Power Electronics in Electric Utilities: Static Var Compensators LASZLO GYUGYI Invited Paper This paper deals with dynamic var compensation of electric power ystems applying power electronics forreactve powe Ee craton and conto aftran ventow ofthe emergence and satus Gh modern solstate var compensators in utlty and Industria “pplication te fist pat of the paper explains how dynam ar Teimpensation increases transmaitable power by providing voltage port trament stabilty improvement and power oxciltion tetping in leconc power tanemission Systoms. Subsequent sec thnk describe the methods of eactive power generation and con tol using hprbtorcontalled reactors wth fixed and thyristor Switched capacitors or modern gate turn of (GTO) power convert Chhat ean function without a eapacttors or reactors. The st pat libe paper summaaes the contol structure and operation fo p= ie the desied characterstice and performance im power systema pplcatons. [Aninherent characteristic ofelectricenergy transmission and distribution by alternating current (20 isthat real power is generally associated with reactive power, AC transmis- Sion and distribution lines are dominantly reactive net works, characterized by thelr per-mile series inductance “ind shunt capacitance. Thus, load and load power factor Changes alter the voltage profile along the transmission Tinesand ean cause large amplitude variations in the receiv ingendvoltage, Mostof the oads are not tolerant tovoltage variation, Undervoltage causes degradation in the perfor- mance of loads such as induction motors, ight bulbs, ele. vervoltage causes magnetic saturation and resultant har monic generation, as well as equipment failures due to insulation breakdown. Reactive power also increases the transmission losses. inaddition o steady-state considerations rapid changes. in reactive pawer andthe corresponding voltage variations, ‘used by line switching, faults, load rejection, and other disturbances, can suddenly change the real power demand inthe power system, Rapid changes in real power demand tan cause some power generators accelerate, and others to decelerate, from their steady-state synchronous speed, Manuscritreceived Novembers, 1967; cevsed February, 1988 ‘The author is Manager, Power Fectronies Department, West inghouse RED Conte, Psburgh, PA T3235, USA. Ttet tog Number 821088. resulting in transient frequency and power "swings" or, in ‘extreme cases, inthe total loss of synchronism and even in the disintegration of the power system. “The need for controlling reactive power in transmission and distribution lines has been recognized since the emer- gence ofthe ac power system. Permanently connected and Switchable shunt capacitors and reactors have been used {rom the beginning to ensure desirable voltage profile along the transmission and distribution lines, and to minimize voltage variation in face of dally power demand changes. To handle dynamic disturbances (line switching, loss of generation, toad rejection, faults, etc) the reactive power ‘control has tobe fast in order to provide effective voltage land power flow control and thereby a significant improve iment in system stabil In the past, transmission systems were conservatively designed with largestabilty marginsand thethen-available ‘dynamic compensators, such as rotating synchronous com- ensers and-more recently—saturating, reactors, were rarely eoquired. Tn recent years, energy, environment, rightof-vay, and ‘cost problems delayed the construction of both generation facilities and new transmission lines. Thishas necessitated aachangeinthe traditional power system concepts and prac: tices, better utilization of existing power systems has bbecome imperative, Te interconnection of separate power systems allows better ulzation of power generation capa- bility, and fast reactive compensation of ac transmission lines can significantly increase the stability limits and, thereby, the transmittable power. 'As it frequently happens, the developing market needs have been answered by technology developments, ‘Advances in high power semiconductor and sophisticated electronic control technologies have made the develop- iment of fast, thyistorcantralled static var compensators (VCs) possible, These compensators were originally devel ‘oped for arc furnace compensation in the early 1970s, and ' few years later they were adopted for transmission system ‘compensation. They are characterized by extremely apid response, unrestricted operation, high reliability, and almost unlimited operating flexibility ‘One of the first thyristorcontrolled static var compensators, with rating of 40 Mvar, was installed atthe Shannon Substation ofthe Minnesota Power and Light (MP&L) sys- tem in 1978. This EPRL. funded project, still in service, was to demonstrate the practicality of stale compensators in utility applications. ‘Since 1978, there has been a dramatic increase in the use of static var compensators in power system applications Presently, there are 41 transmission line compensators installed, or on order, in the U.S. and Canada with a total rating of 9710 Moar. There are also 28 industrial SVCs with total rating of 1670 Mvar this gives a total of 69 instal- lations in these countrieswithacombined capacity of 11380 Mvar. Worldwide, there are atleast 300 SVC installations with a total rating of over 30 000 Mvar. Several new SVC projects are currently in various stages of negotiation, spec ication, and planning. There are several possible approaches to generate and control reactive power using different semiconductor switching devices and circuits. Presently, thyristor valves are used almost exclusively in conjunction with capacitor and reactor banks in practical compensators. However, other techniques using gate tum-off GTO) thyristors, which can generate controllable reactive power without the use of capacitors and reactors, are currently under develop- ‘This paper discusses static var compensators in electric ower system applications. The first part of the paper reviews the basic operating principles of ac electric power systems andestablishes the unctional equirementsfor var ‘compensators. The second part ofthe paperdescribes solid state approaches for controllable reactive power genera tion, and the control structure needed to meet specitic compensation requirements of ac power systems LAC Power System