagre
income (together with part of hers) was used to extend the matrimonial home had no
claim to a share of that home. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Although subsection (3) of section 7 intends to correct
this kind of injustice, it remains to be seen how our courts will evaluate
domestic work as opposed to contributions made by the spouse working outside the
home. This is a difficult issue. Housework produces use value ra ther than
exchange value, and, since the economic status of domestic work is very depressed,
its proper financial value is ambiguous. Our courts, when formulating a legal
approach to the re-allocation of property on divorce, should not attempt to attach
a monetary value to the intangible and unquantifiable domestic contributions of a
housewife. As Gray\uc1 \u8221 ? aptly puts it: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?A just and realistic
evaluation of her efforts depends instead upon the avoidance of the absolute terms
of cash value in preference for the relative approach of differential equality
between financial and non-financial contributions to the acquisition of matrimonial
assets.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thus the evaluation process should not
seek to determine how much a housekeeper is worth in comparison with, for example,
a university lecturer, nor should the process seek to determine the value of a
wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s cooking, washing and rearing of children as compared to, say, a
government minister\uc1 \u8217 ?s work. The proper approach would be to presume
that in the majority of marriages the spouses assume equivalent, though different,
duties which are equally beneficial to the welfare of the family. In }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nyamaropa
t\uc1 \u8217 ? Nya ma rope }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the wife of a 16-year-old marriage, in addi ham to
receiving a substantial proportion of the household goods, was awarded I /5 of
the matrimonial home of the spouses on the basis that she had made contribu t ions
by looking after the home and children. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Muchada Muchada (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the wife had taken care of
the children and supported them from her income. She had also conducted extensions
to the matrimonial home with some financial assistance from her husband who was
studying abroad. It was held that she was entitled to a half share of the proceeds
of the sale of the house. According to Mrs Justice Gibson: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?In my mind this
is a proper case in which the defendant should get a 50 per cent share of the sale
price of the house, because it is largely her contribution and industry that
transformed the property into the state it was in at the time of the sale. The
inconvenience she must have suffered during building works as well as the fact
that she was the sole custodian of the children of the marriage entitles her to
that share at least e\uc1 \u8217 ?s\uc1 \u176 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sup-a, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 22 at p.71. 49 HC-H-66-87. 50
Pp.5-6. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
FAMILY LAW IN 71MBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 . . _ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ihn }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law h. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is not oruy a uubirame a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 _ mon and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in a country
\uc1 \u8217 ?,regressive has been reaffirmed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Khoza v Khozam }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by Muchechetere J. In this case
the wife of a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
old marriage who had not only taken care of the children but who had also out of }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 efforts built a beautiful home
for the parties in the communal lands without any financial }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 . . . }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or marenai }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 UM Iaaawnyr a Lam analCl/I
tile total p of the spouses which included a matrimonial home in Bulawayo. The
wife was awarded\uc1 \u8217 ? the urban matrimonial home of the spouses together
with all its contents. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mujati v Mujati (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the parties had been married for 17 years.
During the first years of the marriage the wife, who had not previously been
formally employed, worked in the parties\uc1 \u8217 ? communal lands where she
tilled the land and grew crops for the consumption of the family. During good
seasons she sold the excess and used the proceeds to buy family property such as
scotch carts. During the last 9 years of the marriage she ran the family shop and
butchery in the communal lands. She was assisk by one or two employees. She handed
over all the store and butchery takings }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to het }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 husband. She did not at any time receive any salary or
remuneration for the work she did in managing the family business. The husband
worked and earned a gross salary $458,00 per month. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 On these facts Mr Justice Chidyausiku
applied the English 1 /3 rule and awarded the wile }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a third of the total value of the assets
of the family. With respect, it is submitted that the approach of Chidyausiku J
is undesirable and greatly undervalues the contribution of a wife who had
contributed as significantly as the wife in this case. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Masocha v Masocha (supra) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the wife who
earned a gross salary of $526,00 per month, whereas her husband grossed about $2
300,00 per month, claimed for a half share of their matrimonial home which was
valued at about $50 000,00 on the basis that she had contributed indirectly to its
purchase by contributing towards the purchase of groceries and furniture, thereby
relieving her husband of some of the financial burden ofThaintaining the family and
enabling him to pay for the house. In refusing her claim fora half share( in the
house, the court stated at p.9 that \uc1 \u8221 ?.... it is quite apparent from the
disparity in the parties salaries that (her] contribution directly or indirectly
must have been minimal. In my view it would not be just and equitable to order the
sale of the house and the proceeds to be shared equally.\uc1 \u8221 ? However, the
court awarded her a I u mp su m payment of $10000,00 being the estimated value of
the household contents. Again this would appear to be a gross undervaluation of
the role of a wife who not only brought home earned income but also performed the
usual household chores. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 f) The value to either of the spouses or to any child
of any benefit including a pension or gratuity which such spouse or child will
lose }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as a }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 result of
the dissolution of the marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This guideline is intended to cover the loss of
benefits arising ou t of the status of marriage and is unlikely to cause many
difficulties in practice. Benefits usually include pension schemes, insurance }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 policies, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 endowment or
life policies, and gratuity schemes. A wife }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 51 HC-13-106-87. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 M ATRIMONIAL RIGHTS OF SPOUSES
from her husband loses her ristht In a widow\uc1 \u8217 ?s nencinn }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 since }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 she }{\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 widow when he dies. Since pension schemes often
represent considerable }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5 of accummateu weaun, it is pmper mat tne law ensure
mat a divorced does not lose these benefits }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The duration of the
marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 guideline is likely to work in such a way that a wife
whose marriage was of short }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wont\uc1 \u176 ?, au otner tnings oeing equal, receive
a smaller awaro tnan a wile wnose }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had lasted for many years. However, the duration of the
marriage must be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 with reference to other relevant factors. In
appropriate cases a wife of a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of short duration may be entitled to a substantial
award, for example, when she }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 made large direct and indirect contributions to the
welfare of the family, or if her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is, age or standard of living justify such an award? }
\plain \li0 \ri0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .1 The statutory target }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 considering all the
circumstances specified in the Act as well as any other relevant }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 instances, the court must make
an order distributing, re-allocating, dividing or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ioning the property of the spouses and: }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?in so doing the
court shall endeavour as far as it is reasonable and practicable and, having
regard to their conduct, is just to do so, to place the spouses and children in the
position they }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
would have been in had a normal marriage relationship continued between the
spouses\uc1 \u8221 ? (section 7(3)). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court\uc1 \u8217 ?s target, after considering all the
circumstances of the case, is to put the parties in the same position as they
would have enjoyed if the marriage had not broken down insofar as this is
reasonable and practicable and just having regard to their conduct This tatu tory
target requires that three questions be answered. These questions are: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 What would each of the
parties position have been had the marriage survived? How far is it reasonable and
practicable to place each of the parties in that financial }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 position? and }{\rtlch
\lisb0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Khoza }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Khoza (supra)at }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.17 where t he cou rt took into account
that the wife was not }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 claiming }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 anything from the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s pension and
accordingly he would enjoy the entire benefit from it. For a detailed discussion
of this guideline see Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1 at pp.424-426. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Khoza v Khoza (supra)at }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.17 in which the court
took into account, in favour of the wife, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 long duration of the marriage which had
lasted for some 16 years during which the wife had not been formally employed. As
is evid }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
entfrom }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
perience of the English Courts, it is, in the majority of cases, itepossible to
put the parties in their position prior to the breakdown. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Scott }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Scott }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1197811 WLR 723 at 728.
Because of this difficulty English law has now been amended to remove the
instruction to put the parties in the position they would have occupied had the
marriage survived. See section 3 of the Matrimonial Family Proceedings Act, 1984.
This difficulty has been recognised }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Masocha v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mosotho }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at p.9. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Is it just to do so taking
into account their conduct? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The difficulty here lies in relating the conduct of the
parties to the justice, reasonableness and practicability of putting them in the
same financial position as that which pertained prior to the breakdown of their
marriage. The primary problem concerns the (actors which should beUsed to
determine the justice of placing the parties in the positions they held prior to
breakdown, having regard to their conduct. While the Ad abolishes the guilt
principle\uc1 \u8221 ? it does, however, appear to maintain that guilt or
responsibility for the breakdown of the marriage \uc1 \u8217 ?s nonetheless
relevant factor in the reallocation of the property of the spouses. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The-English courts have taken
the view that conduct would be Kievan\uc1 \u8217 ? to there-allocation of property
only if it is so \uc1 \u8221 ?obvious and gross\uc1 \u8221 ? that it would be
inequitable not to take it into account, with the definition of \uc1 \u8221 ?
obvious and gross\uc1 \u8221 ? depending upon the facts and circumstances of each
case.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Apart from being a re-introduction of the guilt
principle into divorce proceedings, the requirement of considering conduct
mayalsobea very unruly hark in practice. In almost all cases, the breakdown of a
marriage is, to varying degrees, the \uc1 \u8221 ?fault\uc1 \u8221 ? of both
parties. Manifest conduct is usually the result rather than thecause of a
breakdown. There should be no need fora post-mortem to find out what destroyed the
marriage. In any event, each of the spouses would have earned his or her share of
the marital property, and to suggest that such earned entitlement should be
forfeited by reason of one\uc1 \u8217 ?s cond uct is i nequitablc. \uc1 \u8221 ?
lforci. our courts should regard conduct as irrelevant unless it is shown that it
would be grossly inequitable to disregard it. However, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Masocha v Masocha (supra) }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court, in
scaling down the wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s claim to maintenance, readily took into account
that she had improperly associated with other men. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10.5.2 Property excluded from the
court\uc1 \u8217 ?s powers of division }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Specific kinds of property a re expressly excluded from
thccourt\uc1 \u8217 ?s powers of re-allocation through section 7(2) which provides
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -The power of the court to make
an order in terms of paragraph (a) of subsection (1) shall not extend to any
assets which are proved to the satisfaction of the court to have been acquired by
a spouse, whether before or during the marriage\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a) by way of an inheritance; or
b) in terms of any custom and which in accordance with such custom, are intended
be held by the spouse personally; or c) in any manner and which have particular
sentimental value to the spouse con- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cerned.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 53 Sections 4 and 5. See Chapter 12. 56
See West v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
West }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119771 2
WLR 933; Currier v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 linderdown }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /197411 WLR 933; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Harnett v linen }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119741 1 WLR 219 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 andDixon v Dixon }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119741 Fam }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Div }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 38. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,;N A -\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4wqw}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af5 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 o\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ow bw }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8212 ?\uc1
\u8212 ?\uc1 \u8212 ? -\uc1 \u8212 ? _ \uc1 \u176 ? _ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LJur..wd }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8226 ?*\uc1 \u8217 ?
s...nrr..:.ew }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\uc1 \u8212 ?}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 aretani }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cakj }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and when
is it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 inquiry. d was it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the first }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to individuals or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the only }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the rural }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 b 1Md. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 covers communal }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to be held personally by
them }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by tan that during the marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 she enjoys such rights by }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the she has
no }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 land and go back to her natal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lisb0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that thiscxdusion would }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 dat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property to which the owner is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to division. On this basis our }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 jewelry and other personalised }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4 property falling within the
three }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 from having regard to excluded property }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 st }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 kwwy }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thus, there appears to be
no }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property when
determining }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfenp12297 I carningcapacity or standard }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ncubc
(supra), Note 1, pp.137-150. tad Act, 19$2 and also Ncubc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, pp.138.140. }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 AI neon MTV ITS Of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 raving that any property falls
within any of these three specified categories )rty seeking its exclusion from the
distribution process. Inherited property ause any problems. However, difficulties
may arise with regard to the two es. When }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 does }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property vest in a person in terms of
custom and when is it I held by him or her personally?Thisexclusion in vol vesa
twostag,e inquiry. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e properly vest in the spouse in terms of any custom,
and secondly, was it hat custom to be held personally by that spouse? If the
answer to the first alive the matterends and the property will be subject to
division. I lawyer, is in the affirmative, the second question arises. I( the
answer to the second %alive the property will be subject to division whereas if it
is affirmative it ded. The exclusion will in practice include }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rooraflobolo }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 menthe yohlanga }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property, and
all the categories of property acquired by an nan on her marriage such as }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 isipho, igula
lomntwana and amadliso amasi.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 most problema tic question is whether or not land
allocated to individuals or e communal lands falls within this exclusion. Land is
undoubtedly the m of wealth available to rural people and, in most cases, the only
property possess at the dissolution of their marriage. Thus, if it is excluded
from the process, the new law would be of very little practical relevance to the
rural se subsistence depends almost entirely on access to land. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in of interpretation, it would
appear that the exclusion covers communal such land is allocated only to (married)
men to be held personally by them istomary law?\uc1 \u8217 ? That this is so is
borne out by the fact that during the rnarnage hts over the land are limited to
rights of use and she enjoys such rights by r status as the wife of the man. At
the dissolution of the marriage she has no shareof the land and she is required to
leave the land and go back to her natal lowever, unlikely that the legislature
contemplated that t his exclu sion would lunal lands. If that is the case the law
should be clarified. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 elusion of property of a sentimental value, property to
which the owner is attached in a sentimental manner is not subject to division. On
this basis our ely to hold that such property as affectionate jewelry and other
personalised fall within this exception?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 :Lear that the court cannot re-allocate
property falling within the three here is nothing to prevent a court from having
regard to excluded property ing and assessing the statutory guidelines. Thus,
there appears to be no courts should not have regard to excluded property when
determining the income, needs, financial resources, assets, earning capacity or
standard }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
lanation of these categories of property see Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, pp.137-150. 8(2) of
the Communal Land Act, 1982 and also Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, pp.138-140 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, pp.436-442. }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN 71MBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n( ihn }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 then the. }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ....b }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -0.. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n. a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 would not be re-distributed. This was the approach
adopted in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Khoza v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\alang1025
\langfenp12297 IM eh, the. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I anal tan- i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lands on the basis that it
could not be awarded to the wife, who was then awarded61 spouses\uc1 \u8217 ? home
in the city of Bulawayo. Thus the court had regard to the fact }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law vested ownership
and useof the comnni na lands home in the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Reasons underlying the exclusion of
inherited property from being divided and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 allocated at divorce arc well known and
include the belief that since inherited }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 belongs to the family of the inheriting spouse, it
should in fairness and justice }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 within that family. It is also often accepted that
since the non-inheriting spouse eon uted nothing to theacquisi don of the
inherited property, he or she shou Id not benefit from it at the dissolution of
marriage. While there is merit in these arguments, it remains true that the total
exclusion of inherited property from the re-allocation process may be inequitable
particularly where the other spouse has contributed significantly to the
improvements and/or preservation of the property. Total exclusion is also
inequitabk where the property has appreciated in value during the marriage. In
equity and fairness the difference between its value at marriage or at the time of
its inheritance and its value at divorce should be shared between the spouses.
