6506 Vol. 45, No.
23 / 1 December 2020 / Optics Letters
Design-flexible entanglement of two distant
quantum dots bridged by dark whispering gallery
modes
Yanhui Zhao
State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, School of Physics, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
(zhaoyh28@mail.sysu.edu.cn)
Received 2 September 2020; revised 20 October 2020; accepted 1 November 2020; posted 2 November 2020 (Doc. ID 408938);
published 30 November 2020
We present a flexible design to realize the entanglement
between two distant semiconductor quantum dots (QDs)
embedded in separated photonic crystal nanobeam cavities.
When bridged by a largely detuned microring cavity, pho-
tonic supermodes between two distant nanobeam cavities
are formed via whispering gallery modes (WGMs). Due to
the large detuning, WGMs in the microring exhibit almost
no photonic excitation, showing the “dark WGMs.” With
the dyadic Green’s functions of the nano-structure and
the resolvent operators of the Hamiltonian, we numeri-
cally investigate the entanglement dynamics of two distant
QDs. Furthermore, we prove that the entanglement can
be tuned by adjusting the distances between the cavities.
Such a scheme paves an efficient way for realizing a scalable
quantum network in a solid-state system. © 2020 Optical
Society of America
https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.408938
Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) are among the great can-
didates of solid-state qubits due to their excellent atomic-like
optical properties [1]. Quantum operations with a fast rate can
be carried out with the giant optical dipole of a semiconductor
QD [2]. As the self-assembled QDs are epitaxially grown in a
semiconductor wafer, they can be conveniently integrated into
complex photonic structures [3], enhancing the light–matter
interactions [4]. With recent breakthroughs in nanofabrication
and material growth techniques, QDs can be deterministically
positioned [5], making controllable coupling strength between
QDs and photonic modes feasible. Owing to these advantages, a
scalable quantum network can be expected to be implemented
in a solid-state system.
A future quantum network requires the connection and
entanglement of multiple distant qubits [6–9]. Quantum
entanglement of multiple qubits can dramatically improve the
capability of computing and communicating [10]. To entangle
two separated qubits, coherent coupling between them is nec-
essary [11]. A cavity quantum electrodynamics (QED) scheme
provides a good solution for the deterministic control of matter
qubit–photon interactions [4,12]. With the coherent transfer of
quantum states between matter qubits and photons, coherent
0146-9592/20/236506-04 Journal © 2020 Optical Society of America
Letter
coupling and quantum entanglement between separated qubits
can be achieved [13–16]. However, it is still experimentally
challenging to make efficient connections between distant
quantum nodes consisting of quantum emitters and cavities,
because the photons are confined so tightly in high-Q cavities
that their evanescent fields decay very rapidly along with dis-
tance [17,18]. The whispering gallery mode (WGM) is used
to improve the coupling efficiency between multiple quantum
emitters because their fields are distributed over a long distance
[19,20]. However, once the solid-state structure has been fab-
ricated, the positions of the quantum emitters are fixed, and
thus the coupling strengths of light and matter are hard to adjust
[21].
In this Letter, we propose a flexible design to overcome these
obstacles to realize the entanglement between two distant QDs.
Two photonic crystal (PhC) nanobeam cavities more than
8 µm apart are bridged by a microring that supports WGMs.
When the cavity modes in the microring are largely detuned
from the nanobeam cavity mode, splitting supermodes of dis-
tant nanobeam cavities are formed via dark WGMs, revealing
the strong coupling between the nanobeam cavities. Two QDs
embedded in the separated nanobeam cavities can be efficiently
entangled. By adjusting the distances between the nanobeam
cavities and the microring, the entanglement dynamics of the
two QDs can be tuned.
We designed a GaAs PhC nanobeam cavity with a thickness
of 0.187 µm and width of 0.425 µm. The air hole radius is
r = 0.28a , where the lattice constant a = 0.3655 µm is linearly
tapered over a five-hole section to a = 0.2805 µm. The cavity is
formed by the photonic mirror containing the tapered five-hole
section and the nine-hole section with a = 0.3655 µm. Two
identical nanobeam cavities are bridged by a GaAs microring
with the thickness of 0.187 µm, outer radius of 4 µm, and inner
radius of 3.705 µm. We denote the two nanobeam cavities
and microring by a 1 , a 2 , and b, respectively. The distances
between the edges of the nanobeam cavities and the microring
are s A = s B = 0.2 µm. The configuration of the three cavities is
depicted in Fig. 1(a).
We located a dipole source with E y polarization at the center
of cavity a 1 . Then the local density of photonic states (LDOS)
was calculated with the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD)
 Letter Vol. 45, No. 23 / 1 December 2020 / Optics Letters 6507