FUNDAMENTALS AND Tees The main constituents ofan ac electric power system are: {generator transmission and distribution lines, and loads. The generators are rotating synchronous machines. The transmission and distribution lines are essentaly distrib vted:parameter reactive networks characterized by th series inductance and shunt capacitance. The loads gen: erally consume both real and reactive power. AC power transmission is based upon two fundamental conditions: 1) generators remain in synchronism, and2)the voltage levels are kept close to their rated values, ‘Controle power exchange in an ac power system is pos- sible only fall synchronous generators run in synchronism with each other. The capability of maintaining, or regaining, synchronism is expressed by the term stability The stability Isthe tendency of the power system to continue to operate inthe intended steady-state mode and its ability to recover after extraneous disturbances faults load switching, ete) ‘hich forced a change in the steadystate operation, Maintenance of rated voltage levels is important for the proper operation and utilization of loads. Undervaltage can ‘cause degradation inthe performance of loads, and over voltages can lead to equipment damage and the generation ‘of harmonics due to magnetic saturation, Thetransmittable power overatransmissionline between the sending and receiving end terminals is primarily deter- mined by the reactive line impedance. The real power through theline inversely proportional toline impedance inductance) and is controlled by the angle between the sending and receiving end voltages, Consider the simple model of a generator being linked ‘oan infinite bus by a reactive line shown in Fig. Wa). The CT dl © Fig. 1, simple two machine power system (a) and core- sponding power vansmission characters (0, transmitted power Pi given by v pm sing o where Vis the magnitude of the generator and infinite bus voltage, Xisthe total interconnective reactance, and isthe ower angle between the sending end machine internal voltage and the infinite bus voltage. The relationship between the power P and angle is shown in Fig. 1). ‘The theoretical maximum transmittable power defining the steady-state stability limit is obtained at 3 ~ x2 a Transmission lines cannot be operated to0 close to their steady-state stability limit because a sufficient margin inthe Power transfer is needed to recover from dynamic distur ances, during which the transmitted power and trans- mission angle can significantly change from, of oscillate around, the steady-state value. The transient stability limit defines the maximum level of steady:state power trans ‘mission at which the system can stil recover normal oper- ation following a specified major disturbance, Occasionally, a power system may have negative damp ing. n this case, a relatively minor disturbance can lead to increasing power oscillation and the eventual loss of syn chronism (“dynamic oF oscillatory instability’. Due to its reactive impedance, the voltage along the transmission ine, and at the receiving end, may change sig- nificantly with load and load power factor. In the extremecase, a large load change may cause the receiving end vol lage to collapse. This phenomenon is termed voltage insta bility. I. Dysasue Compensarion RequiteMents OF AC Power Syston “The previous bret review of ac power system operating. requirements and problems indicates that dynamic reac- tive compensation needs are in the areas of 4) transient stability improvement, 2) power oscillation damping, and 5) voltage support (prevention of voltage instability |A. Transient Stability Improvement Consider Fig 21a), where the previous simple power sys- tem model (Fig 1a showin with an ideal controllable syn- chronous voltage source (such as an ideal rotating syn- an an | wee ance | rat sind (compet an 6 ccnp (oe = oe e Wr Fig.2._ Simple two machine power sytem with idea mid Pst comparator ad oresponding power ans chronous condenser) is connected at the midpoint. I the ‘Voltage tthe mipoints kept the same as that at the send: ingand receiving ends, then (1}can be applied for each halt ‘of the line, that is ¥ ot pa Cin. ° 2 “The power transmission relationship expressed by ) is itustrated in Fig. 208) where power Pis platted against angle &. Evidently, the maximum transmittable power obtained 3t 2 = 112182V°%, twice the steady-state limitof the uncom- pensated case. In general, the transmission reactance Xcan be divided into:n equa sections witha perfect synchronous ‘compensator atthe joining points of the sections. In this ‘ase, the power transmission is characterized theoretically by the following equation: which gives a maximum transmittable power of nVX, that is, m times the steady-state power limit of the uncompen- sated case. ‘The improvement in transient stability achievable with ‘controlled shunt compensation is simply due to the sig- nificant increase in the steady-state stability limit obtained. ‘A greatly simplified example is used hereto illustrate the basic concepts, Consider the simple power system models shown in Figs, 1a) and 2(a. Suppose that in both the com pensated and uncompensated systems the transmitted power isthe same, Assume that both systemsare subjected fo the same fault forthe same period of time. The dynamic behavior of thetwo systems is illustrated in Fig. 3a)and(b). Fig. 3. Equal ares lstating transient stabity margin fr [tivo machine power system a without compensation and {by wit an ides mdpaint compensator Prior tothe fault, each system transmits power Py at angles B.and &,, respectively (subscript ¢ stands for "compen- sated”), During the fault, the transmitted electric power becomes zero, while the mechanical input power to the {generators remains constant (Pu). Therefore, the genera tors accelerate from the steady-state angles 5 and 8, 10 angles 5, and ,,, at which the fault clears. The acceleratingenergies in thetwo systemsare cepresented by areas A, and ‘Ac After fault clearing, the transmitted electric power exceeds the mechanical input power and the machines decelerate, but their angle further increases due to the: kinetic energies accumulated in the rotors. The maximum rotor angles 8, and 5, are reached when the decelerating energies defined by areas A, and A, are equal tothe accel eating energies defined by areas A, and A,,, respectively