This should be the case whet her or not its increased value is due to the efforts
or contributions to improvements of the other }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouse or is due to the ord ina ry
appreciation of property as determined by market }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The exclusion of property vesting in a person by
operation of customary law is cliff }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u9632 ? V }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to justify in a country that
seeks to put an end to property relations determined by feudal material
conditions. This exclusion, having as its main purpose the exclusion oflobbloand }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mornbe
yohumailinkarno ydtlanga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property, obviously perpetuates the iniquities of
feudal property relations. It is difficult to justify why }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property should not be re-
allocated. After all, the woman not only bore the daughter but also, in the
majority of cases, shouldered the main responsibility of rearing and bringing her
up. If one looks at the tine and labour inputs of a husband and wife to the
upbringing of a daughter, it is clear that the wife contributes more and should
therefore be entitled, in justice, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 greater share of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property than the husband. However, by
excluding }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
property section 7(2X1:) perpetuates the inequities of customary law as it evolved
under feudalism!\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 60 See p.16. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 61 To contend that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property should be subject to
the re-allocation process is not to support }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the perpetuation of the institution of }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lobolo }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which represents
nothing beyond cultural stagnation. See W Ncube, \uc1 \u8221 ?The Decision in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Katekuv
Muchabaiwa : }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A
Critique\uc1 \u8221 ?, ZL Rev. Vol. 1 and 2,1983-84 pp.157-170 and W Ncube,
\uc1 \u8221 ?Released from Legal Minority; The Legal Age of Majority Act in
Zimbabwe\uc1 \u8221 ? in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Women and Law in Southern Africa, }{\rtlch
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 edited by A
Armstrong }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 W Ncube,
ZPH, Harare, 1987 at pp.202-205. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MATRIMONI Al PROCI-RTY MCI W(RflS }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 extent of application of the
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?,Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985, was enacted
without the other laws that deal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the holding and re-allocation of matrimonial property
at divorce being }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?extent to which the old laws have been
implicitly repeated becomes a subject }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r. There }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 no doubt that sect ion 7 of the Act overrides customary
law on the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
of property on divorce. There is also no doubt that the court\uc1 \u8217 ?s powers
extend to all general law marriages that are out of community of property. }
\ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af6 \hich \af6 \dbch \f6
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 , by applying equally to
valid customary law and general law marriages, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard \plain \li0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 laced the potential and scope
of internal conflict of laws problems in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the field }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ilion of marital property at
divorce. However, two problems concerning the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?the application of the law
remain. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
, the Act is ambiguous on the question of whether the court\uc1 \u8217 ?s
discretionary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 power }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of property extends to marriages in community of
property or not. Ordinarily, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ty of spouses married in community of property is
divided equally }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 between }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 irdless of their contributions and notwithstanding the
d ura ti on of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lion, therefore, is whether the court has the power to
ignore the spouses\uc1 \u8217 ? express }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it to share their property equally. In this respect the
wording of section 7 does }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \par }\pard
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it marriages in
community of property beyond the discretionary powers of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, common sense suggests that the
parties\uc1 \u8217 ? agreement to share }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 their }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ty equally should be given precedence, subject only to
the interests of any minor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the marriage. The then Minister of Justice, Legal
and Parliamentary Affain. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zyobgo, expressed the opinion that section 7 does not
apply to marriages in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nifty of property.\uc1 \u8217 ? The fact, however, is
that, the position is unclear and legislative }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nion is needed to clarify it. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 problem concerns the
distribution of marital property on the death }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985, has no bearing on
succession. At the time of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 succession to matrimonial property is governed by
either general law or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iry law, depending on a variety of factors.\uc1
\u8217 ? Since the Matrimonial Causes Act, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i has no bearing on succession it would appear that a
woman is better off seeking a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 from her husband than living with him until he dies. In
both customary law and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it law marriages which arc out of community }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property, a woman has the
right }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
in the family assets in terms of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985, on divorce
but }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
no similar rights if the marriage ends through the death of her husband\uc1
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, pp.444-
\langfenp12297 (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, pp.82-84, 99-101, 180-1% }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 240-245. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 r, see Note 27 above. }{\rtlch
\af0 \lang12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN ZIMBABWE. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 10.7 Criticism of the new
approach }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
As Gray aptly points out: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The fundamental problem in the construction of a legal
formula for the reallocation of matrimonial property on divorce revolves around
thequestion of whether that re -allocation is better achieved by means of a fixed
rule of apportionment or through a discretion exercised judicially, in the light
of the individual circumstances of each case.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimbabwe has opted for the
latter approach, that of judicial discretion. However, there are numerous
difficulties raised by such an approach. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Entrusting the courts with a wide discret
ion inevitably leads to indefinite legal rights and uncertainty in the law.
According to the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985, thecourtsare free to make almost
any order they see (it. !Hs, therefore, impossible to determine in advance how a
particularcase will be dec,ded since the outcomeof each case depends on weighing a
variety of factors as well as the individual discretion and att itude of the judge
involved. Experience elsewhere has shown that courts have considerable difficult?
in reaching fair, equitable and predictable decisions where rights are not fixed
by law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Further, since there are no fixed standards by which spouses can work to reach
agreement this uncertainty in the law naturally leads to extensive litigation. It
follows, then, that an unpredictable judicial discretionary-based system
encourages litigation which imposes high costs on society and on divorcing
spouses. In Engligh law the unsatisfactory nature of a judicial discretionary-
based formula has received severe criticism \uc1 \u8217 ?for leaving too much
unfettered discretion to the courts. Hence, in 1971, the English Law Commission
reported that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .... what women are saying and saying with
considerable male support is: We are nolonger content with a system whereby a
wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s rights in family assets depend on the whim of her husband or
on the d iscret ion of a judge at divorce. We demand definite property rights, not
possible discretionary right }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 These criticisms apply equally to the Matrimonial
Causes Act, 1985, in this country. Under this Act the property rights of spouses
remain uncertain, undefined and unpredictable while the marriage lasts. A wife has
no right to the property of her husband during the subsistence of the marriage.
Surely it is a poor kind of marital justice that is excluded from existing
marriages and allowed to operate only when those relations end, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A further problem relates to
the unweighted nature of the statutory guidelines. How should Zimbabwean courts
relate and interconnect the various guidelines? For example, how does one
reconcile the court\uc1 \u8217 ?s instruction to have regard to the duration of the
marriage with its duty to attempt to put the parties in the position that they
would have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
65 Supra , Note 22 at p.48. 66 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Law Commission Report, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1971. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MATRIMONIAL MCI ITS OE }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 survived? These same
ambiguities have faced the English statute. The approach of the English courts has
varied from case he unpredictable nature of relying on the court\uc1 \u8217 ?s
discretion. In the parties\uc1 \u8217 ? marriage had lasted for five and one half
months. ;urnent that the short duration of the marriage should influence I held
that the wife was entitled to be compensated for the loss have enjoyed as the wife
of a wealthy man. Thus the court gave veto place the spouses in the position they
would have held had (the minimal loss objective) at the expense of the directive
to the marriage. This decision was made in spite of the finding that bstantial
contributions to the marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was again given precedence in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Calderbank v CalderbankM }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where if a rich
woman was awarded ten thousand pounds to enable him table to his station in
life\uc1 \u8221 ?. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Cumbers v Cumbers (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the court third of the assets even though the marriage
had lasted for only detesting to note that in thiscase thecourt did not justify
theaward imal loss principle, but solely on the grounds that the award was the
wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s direct and indirect contributions. On the other hand, in
\uc1 \u8217 ?9 where the marriage had lasted for only two weeks, the court icial
provision in favour of the wife because of the short duration the court gave
precedence to the factor of the duration of the Masoning was followed in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Taylor v
Taylor?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 where the parties had three weeks. The cou rt held that the short
du ration of the marriage iortance and, hence, the minimal loss objective had no
application.
}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ng from a re-allocation formula
based on judicial discretion is that feat legislative intentions to create a fair
and equitable system of property at divorce. The experience of the courts in New
Zealand oo easy fora conservative and sexist judiciary to defeat legislative v }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zealand }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enacted the
Matrimonial Property Act 72/1963 which powers to allocate the property of spouses,
having regard to the ribu tions of the spouses including domestic work, on the
courts?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
1963 law as promotive of \uc1 \u8221 ?fair, just, and common sense erty
difficulties of husbands and wives\uc1 \u8221 ? and went so far as to
generalization ... New }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zealand }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 now has a rule of community of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NZLR 795 at 801; see also }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sutton v
Sutton }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
119651 NZLR 781. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 so }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN AMIMISWI }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Unfortunately, }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 however, later developments
in judicial interpretation were }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 strate that these early hopes were unfounded. Later
decisions provide an int }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 example of how legislative intentions can be frustrated
and nullified by an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 conservative judiciary. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Archer v Archer\uc1
\u8217 ?, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
although it wasestablished }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that duringt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 years of manage wife had her
husband \uc1 \u8221 ?in every possible way\uc1 \u8221 ? to builds }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 maintain the matrimonial home,
she was awarded only a quarter of the prof }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Richnow a a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .the matrimonial home was awarded to the
wife of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
year-old marriage who had performed her domestic duties industriously and effk }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 throughout those years. The
courts insisted that in order for domestic work significant, it had to be \uc1
\u8221 ?unusual and extraordinary.\uc1 \u8221 ? As Cray has pointed ou }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marked was this tendency to
disregard the wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s performance of ordinary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 services that legislative
intervention became necessary\uc1 \u8217 ? The intervention came }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 form of the Matrimonial
Property Act, 1968 which pmvided that the court should }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfenp12297 an award in favour of a husband or wife \uc1 \u8217 ?notwithstanding
that he or she had made i }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contribution to the property in the form of money
payments or that his or her contribution }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in any other form was of a usual and not
an extraordinary character.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? However, the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 courts continued to devalue
domestic contribu lions in comparison to financial contribution. For example, in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Greenwood
v Greenwood\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the wife was able to point to not only 21 years of
outstanding domestic service but also to an equal contribution to the initial
deposit on the matrimonial home, but was awarded only a ten per cent share in the
property.\uc1 \u8221 ?The legislature was again required to intervene, and did so
decisively making clear that the court\uc1 \u8217 ?s restrictive interpretations
and contemptuous undervaluing of domestic work was unacceptable. It passed the
Matrimonial Property Ad, 1976 which provides that spouses should share their
property equally on divorce!\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The lesson which has emerged from the New
Zealand experience is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ?When a woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s
right to share equally in the marital property hinges on a judges }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 subjective view of the value of
a homemaker\uc1 \u8217 ?scontribution }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 qua }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 homemaker, judicial latitude }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 more often than not, has worked
against the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s interests.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 73 Wellington Registry No.
M.203/66. 74 Auckland Registry No. M.485/65. 75 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Supra, }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 22 at p.44. 76
Section 6(M). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
77 Unreported judgment 1971 quoted in Cray }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra , }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 22) p.73 . See also }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Haycock v Haycock }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1197411 NZLR 409 where the wife of a 27-year-old
marriage was granted only a quarter of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property. 78 See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 E u }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119711 NZLR 859. 79 Section 110).
However, the courts are given power to deviate from the norm of equal sharir }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in clearly defined and
structured circumstances. See sections 13 and 14 as read with section 11 }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 80 D Sasawar 0973), }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 New York
Bar lournal,\uc1 \u8221 ?No }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Fault Divorce and Women\uc1 \u8217 ?s Property Rik }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Rebuttal\uc1 \u8221 ? at p.486.
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 CE SPOUSES }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 scope of the discretion conferred on Zimbabwe\uc1
\u8217 ?s courts by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 work to subvert the legislative objective of
establishing a fair and table system }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1hr reallocation of matrimonial property at divorce.
However. it should be noted that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nate the Zimbabwean courts have generally interpreted
and exercised their powers }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 difficulties experienced in both Britain and New
Zealand in applying a re-allocation }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lbrmula based on judicial discretion and tied to
unstructured guidelines demonstrates }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hcunsuitability and uncertainty of such a formula and
suggests that a fair and equitable jirmula must be ultimately based on some kind
of rebuttable norm of equal sharing. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mujati }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra); Masocha v Masocha (supra);
A4uchada v Muchada (supra); }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nyamaropa v Nyamaropa }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tit:4-1-66-87. }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 11 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Succession to matrimonial property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11.1 Testate succession }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 All sane persons above the age
of 16 years, whether governed by customary law or general law, married or unma
rried, A f rica ns or non-A frica ns, enjoy full freedontof lestaticm. They are
fully competent to make and unmake wills defining the manner, method and persons
who will receive benefits from their estates.\uc1 \u8217 ? Where a deceased spouse
has exercised his or her freedom of testa lion and mtka will, his or her property
dorolvesand isdistribu led in accordance with his or her wishes as expressed in
his or her will. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11.2 Intestate succession under general law }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The genet Al law rules
governing succession a6 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 intestato }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 apply to the estates of all nonAfrican spouses whereas
the combined effects of section 13 of the African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter 2381, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section 69 of
the Administration of Estates }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act [Chapter 3011 (hereinafter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 called the Administration of
Estates Act) and section 6A of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Primary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Courts Act operate to place the intestatedevolution of
the property of African spouses under thegovernment of customary la w2.The
administration of all deceased estates takes place in accordance with the
provisions of the Administration of Estates Act which inter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 alia }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 gives general supervisory powers over the
administration of all deceased estates to the Master of the High Court. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See Section 4 of the Wills Act,
1987 (No.13 of 1987) (hereinafter called the Wills Act) and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Komo and \uc1 \u8217 ?dynes }
{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NO 1935 SR 86 at p.92. See also
W Ncube, \uc1 \u8221 ?The Matrimonial Property Rights of Women Dune- and Afoot.