(a) (b)
X X
a1 g n (ri )a n† σi− + c .c ,

QD A
107 LDOS V =~ (3)
4
8 S mode AS mode i=A,B n
2
6
where H0 contains the energies of the field and the atomic
Y (µm)

rin
0 b
4 transitions, and V is the energy from the interaction of the field
-2
2
with the atom. ωi is the transition frequency of the ith QD
-4 QD B a2 (i = A, B). ωn is the frequency of the electromagnetic field in
0
1.2762 1.2764 1.2766 1.2768 1.2770
mode n. σi+ (σi− ) denotes the raising (lowering) operator of the
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

(c)
X (µm) 10
4
(d)
Wavelength (µm) 10
4 ith QD. a n† (a n ) denotes the photonic creation (annihilation)
6 6
operator. The coupling strength between the ith QD and field
2 2
4 4 can be expressed by g n (ri ) = iωi (2ε0 ~ωn )−1/2 En (ri ) · ui ,
2 1 2 1 where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity, ui the transition
dipole moment of the ith QD, and En the eigenmode of the
Y (µm)

Y (µm)

0 0 0 0

-2
electromagnetic field with frequency ωn .
-2
-1
-1 In the single excitation manifold, we denote |a i = |e g 0i
-4 -4
-2 -2 (|bi = |g e 0i) as the state with QD A (QD B) in the excited
-6
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-6
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 state, QD B (QD A) in the ground state and photon in vacuum,
X (µm) X (µm) and |c n i = |g g 1n i as the state with both QD A and QD B in
Fig. 1. (a) Structure of the two coupled distant PhC nanobeam cav- the ground state and one photon with frequency ωn . The time
ities bridged by a microring. The three cavities are denoted by a 1 , a 2 , evolution of the system with QD A initially excited is
and b. The distances between the PhC nanobeam cavities and micro- X
ring are denoted by s A and s B , respectively. Two QDs are embedded in |ψ(t)i = a (t)|a i + b(t)|bi + c n (t)|c n i = U (t)|a i, (4)
the two nanobeam cavities. (b) LDOS at the center of cavity a 1 corre- n
sponding to a dipole with E y polarization. Two peaks correspond to S
and AS supermodes. (c) E y field distribution of the S mode. (d) E y where U (t) denotes the evolution operator and can be expressed
field distribution of the AS mode. by the advanced and retarded Green’s functions
Z +∞
1
U (t) = dω[G − (ω) − G + (ω)] exp(−iωt), (5)
method (Lumerical Solutions, Inc.) and is shown in Fig. 1(b). 2πi −∞
The two peaks in the LDOS spectrum corresponds to the eigen- where G ± (ω) = limη→0+ G(z = ω ± iη) with the resolvent
states of the two coupled nanobeam cavities and one microring operator G(z) = 1/(z − H/~). We define the evolution spec-
system. With r in = 3.705 µm, microring mode b is largely trum as S(ω) = (G − (ω) − G + (ω))/(2πi). Expanding the
detuned from nanobeam cavity modes a 1 and a 2 . In this case, resolvent operator in the space of eigenstates of H0 , the matrix
the supermodes of the coupled
√ system can be√approximately elements read
expressed by (a 1 + a 2 )/ 2 and (a 1 − a 2 )/ 2, which are X
denoted as symmetrical (S) mode and anti-symmetrical (AS) (z − ω A )G aa (z) = 1 + Vac G ca (z), (6)
n
mode, respectively. The resonant wavelengths of S mode and
AS mode are λ S = 1.27645 µm and λAS = 1.27662 µm, X
(z − ω B )G ba (z) = Vbc G ca (z), (7)
respectively. The quality factors of the S and AS modes are
n
9.51 × 104 and 9.54 × 104 , respectively. Figures 1(c) and 1(d)
show the symmetrical and anti-symmetrical field distributions (z − ωn )G ca (z) = Vca G aa (z) + Vcb G ba (z), (8)
of S and AS modes, respectively. We note that there is quite a
small peak spectrally far apart from S and AS modes, which where G aa (z) = ha |G(z)|a i, G ba (z) = hb|G(z)|a i,
corresponds to the mode containing mainly the field of cavity G ca (z) = hc n |G(z)|a i, Vac = Vca∗ = ha |V |c n i/~, and
b. Therefore, when we excite one of the nanobeam cavities, the Vbc = Vcb∗ = hb|V |c n i/~.
WGMs in the microring can hardly be excited. However, the Eliminating G ca (z), we obtain
dark WGMs play an important role in bridging the two distant
G aa (z) = (z − ω B − WBB )/4, (9)
nanobeam cavities. The splitting of the LDOS spectrum indi-
cates that the strong coupling between the two distant cavities
is achieved, which provides advantages for coupling two distant G ba (z) = WBA /4, (10)
QDs.
Two I nGa As QDs are located at the centers of cavities a 1 where 4 and Wij (i, j = A, B) can be expressed by
and a 2 . The QDs can be considered as two-level atoms with
4 = [z − ω A − WAA ][z − ω B − WBB ] − WAB WBA , (11)
ground state |g i and excited state |e i. The Hamiltonian in the
dipole approximation and the rotating wave approximation can
be written as [22] X g ∗ (ri )g n (r j )
Wij = Wij (z, ri , r j ) = n
. (12)
z − ωn
H = H0 + V , (1) n