IF for a given power level and post-ault system the max imum rotor angle ( oF 6.) reached is below the critical Fotor angle (6, 0" 3.) the system will remain transiently stable. The critical rotor angle represents the rotor angular swing beyond which rotor deceleration cannot be main- tained, The difference between maximum angular swing and the critical angle determines the margin of transient stability, that is, the “unused” and still available deceler. ating energy represented by at€a8 Ann 3d AcmpniN Fig 5a) and () Comparison of Fig. a) and (b) clearly shows the sub- stantial increase in transient stability margin the (deal) shunt compensation can provide. Alternatively, if the uncompensated system has sufficient transient stability margin, shunt compensation can increase significantly the transmittable power In the above stability considerations, the shunt compen. satoris assumed tobe an ideal synchronous compensator. The adjective “ideal” here means that the amplitude of the ‘midpoint voltage remains costant all the time, except pos sibly during the fault, and its phase angle follows the gen- erator (rotor) angle swings so thatthe synchronous eom- ppensator would not be involved in real power exchange, but it would provide the necessary reactive power at the midpoint The reactive power demand atconstant midpoint voltage increases rapidly with increasing power transmission, reaching a maximum value equal to 4Pq,at the maximum steady-state power transmission limit of 2Pauw (Ppa isthe ‘maximum transmittable power of the uncompensated sys- tem) In most practical applications, for economic reasons, the rating of the static compensator is lower than that required for maximum attainable power. For this reason, 4 practical compensator approximates the ideal synch ‘nous voltage source only 3s long as the (midpoint) var demand does not exceed its (capacitive) rating. Above its ‘maximum rating, the compensator provides either com stant current or becomes a constant reactive impedance, depending on the method used for reactive power gen. B. Power Oscillation Damping Consider again the simple power system model with midpoint compensator shown in fig. 2a). The magnitude ‘of the midpoint voltage is now assumed variable. The ‘mechanical power applied to the generator is Py and the lecrical power transmitted totheinfinitebusatthve receiv Ingeend is? {the mechanical angular momentum isMand 3 is the rotor angular position (with respect to a synchro- ously rotating axis), the dynamic behavior of the system can be described by the so-alled “swing equation” oe a where the difference Py — Pu Pe 6 is the accelerating power. For small variations, assuming constant mechanical power (Py = const) and expressing the change in electrical ower in terms ofthe (controllable) amplitude Vp of the ‘midpoint voltage and angle (refer to(3),(s) ean be written asia) Arab, ae a * ay, AY Inspection of (6) indicates that, ifthe midpoint voltage is Constant (Vn = const and AV, = 0), the angle 45 would oscillate undamped with a frequency of © Inorder to provide damping, the midpoint voltage must be varied as a function of dada, that is 30) Ms a a ® where Kis a constant This means thatthe midpoint voltage is to be increased (by providing capacitive vars) when dAdVidt Is positive (in ‘order to increase the transmitted electric power and thereby to oppose the acceleration of the generator) and itis to be decreased (by absorbing inductive vars) when alAiiot Is negative (to reduce the transmitted electric power and thereby oppose the deceleration of the generator, Power oscillation damping achieved by alternating the maximum available var output [3] of the midpoint com: ppensator according tothe polarity of ddd, between some Capacitive and inductive limits, is illuteated in Fig. 4. Fig.4. Power oscilaton damping by static VAr compen {alos heaage regulation only, vote corral ws 3 Voltage Suppor ‘The receiving end voltage ofa transmission linea func: tion of the line impedance, the load, and the load power factor. The magnitude of the voltage atthe receiving endFig. 5. Amplitude variation ofthe receiving voltage V, 8 8 {ection ofloadPandioad power actor (dashed lines) Pos ‘ible wohage regulon with avarable VA source (contin tous fine ‘of atypical lossless (radial line of given length (and imped- lance) asa function of the load and load power factor is ‘shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 5 Inthe case of aweak power system, load changes and the switching of transmission lines, transformers, or large ‘Capacitor and reactor banks, can cause significant voltage ‘aration atthe receiving end, In the extreme case, when the power demand ofthe load exceeds the maximum trans mittable power at the given load power factor (see Fig. 5), the receiving end voltage may collapse ("voltage instabil ity’) Atypical system configuration for potential voltage instability is when a large load area s supplied from two or more generator plants with independent transmission ines. {This frequently happens when, for example, the locally {generated power is inadequate to supply a large load area ‘nd additional power is imported over a separate trans- mission link) The loss of one of the power sources could Suddenly increase the load demand on the remaining part Of the system above the maximum transmittable power Tevel, causing the receiving end voltage to collapse, “The fact thatthe maximum transmittable power over a given transmission line can be increased by increasing the feactive power atthe receiving end suageststhat witha rap- idly variable var source of appropriate rating connected to the receiving end terminal, voltage collapse could be pre- ‘vented and constant terminal voltage maintained, as shown by the continuous line in Fig 5. . Summary of Compensation Requirements “The functional requirements of static var compensators, used for transient stability improvements, power oscilla: tion damping, and voltage support, can be stated simply as follows: 1) They must be able to stay n synchronism with the ter- ‘minal voltage under all conditions, including major dis- turbances 2) They must be able to regulate (transient stabilty improvement and voltage suppor), or control power oscil lation damping) rapidly the terminal voltage by generating reactive power for, or absorbing it rom, the ac power sys- 'AS will be seen, all