Marriage in Zimbabwe; A Study of Property Relations, Domestic Labour and Poi ions
within the Family\uc1 \u8221 ?, M.Phil Thesis, Harare, May 1986, pp.180-182. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 These provisions are discussed
in detail }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
infra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
connection with succession to matrimonial property under customary law. Note that
section 6A of the Primary Courts Act is most likely to be repealed by the
Customary Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989, ifand when it is enacted. The effects
of this possible repeal are discussed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 infra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under \uc1 \u167 ?11.3.1. }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 TO MATRIMONIAL }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1121 Intestate succession to
property of spouses man-led in community of property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The community of property of
spouses married in community of property ends when one of ipotises. dies and the
community property, after all charges have been met, is divided into two equal
parts. One part of this property is given to the surviving spouse and the other
part is left to be inherited by the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s heirs. The heirs of the
deceased spouse succeed to his or her property in accordance with the Roman-Dutch
common law rules of intestate succession insofar as they have been modified by the
provisions of the Deceased Estates Succession Act IC/writer 3021 (hereinafter
called the Deceased Estates Succession Act). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under the Roman-Dutch common law the
property of a deceased spouse who dies intestate devolves on his or her children
in equal shares irrespective of their sex. On the failure of children the estate
devolves on the parents of the deceased, whereas upon the failure of parents the
deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s sisters and brothers are the heirs. This common law
position has been modified by section 3 of the Deceased Estates Succession Act
which makes the surviving spouse an intestate heir in respvtt of all the household
goods and effects in the estate of his or her deceased spouse\uc1 \u8217 ? In
addition to the household tlUds and effects he or she is also entitled to a
child\uc1 \u8217 ?s share in respect of the remaining free residue of the deceased
spouse\uc1 \u8217 ?s share of the joint estate.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11.2.2 Intestate succession to property of spouses
married out of community of property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Where one of two spouses married out community of
property dies the surviving spouse retains his or her own }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 separate property, }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 this
spouse\uc1 \u8217 ?s property being unaffected by the death of his or her
spouse.\uc1 \u8217 ? The deceased spouse\uc1 \u8217 ?s property devolves on his or
her heirs in accordance with the law governing intestate succession. This law
provides that the surviving spouse is entitled, as of right, to inherit from the
free residue of the deceased spouse\uc1 \u8217 ?s estate as his or her sole
property the household goods and effects in that estate\uc1 \u8217 ? Where the
deceased spouse is survived }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 by a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 descendant who is entitled to succeed }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab infested\uc1
\u176 ?, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
surviving spouse is entitled to succeed to the extent of a child\uc1 \u8217 ?s
share of the remaining frir\uc1 \u8212 ?residue of the deceased spouse\uc1
\u8217 ?s estate in addition to the household goods and effects.\uc1 \u8217 ?
Where the deceased is not survived by a descendant who is entitled to succeed }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab
intestato }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 but
leaves a pa rent or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Knither or aifsfer who is so entitled to succeed, }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 3(9)(1). Section 3(9)
(ii). Sec generally Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (spa), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, at pp.82-84. The provisions of the Matrimonial
Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of 1985) in respect of the reallocation of matrimonial
property have no application where the marriage has been dissolved by death. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 3(b)(1) and (c)(i) of
the Deceased Estates Succession Act. Section 3(b)(ii) of the Deceased Estates
Succession }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iN.:M }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the surviving spouse is entitled to to the extent of a
half share in respect of I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 remaining free residue of the estate in addition to the
household goods and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cases not covered by the situations, the surviving
spouse is the sole intestateheir! Thus, where thed\uc1 \u8221 ?sed dies intestate
and is not survived by any child, pars brother or sister, whethero nciving the
sole intNtate heir. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 11.3 Intestate succession under customary- : a w }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The customary law of Africans.
is due Act, section 13 of the African am }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 - rtv Ivionging to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nistration \uc1 \u8217 ?f
Estates Courts Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Section 690) of of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If any Africa }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 being }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 dies of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This section }{\rtlch \fcs1
\li0 \ri0 \lisb0 \sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 movable property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 According to this }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 contracted }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 accordance with }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or custom or who, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law and custom, }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to the customs and }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 disputes involving }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to after having }{\rtlch \fcs1
\ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and distributed in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 general }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 African }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriages Act }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 will, shall
devolve }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 married under the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section 13 of the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 disposed of by }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Both section 69 of }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Marriages Act }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 they }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provide_Thep }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 enactment\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the A }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ingly, them place. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 13 of the African }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?subject to any }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section 69 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
Africanstakes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in accordance }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 8 Scat 9 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 l0 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 c gcneralh Nci* . }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the La in heir\uc1 \u8221
? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\u8217 ?state }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to ;tales }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Who, mom, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297
\langfenp12297 sand }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ving law. Ving din }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the the 31by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ican hich any i9 prdtkes
Use, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Intestate succession of Africans to immovable property }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the concept of individual
ownership of immovable property was a concept entirely to African customary law,
succession }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ab intestato }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to
such property was equally ginewn and could not, therefore, be regulated by
customary law rules of succession in he event of its African owner dying
intestate. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
ntheordinary course of events, then, the succession }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab inttsta to }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of Africans to immovable
rperty by Africans should have been regulated by the general law of the country.
-lowlier, this was not the case. To regulate the succession }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ab infest/110 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of such immovable rperty
owned by Africans the colonial legislature enacted section 7 of the then African
kills Act 1Chaptcr 2401 which provided that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he heir at African law of any deceased
African shall succeed in his individual capacity to any immovable property or any
rights attaching thereto forming part of the estate of such deceased African and
not devised by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
This Act has been repealed by the Wills Act, 1987 (No. 13 of 1987) and section 7 of
:olonial Act has become section 6A of the Primary Courts Act.\uc1 \u8221 ? The
effect of the :Irovisions of section EA of the Primary Courts Act is that the
immovable property of any kfrican, regardless of his or her marital status, and,
if he or she is married regardless of the form of the marriage, shall devolve in
accordance with the customary law rules of intestate succession except that the
customary law heir shall succeed to the property in his individual capacity and
not in a representative capacity. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The precise meaning of this provision has caused some
difficulty. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Dokotera The Master }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 and Others (supra) it was held that this provision, defining the
person entitled to succeed to a deceased African\uc1 \u8217 ?s immovable property,
prevented the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s widow from relying upon the provisions of the
Deceased Estates Succession Act, relating to intestate succession. }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matambo v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matambon the then Chief Justice, Mr
Justice Beadle, said he would paraphrase the section as follows: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?The person at
African law who is entitled to succeed to the property of any deceased African
shall succeed in his individual capacity to any immovable property }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Guzuzu }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Chinamasa NO and }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Master\uc1
McNally J, as he then was, followed the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This is achieved by section 24 of the new Wills Act
which amends section 6 of the Primary Courts Act by the insertion of section 6A
into the latter Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 WO (3) SA 717 (RAD). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 19W }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 14640. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 decision in case and held that the
provision defines the person who is entitled to succeed and not merely the
capacity in which he or she succeeds. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Overall, then, the courts have taken the approach that
the provisions of section 6A of the Primary Courts Act stipulate the person who
succeeds as well as defining the capacity in which he or she does so. The section
prescribes that tie deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s heir at customary law shall also be the
heir, in his or her individual capacity, in respect of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s
immovable property, which would otherwise devolve in accordance with the general
Although an heir succeeds to immovable property in his or her individual capacity,
it has been held that he or she still owes a duty of support to the dependants of
the deceased.\uc1 \u8221 ? That duty includes \uc1 \u8221 ?the obligation of
providing them with suitable shelter, or with the means of procuring suitable
shelter.\uc1 \u8217 ? As a result an heir may not evict the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s
dependants from the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s house without providing them with
alternative accommodation or the means of securing it.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In short, the effect of section
6A of the Primary Courts Act is that the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s heir in terms of
customary law is also the heir in respect of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s immovable
property, thus ousting the potential applicability of general law which would
otherwise be applicable on the basis that the ownership and, therefore, devolution
of immovable property is unknown to customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, for the heir to succeed to the
whole interest in the immovable property, it must be shown that the deceased was
the sole owner. The heir succeeds only to that portion that was owned by the
deceased and to no more. If the deceased owned the property in question in
conjunction with the surviving spouse, the heir may only succeed to the share of
the property that belonged to the deceased.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It ought to be observed that if and when the Customary
Law and Local Courts Bill, 1989, is enacted into law the intestate devolution of
the immovable property of Africans will be radically affected. If the Bill passes
through Parliament as it is in its5th draft, it will repeal section 6A of the
Primary Courts Act and substitute nothing in its place. This will be achieved by
repealing section 6A of the Primary Courts Act by merely not re-enacting its
provisions after the Bill/Act has repealed the Primary Courts Act. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The repeal of section 6A will
means that the devolution of the immovable property of Africans will have to take
place in accordance with the general law of Zimbabwe, since it has long been
accepted that the ownership and therefore devolution of immovable }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 15 Sec }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 66/86. 16 }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ibid }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p3. 17 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ibis! }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.3-4. 18 See generally
Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note
1, at pp.240-245. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
r }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 TO MAMMON Al. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property is a concept totally
alien to customary law. Accordingly, customary law has no rules to govern the
devolution or inheritance of immovable property and in the absence of such rules,
it must follow that the devolution of such property will have to take place in
accordance with the general law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The practical or substantive effect of this will be
that if an African husband dies intestate and leaves immovable property, that
property will be inherited by his wife and children in equal shares, in accordance
with the Roman-Dutch common law as modified by section 3 of the Deceased Estates
Succession Act. This change, if effected, will clearly make the laws of
inheritance of the immovable property of Africans fairly progressive. }{\rtlch
113.2 Intestate succession to the ma b-i-estate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A ma tri-estate consi st s of all property
legally recognized as belonging to a deceased wife. It includes all her personal
belongings, her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 mavoko/impahla zczandla zakhc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mombe yohumailinkomo yohlanga }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property. For purposes of
succession, the property in the matriesta te is classified into these three
categories of a woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s property, namely her personal belongings,
her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 umai }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property and her
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mavoko }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property. The
first category, that is, her personal belongings, are distributed among her
daughters, sisters and other near relatives as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 inyembezi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 misodzi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 gifts in Ndebele and Shona
respectively. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Among the Ndebele, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 inkomo yohlanga }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and its offspring passes to the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s
eldest daughter, whereas her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 impahla zezandla zakhe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 are inherited by her eldest son. In Shona
law, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
umai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property
must pass back to the woman\uc1 \u8217 ?s family group, and hence it is inherited
by her full blood brothers. Her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mavoko }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 property passes to her own sons as is the }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under Ndebele customary
law.\uc1 \u8221 ? In both Shona and Ndebele customary law the husband is not
entitled to receive anything from his wife\uc1 \u8217 ?s estate. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1133 Succession to the
patri-estate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Under customary law a man\uc1 \u8217 ?s estate includes not only his physical
assets, but also his wives and daughters and the right to receive }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on their
marriage. Holleman, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 Shona Cu stoma ry La w, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 terms cattle and the deceased man\uc1
\u8217 ?s widows a nd daughters the \uc1 \u8221 ?organic assets\uc1 \u8221 ? of
his estate because these \uc1 \u8221 ?assets\uc1 \u8221 ? have a capacity for
reproducing further wealth
for him. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
A full understanding of succession to the path-estate under customary law is
impossible without an understanding of the hierarchical organisation of the
\uc1 \u8221 ?family group\uc1 \u8221 ? under customary law. This organisation is
generally common to both Ndebele and Shona law. The deceased man has his own
immediate family made up of his wife and children and which is normally referred
to as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 umuzi
wakhe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 imba }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Ndebele and
Shona respectively. The deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 imba as a unit is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a member of the larger family
group made up of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s father\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 imba }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 if he is alive, his
brother\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 imbas }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 and the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 imbas }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of his own as well }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 19 See generally Goldin and Gel fand,
pp.277-307 and Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note I at pp.182-183. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1Ai }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;Miry }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 no place }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 state iren tion the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 flal }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN 71MBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?chic lame family
made uo of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\nowidctlpar \lin0 \rin0 \itap0 \rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as his tarotner }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ...}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ...F. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 known as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chizvanva anu }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the oldest }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nt he}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 , }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be he the grandfather, father or brother
of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mall! a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the deceased himself. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Because direct lineal succession takes
place simultaneously with collateral succession double succession is not uncommon.