X X
1
With the identity limη→0+ x ±iη = P ( x1 ) ∓ iπ δ(x ), where
H0 = ~ ωi σi+ σi− +~ ωn a n† a n , (2) P represents the integral principal value and δ(x ) the delta
i=A,B n function, we have
 6508 Vol. 45, No. 23 / 1 December 2020 / Optics Letters Letter

0ij (ω, ri , r j ) (a) x 109 (b) x 109

Wij± (ω, ri , r j ) = 1ij (ω, ri , r j ) ∓ i , (13)

Imaginary part of Green’s function

Imaginary part of Green’s function

2 8
S mode AS mode
8
S mode AS mode
6 6
Imag(GAA) Imag(GBB)
X 4 4
Imag(GBA) Imag(GAB)
0ij (ω, ri , r j ) = 2π g n∗ (ri )g n (r j )δ(ω − ωn ), (14) 2 2
0 0
n -2 -2
-4 -4
1 ∞
0(ω , ri , r j ) 0
0
Z -6 -6
1ij (ω, ri , r j ) = P dω . (15) -8 -8
2π 0 ω − ω0 1.2762 1.2764 1.2766 1.2768 1.2770 1.2762 1.2764 1.2766 1.2768 1.2770
Wavelength (µm) Wavelength (µm)
(c) (d)
-8
x 10
It was demonstrated that [23,24] 8
QD A
QD B
6 1.0 Concurrence
2ωi ω j ↔
0ij (ω, ri , r j ) = Im[µi† · G(ω, ri , r j ) · µ j ], (16) 4 0.8

Population
~ε0 c 2 2
0.6
0
↔ -2 0.4
where G is the dyadic Green’s function defined by the electric -4
0.2
field E at the field point r generated by a radiating electric dipole -6

µ located at the source point r0 [25]: -8

1.2739636 1.2739640 1.2739644 1.2739648
0.0
0 10 20 30 40

Wavelength (µm) Time (ns)