ofthe solid-state approaches for var generation and control provide functional characteristics land response times compatible with the dynamic com pensation requitements of power systems. However, from the standpoint of initial capital and operating costs, static var compensators can differ significantly due to different ‘pace and installation requirements and, in particular, dis- Similar loss versus var output characteristic. IIL, MerHoos oF VaRARLE VaR GevtRarion By definition, capacitors generate and reactors (induc- tors) absorb reactive power when connected toan ac power source, They have been used with mechanical switches for (coarsely) controlled var generation and absorption since the early days of ac power transmission. Continuously variable var generation or absorption for dynamic system Compensation was originally provided by over- or under- fexcited rotating synchronous machines and, ater, by sat trating reactors in conjunction with fixed capacitors. ‘More recently, high power semiconductors (thyristors) have been employed in various circuit configurations to produce variable reactive output. These semiconductor power circuits, with their internal control enabling them to produce var output proportional toan input reference, are termed, per CIGRE's recommendation [1 static var gen: terators(SVGs).A static var compensator is thus a stati var {generator whose output is varied so as to maintain or con- {tol specific parameters ofthe electric power systems. ‘Most ofthe presently used thyistor-contolled static var _generator in effect provide a variable shunt impedance by Synchronously switching shunt capacitors andlor reactors in" and “out” of the network. Using appropriate switch control, the varoutputcan be controlled continuously from maximum capacitive to maximum inductive output at a given network voltage. Other evolving solid-state static var enerators produce reactive power without theuse ofactual Capacitors or inductors. Some of these are the true equiv- alent ofthe rotating synehronous condenser, in which the ‘magnitude of the internally generated ac voltage is varied tocontrol the var output; others act almost like ideal reac tive current sources, drawing leading or lagging current of contellable magnitude This paper deals mainly with presently used static var ‘generators and the related static var compensators), which temploy thyristor-controlled reactors with fixed andlor thy- Fistorswitched capacitors, However, a brief description is also given of another emerging technique which uses a Solid-state inverter to generate controllable reactive power without the use of capacitors or reactors, ‘The performance and operating characteristics of cur rent var generators ate determined by the major thyristor- ‘controled constituents:the thyristor controlled reactorand the thyrstorswitched capacitor. A. The ThyrstorControlled Reactor TCR) {An elementary single-phase thytistor-controlled reactor (TCR) is shown in Fig. 6). It consists ofa fixed (usually air core) reactor of inductance L, and a bidirectional thyristor ‘valve (switch). Currently available large thyristorscan block voltage of 4000 to 6000 Vand conduct current of 2000 to 4000 1A. Thus, ina practical valve many thyristors (typically 100 40) are connected in series to meet the required blocking voltage levels at agiven power rating. thyristor valve can bbe brought into conduction by simultaneous application ‘of agate pulse toallthyristorsof the same pola. The valve| aie @ a Fig. 6 Base thysstoncontoled reactor (a and associated waveforms will automatically block immediately after the ac current ‘crosses zero, unless the gate signal is reapplied, The current in the reactor can be controlled from max: |mum (thyristor valve closed) to zero (thyristor valve open) by the method of ring delay angle control That is, the lo- sure of the thyristor valve is delayed with respect tothe peak of the applied voltage in each half cycle, and thus the dura- tions the current conduction intervals arecontrolled. This method of current contal is illustrated in Fig. 66), where the reactor current j(a) and its fundamental component Iy(a) are shown at various delay angles, a The amplitude f(a) of the fundamental reactor current Jira) can be expressed as a funetion of angle Wwid2(0-2e-emm) — @ where Vis the amplitude ofthe applied ac voltage, Lis the inductance of the thytistor-controlled reactor, and w is the angular frequency of the applied voltage. As Fig. 6b) illustrates, the conduction angle control results in a nonsinusoidal current waveform in the reactor. Inother words, the thyristor-controlled reactor generates harmonics. For identical psitiveand negative current halt cycles, only odd harmonics ate generated, The amplitudes of these are a function of angle a, given by the following expression: V 4 [sin a cos ina ~ n cos a sin (nal) tel ain Where m= 2k +1,k=1,2,3, The maximum amplitudes of the most significant hat- ‘monies, thied, ith, seventh, ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth are 13.78 percent, 5.05 percent, 2.59 percent, 1.57 percent, 1.05 percent and 0.75 percent, respectively, of the maxi: ‘mum fundamental current. Inathreesphase system, three single phasethyristor-con- twolled reactors are used, usually n deta connection. Under balanced conditions the triplen harmonic currents, third ninth fifteenth, etc) cieculate in the delta connected TCR and do not enter the power system, ‘The magnitude of the other harmonics generated by the thyristor-controlled reactors can be reduced [4] by mult pulse and multibank circuits, or by filtering Iason = 0 8, The Thyrstor Switched Capacitor SC) AN single-phase thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) is shown in Fig. 7a). I consists of a capacitor, a bidirectional thyristor valve,and a relatively small surge current limiting reactor. This reactor is needed primarily to limit the surge ‘current in the thyristor valve under abnormal operating t aps @ » Fig.7._A basic thyristorswitched capacitor bank (@) and Seociated wavelrins Conditions (e.g., control malfunction causing capacitor switching ata “wrong time”); it may also be used to avoid resonances withthe ac system impedance a particular fre- quencies Under steady-state conditions, when the thyristor valve is closed and the TSC branch is connected to a sinusoidal ac voltage source, v= V