Under customary law, unaffected by the Legal Age of Majority Act, direct lineal
succession operated in favour of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest so, This son
thereby became the head of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s own }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 imba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and as a result succeeded to the
deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s name, estate and position within the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chiwarwa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 provided that the deceased was
himself not the head of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chizvariva. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If the deceased was himself the head of the }
chizvariva, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
his eldest son succeeded only to his name and estate, while collateral succession
operated in favour of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest surviving brother, who
thereby became the head of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chizvarwain the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 absence of a lineal heir or if the lineal heir was too
young, collateral succession operated to bestow the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s estate
on the collateral heir. In cases where there was no lineal heir, however, the
deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s estate vested in the collateral heir temporarily, pending
the lineal heir\uc1
\u8217 ?s attainment of full age whereupon the estate went to him as the head of
the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s family?\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It should be emphasised that prior to the
Legal Age of Majority Act, the heir to the patriestate was the deceased\uc1
\u8217 ?s eldest son. On the failure of sons, the estate went to the
deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest surviving grandson and, on the failure of grandsons,
the estate went to the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest brother?\uc1 \u8217 ? In the
absence of brothers, the estate went to the eldest su rvi ving ma le child of the
deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s brothers. On their failure, the father of the deceased
became the heir, if he was alive, and if he was not, the estate passed to the
oldest of his brothers. In the total absence of male relations, the son of the
deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest sister, the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 muzukuru }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was the heir. On the failure of the }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 muzukuru }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the deceased\uc1
\u8217 ?s sisters\uc1 \u8217 ? male children were entitled to inherit in their
order of seniority .22 No female could inherit property from the patri-estate
under customary law? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This traditional customary law order of succession has
been fundamentally modified by the effects of the Legal Age of Majority Act which
conferred majority status on African women who had hitherto been perpetual minors
under customary law. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chihowa v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 20 See generally Goldin and
Gelfand, pp.284-299 and Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1 at pp.184-185. 21 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Diana v Madidi }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1918 SR 559 and tam v }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jim and
Takaziweyi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1939 SRN 49. 22 See generally Child, pp.104-107; Storry, pp.80-81; Goldin and
Gelfand, pp.284-285 and Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1, p.186. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /uniasi and iuniasi v Nawa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1944 SRN 210. However, it has
been held that a woman could }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 inherit as trustee, see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sipamehlov Dube) 940 }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SRN 79. Fora
discussion of theabuses and injustices }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 customary law of inheritance, see
generally Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 (supra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 7,, atewan \uc1 \u8217 ?,infra), Note n, pp.613-89; J
May, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
Zimbabwe Women in Customary }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Colonial Law, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.87-100; J M M Mpofu, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Some Observable
Sources of Women\uc1 \u8217 ?s Subordinat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.10-Z0. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bees children. This large
family grouping made up of these various in Shona and is headed by a single male,
who is invariably the old is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the grandfather, father or brother of the decease? ber
of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
chizvar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 S himself. or }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fired lineal succession takes
place simultaneously with collateral }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 kess\uc1 \u8217 ?on is not uncommon. Under customary
law, unaffected by the Legal Age Act, direct lineal succession operated in favour
of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest hereby became the head of the deceased\uc1
\u8217 ?s own }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 inzba }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 and as a result eased\uc1 \u8217 ?s name, estate and position
within the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
chizvarwa provided that the \uc1 \u8217 ?vas }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 himself not the head of the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chizvarwa. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If the deceased
was himself the head }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 parwa, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 his eldest son succeeded only to his name and estate, while
collateral operated in favour of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest surviving
brother, who therebv head of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 chizvarwa. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In the absence of a lineal heir or if the li nea I heir
was lateral succession operated to bestow the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s estate on the
collateral es where there was no lineal heir, however, the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s
estate vested in the heir temporarily, pending the lineal heir\uc1 \u8217 ?
sattainment of full age whereupon the it to him as the head of the deceased\uc1
\u8217 ?s family.20 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e emphasised that prior to the Legal Age of Majority
Act, the heir to the patrii the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest son. On the failure
of sons, the estate went to the (eldest surviving grandson and, on the failure of
grandsons, the estate went to ed\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest brother?\uc1 \u8217 ? In the
absence of brothers, the estate went to the eldest male child of the
deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s brothers. On their failure, the father of the deceased
heir, if he was alive, and if he was not, the estate passed to the oldest of his h
the total absence of male relations, the son of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s eldest
sister, the was the heir. On the failure of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 muzukuru }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s sisters\uc1
\u8217 ? male rere entitled to inherit in their order of seniority?\uc1 \u8217 ?
No female could inherit rom the patri-estate under customary law 33 }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ional customary law order of
succession has been fundamentally modified by of the Legal Age of Majority Act
which conferred majority status on African ho had hitherto been perpetual minors
under customary law. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chihowa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
erally Goldin and Cella nd, pp.284-299 and Ncube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note 1 at pp.184-185. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v Madidi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1918 SR 559 and }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lamu v Jim and
Takaziweyi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1939 SRN 49. orally Child, pp.104-107; Sorry, pp.80-81; Goldin and Gel fand,
pp.284-285 and Ncube Note 1, p.186. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 asi and Juniasi v Nawa }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1944 SRN 210. However, it has been held
that a woman could Ls trustee, see }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sipamehlo v Dube }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1940 SRN 79. For a discussion of the
abuses a }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nd }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 injustices
ulted from the customary law of inheritance, see generally Ncube (supra), Note 1,
197; J Stewart }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
(infra), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note
25, pp.88-89; J May, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 Zimbabwe Women in Customary and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Las pp.87-100; J M M Mpofu, }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Some Observable
Sources of Women\uc1 \u8217 ?s Subordination }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.18-28. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 TO MATRIMONIAL riicsixry }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he Supreme Court ruled that
customary law excluded women from its 2ssion because they were and would always be
minors in law. Now that me majors at the age of 18 years, they have the same
rights of succession as luently, the eldest daughter of a deceased man may succeed
to his property had no son older than her. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 size, the Supreme Court ruling in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chihowa v
Mangwcndc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 makes
a deceased 1st child his heir regardless of the sex of the child. Further, the
deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s heir s eldest grandchild where the deceased is not survived
by any children. On the (grandchildren, the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s estate goes to
his eldest surviving brother or the absence of brothers and sisters, the heir is
the eldest child of the brothers and ad so on down the customary order of
succession. The change has been that now take their place alongside men in the
usual customary law order of Ion( }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it under customary law, whoever he or she is, inherits
as a trustee of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s idants so that the person who succeeds
to the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s estate also automatically
nes responsibility for the maintenance of the deceased\uc1 \u8217 ?s
dependants,\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 though the principles and rules of succession under
customary law outlined above /vary from place to place in the same way that
customary law varies from one group Another, the presentation in this chapter
represents the general rules of succession in Anbabwe as they pertain to the
Ndebele and Shona peoples. However, not withstanding e variations that may exist
from place to place, in strict customary law the widow of the greased is never
entitled to inherit her deceased husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s property?\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SC 84/87 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra) pp.3-4; }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chihowa v
Mangwendc (supra.) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
pp.8-9. Sec also Goldin and Gotland, p.286; Storry, p.81; J May, pS9; Child, p.105
and Stewart, \uc1 \u8221 ?Playing the Came; Women\uc1 \u8217 ?s I n heri ta nce of
Property in Zimbabwe\uc1 \u8221 ?, in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Women and law in Southern Africa, }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 edited by A Armstrong and
W Ncubc, pp.89-90. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, see Mpofu }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.20-22 where he states that his field
research on this issue revealed a haphazard situation in the system of
inheritance so that even though the widow is generally excluded in most cases,
\uc1 \u8221 ?each family unit seems free to interpret customary law as it sees }
fit.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 12 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Dissolution of marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12.1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Introduction Marriage can only Ix
dissolved by death or divorce. The death of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouses automatically brings
the marriage relationship to an end.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 dissolved, however, the tact or death must
proved. In appmpnate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 order presuming the death of a person can granted by a
magistrate. ceurt the process of divorce is more compitx.: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12.2 Divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 12.2.1 General historical }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The first manifestations Roman law institution of }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 termination of marriage by a }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 misconduct was more }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 husband expelling }{\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 also became available to husbands. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law known as di srorce }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under Roman }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on the grounds of his }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and repudl, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 home.Afterthe thins\uc1
that time had had no }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 From the institution of there later developed the insu
was the severance of the marriage relationship by mutual corm formalities were
required by Roman law (or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 divortium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to be e }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 divortium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 co-existed until aft..r the classical period of Roman
growing influence of Christianity, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 repudium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was limited to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1 Grottos 1.15.18. 2 Sec section }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the Missing Persons Act,
1978 (No. 28 of /9770. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,on of marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 auction }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n only be dissolved by death or
divorce. The death of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 one }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
or both of the omatically brings the marriage relationship to an end) Before the
marriage is however, the fact of death must be proved. In appropriate
circumstances an uming the death of a person can be granted by a magistrates
court. Naturally is of divorce is more complex? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ivorce General historical background }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 st manifestations of what is in
modern law known as divorce can be traced to the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law institution of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 repudium. Repudium, }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 under Roman law, was the
unilateral nation of marriage by a husband on the grounds of hismixanduct. This
onduct was more often than not adultery and repudiation was achieved by the >and
expelling his wife from their common home. After the third century BC }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 repudium }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 became available
to wives who until that time had had no right to repudiate their ,ands. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n the institution of }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 repudium }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 there later
developed the institution of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 divortium, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which the severance of the marriage rela tionshi p by
mutual consent of the spouses\uc1 \u8212 ?.No I ega talkies were required by Roman
law for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
divortium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to be
effected and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 repudium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tium }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 co-existed until aft,r the classical period of Roman
law when, as a result of the ping influence of Christianity, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 repudium }{\rtlch
\f0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 was limited to cases of
adultery only. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
1rotius 1.15.18. cc section 4 of the Missing Persons Act, 1978 (No. 28 of
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I AMON (74: }
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 VI }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 WM }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 imed jurisdiction over all
matrimonial matters. Canon slian dogma which regarded marriage asa sacrament, d,
and, therefore indissoluble. Christianity preached the flesh and that no man had
the right to put asunder cr. As a result, divorce could not be achieved in any c
and then only on the ground of impotence. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 together could be brought to an end by
separation of udicial }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 separation), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 although this procedure did not Thus if one of the
spouses committed adultery or was ourts passed a sentence of separation of bed and
table d not sever the marriage tie but merely absolved the rtion.3 Divorce was
absolutely prohibited at this time orate theory of nullity of marriage thrOugh
which a ir voidable. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 solubility of marriage could be avoided by the upper
ry, who were permitted to procure licences for the teir wives were unable to
provide them with heirs. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 English King, Henry VIII who divorced his first wife
him with an heir. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
)e the rigours of monogamy and the indissolubility of nistress system. J M
EcIcelaay has commented on this }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iy marriage often institutionalised for husband sby a
mistress be denied to her !the wife\uc1 \u8217 ? by reason of her economic
imposing dual standards of marital behaviour. His adultery tan hers, but since her
infidelity might introduce spurious cord ingly upset the smooth operation of the
lineage system, tidetably greater abhorrence.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
istianity and Canon law was extensive throughout and, under Roman-Dutch law,
accepted from early solved by a judge on the ground of adultery. As Pjl his was
found in Matthew XIX, verse 9, and it was ice of 1580 !section 181, as well as by
Hugo de Groot }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
pp.270-271; M Kaser, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 Roman Private Law, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 translated by Wessels, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 History of the Roman Dutch Law }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1908, pp.467- }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 Polity, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2nd W and N, London, 1984
at p.122 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY JAW
I /I %MIAMI }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 After the lith Cent iv, Roman-Dutch law accepted
malicious desertion as a ground upon which a judge could di-0,44w a marriage by
divorce. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
In more modem time,, when feudalism gave way to capitalism, a qualitative change
occurred in the legal perception of marriage as an institution. Capitalism
introduced notions of freedom of contract in all spheres of social life including
marriage. Marriage was shorn of its religious sacramental character and became a
voluntary civil contract regulated by the State both in its formation and
dissolution. As Engels has put it: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?According to bourgeois conceptions,
matrimony was a contract, a legal affair, indeed the most important of all, since
it disposed of the body and the mind of two persons for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, unlike the ordinary contract, the
bourgeois state conceived of marriagesass }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 _generic }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 ron\uc1 \u9658 ?ract }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which could not legally be
d i ssol wed by agreement of the parties. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 On y t }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 state had the power to determine the
conditions under which a marriage could be dissolved. Initially, the bourgeois
state introduced limited grounds upon which the marriage tic could be severed,
most of these grounds based on the fault principle. This principle operated on
the premise that an injured spouselada_rigiat marriage contract and obtain a
divorce from the courts where his or her spouse had violated the marriage contract
by committing a matrimonial offence. Such offences often included adultery,
desertion, cruelty and long term imprisonment. No evidence other than proof of a
matrimonial offence was accepted as sufficient grounds for divorce, the rationale
behind these stringent conditions being that the best way to preserve marriages
was to have strict divorce laws. Recently, however, most bourgeois states have
greatly extended thegrounds upon which a divorce can be obtained by recognizing
the principle of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 the irretrievable breakdown of marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Under this principle spouses
become entitled to a divorce whenit is shown that their marriage relationship has
broken down to such an extent that it cannot be salvaged.\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Several reasons have been and
continue to be advanced to explain the liberalisation of divorce laws. Among other
things it has been realized that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?When a marriage which is essentially a
social rather than a legal institution, has irreparably deteriorated, neither the
state nor society has a justifiable interest in attempting to preserve; by legal
controls that which by social controls can no longer be maintained.\uc1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 The Origins of the Family, Private Property and
the State, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
See generally AH Barnard, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 The New Divorce Law, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Buttcrworths, Durban, 1979, pp.15-22;S }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Cretney, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
Principles Family Law, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 3rd ed, Sweet and Maxwell, London, 1979, pp.97-163; }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Hoggett and DS4\uc1 \u8217 ?