ω2 ↔ Fig. 2. In the case of s A = s B = 0.2 µm: (a) imaginary parts of the

E(r) = G(r, r0 )µ.
ε0 εr c 2
The
p amplitude of the transition dipole moment is |µi | =
3π ε0 ~c 3 /(ω3 τi ), where τi is the lifetime of QD in vacuum.
Therefore, once the emission properties and the locations of
QDs in the nano-structure, together with the dyadic Green’s
functions of the nano-structure, are determined, the evolu-
tion spectrum S(ω) of the coupled system can be calculated.
The quantum
R +∞ dynamics of the system can be obtained with
U (t) = −∞ S(ω)dω. As the initial state is prepared in
|a i, the population of the excited states of QD A and QD B
are |Uaa (t)|2 = |ha |U (t)|a i|2 and |Uba |2 = |hb|U (t)|a i|2 ,
respectively, which are determined by the matrix ele-
ments of the evolution spectra Saa (ω) = ha |S(ω)|a i and
Sba (ω) = hb|S(ω)|a i.
We first locate two QDs with a transition dipole moment
along the y direction at the centers of the two PhC nanobeam
cavities with s A = s B = 0.2 µm. The imaginary parts of the
dyadic Green’s functions relating to the two QDs were calcu-
lated with the FDTD method and are shown in Figs. 2(a) and
2(b), where G(ω, ri , r j ) is signified by G ij (i, j = A, B) for
simplicity. G AA represents the local response of an E y dipole
source located at the center of cavity a 1 . G BA shows the non-
local field response at the center of cavity a 2 generated by a
dipole source located at the center of cavity a 1 . The splitting
peaks of Imag(G AA ) and Imag(G BA ) indicate two supermodes
formed by the coupling between two nanobeam cavities and one
microring cavity. We denote the peaks by S mode and AS mode
in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b). For S mode, Imag(G AA ) = Imag(G BA )
because of the symmetrical field distribution. For AS mode,
Imag(G AA ) = −Imag(G BA ) because of the anti-symmetrical
field distribution. The local and non-local field responses dis-
play in the same way for both QD A and QD B since both the
nano-structure and the locations of QDs are symmetrical.
We set the transition wavelengths of the two identical QDs
as λ A = λ B = 1.274 µm, which are detuned from the cav-
ity supermodes by several nanometers. The transition dipole
moments of the QDs are assumed to be along the y direction.
The lifetimes of QDs in vacuum are set as τ A = τ B = 6 ns.
Assuming QD A is initially excited, the evolution spectra of
the two QDs can be calculated with the dyadic Green’s func-
tions and are shown in Fig. 2(c). There are two splitting peaks
around the transition wavelength (1.274 µm) for both QDs,
(17)
dyadic Green’s functions of (G AA ) and (G BA ). (b) Imaginary parts of
the dyadic Green’s functions of (G BB ) and (G AB ). (c) Evolution spec-
tra for QD A (Saa ) and QD B (Sba ). (d) Evolution of the excited states
of the two QDs and the evolution of concurrence.
which originate from the eigenstates of the coupled QDs–cavity
supermodes system. As the cavity modes are spectrally far apart
from the transition of the QDs, the evolution spectra of the QDs
display very narrow peaks.
With the evolution spectra, the populations of the excited
states of QD A and QD B can be calculated and are shown in
Fig. 2(d). Rabi oscillations between the two QDs appear due
to the splitting of the eigenstates of the coupled system. The
quantum state transfer between the distant QDs is achieved
through a virtual photon. Because of the virtual excitation of
the photon, decoherence is greatly suppressed. We employ the
concurrence to describe the degree of entanglement [26]. With
the photon virtually excited, the concurrence can be derived as
2|Uaa ||Uba | and is shown in Fig. 2(d). It can be seen that maxi-
mally entangled states between distant QDs can be established
during the excitation oscillations.
We next tune the dynamics of the entanglement between
two distant QDs by adjusting the distances between the
PhC nanobeam cavities and the microring. The distance
between the edges of cavity a 1 and the microring is kept as
s A = 0.2 µm, and that of cavity a 2 and the microring is changed
to s B = 0.228 µm. Two QDs are located at the centers of
cavities a 1 and a 2 . The imaginary parts of the dyadic Green’s
functions relating to the two QDs are shown in Figs. 3(a) and
3(b). Compared with the case of s A = s B = 0.2 µm, the super-
modes have slight blueshifts. For Imag(G AA ), the amplitude of
the peak of the AS mode becomes much larger than that of the
S mode. For Imag(G BA ), the peaks of the AS and S modes have
almost equal amplitudes and opposite signs. For Imag(G BB ),
the amplitude of the peak of the S mode becomes much larger
than that of the AS mode. The performance of Imag(G AB ) is
consistent with that of Imag(G BA ). The tailoring of the cavity
modes may induce distinct quantum dynamics of the QDs.
We consider two identical QDs with the same transition
wavelengths and lifetimes as in the case of s A = s B = 0.2 µm.
With the two QDs located at the centers of the two PhC
 Letter Vol. 45, No. 23 / 1 December 2020 / Optics Letters 6509

(a) x 109 (b) x 109 which makes it possible to achieve non-local control of the
16 16
Imaginary part of Green’s function

Imaginary part of Green’s function

12
AS mode S mode coupled states, and the distance between nanobeam cavities can
12

8
be extended by using chains of coupled ring resonators. The
Imag(GAA) 8 Imag(GBB)

4
S mode structure is adjustable, which allows one to tailor the photonic
Imag(GBA) 4 AS mode Imag(GAB)

0
states to realize on-demand control of the quantum dynamics
0

-4
of QDs. In addition, due to the large detuning between QDs
-4

-8
and the supermodes, the decoherence is dramatically sup-
-8
1.2762 1.2764 1.2766 1.2768 1.2770 1.2762 1.2764 1.2766 1.2768 1.2770 pressed. Overall, such a scheme can achieve long-distance and
Wavelength (µm) Wavelength (µm)
on-demand entanglement between two QDs, which is crucial to
(c) (d)
-8
x 10 QD A
12 QD B the realization of quantum networks.
1.0 Concurrence
8
0.8
Population

4
Funding. National Natural Science Foundation of China
0.6
(11704423).
0 0.4

-4 0.2
Disclosures. The author declares no conflicts of interest.
-8 0.0
1.2739630 1.2739635 1.2739640 1.2739645 0 10 20 30 40
Wavelength (µm) Time (ns)
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