sina, the current in the branch is given by Id eC cos at an where 1 fx neha = I oa fete ~ VX, te The TSC branch can be disconnected (switched out) at any current zero by prior removal of the gate drive tothe thyristor valve. At the current zero crossing, the capacitor voltage isa its peak value, Vo = Vniin® ~ 1). The discon- nected capacitor stays charged to this voltage and, con: sequently, the voltage across the nonconducting thyristor valve varies between zero and the peak-to-peak valueof the applied ac voltage, as illustrated in Fig. 70), {tthe voltage across the disconnected capacitor remained ‘unchanged, the TSC bank could be switched in again, with- ‘ut any transient atthe appropriate peak of the applied ac voltage. Normaly, the capacitor bank is allowed to dis ‘charge ater disconnection, Thus, the reconnection of the capacitor may have to be executed a some residual capac: itor voltage between zero and Va%in® ~ 1). This can be accomplished with the minimum possible transient dis: turbance if the thyristor valve is turned on at those instants at which the capacitor residual voltage and the applied ac voltage are equal, that is, when the voltage across the thy- . Fixed-Capacitor, ThyristorControled Reactor Type VAr Generator AA basic var generator arrangement using a fixed (per- ‘manently connected) capacitor with a thyrstorcontrolled reactor (FC-TCR) is shown functionally in Fig 8). The cur- Fent in the reactor is varied by the previously discussed ‘method of fring delay angle contro. The fixed capacitor in Practice i usually substituted, fully or partially, by a filter network that has the necessary capacitive impedance at the fundamental frequency to generate the vars required, buteye funetional conto scheme forthe FTER ype state Vac generator (a) and asvcisted wavetorns istrating, ‘operating principles (. \tprovides alowimpedanceat selected frequencies oshunt the dominant harmonies produced by the TCR. In this arrangement, the constant capacitive var gener- ation ofthe fixed capacitor is opposed by the variable var absorption of the thyrstor-conteolied rector, to yield the total var output required. At the maximum capacitive var ‘output, the thytstor-contolled reactor is off x = 90°). To decrease the capacitive output, the current in the reactor isinereased bydecreasing delay angle. Atzerovar output, the capacitive and inductive currents become equal and ‘thus the capacitive and inductive vat perfectly cancel, With 2 futher decrease of angle a (assuming that the rating of ‘the reactors greater than that of the capacitor, the induc- tive current becomes larger than the capacitive current, resulting in a net inductive var Output “The control of the thyrstor-controlled reactor in the FC- ‘TCR type var generator needs to provide four basic func. tions a5 shown in Fig. ta) ‘One function is synchronous timing. This function isusu- allyprovided bya phase-locked loop ciruit that uns in pre ‘ise synchronism withthe ac system voltage and generates appropriate ting pulses with respect tothe peak of that voltage. ‘The second function is the reactive current (or admit- tance) to firing angle conversion. This can be provided by ‘areal imecircuit implementation of the mathematical rela- ‘lonship betwenthe amplitude of the fundamental TCR cur FentJp(a) and the delay angle a given by . ‘The third function isthe computation ofthe required fun- damental reactor curent I. from the requested var gen- ‘erator output current that is provided as the amplitude ret ‘erence input jo the var generator control. This is simply ‘done by subtracting the (scaled) amplitude of the capacitor ‘current, from J. “The fourth function isthe thyristor fring pulse genera tion. This is accomplished by the fring pulse generator cir cult which produces a relatively large gate current pulse (inital peak is typically 1.54) for the thyristors in response to the output signal provided by the reactive current ofr ing angle conve The operation of the FC-TCR type var generator is illus: trated by the waveforms in Fig. 8) The loss versus var output characteristic of the FC-TCR typevargeneratorisshownin Fig.9.Asseen,thetotal losses = Tagen ty! fey! i wih rane gil Fig.9. Loss versus VAr output characterite of a fixed capacitor, thystorcontrolied reactor type sate VA" gen increase with the increasing TCR current and, conse- ‘quently decrease, with increasing capacitive var output. At zerovar output, there are appreciable losses (typically about 4 percent of rated capacitive output) because the zero var ‘output is obtained indirectly, by canceling the fixed capac itive vac with inductive vas. Theloss versus var output char acteristic shown in Fig. Bis advantageous when the average ‘capacitive var output is relatively high as, for example, in industrial applications requiring power factor correction, and iti disadvantageous when the average var output is low, a for example, inthe case of dynamic compensation of power transmission systems, D. Thyristor Switched Capacitor, thyristor Controlled Reactor Type VAr Generator The thyristor-switched capacitor, thyristor-controlled reactor (TSC-TCR) type vat generator was developed pri: ‘marily for dynamic compensation of power transmission systems with the intention of minimizing standby losses and providing increased operating flexibility. ‘A basic single;phase TSC-TCR arrangement is shown in Fig, 10. For a given capacitive output range, it consists of ‘a TSC branches and one TCR. The number of branches 0 's determined by practical considerations that include the operating voltage level, maximum var output, current rat Ing ofthe thyristor valves, bus work, and instalation cost,Wg YF Neg yl ® o Fig. 10. Basi TSC-TCR type static VAr generator a) and its, ‘VAs demand versus VA" ouput characters ‘etc. OF course, the inductive range also can be expanded to any maximum rating by employing additional TCR branches, “The operation ofthe basic TSC-TCR var generator can be described with reference to Fig. 9b) as follows: The total ‘capacitive output range is divided into n intervals. In the first interval, the output ofthe var generator is conteolable Inthe e10 10 vafmadn range, where Varna isthe total rating provided byall TSC branches. inthis interval, one capacitor bank is switched in (by fring, for example, thyristor valve ‘SW, and, simultaneously, the current inthe TCR is set by the appropriate fring delay angle so that the sum of the var ‘output ofthe TSC (negative) and that of the TCR (positive) equals the capacitive output required. Tn the second, third,» , and nth intervals, the output |S controllable in the vafqq/n 10 2Vafqa/M, 2amalt 0 $156," Reet pie = = sm 7 a = 34 ue Fig. 11. Functional contol scheme forthe TSC-TCR type fuic VAr generator. 