earl, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
The Family, Law and Society, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1st cd, Butterworths, London, 11 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp\uc1 \u8226 ?138-185 and
Bromley\uc1 \u8217 ?s }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 \ul1 Family Law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pp.260-270. J Petersen, \uc1 \u8221 ?Divorce Law
Reform\uc1 \u8221 ?, (1971) 88 SALJ 478, at p.479. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 manifestation of this
realisation is to be found in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kuhn v Karp1948(4)SA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 825 where ,J put it as follows: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The upholding of the marriage
is only one of the several objects of public policy.... Where }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage has been wrecked
beyond hope of salvage the argument of public policy loses much of its form... To
keep the parties tied to one another in the bonds of a marriage which has become a
sham is obviously conducive to immorality and potentially more prejudicial to the
public interest than a dissolution of the marriage bond.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?his position
clearly realizes that a marriage ought to be dissolved once the interpersonal ics
on which it was based have broken down, for society does not benefit from the
naintenance of such marriages. Indeed, it is submitted that stringent divorce laws
breed mmorality and discourage marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is important to recognise, however, that
the problem with which the law of divorce is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 onfronted is not a legal
problem at all. The problem of broken and failed marriages is a }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ial problem and as such cannot
be resolved by the utilization of divorce laws. To }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 relieve othenvise is to mystify the issue
in the interests of self-delusion, for no amount of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cring with divorce laws can prevent failed
marriages or reduce their number. As }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hlo has elegantly expressed the point, }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wish }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 could make myself believe that there were
some legal measure which could solve the problem of broken marriages and divorce,
but }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 am afraid that the causes
of the disintegration of family life lie too deep for that. The high divorce rate
in the Western world to-day is but a symptom of the malady of our times and it is
naive to think that laws can be drafted which will correct the causes of marital
disharmony ... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Families are not broken up by the courts or the lawyers - in pronouncing a
divorce, the court merely writes out the death certificate in respect of a
marriage, which, in most cases, has died long before the lawyers were ever
concerned with it. The true remedy for the present state of affairs, if there be
such a remedy, must be sought elsewhere than in a reform }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (emphasis added). }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 re role of divorce laws should
thus be to identify marriages which have broken down d thereafter ensure their
speedy dissolution with minimum hardship to the parties }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 volved. Surely social interests must
require the dissolution of marriages which have in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\sa0 \lisa0 \sl240 \slmult1 \nowidctlpar
broken down and exist as no more than empty legal shells. Society does not and }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nnot benefit from the
maintenance of marriages that have long ceased to exist in fact. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Historical development of
divorce laws in Zimbabwe under the general law }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that the Roman-Dutch common law was
introduced as the general law of by section 19 of the High Commissioner\uc1 \u8217
?s Proclamation of 10 June, 1891, it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 only two grounds for divorce, namely adultery and
malicious desertion. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Law Reform Stop The Disintegration of Family Life?\uc1
\u8221 ? 0954171 SAL) 391 at p.393. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In 1943, apart from attaching certain
conditions to the common law ground of malicious desertion, the Matrimonial Causes
Ad }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
!Charter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
introduced three new grounds for divorce. These grounds were cruelty, incurable
insanity and long term imprisonment. Thus by 1943 five grounds for divorre were by
the general law of Zimbabwe, namely adultery, malicious desertion, cruelty,
insanity and long term imprisonment. All these grounds, except insanity, were
based squarely on the guilt principle, in that they assumed the commission of a
matrimonial offence by one or other of the spouses. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The above-
mentioned five grounds continued to he the only grounds for divorce until they
were abolished by the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 (No. 33 of 19(15)10 which
introduced irretrievable breakdown and continuous unconsciousness as the only two
legally acceptable grounds }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 divorce. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A clear understanding of the old Zimbabwean law of
divorce under the general law is necessary for a full appreciation of its
inadequacies and for a fuller understanding of the present law. This is so since
the present law uses virtually all the old grounds for divorce as evidence of the
irretrievable breakdown of marriage. Consequently, the old law of divorce as appl
ied prior to the coming into force of the Matrimonial Causes Act,1985 (No. 33 of
1985) (hereinafter called the Matrimonial Causes Ad) and the five grounds for
divorce therein contained are briefly discussed below. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Adultery }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Adultery is the oldest ground
for divorce known to Roman-Dutch common law. It is defined by Roman-Dutch law
as \uc1 \u8221 ?voluntary sexual intermit rse between a married person and some
other person who is not the former\uc1 \u8217 ?shusband or wife\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1
\u8221 ? and includes perverted forms of sexual intercourse such as sodomy and
bestiality.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 To suffice as a ground for divorce, the act of adultery
must be proven. This is to say that the spouse alleging adultery must prove that
his or her spouse had sexual intercourse with another person. However, because of
its very nature, it is often necessary to prove by circumstantial evidence rather
than direct evidence since there are normally no witnesses to the act except the
two adulterous parties themselves. Accordingly, adultery is of ten proved by
inference f rom facts and circumstances which justify the dra wing of the
inference that sexual intercourse took place between the parties.\uc1 \u8221 ? The
court must be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
10 This Act repealed and replaced the Matrimonial Causes }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act (Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 391. It came into force on
7 February, 1986. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
11 Olivier, p/73. See also Hahlo at p366 where adultery is defined as \uc1 \u8221
?voluntary sexual intercourse between a spouse and a person other than the
offender\uc1 \u8217 ?s husband or wife\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kat v Kat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1910 IS 436 at p.443. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sidubi v Middlemiss }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-B-130-87 at p.13 where Sansole J stated
that \uc1 \u8221 ?Generally speaking, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the all too familiar triad of desire, opportunity and
willingness may if shown to exist in a case, readily afford an inference that
adultery had taken place.\uc1 \u8221 ? See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 van Deventer v van Deventer }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962 (3) SA 969 at 972A and
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Nkomo v
Ndlovu HC-13-74-88. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF MAAR, ACE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of probabilities, the offending
spouse did have sexual son other than his or her spouse.. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 y is an essential element of
the matrimonial offence of the intention to have sexual intercourse isabsent there
is no of sexual intercourse has taken place. Thus a spouse who curse with another
person other than his or her spouse ;o, is not guilty of adultery. It follows,
therefore, that if a influence of alcohol or drugs to such an ex tent that he or
she is doing, or simply cannot control his or her actions (sane anent of
intention would be absent and adultery would not though the physical act of
intercourse had occurred. The \uc1 \u8217 ?sent where the alleged adulterer proves
that he or she was I the third person and thought that that third person was his
y would not have been committed under these &cumiay be said that a reasonable
mistake of fait isa good defence le ground of adultery. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adultery damages accepted in Roman-Dutch
law include donation, connivance and collusion. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 law of divorce being based on the guilt
principle, took the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Drce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 on the grounds of adultery could not be granted to a
herself committed adultery. Thus under the common law bitted adultery he or she
could not succeed in divorcing the the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s adultery. Whether
the plaintiff committed defendant had done so was immaterial. However, Romanthe
cour t\uc1 \u8217 ?s d iscretionary power to condone the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s
urt\uc1 \u8217 ?s condonation was to disregard the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s adultery
r to obtain a divorce although he or she had also committed }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 exercise its discretion to condone an act of adultery
the active degrees of blameworthiness of the parties and the factors were \uc1
\u8221 ?to be judged by maintaining a true balance ng sanctity of marriage and the
social considerations which icy to insist on the maintenance of a union which has
utterly interests of the children of the marriage, the possibility of flies, the
interests of the plaintiff and his or her paramour, ipects }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 their marriage after the
dissolution of the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s msiderations.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 park F }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1962 (1) SA 48 (SR). ipra). }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW IN AMBAKWI }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 If the innocent spouse forgave the \uc1
\u8221 ?guilty\uc1 \u8221 ? spouse for his or her adultery, the innocent
spousecould not at a later stage i nst t u to an action for d vorce based on the ad
ul tery which he or she had condoned. The effect of condonation was to wipe out
the adultery and the condoned acts of adultery could not thereafter be used as a
ground for divorce. In,order for condonation to take place \uc1 \u8221 ?full
forgiveness in the light of full knowledge\uc1 \u8221 ? was required from the
innocent spouse. limes CJ succintly put it as follows: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8212 ?The injured spouse
must have knowledge of the offence, must fully forgive it and must be }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 prepared to take back the
guilty partner; the latter must be willing to accept forgiveness and }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to take advantage of the
pardon, and reconciliation must ensue.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch \af4 \hich
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thus condonation could not take
place if the guilty spouse refused to be forgiven.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sexual intercourse between
the spouses took place after the discovery of adultery by the }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Innocent spouse a presumption
mat conaonation nas taken pace is mane. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Whereas condonation is forgiveness of past misconduct,
connivance is anticipatory consent, ex press or implied, to future misconduct. A
spouse is not entitled to a divorce on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the ground of misconduct at which he or she connived,
for }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 volenti
non fit infuria.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This simply means that a spouse cannot rely on an act
of adultery to which he or she has consented as a ground for divorce since he or
she cannot complain about an act of infidelity to which he or she has mentally
assented. The essential element of connivance is the corrupt intention of
promoting, encouraging or acquiescing in the initiation or the continuance of
adultery by one\uc1 \u8217 ?s spouse. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The courts will refuse to grant a decree of divorce
where it is shown that the parties have colluded to lay false facts before the
court so that the court may grant a divorce. Thus situations in which the parties
agree to put false evidence of adultery before the court or to suppress evidence
of adultery by one party would amount to collusion. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Malicious desertion }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The basis of malicious
desertion as a ground for divorce was founded in Roman-Dutch common law. The
repealed Matrimonial Causes Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 391 set certain conditions which had to be satisfied
before a divorce could be granted on the ground of malicious desertion. It was
required that at least three years had to have elapsed since the date of marriage
and that a spouse had to have been in desertion fora period of six months before a
decree of divorce could be granted on the ground of malicious desertion!\uc1 \u8217
? However, an action for divorce could be instituted before the expiration of
either period provided that a final decree of divorce could not be granted before
the expiration of both the stipulated periods.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 17 In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bell z Bell, }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1909 TS 500, at p.509. 18
Hahlo, p.376. 19 Section 2(1). 20 Section 2(2). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 01 MARRIACr. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 us desertion existed when one
spouse deserted the other out of malice in order to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 end to the marriage. According to
Professor Hahlo, malicious desertion is made wo elements namely; }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 onduct amounting to desertion,
the so-called factum of desertion; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the mental element, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 animus desert:7th, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which simply means that the
defendant must have acted without good causeand with the fixed intention of
putting an end to the marriage relationship. Thus, there is no desertion where the
intention to put an end to the marriage relationship is absent?\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Illy, there are three main
forms of malicious desertion, namely, physical desertion, native desertion and
refusal of conjugal rights or marital privileges. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 al or physical desertion occurs when the
defendant leaves the matrimonial home the intention not to return. Constructive
desertion consists of the innocent spouse ng the matrimonial home because of the
conduct of the defendant, who with the id intention of bringing the marriage
relationship to an end, has driven the plaintiff }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 y }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by making life in common dangerous or
intolerable. In constructive desertion it is nnocent spouse who leaves the
matrimonial home and yet it is the defendant who is \uc1 \u8217 ?sertion because
of his or her conduct which has driven the plaintiff away. Denial of Ugal rights
is a species of malicious desertion just as much as an unreasonable refusal ave
children amounts to desertion.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an action for divorce on the ground of constructive
desertion to succeed the three uirements of constructive desertion must be
satisfied. These are: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 i) the consortium of the spouses must have come to an
end as a result of the plaintiff having left the defendant; }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ii) the plaintiff must have
left as a result of the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s unlawful conduct and }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ill) the defendant\uc1
\u8217 ?s conduct must have been attributable to a fixed intention to put an end
to the marriage relationship.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 efences to an action for divorce on the grounds of
malicious desertion included insanity /Filch vitiated the element of }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 animus
descrendi), }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
an agreement to live apart, adultery by e plaintiff and resumption of cohabitation
since desertion ceases when the deserter turns.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 P.391. See also }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Schroeder v
Schroeder }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(2) SA 6 (N). W v 111965 (3) SA 140. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Wyndham Quin v Wyndham Quin }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1978 (4) SA 843 (AD)
Bahl\uc1 \u176 ?, p.393; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Pullen v Pullen }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1945 SR 13 and W v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (3) SA 740 See Olivier, pp.275-276. }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW EN
lc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
welly }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Cruelty as a ground for divorce was introduced by section 3(c) of the repealed
Matrimonial Causes Ad }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 [Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 391 which required the plaintiff to show that the
defendant had, during the subsistence of the marriage, treated the plaintiff with
such crueltyas made the continuance of married life insupportable. Section 6(1)
then went on to provide that the High Court may regard such habitual drunkenness
or such mental cruelty as makes the continuance of married life insupportable, as
cruelty for purposes of paragraph (c) of section 3. However, the petitioner could
not obtain a decree of divorce on the ground of cruelty if he or she was to blame
for the conduct of the defendant? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 For conduct to amount to cruelty it must be grave and
weighty enough to cause, or be likely to cause, injury or reasonable apprehension
of injury to the health of the other party? In other words to constitute cruelty
in the legal sense conduct must be \uc1 \u8221 ?such as to cause danger to life,
limb or health, bodily or mental, or to give rise to a reasonable apprehension of
such danger? Thus the conduct must be so much worse than the ordinary wear and
tear of married life that the plaintiff could not be expected to endure it? In the
words of the repealed Matrimonial Causes Act 1Chapter 391, the conduct must render
\uc1 \u8221 ?the continuance of married life insupportable.\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Secondly, upon proof of a
degree of factual cruelty sufficient to make the continuance of married life
insupportable, the applicant was further required to show that he or she was. not
to blame for the conduct of the defendant to any appreciable extent. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In the landmark case of }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Hill }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the then
Appellate Division of the High Court of Rhodesia decided that there was no
requirement in our law that to amount to cruelty the conduct complained of must
have been intended by its perpetrator to be cruel towards the plaintiff. Thus, }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Hill v
Hill }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (supra)
laid to rest the old notion that an intention to injure the other spouse wasan
essential element of cruelty?* In so doing our courts followed the English
approach as laid down in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Collins v Collins\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 where it was held that an
intention to injure or be cruel to the other spouse was not an essential clement
of cruelty in divorce law. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Williams v Williamsm }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the House of Lords took the decision in }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Collins v
Collins (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 25 See section
6(1). 26 See }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Ainsworth }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ainsworth }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1967) 10 FLR 396 (SCN SW). 27 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Russel v }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Russe/118971 AC 395 at
p.399. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
SeealsoleBrocgvleBrocg1196411 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 WLR 1085 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sheldon v Sheldon }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 119661 CA 62. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Crump v Crump }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (1965)2 All ER 980. See
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 de
Sails v de Sails }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 1957 (4) SA 639 (SR) where it was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 held that a continued improper association
by a spouse with a person of the opposite sex, even if such association is not
accompanied by adultery amounts to cruelty. 29 1969 (3) SA 544 (RAD). 30 For
a critique of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Hill }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 see Mercer, \uc1 \u8221 ?Cruelty in Rhodesian Divorce Law\uc1 \u8221
?, 1969 RLJ 129. 31 119631 2 All ER 966. 32 119631 2 All ER 994. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IINPOIS.s. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF MARRIAGE. }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ay holding that insanity is
not necessarily a-defence to an action d of cruelty. Lord Reid put it as follows:
decree should be pronounced against such an abnormal person, not was aimed at his
wife, or because a reasonable man would
have realized use he must be deemed to have foreseen or intended the harm he did,
he facts are such that, after maki ng all allowances for his d isabilities and is
of both panics, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 it }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 must beheld that the cha ract yr and gravity of his acts tint to
cruelty. And if that is right for an abnormal person I see no good should not
apply to an insane person \uc1 \u8221 ?II }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nonial Causes Act I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter 391 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 made provision (or divorce on
the .ded that the defendant had been under care and treatment (or a cars, or for
interrupted periods which together amounted in the irs, within the 10 years
immediately preceding the divorce action. the Act the plaintiff seeking a divorce
on the ground of insanity cts; firstly, that the defendant was of unsound mind,
that is, defective; secondly, that he or she had been subject to the Dism1 rsAct,
for a period of not less than 5 years; thirdly, that tad fourthly, that the
plaintiff was not to any appreciable extent the defendant?\uc1 \u8217 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iane if there is no reasonable
hopc, that be or she can be restored he will be capable of leading a normal social
life and of managing }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rceon thegmund of insanity wasnot based on theguilt
principle ionial obligations. It was simply based on the occurrence of some ch
had made it impossible for one of the spouses to fulfil his or Ions. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cd where the defendan t had
been convicted of a crime and either }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sonment for 15 years or more; or }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 bitual criminal under the
provisions of the Criminal Procedure }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 59) and after such sentence or declaration
had been (or a continuous period of 5 years, or for interrupted periods }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 with section 4. See also }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thompson v
Thompson }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
(1) PRB 3 (1 ) SA 59 (510. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 V ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ch together amounted in the aggregate to at least 5
years, within the 10 years wdiately preceding the commencement of the divorce act
ion.34 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
could refuse to grant a decree of divorce on the ground of imprisonment where died
that the plaintiff had voluntarily assisted the defendant in the commission w or
crimes of which he or she had been convicted.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 iticism of the old divorce law
l out earlier, the primary object of divorce laws should be the identification of
iages that have irretrievably broken down so that the empty legal shell can be
with maximum fairness and minimum bitterness, distress and humiliation. ws
satisfying this requirement would be understood and respected by society , it is
suggested, discourage the formation of illicit extra-marital relationships ing the
dissolution of empty marriages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v of divorce based on the guilt principle fell very
much short of being a good edivorce law. The fault principle is based on the
obviously erroneous premise s always a guilty spouse and an innocent spouse in a
divorce suit. A law of ended on the guilt principle invents a guilty spouse who is
the villain of the rama and who alone is responsible for the breakdown of the
marriage. Beside is placed an innocent spouse who is depicted as no longer able to
endure the ions and who is accordingly entitled to divorce. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 this scenario is far removed
from the realities of married life in which both course to varying degrees,
contribute to the failure or breakdown of their redgold J vividly captured the
reality of married life when in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bairns v Baines }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is seldom in a matrimonial
dispute
that the faults are all on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 side.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 inciple permits only the innocent spouse
to bring an action for thedissolution age and thus al lows the so-called innocent
spouse to keep the so-called guilty !finitely bound to a marriage which has long
ceased to exist in fact, having :impty legal shell valid only in the eyes of the
law but dead for all practical }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 grounds for divorce under the fault system such as
adultery and desertion usually the result and not the cause of marital breakdown.