3vatgadly °°» and (9 ~ 1 VapalD 10 Vatewe Fange by ‘witching in the second, third, --~and.nth capacitor banks and using the TCR to absorb the surplus capacitive vars. In frder to. avoid indeterminate switching, a hyster between the “switching in” and “switching out" var levels \s usually employed in practice. ‘A functional control scheme for the TSC-TCR type var ‘generator is shown in Fig. 1. I provides three major func. tions: 1) determines the number of TSC branches needed to be switched in to approximate the required capacitive output current (with a positive surplus), and computes the amplitude of the inductive current needed to cancel the surplus capacitive current, 2} controls the switching of the TsCbranchesina“transient-free” manner, and 3)vares the current in the TCR by fring delay angle control ‘The operation of the TSC-TCR type var generator with three capacitor banks is illustrated by the oscillograms in Fig. 12. The oxcillograms show the reactive current refer: 1,> 0~caetie PS faa eh Fig. 12. Waveforms ilstrating the operation ofthe thy forswitched capacitor thyrtorcontoled reactor type Sac VAr generator = current etrance to SVG input ie sof the TSC currents y= TCR CUFENt, = Suh OF TSC and TCR curent, lence signal, the total output current iy (lc + i) the cur: ‘ent edrawn by the thyrstorswitched capacitor banks, and the current i drawn by the thyristor-controlied reactor. The loss versus var output characteristic of the TSC-TCR type var generator follows from its basic operating prin- ciple. Refer to Fig. 10) Ator slightly below zero var output, allcapacitorbanks are switched out, the TCR current iszer0 fr negligibly small, and consequently, the losses are zero fr almost zero. As the capacitive output Is increased, an Increasing numberof TSC banks are switched in with the TCR absorbing the surplus capacitive vars. Thus, with each switched:in TSC bank, thelosses increase by ixedamount. To this fixed loss, there are the added losses of the TCR, Which vary from’ maximum to zero between successive ‘switchings of the TSC banks. Overall the losses ofthe TSC- ‘TCR type var generator vary, on the average, in proportion with the var output, as illustrated in Fig. 13. This typeof loss characteristics clearly advantageous in those applications In which the var generator is used for dynamic compen: sation and is not required to provide high average var out put for the normally functioning power system. E.Allolid-State Var Generators As discussed inthe previous sections, the presently used static var generators are comprised of fixed or thyristor switched capacitors and thyristor-controlled reactors. Thus, inthese var generators the thyristor valves function simply as control elements, varying the reactive power generated by the capacitor and reactor banks. Consequently, each ‘major constituent ofa static var generator (capacitor, reac:wl the amplitude F ofits voltage, the reactive power can be controlled; increasing E above the amplitude Vot the sys- tem voltage causes leading (capacitive)current to be drawn {rom the ac system, whereas decreasing below Vproduces a lagging (inductive) load on the ac system. Under either ‘operating condition a small amount of real power ofcourse flows from the ac system to the machine to supply its ‘mechanical and electrical losses. 'A desto-ac inverter can be represented at is (ac) output terminal as a voltage source. For the present discussion it isassumed that the inverter output voltages are sinusoids, although the basic operating principles remainvalid orany ‘waveshape produced by a practical inverter ‘Suppose that the outputs of a three-phase inverter are ‘connected through three inductors to an ac system as shown in Fig. 15). For purely reactive power flow the pt fam Hey"He"®! anche, tate se] Gl ‘ oat lel ee || cee Fig. 13. Loss versus VAroutputcharactristicol athyrstor: t Switched eapactor, thyristor controlled reactor ype stall Var generator. tor, thyristor valve) has a similar VA rating, and thus every tone of them contributes significantly to the size and cost of the equipment. Therefor, i follows that i both var gen- tation and control were accomplished by solid-state means Without the use of passive storage elements, a potentially significant size and cost reduction could be achieved. “There area number of possible approachest2}tothe gen- eration of controllable reactive power without the use of capacitors or reactors. These approaches employ various detoac or actoac converter circuits. A particular approach, using a GTO (gate turn-off) thyristor inverter has ‘been developed recently [5] under ESEERCO (Empire State Electvic Energy Research Corporation) sponsorship, and a + T Mvar demonstration unit installed atthe Spring Valley, NY, test site of the Orange and Rockland Ulites, In, in October 1986, is being currently field tested ‘The basic operating principle of this voltage source type static var generator is similar to that ofa rotating syncho- nous condenser shown schematically in Fig. 14. For purely Fig 14. Basic voltagesource type var generator employing 2 rotating syrctvonous condenser. reactive power flow the three-phase induced electromotive forces (EMSs) ¢,,€,, and e, of the synchronous rotating machines are in phase with the system voltages vy, v, and vy By controlling the excitation ofthe machine, and hence o Fig 15, Satevtagesoucenpevargeneratorempoving inverter output voltages vy, van, and Ves are kept in phase with theac system voltages y, and v,. By controlling the amplitude Vs of the inverter output voltages, the reactive power can be controlled from full leading to full lagging. ‘That is to say, increasing Vp above the amplitude V of the system voltages causes leading (capacitive) current to be drawn from the ac system and vice versa, decreasing Vp below V results i lagging (inductive current inthe ac sys tem, ‘When the inverters operated strictly as reactive power source, as described above, it absorbs no real power from the ac system and thus