Of ten by the time }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 leserts or commits adultery the marriage would have
long broken dowi }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5 at p.137. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 DISSOLUTION OF MARRIAGE, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Inc in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NM, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
thegovernmentorRhodesiasetupaCommisstonofIncuirvintothedivram }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the coun try. One of the
Commission\uc1 \u8217 ?s tasks was to inquire into the law of Rhodesia }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 whit-ft rn -..
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A _ _ }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It\uc1 \u8217 ? any }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in inc }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 la vs a an: or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 utsiraoic ana, if so, to
what }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\uc1 \u8217 ?Commission duly carried out its mandate and presented its report
entitled \uc1 \u8221 ?Report }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Divorce Lew>, W I IC>IUCIII at:yammer, in its the
emission recommended }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 interalia,thatthe \uc1 \u8221 ?sole }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ground for granting a divorce
shall he }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
....-\uc1 \u8217 ? ... ,. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 irremediable or Irreparable
tauure\uc1 \u8221 ? of irtarnage.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Thegovemment of Rhodesia did not act on
this recommenda lion until it collapsed in 1980 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and was }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 succeeded by the government of independent
Zimbabwe. However, as stated earlier, the old grounds for divorce were abolished
in 1985 by the independent government }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Zimbabwe through the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985 (No.
33 of 1985). Before
a consideration of the current divorce laws as embodied in the Matrimonial Causes
Act is made it is necessary to discuss the law of divorce under customary law
prior to its abolition by the Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act, 1987 (No. 11 of
1987) which came into operation on 11th December, 1987. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The effect of the 1987
amendment of the Matrimonial Causes Act was to rationalize and unify the law of
divorce so that all valid marriages, whether under customary law or general law,
became subject to the same divorce laws as embodied in that Act.\uc1 \u176 ?
Accordingly, the grounds for the d issol u t ion of customary law and general law
marriages are now the same. The only d ifference is that general law marriages can
only be dissolved by the High Court whereas customary law marriages can be
dissolved by any court which is competent to apply the provisions of section 4 of
the Matrimonial Causes Act, even though in practice they are dissolved by the
community court!\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 39 Paragraph 45. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 40 This is achieved by the definition
of \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage in section 2 where marriage is defined as }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?including a
marriage contradicted in termsof customary law under the African Marriages Act }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (Chapter }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 238).\uc1 \u8221
? 41 only other court of first instance competent to apply the provisions of
section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
4 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matrimonial Causes Act is the
High Court and hence a customary law marriage can be dissolved either by the High
Court or community court. This is because the term \uc1 \u8221 ?appropriate
court\uc1 \u8221 ? is defined as meaning the High Court \uc1 \u8221 ?in relation
toany marriage\uc1 \u8221 ? and a comunity court in relation to a customary law
marriage (section 2)- This position will be changed by the Customary Law and Local
Courts Bill, 1989 if it is enacted into law. The Bill, through Part VI }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the Schedule to it, will
amend the definition of appropriate court in the Matrimonial Causes Act so that a
magistrates court will be the appropriate court for the dissolution of a customary
law marriage. Accordingly, customary law marriages will }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 be }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 dissolved by magistrates courts
if and when the Bill becomes law. The definition of appropriate court in section
2(1) of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Matrimonial.g,k3ses Act will be amended by the repeal of paragraph (b) then\uc1
\u9632 ?of and the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\ltrch \dbch \af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY LAW ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 122.4 The old customary law of
divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
In pre-colonial Zimbabwe the contract of marriage was legally and socially
recognized as being a contract between two families and not between the two
spouses themselves. The power to dissolve a marriage vested in the two families.
Accordingly, tribal courts of law did not entertain actions for divorce, save that
they entertained disputes as to the amount of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 roora/lobolo }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 returnable by the husband\uc1 \u8217 ?s
family on the dissolution of a marriage. The dissolution of marriage was clearly
an extra-judicial affair. Goldin and Gelfand have pointed this out: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Traditionally,
divorce or dissolution of a marriage was arranged between the families of the
respective panics. Tribal Courts did not entertain actions for divorce.\uc1
\u8221 ?42 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
When the issue of the dissolution }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a marriage arose the two families or their
representatives met to decide on an appropriate course of action. They would agree
to the dissolution of the marriage only if they thought the union had broken down
to an unsalvageable extent.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The colonial state changed not only the
forum for the dissolution of African marriages, but also the grounds upon which a
customary law marriage could be dissolved. Section 17 of the Native Marriages
Ad\uc1 \u8221 ? provided that \uc1 \u8221 ?no marriage solemnized under the Act or
the Marriage Act or registered under the Native Marriages Act [Chapter 79 of 19391
or contracted under native law and custom before the 1st of April, 1918\uc1 \u8221
? shall be dissolved except by an order of a competent court.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1
The power to dissolve customary law marriages whether solemnized under the African
Marriages Act or by customary rites was
vested in the of the Native Commissioners until 1969 when the African Law and
Tribal Courts Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 [Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2371 gave tribal courts the power to dissolve
customary law marriages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In granting divorce the colonial courts departed from
the strict customary law regime under which a marriage was dissolved when it had
broken down to such an extent that it was irreparable. The district commissioners
courts gradually incorporated the guilt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 substitution of \uc1 \u8221 ?(b) a magistrates court,
in relation to any marriage entered into in accordance with customary law.\uc1
42 At p.147. 43 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mid, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 p.148. 44 No. 23 of 1950. 45 Under the Native
Marriages Act African customary unions were recognized as valid marriages }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and had to be dissolved by a
court. By virtue of section 3 of the African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 [Chapter 2381, }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 such unions are no longer
recognized and therefore need not be dissolved by a court. See also }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jefita v James }
where it was held that a \uc1 \u8221 ?husband\uc1 \u8221 ? in a customary law union
cannot divorce his \uc1 \u8221 ?wife\uc1 \u8221 ? because in law they are not
married to each other. 46 The provisions of this section are now embodied in
section 16 of the African Marriages Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Chapter }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2381. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 DISSOLUTION OF SIARKIACT }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rce so that a divorce could be granted
only upon vorce.\uc1 \u8221 ? It was no longer sufficient simply to show en down.
,\uc1 \u8221 ? impotence,\uc1 \u8221 ? malicious desertion,5\uc1 \u176 ?
cruelty,\uc1 \u8221 ? wi fe,\uc1 \u8221 ? and a false acrusa lion that the other
spouse /ere all grounds for divorce at customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a w a husband is entitled to a
return of part of the erminated by divorce.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which had replaced the District
Commissioners\uc1 \u8217 ? e basis of matrimonial fault or the guilt principle
down by the colonial courts.\uc1 \u8221 ? Thus, until the rnendment Act, 1987 (No.
11 of 1987), community law marriages on the basis of the fault principle. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ept of irretrievable
breakdown }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
became operational on 7th February, 1988 and i of the Matrimonial Causes Act
applies equally under general law or customary law. This is so re term \uc1
\u8221 ?marriage\uc1 \u8221 ? marriages registered in terms }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it thus: \uc1 \u8221 ?Under the
influence of we legal systems ourt dissolving a valid marriage willdo so only upon
,fy an order of divorce\uc1 \u8221 ? (at p.148). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 J }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 47. \uc1 \u8217 ?5. Z. Adultery by the
husband could not be a ground for tentially polygamous. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 19. Note that barrenness is
not and has never been a 1. Child, p.42. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1950, Juta, Cape Town, p.281. }{\rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 178 AAC 8; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 lokanya v Diana and Machingura (supra); }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I also decided
that the amount of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 returnable the number of children born, the conduct of the }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 3 of the Bulawayo District
Court; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Lanedi Piffle v Billie }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1yo District Court and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (afros Dandara v AI ice Kai
sande }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Bulawayo dated 2.3 May, 1983. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 CM MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 so that a divorce could be granted only
upon It was no longer sufficient simply to show n down. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 impotence,\uc1 \u8221 ?
malicious desertion, cruelty? rife,53and a false accusa lion that the other spouse
all grounds for divorce at customary law. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 w a husband is entitled to a return of
part of the -minathi by divorce.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vhich had replaced the District
Commissioners\uc1 \u8217 ? basis of matrimonial fault or the guilt principle town
by the colonial courts Thus, until the end ment Act, 9137 (No. of 1987), communi
ty \uc1 \u8217 ?w marriages on the basis of the fault principle. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pi of irretrievable
breakdown }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 became operational on 7th February, 1988
and 3f the Matrimonial Causes Act applies equally under general law or customary
law. This is so term \uc1 \u8221 ?marriage\uc1 \u8221 ? marriages registered in
terms }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
thus: \uc1 \u8221 ?Under the influence of western legal systems urt dissolving a
valid marriage will\uc1 \u8226 ?do so only upon an order of divorce\uc1 \u8221 ?
(at p.148). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Adultery by the husband could not be a ground for nail)/ polygamous. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Note that barrenness is not
and has never been a Thild, p.42. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 50, Juta, Cape Town, p.281. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 AAC 8; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Jokonya v Diana and Machingura (supra); }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 so decided that
the amount of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 returnable to number of children born, the conduct of the }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rthe }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bulawayo District Court; }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lanedi Pillie v
Billie }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 District
Court and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Jairos Dandara v Alice Kalsande }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Bulawayo dated 23 May, 1983. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 kW IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pest to the new divorce law, section 4
1 marriage may be dissolved by a decree of divorce by an appropriate court only on
the ounds of\uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (a) irretrievable break-down of the marriage as
contemplated by section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 five }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (b) incurable mental illness
or continuous unconsciousness of one of the panics to the marriage as contemplated
by section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
six.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vision is borrowed from section 3 of the South African
Divorce Act, No. 70 of 1979 a w now recognizes two grounds of divorce, namely
irretrievable breakdown of and mental illness or continuous unconsciousness. It
may be asked why mental continuous unconsciousness were abstracted from
irretrievable breakdown le a separate ground. It would appear that the legislature
drew a distinction marriages which have become impossible as a result of
circumstances beyond of the parties, that is, mental illness or continuous
unconsci ou sness, a nd those s which collapse as a result of the parties\uc1
\u8217 ? conduct. There appears to be no sound this distinction for a marriage
that has become impossible as a result of Ilable condi tions such as incurable
mental illness is as much irretrievably broken one which has failed as a result
of the parties\uc1 \u8217 ? conduct. Accordingly, whether a has broken down as a
result of the conduct of the parties or as a result of liable conditions such as
mental illness should not be a consideration. The ict is that the marriage has
broken down. The cause of the break down is t and the marriage should be
dissolved. The uselessness of the distinction has ne out in South Africa where the
courts have held that a marriage can be [Hy broken down as a result of mental
illness or continuous unconsciousness? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 recalled from above that section 4 of the Act states
that a marriage may be I under certain conditions. The use of the word \uc1 \u8221
?may\uc1 \u8221 ? clearly indicates that the ve a discretion to refuse to order a
decree of divorce even if the marriage has bly broken down or one of the spouses
is mentally ill or unconscious. It may be hat this discretion is senseless and
useless. Further, it could be argued that once ;e has been shown to have
irretrievably broken down the court should have no but must dissolve it for the
court cannot resuscitate or breathe life into a dead . Indeed, there is substance
in such objections and arguments. However, it is 1, that this discretion will
cause no adverse effects if it is used with caution and ;crests of the public and
parties concerned. I t is suggested that our courts should )rdera decree of
divorce wherea marriage has been shown to have broken down egranting of the
divorce would cause grave hardship to one of theprties or
to en of the marriage. It is emphasized that the-hardship must-bc shown to be
grave Dun exercises-Ili-discretionary power. It is indeed most likely that our
courts will he discretion given in-section 4 with great caution.\uc1
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of f }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 v. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 igevSmit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1981 (4)SA 409 and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ott v Raubenheinter NO 1985 (2) SA 851 }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (0). These two
cases ;cussed in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 detail infra }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at pp.174-175. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Schwartz:1 Schwartz }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1984 (4) SA 467 (AD) the South African
Appellate Division }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 held }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 factors indicating breakdown }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 main problem presented by the
concept of the irretrievable breakdown of marriage of determining when a marriage
can be said to have irretrievably broken down. of the Matrimonial Causes Act
provides the test for determining whether a has irretrievably broken down or not
by providing that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 An appropriate court may grant a decree of divorce on
the grounds of irretrievable breakdown of the marriage if it is satisfied that the
marriage relationship between the parties has broken down to such an extent that
there is no reasonable prospect of the restoration of a normal marriage
relationship between them\uc1 \u8221 ? (emphasis added). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (his means that whether a
marriage has irretrievably broken down or not is a question Affact to be
determined by reference to all the relevant factsand circumstancesof the case.
test to be applied or the question to be posed in every case is: Having regard to
ail the available evidence is there a reasonable prospect that the parties will
restore a normal marriage relationship between themselves? If the answer is in the
affirmative then the marriage has not irretrievably broken down and if it is in
the negative then the marriage has irretrievably broken down and must be
dissolved. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
The provisions of the above quoted test lay down two requirements for the
dissolution of a marriage, namely, that the marital relationship between the
spouses must have become abnormal and that there must exist no reasonable prospect
of a normal marital relationship being restored between them. Accordingly, a court
must first determine whether or not the marital relationship of the parties is
normal. If the relationship of the parties is found to be normal then the marriage
of the parties has not broken down. The question to be answered in this respect is
when i s a marital relationship no longer normal? The answer can only be found by
reference to the facts and circumstances of each case. It is neither possible nor
practical to provide a general test for the identification of a marital
relationship that is normal or not normal. In other words, it is not possible to
break up a normal marital relationship into its constituent elements so that when
one or more of them are absent it can be said that the marriage is no longer
normal. However, as a general rule it can be said that a normal marital
relationship no longer exists between the spouses when one or both of them has
acted or acts in a manner that has brought or will bring the marriage }{\rtlch
consortiums\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to an end. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that while the word \uc1 \u8221 ?may\uc1 \u8221 ? does
not mean \uc1 \u8221 ?must\uc1 \u8221 ?,
nonetheless there was no residual discretion to permit a court to ref use a
divorce if irretrievable breakdown has been proved. The practical effect of this
interpretation is to make the granting of a decree peremptory whenever a breakdown
is established. Grave financial or other hardship cannot serve in South Africa as a
reason for sustaining a marriage that has become an empty shell. It may be that
this is a correct and desirable approach. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Consortium embraces }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the totality of a number of
rights and duties created by the married status between the spouses. These include
companionship, love, affection, comfort, mutual services, fidelity and exclusive
sexual privileges. See generally }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Naido Naido }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1985 (1) SA 366 (T) and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 L }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (4) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 SA 371 (C). }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY I.AW IN }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Seband ly, where the
marital relationship is found to be abnormal, the court must satisfy itself
whether or not there are reasonable prospect; that the marriage will be restored to
its normal state. if such a possibility crams the marriage would not has e broken
down irretrievably and the provisions of section 543) would come into operation.
The section provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?if it appears to an appropriate court that
there is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 reasonable possibility that the panics may become reconciled
through marnage tounsel treatment or reflection. the court may postpone the
proceedings to enable the panics to attempt a moot:Illation.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, if the parties find it
impossible to reconcile after they have been given the opportunity do so, their
marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
he said to have irretrievably broken down and it should thereafter be dissol }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is unlikely that the courts
will have Thy difficulty in applying the concept of irretrievable breakdown to real
life cases. It shiiuld not be difficult to determine whether or not, in each }
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case,
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 there is
or is not a reasonable prospect of the restoration of a normal marriage
relationship once it has been found that the marital relationship between the
parties is no longer normal. Indeed, the conduct ofthe parties in court, their
attitude towards each otherand towards their marriage would often assist thecourt
in deciding thequestion one way or the other. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In addition to the above test as contained
in section 5( ) of the Act, section 5(2) provides the court with certain
guidelines to assist in determining whether a marriage has irretrievably broken
down or not. This section provides that: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ?Subject to the provisions of
subsedior (1) and without derogation from any other facts or circumstances which
may show the irretrievable breakdown of a marriage, an appropriate court may have
regard to the fact that \uc1 \u8212 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the parties have not lived together as husband and
wife for a continuous period of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 at least twelve months immediate:v preceding the date
of commencement of the divorce anion, or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (b) the defendant has committed adultery
which the plaintiff regards as incompatible With the continuation of a normal
marriage relationship; or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 thedelendant has been sentenced }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 by }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a...imp...tent court to
imprisonment fora period }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of at least fifteen yean or has, in terms of theta%
relating to criminal procedure, been declared a habitual criminal or has been
sentenced to attended imprisonment and has, in accordance with such declaration ur
sentence, been detained in prison for a continuous period of, or for interrupted
periods which in the aggregate amount to, at least five years, .dthin the ten
years immediately preceding the da teof commence. mot of the divorce action; or }
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs22 \afs22 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \loch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the defendant
s, during the of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 U treated the plaintiff with such mental or
otherwise; or tilt habitually subarted himself or herself, as the caw may be, to
the influence of }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 whim:Ming liquor or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to lit, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 MARRIAGE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Igo relationship; }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 appear that once the len
established, the court has irretrievably broken bed in section 50) creates It
would require very this presumption by ably notwithstanding the 5(2). }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?ved that these
guidelines stances which may show use of the words \uc1 \u8221 ?without y show
the irretrievable d to the fact that ...\uc1 \u8221 ? Thus, hulated, as evidence
of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
blance to the old grounds is whether the formulaon his or her own contrary y
broken down in order to lation of the guidelines in use can suelordivorcr on
paragraph (b) the court is Plaintiff regards as incombreakdown\uc1 \u8216 ?What is
the Immit adulte so that the d he or she wishes to rely wn of his or her
marriage? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
uidelines does not detract ;2). The material }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 question }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the parties is no longer sect that it
can be restored plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s or defendant\uc1
\u8217 ?s nation of whether or not, sown. Accordingly, it is }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 if the South African Divorce
cruelty. This difference is South African law prior to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 O MAKRIAI }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 awl marriage relationship; }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or it would appear that onto
the we has been established, the court marriage has irretrievably broken ins
described in section 5(2) creaky ken down. It would require very rce to rebut
this presumption by irretrievably notwithstanding the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section 5(2). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d be observed that these
guidelines or circumstances which may show from the use of the words \uc1
\u8221 ?without which may show the irretrievable lave regard to the fact that
Thus. those tabulated, as evidence of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ose resemblance to the old grounds n that arises is
whether the innot rely on his or her own retrievably broken down in order to the
forrnulatio_n of the guideline% in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouse can sue for divorce On }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ample, in paragraph (b) the }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 court
is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which the
plaintiff regards as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 W }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 evidence of breakdown. }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hat }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ii }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 itinues to commit adults so that the
idultery, and he or she wishes to ble breakdown of his or her nary }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rtion of the guidelines }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 does not
detract }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
section 5(2). The material question relationship of the parties is }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 no }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 onable prospect that it can
be not it is the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s or detendant-% the determination of
whether bly broken down. Accordingly, it m }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nom section 4 of the South A (d) in
respect of cruelty. This for divorce in South At }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF MARRIACX }{\rtlch \fcs1
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as is
incompatible with the continuation of a normal marriage relationship; I as
proof of irretrievable breakdown of the marriage.\uc1 \u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ? }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 hest guidelines are perhaps
more than guidelines for it would appear that once the tistence of one or more of
the situations described above has been established, the court constrained to
conclude as a matter of course that the marriage has irretrievably bmken own.
Thus, proof of the existence of any of the situationsdes.cribed in section
5(2)creates presumption that the marriage has irretrievably broken down. It would
require very tong evidence from }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 party contesting the divorce to rebut this presumption
by \uc1 \u8217 ?lowing that the marriage has in (act not broken down irretrievably
notwithstanding the xistence of one or more of the situations described in section
5(2). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
efore discussing the guidelines individually it should be observed that these
guidelines re not meant to be exhaustive of the situations, facts or circumstances
which may show he irretrievable breakdown of marriage. This is clear from the use
of the words \uc1 \u8221 ?without lerogation from any other facts or circumstances
which may
show the irretrievable ereakdown of a marriage an appropriate court may have
regard to the fact that Thus, he courts are free to regard fact situations other
than those tabulated, as evidence of the rretrievable breakdown of a marriage. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 will also be noticed that
these guidelines bear a close resemblance to the old grounds or divorce based on
the fault principle. The question that arises is whether the formulaion of the
guidelines means that a \uc1 \u8221 ?guilty\uc1 \u8221 ? spouse cannot rely on his
or her own contrary itehaviour to establish that his or her marriage has
irretrievably broken down in order to ie granted a divorce. The question arises
because the formulation of the guidelines in )aragraphs (b), (c) and (d) is such
that only the innocent\uc1 \u8221 ? spouse can sue for divorce on be basis of the
situations therein provided. For example, in paragraph (b) the court is :empowered
to regard \uc1 \u8221 ?the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s\uc1 \u8221 ? adultery which the
plaintiff regards as income aatible_with the continuation of the marriage as
evidence of breakdown/What is the iituation when the plaintiff has committed and
continues to commit adultery so that the narriage broke down as a result of his or
her own adultery, and he or she wishes to rely in his or her own adultery to
establish the irretrievable breakdown of his or her marriage? }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !is respectfullysubmitted that
the present formulation of the guidelines does not detract the generality of the
general_ test as provided in section 5(2). The material question t }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 each }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case should be whether or
not the marital relationship of the parties is no longer ormal and if it is not
whether or not there is a reasonable prospect that it can be restored its normal
state. The question of whether or not it is the plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s or
defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s induct that caused the breakdown is irrelevant to the
determination of whether or not, a matter of fact, the marriage has irretrievably
broken down. Accordingly, it is }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I Note that these guidelines are basically borrowed
front section 4 of the South African Divorce Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 except for the guideline in
paragraph (d) in respect of cruelty. This difference is explained by the fact that
cruelty was not a ground for divorce in South African law prior to the enactment
of the Divorce Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pouse can rely on his or her own conduct, be it
adultery or cruelty, marriage has irretrievably broken down. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?en theapproach of
the South African }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 courts as is illustrated by the Lets }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Itgery }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kruger.m }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 In this case }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the parties had been
married in
1940. In 1953 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
eft the matrimonial home }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to live with his lover, one Mrs Heyward with }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 her developed an
intimate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
relationship. On a number of occasions the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ded with the defendant }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to divorce him but the
defendant had refused }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 of the Divorce Act }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and the intmduction of irretrievable breakdown as }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rce, the
plaintiff }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
sued fora decree of divorce asserting that the marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 broken down as a }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 result of his own
adultery. The court granted him }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adultery which was the basis of the breakdown in this
case was the rordingly not the adultery contemplated in section 41(2)(b) of the
south Act. Nevertheless the court granted the decree of divorce on the general
marriage had broken down as envisaged in the general section, namely s section
lays down the test for breakdown as the disintegration of the inship to the extent
that reasonable prospects of restoring it to a normal Kist. It is submitted that
the decision in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 Kruger v Kruger (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 is not only retation of the law but also constitutes a
socially desirable approarh.62 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 proach has been confirmed by the South African
Appellate }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Division in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 !Portz }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 (supra). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The facts of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Schwartz }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 case revealed a sad and vain }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 attempt }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 preserve her
marriage of some twenty-three years in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the face of her }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Avement with and desire to
marry another woman. After the parties }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he wife had given up her studies }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 seek employment
so as to support the ncluded two children of the marriage, while the husband
continued with hen the husband finished his studies he set up a private practice }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 which led the
administrative and financial affairs. The husband }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 later began to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ry with nurses and nursing sisters and in
1977 he met one MisS Lintvelt started an adulterous affair which subsisted for
some five and a half years tually brought the action for divorce. The husband had
in fact lived with Drover 2 years in a home of their own before he brought the di
vorce action. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
the husband stated that he wanted to have his marriage dissolved so that Lintvelt
could marry each other. He declared that he would be very pset and emotionally
disturbed were his relationship
with Miss Lintvelt to He, however, admitted that he still admired and respected
his wife (the horn he regarded as \uc1 \u8221 ?a good woman\uc1 \u8221 ? and a
\uc1 \u8221 ?true and supporting wife.\uc1 \u8217 ? id not have for her the love
which he had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 for Miss }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Lintvelt. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 283 (0). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ecided in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kruger v Kruger }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 that it is no lodger necessary for the
courts to condone adultery. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 n NIARKIMX. hand the respondent testified that she
wished, despite everything, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage with her husband the appellant) whom she
still \uc1 \u8221 ?very, very }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 aid nut believe that her na longer loved her and out
how }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
their marriage had been byline Miss lantvelt came onto the scene. She further. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 she was totally dependant on
the appellant and t he gra nt ot a decree divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 her grave financial and other
hardship. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
I iude had found that the husband was \uc1 \u8221 ?passing through a period of
uncertainty\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
t his be iwourin the court was an indication of abject misery\uc1 \u8221 ? with no
truetiesire }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
breaking his relationship with his wife. Accordingly. he was denied a }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of divorce on the basis that
irretrievable breakdown had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ilhy the husband the Appellate Division held that the
appellant had established }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage had irretrievably broken down and was entitled
to a deem, of divorce. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 !court stated that moral right and wrongs were not in
issue and that irretrievable }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 can come about as a result of the en-ant conduct }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 spouse spite of
desire of the other to continue the marriage_ The court also held that grave }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sal or other hardship could not
serve as a reason for sustaining a mamage that has }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?shown to have irretrievably
broken down.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he decisions in Kruger v }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Kruger }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and Schwartz r Schwartz (supra) }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 arc a }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the law. it is hoped that Zimbabwean courts would
adopt the same }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
since a 15 totally conststcnt nvn language sections }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ana o me }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 )vial Causes Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is also relevant to refer to
two further decisions of the courts of South Africa. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Krige Smit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the plaintiff instituted an
action against the defendant for a decree of divorce on }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and of irretrievable breakdown of the
marriage in terms of section 4 of the Divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Act. The defendant had suffered incurable
brain damage and had been hospitalised but had not been in a state institution
fora period of at least two years as is required by section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 5(2101 the Act. Nor had the
defendant been continuously unconscious for a period of 6 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lisb0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ;even though he was paralysed and in a
semi-conscious state. The court held that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /able breakdown had been established and
that the plaintiff was entitled to an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 divorce on that ground, she not being obliged to rely
on the ground of incurable }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 illness or continuous unconsciousness under which the
defendant would have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to have been in a state institution for a period of two
years or to have been in a state }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 unconsciousness for a period of at least six months }
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 gain in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ott }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Raubenheimer }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NO (supra) the court found
that, as the marriage had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 irretrievably brokendown long before the
plaintiff\uc1 \u8217 ?s wile had entered a mental institution and been certified
as mentally ill, the plaintiff was entitled to rely on section 4(11 of the }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Sec also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Mat yila }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vMaiyila 1967 SA 1981 (41 SA
1987 t2) SA }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
.. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
,gin...... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 \page }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \ul1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 0$ %I \'5cKRI I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 other hand the respondent testiliett that
she wished, despite everything, to }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ber marriage with her husband (the appellant) whom she
still }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
loved}{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
\u8221 ?very, wry She did not believe that her husband hunger hived her and
pointed out how their marriage had been before Miss Linivelt came onto the scene.