its lasses have to be replenished from a separate dc supply. However, the de supply can be dispensed with ia suitable de reservoir capacitor is used (Fig. 15(0) and each inverter output voltage is made to lag Slightly the corresponding ac system voltage. A real com: ponent of cureent wil then flow from the ac system to the Inverter, and the loses will be accommodated thereby. The de reservoir capacitor has to catty the input “ripple” cur rentof the inverter. This ripple currents, of course, func tion ofthe type, circuit configuration, and operating mode ‘ofthe inverter used; however, it can generally be accom. ‘modated quite readily when the output currents are rea sonably balanced In contrast to the conventional var generators, where the thyristors are naturally commutated at current zero cross- ings, the inverter type (and other similar all solid-state) var ‘generators require semiconductor power switches with intrinsic turn-off capability (otherwise force commutating Circuits are required which would make the approachimpracticab. currently available semiconductor with suit able rating and characteristic is the GTO thyristor. This device can be both turned on andoff bya suitable gate drive current. Although maximum voltage and current ratings of 4500 V and 2500 A (peak turn-off for available GTOs are smaller than those of the largest conventional thyristors, ‘they are suficiently large to make the all solidstate var gen- erator economically viable at the present time. Further advances in high power smelconductor technology, result ‘ing i higher device ratings and better switching charac- teristics, would reduce cost and losses, making the broad application of this var generation approach in power trans- ‘mission and distribution systems possible within the next decade. IV, Gonos oF StaHIC VaR Compensirons As discussed in Section I! terminal voltage control can ‘enhance significantly the power transmission capability of the power system. Specifically, the regulation of the voltage al particular terminals of the transmission system limits voltage variation, prevents voltage instability (voltage col lapse), and increases transient first swing) stability limits, ‘whereas appropriate contol (variation) ofthe terminal volt age is needed to achieve power oscilation damping, Tnorder tomeet the general compensation requirements ‘of power system, the output ofthe static var generator is ‘controled to maintain oF vary the voltage at selected ter minal points of the transmission line. A general control Scheme, converting a static var generator into a transmis: sion line var compensator, is shown in Fig. 16. Fig. 16. General contol scheme ofa static VAr compen ‘The power system, atthe teeminal ofthe SWC, is repre- sented by a generator with a generally varying motor angle Band source impedance Z (including the generator and ‘wansmission line impedances) that is a function of the angular feequency w and time (The impedance variation in time is due to faults, line switching, ete) The terminal voltage v of the power system can be characterized by 2 generally varying amplitude V; and angular frequency wy The static var generator includes TSC and TCR banks (or GTO inverter) which are controlled so that the amplitude Joong ofthe reactive CUFFent zany drawn from the power sys- tei follows the curtent reference 1, With the basic static var compensator control, the SVG is operated as a perfect terminal voltage regulator: the amplitude V- othe terminal voltage vis measured and compared with the voltage re ference V7; the error AV; is processed and amplified by a P! (proportional integral controler to provide the current reference forthe SVG. In other words, ran is closed: loop controled via input so that Vs maintained precisely at the level of the reference voltage Vin face of power system and load changes. If the proper compensation of the ac power system requires some specific variation in the amplitude ofthe ter- ‘minal voltage against time or some ather variable, then an appropriate correcting signal V, derived from the auxiliary inputs, is summed to the fixed reference V, in order to ‘obtain the desied actual variable) reference signal V* that controls the terminal voltage in a closed-loop manner. “The auxiliary inputs ate used commonly for voltage reg lation slope, and power oseillation damping, ‘A. The Regulation Slope In many applications, the static var compensator is not used asa perfect terminal voltage regulator, ut rather the terminal voltage is allowed to vary in proportion with the ‘compensating current. There are several reasons for this: First the linear operating rangeof a compensator with given maximum capacitiveand inductive ratings can be extendec if'a regulation “droop” is allowed, Regulation “droop! means that the terminal voltage is allowed to be smaller than the nominal nodoad value at full capacitive compen: sation and, conversely, iti allowed to be higher than the rhominal value at full inductive compensation; second, per- fect regulation (zero droop slope) could resultina poorly ‘defined operating point, anda tendency of oscillation, ithe system impedance exhibited a “iat” region (low imped: ance)inthe operating requency ange inerest;and third, a regulation “droop” or slope tends to enforce automatic load sharing between static var compensators as well as other voltage regulating devices “The desited regulation slope, defining the terminal vol age versus output current characteristic of the compen- sator,can be established by a minor contra loop using one fof the auxiliary inputs. A signal proportional to the ampli tude of the compensating Current lean, with an ordered polarity (capacitive current is negative and inductive cur- tent is positive, i derived and summed to the reference ¥,. Theactual reference V controlling the terminal voltage thus becomes VE =V, + elony «ay Equation (13) indicates that V? and thus the amplitude of the terminal voltage V, decreases from the fixed no-load value with increasing capacitive current (as determined by the slope », and, conversely, it increases with increasing Inductive compensating current until the maximum capac: itive or, respectively, inductive compensating current is reached. For further terminal voltage changes, the output current ofthe compensator becomes similar to that obtain- able with a fixed capacitor or reactor. ‘A