She further that she was totally dependant on theappellant and the grant of a
decree of divorce cause her grave financial and other hardship. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 trial judge had found that the
husband was \uc1 \u8221 ?passing through a period of uncertainty\uc1 \u8221 ? that
his beha v lour in the court was \uc1 \u8221 ?an i ndication of abject
misery\uc1 \u8221 ? with no truedesire umplelely breaking his relationship with
his wife. Accordingly, he was denied a tee of divorce on the basis that
irretrievable breakdown had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 appeal by the husband the Appellate Division held that
the appellant had established it his marriage had irretrievably broken down and
was entitled to a decree of divorce. court stated that moral right and wrongs were
not in issue and that irretrievable leakdown can come about as a result of the
errant conduct of One spouse in spite of the eadfast desire of the other to
continue the marriage The court Also held that grave financial or other hardship
could not serve as a reason for sustaining a mamage that has cen shown to have
irretrievably broken down.\uc1 \u8221 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the decisions }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in Kruger Kruger
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Schwartz r
Schwartz (supra) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 are a correct nterpretation of the law. It is hoped that Zimbabwean
courts would adopt the same pproach since it is totally consistent with the
language of sections }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and 5 of the ;Matrimonial Causes Act. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It is also relevant to refer to
two further decisions of the courts of South Africa. In }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Krige }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 vSmit }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8221 ? the plaintiff
instituted an action against the defendant for a decree of divorce on }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ?ground of
irretrievablebreakdown of the marriage in terms of section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the Divorce }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 . The defendant had suffered incurable
brain damage and had been hospitalised but }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4 been in a state institution fora period of a t least
two years as is required by section }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (2) of the Act. Nor had the defendant been continuously
unconscious for a period of 6 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 mills even though he was paralysed and in a semi-
conscious state. The court held that }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 {\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 trievable breakdown had been
established and that the plaintiff was entitled to an }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 rcier of divorce on that
ground, she not being obliged to rely on the ground of incurable }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ?nut illness or continuous
unconsciousness under which the defendant would have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to have been in a state institution for a
period of two years or to have been in a state }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 for a period of at least six months. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1gain in }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Ott Raubenheimer }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 NO (supra) the court found
that, as the marriage }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfenp12297 had }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 irievably broken down long befo re the plaintiff\uc1
\u8217 ?s wife had entered a mental institution }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 been certified as mentally ill, the
plaintiff was entitled to rely on section 4(1) of the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 See also }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Matyila v Matyila }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1987 SA 230 and }
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1981 (4) 409. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 krit zinger }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 1987 (2) 54 357 }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 FAMILY SAW IX at }
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Divorce Act and was nut }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 44 lu v e.n hi, woe\uc1 \u8217 ?s mental
Icin the t ra tnewot k section the Act ibe that the hwadown had occurred J. a
direct al the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
mental held be rule,. ant. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 One-year separation }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Paragraph la) sedum 54 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 2) }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 pun It irk. hatibe may regard
as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch \af0
irretrievbreakdown the tae; that ad together as husband and wife for a continuous
period of at least twelve utimechately pr ading date of commencement the }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 act In\uc1
\u8226 ? mi..\uc1 \u8217 ? from this pnweaen, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Firstly, what is meant by the
term \uc1 \u8221 ?have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 in towther as husband and %vile\uc1 \u8221 ?? It is
submitted that the phrase }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nk }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 refer wygraphic or phvsit al separation but
incorporates the who have }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297
\langfenp12297 ;inkier }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the sany but have, for a cora intim period of the
between themselves he, for example, ceasing have s\uc1 \u8226 ?sual relations. am
included in the guideline.11owe+er,partiesteekingliCi rely having taxed hcr as
husband and wife\uc1 \u8221 ? as a ground divorce when they in t lived under the
would be required to prove that, even thougtethey In ni in the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 same }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 house, their had ended and that this
termination had lasted ha abe period time. In short it is submitted that it is
enough satisf7thensiiiin-ments of paragraph tat of subsection (2) of section 5
that the parties, even though have ived under the me mof, have in fact not
accorded each other the a continuous period of 12 months In that event they would
not have lived together as \uc1 \u8221 ?husband and for the requisite period of
time. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
On the other hand, termination }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 eon,. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 he presumed in cases in which the parties had been
physically separated for a period of 12 months or more. Thus the mere proof of
geographical or physical separation bit the required period would suffice to
satisfy the requirements of fhe relevant provision,- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 The second point arising }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 from }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 section 542) is that
inorder to satisfy the requiremehts of paragraph la), the parties must have lived
apart }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 a
continuous, }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
uninterrupted period of 12 months. Accordingly, the requirements of the guideline
would not be met in cases in which the 12 months had been interrupted he an
attempt or attempts to reconcile. However, this does not mean }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 decree divorce cannot be
ordered in these circumstances. The guidelines are }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 4 ab.ulute }{\rtlch \fcs1
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and t heritre do not have
to be wholly satisfied beforeamarriage n be said ti down irretrievably. An
nsuccessfulattempt at reconciliation, v. interrupt the may in fact bean indication
that the marriage is beyond salvage. if a divorce is to he granted where the
period of separation has been interrupted bc an attempted ion, it have to he
granted unch r the general lest wvaole breakdown and not under yearn: }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 \uc1 \u8217 ?3 Sec }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 the.High a marrow, }{\rtlch
\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 /1 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 OF M AR RI AGE. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 This is so since it remainsopen- to the
panics not fall squarely into any of the listed fact token down irretrievably. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d the fact \uc1 \u8221 ?that
the defendant has committed )mpatible with the continuation of a normal kdown. }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 meaning as discussed above in
connection tst be proved on a balance of probabilities. \uc1 \u8217 ?oof of }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 adultery }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 does not appear
to satisfy the proving the act of adultery the plainti ff must finds the adultery
incompatible with the submitted, however, that the courts should \uc1 \u177 ?ry
as having been destructive of tile rriage which the act of adultery has been
proved. In to plaintiff must show that he or she finds the rabic as a result of
the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s adultery vhenever the act of adultery has been proved.
;ht the divorce action indicates that he or she estructive of the marriage
relationship .\uc1 \u8221 ? This hat ikatest (Or the determination of whether e
incompatible with the continuation of the an allegation by the plaintiff that he
or she he continuation of his or her marriage cannot on to this effect is
sufficient to satisfy the plaintiff ter the discovery of the adultery since the
the breakdown principle. In other words, i a tion or resumption of sexual relations
do vorce because the question that concerns the awn or not. Thus, an unsuccessful
resumption ter evidence of the fact that the marriage has simply be that in spite
of his or her efforts at le himself or herself to the fad that his or her le
else. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
1 law, that condonation of the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s sexual intercourse took
place between the ixtinguishes the adultery as though it had not tether or not
the marriage has irretrievably }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 LAW IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 broken down. If the plaintiff insists that
notwithstanding the attempted condonation I }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 or she cannot reconcile himself or herself
to continuing the marital relationship, marriage should be regarded as having
irretrievably broken down. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -\uc1 \u8226 ?---_ }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 tin o tat }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 A;..,...... }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 down caused by adultery in the cases }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of Shonge
v Shonge Anor }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
NC-I-I-414-86 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfenp12297 Mhlanga a Katcya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 HC-H-427-86. However, in both these cases the actions
for divorce were }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 not opposed for the parties were agreed that the acts
of adultery and other factors }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
resulted in the breakdown of the marriages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Imprisonment }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Paragraph (c) empowers the
court to regard the fact that a spouse has been sentenced to imprisonment fora
period of at least 15 years or has been declared a habitual criminal and has
served five years of his or her sentence as evidence that his or her marriage has
irretrievably broken down. This guideline is identical to the old ground of divorce
provided for in section 3(b) of the repealed Matrimonial Causes Act }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 39j and
therefore needs no further explanation. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 However, it issubmitted that thereis nothing to prevent
a plaintiff whose spouse hasbeen sentenced to a term of imprisonment shorter than
15 years, or who has not served the required five years of the sentence, from
relying on the general principles of irretrievable breakdown to obtain a decree of
divorce. The grounds for divorce in this case would be the commission of the crime
and the subsequent conviction and imprisonment of the defendant resulting in the
breakdown of the marriage. As long as it can be shown that the commission of the
crime and the subsequent imprisonment have in fact resulted in the irretrievable
breakdown of the marriage the general requirements of breakdown would have been
satisfied and there would be no need to refer to the provisions of the guideline
in paragraph (c). }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
Indeed the formulation of this guideline seems unreasonable. There appears to be no
logical reason for setting the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s sentence at 15 years in
order to qualify as a ground for divorce when shorter sentences could also
seriously disrupt a marriage. Further, there are few criminal offences that
attract such long terms of imprisonment. Even more unreasonable is the requirement
that the defendant should first serve 5 years of his or her sentence before the
plaintiff can rely on the guideline to obtain a decree of divorce on the basis
that the marriage has broken down as a result of the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s
conviction and subsequent imprisonment. This provision becomes even more
unreasonable upon comparison with paragraph (a) of section 5(2) which entitles a
spouse to rely on a mere 12 months separation as evidence of breakdown. In any
event, a plaintiff whose spouse has been in prison for 12 months can rely on the
fact of the 12 months separation as evidence of breakdown in terms of paragraph
(a) since the spouses would not \uc1 \u8221 ?have lived together as husband and
wife\uc1 \u8221 ? for the period required by the paragraph. Twelve months
separation caused by imprisonment is as much evidence of breakdown as any
separation of 12 months\uc1 \u8217 ? duration regardless octbacause. }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IN ZIMBABWE }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 sown. If the plaintiff insists that
notwithstanding the attempted condonation he annot reconcile himself or herself to
continuing the marital relationship, the should be regarded as having
irretrievably broken down. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 wear. have far }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 .4 irr:\uc1 \u8226 ?!!-:.-\uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1
\u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ?:16-1.,\uc1 \u8216 ?\uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1
\u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ?\uc1 \u8226 ?1- }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 ,used by adultery in the cases of }{\rtlch \fcs1
\loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 Shonge a Shonge and
Anar }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
\af0 \hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I-IC-
H-414-86 }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \i1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
Kateya }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch \dbch
427-86. However, in both these cases the actions for divorce were ned for the
parties were agreed that the acts of adultery and other factors had in the
breakdown of the marriages. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 =tent }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 (c) empowers the court to regard the fact that a
spouse has been sentenced to iment fora period of at least 15 years or has been
declared a habitual ter i nal and ed five years of his or her sentence as evidence
that his or her marriage has ibly broken down. This guideline is identical to the
old ground of divorce for in section 3(b) of the repealed Matrimonial Causes Act }
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 IChapfer }
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 391 and needs
no further\uc1 \u8221 ? explanation. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 it is submitted that there is nothing to prevent a
plaintiff whose spouse hasbeen to a term of imprisonrinent shorter than 15 years,
or who has not served the five years of the sentence, from relying on the general
principles of irretrievable to obtain a decree of divorce. The grounds for divorce
in this case would be nission of the crime and the subsequent conviction and
imprisonment of the resulting in the breakdown of the marriage. As long as it can
be shown that the on of the crime and the subsequent imprisonment have in }{\rtlch
\af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 fact }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 resulted in the ble
breakdown of the marriage the general requirements of breakdown would satisfied
and there would be no need to refer to the provisions of the guideline aph (c). }
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 e formulation of this guideline
seems unreasonable. There appears to be no ason for setting the defendant\uc1
\u8217 ?s sentence at 15 years in order to qualify as a er divorce when shorter
sentences could also seriously disrupt a marriage. here are few criminal offences
that attract such long terms of imprisonment. e unreasonable is the requirement
that the defendant should first serve 5 years ter sentence before the plaintiff
can rely on the guideline
to obtain a decree of n the basis that the marriage has broken down as a result
of the defendant\uc1 \u8217 ?s nand subsequent imprisonment. This provision
becomes even more unreason\uc1 \u8217 ?comparison with paragraph (a) of section
5(2) which entitles a spouse to rely 12 months separation as evidence of
breakdown. In any event, a plaintiff whose s been in prison for 12 months can rely
on the fact of the 12 months separation of breakdown in terms of paragraph (a)
since the spouses would not \uc1 \u8221 ?have Cher as husband and wife\uc1
\u8221 ? for the period required by the paragraph. Twelve paration caused by
imprisonment is as much evidence of breakdown as any of 12 months\uc1 \u8217 ?
duration regardless octhacause. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch
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\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 as at }{\rtlch
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\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 nn nt had \uc1
\u8221 ?\uc1 \u8221 ?rind Ix\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \fs24
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\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 -7.L2nt }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 has. thinng the }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of the marriage. }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 I or herself to }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 an extent as is inrnmpat- }{\rtlch
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 al& taken as }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 w }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 It remains some grave }{\rtlch
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 kmb or health, physical }
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 to injure the other }{\rtlch \fcs1
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 d }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0
\lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 cniclty. }{\rtlch \fcs1
\langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 had: }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24
\af0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297
\hich \af0 \loch \f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 and the
children; and }{\rtlch \fcs1 \af0 \ltrch \b1 \fs24 \afs24 \rtlch \alang1025 \ltrch
\langfe12297 \langfenp12297 marriage insupportable.\uc1 \u8217 ? }{\rtlch
\f0 \lang12297 \langnp12297 \langfe12297 \langfenp12297 of fact that has to

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