typical terminal voltage versus output current char- acteristic ofa static var compensator with a specific slope {is shown in Fig. 17, together with particular (voltage versus reactive current characteristics) of the ac system. Load line 1 intersect the SVC V1 characteristic atSS S diz Fig, 17. Vi characteristic of he static Var compensator. the nominal reference) voltage, thus the output current of the compensators zero. Load ines below loadiine tdue toadecreaseinthe power system voltage for example, gen- erator outage). Its intersection with the SVC Vil character istic calls for the capacitive compensating current cy Load line 3 above load line 1 due o an increase in the power system voltage tor example, load rejection) tsintersection with the SVC V1 characteristic defines the inductive com Pensating current J. The intersection points of the load Tine 2 and 3 with the vertical (oltage) axis define the tee: minal voltage variation without any compensation. The ter minal otage variation wth compensation isentirely deter- mined by the regulation slope as indicated in Fig. 17. 8, Power Oscillation Damping As is shown in Section 18, power oscillation damping generally requires the variation of the voltage atthe ter minal of the SVC in proportion tothe rate of change of the ‘effective rotor (or power transmission) angle. Rotor angle ‘changes, of course, result in frequency and real power vari ations. In practice, usually the variation ofthe system fre- {quency or the transmitted real power ismeasured and used {or controlling the var output to produce the terminal vol age variation desired. Ina possible control scheme, the signal corresponding to the variation of the system frequency, that ofthe real power, is summed to the fixed reference voltage signal V, atthe auxiliary input. The added signal causes the output Current ofthe SVC to vary oscillate) around the fixed oper ating point to control the terminal voltage so to aid sys tem damping. That i, the terminal voltage is ineveased when, for example, the frequency deviation Af, ~ a8) dt 's positive in order to increase the transmitted electrical power and thereby to oppose the acceleration of the gen: ferators| and itis decreased when ais negative ta reduce the transmitted electrical power and thereby oppose the deceleration ofthe generators Summary Modern power electronics technology has provided new and superior means for dynamic var compensation. High power thyristor valves are capable of switchinglargecapac- itor banks and controlling current in reactor banks accu: rately and rapidly. The thyritorcontrolied reactors (TRS) are used presently in combination with fixed oF thyristor. switched capacitors (TSCs) to form a static var generator ‘whose output is continuously variable over a specified Capacitive and inductive range. Other emerging power electronic circuits, using gate turn-off (GTO) thyristors, can provide controllable var output without capacitors or reac tors, {static var generator can be converted into a static var compensator by external (usualy closed) control loops, hich vary the var output so as to maintain or control spe eific parameters of the ac power system. The fundamental purpose of static var compensation isto increase the trans ‘mission capacity ofthe power system. Thiscan be achieved by providing voltage support and inereased stability mar {gins, For receiving end terminal voltage support, as well as for transient (fest swing) stability improvement, the static var compensator is operated essentially as 2 voltage reg lator the var output is varied 50 a5 to minimize terminal voltage variation during and, in particular, following major ower system disturbances, Fr dynamic stability improve iment, the var output i ariedin concert with frequency (or power flow) variations s0 as to damp power oscillations. Rusences (OL LA trimer, Static Var Compensators Working Group 38 D1 Task Force No.2 on SVC, CIGRE, 1986. 12} UGjugyseactne power generation ndcontrolby thyristor ects! EEE Tans tnd App vl. TA3, 90. 5 pp. 24-53, SepttOex. 978 1B) A'Hammed,“Analysisof power system stabiltyenhancement by sate var compensators lee Trans. Power Systems, vl RRS, no. 4 pp. 222-227, Now 1386 la) UGyugyt “Fundamental of thynstorcontoled static var compensators In electric power system applications,” pre Sent athe 18 yp Appcaon of tat Vr Sans 15) CW. edwards etal, “Advanced sae var generator employ Ing CTO thyristors paper 38 WAL1081presentedat the Wi {ee Meetng the IEEE Power Engineering Society, lan 31-F, S588 Laszlo Gyupyi received his basic technica feducation st the Paytechnieal Univers, Budapest, studied mathematics atthe Uns versity of London, Englend, and elects “ngineeringatthe UniwestyotPitsourgy Pisburah, PA, where he obtained the MISE: degree in 1967 Ne recemed the PhO. degree Irom the Unversity of Sa ford, England in 170. He worked a the Epsyion Reseazch and Development a. Ld, England, rom 158 1 1963, then joined the Westinghouse Reseutth Laboratories, Piasburgh, PA where he snow Manager ofthe Power Electronics Department During his professional career, he has carved out research and development in diferent elds electrons vote Ing precision laboratory data recovding and measoring sturents analogand digital conttlsystems,solidstatemotor drives, nd various power converters, inverter, and eyeloconverters His reas of spocial expertise Inclode varisblespeed constant Ire ‘quency WSCR power generators, variablespeed 3c motor des, ‘eve and passive power ites high voagethystr valves, and Static eactive pomer (VAR) compensating systems. In his cutent postion, he is responsible for the research and development of wer eiecronies equipment and systems for serospare indus {ial and uulty applications. He is coauthor ofthe book swc Power requeney Changers New York, N¥- Wiley, 1979, and author ‘ofthe section "Power Frequency Changers bothinthefecronics Engineers Handbook and the Ect! Engineers Handbook New ‘York, NY: McCraw il 19?3and 16), respectively Hehas numer. ‘us societal publications and won te Prize Paper Award, EEE Power Engineering Society 1962, fr the paper eile "Char acteristics State Tyrntor Controlled Shunt Compensators or Power Transmission System Applications.” He holds 60 patents ‘Dr. Gyugy ia Fellow in the Insftution of Flecrcal Enginees, andlamamberofboththe IRE and IEEE Working Groups on ttc VAR Compensators