‘Xs FOUNDATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE What is Organizational Structure Basic Elements of Organizational Structure Common Organizational Designs The Simple Structure The Bureaucracy The Matrix Structure New Organization Design Option Outsourcing Organization Team Structure The Organizational Structure’s Relevance to Human Behaviour_ Chapter 10 FOUNDATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Organizations are the means by ihc cites achieve di goals, This i 3, oven fl onganizations are diferent from each othe, Certain types of organizations are just right for certain types of cevvieanments, while some types of organizations are not fited to thrive on certain environment An organization is one with a structure that is designed te accomplish certain objectives. Understanding structure is important because itis part of organizational behavior, Structure and behavior influence each other, This relationship underscores the importance of studying the various concepts related to organizational structure, WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE. Organizational structure refers to the formal pattern of how people and jobs are grouped in an organization. I is often illustrated hy an organizational chart, specifying who reports to whom, the organizational structure consists of mechanisms that serves {0 coordinate and control activities. of organizational members, ppatdination is the process by which tasks and departments. are interelated to achieve the goals of the organization. Control refers to the tezulation of activities in ways that will enable members to pi and stabilize relationships with other members of the orp ibe coordinating and control mechanisms must be both Curched to the context of the organization to nake the organization effective. Basic Hements of Organizational Structure Organiza i SMIUCHUTE Consists of the: Work specialization 2. depatmentation following basic elements! ae Pattern of authority Span of control Coordination of Activities Work Specialization, This the organiz, fers to the degree to which tasks in ation ate subdivided inte se fos The eiberce of work specialization is that rather to an entire job being done by pe Person, itis broken down intarn umber of steps, with each step being completed by a separate pecen result is that individuals Specialize in doing part ofan activity rate fo the entire acti ies of work speci ization are {otal productivity tends to 2. simplified tasks can be: learned ina relatively short time nd be completed quickly; and 3. the availability of a variety of jobs makes i possible for Pearls © choose, oF be asigned to positions they enjoy and for which they are well suited, 0 muhiply geometrically, | | { i { { 0 all jobs, and | Work specialization, howeve some caution must be undertaken in Turning, works of art into masterpieces, for instance, will not be eficien if its subslivided! into sey ale steps and assigning each step to different individuals, ‘The end product may turn out to be an undesirable one ‘Sales, Cre Collectioncate Supevisor Coleco | STRUCTURE B — with work specialization Figure 36 STRUCTURE AND SPECIALIZATION without specialization EMPLOYEE A EMPLOYEE B Credit Investigator! Credit Investigator Collector Collector ‘Work output for one day: ‘Work output for one day: 1. investigated three 1. investigated three credit applications credit applications 2. collected three accounts 2. collected three accounts TOTAL OUTPUT: 6 investigations and 6 collections with specialization EMPLOYEEA EMPLOYEE B Credit investigator Collector ‘Work output for one day: ‘Work output for one day: ~ investigated eight + investigated eight accounts credit applications TOTAL OUTPUT: 8 investigations and 8 collections y Figure 37 | AN EXAMPLE OF THE EFFECT OF SPECIALIZATION PRB: < 214 Departmentati i structure thar selOM. This 1s a basic clement of organizational single manages, nd rouping of jobs under the authority of a 1 accordin citi ath Purpose of plang en SOM common, atonal bas, fr the The basis for grouping jobs includes the if ination, and contro, saves following: Knowledge and skills to the speci bring to the job. assigned to speci business, is that together. Work process and function - positions are grouped according to the process or activities to be performed, > Under this type of grouping, separate departments are set up to handle activities such as marketing, production, human resource management, research and development, and finance. The purpose of this grouping is to achieve economies of scale by placing people with common sills and orientation into common units, : Time — positions may also be grouped on the basis of when the work is to be done, For instance, when the ganization rforms the same work 24 hours a day, as may occul erextle factory, members ae grouped into the 600 AM to 2:00 PM shif, the 2:00 PM to 10:00 PM shift, and the 10:00 PM to 6:00AM shit. teats + — positions in the organization may be grouped Lear ie Pithe good or service that isbeing produced. An aestiance manufacturer may have separate, departments reealing audio-visual equipment, alr-condtioners, and refrigerators. tee = groups may also be fo basis ofthe. sect cah oe pes tes 4 ate a deals wit fi for inane hand ante! depart. o¢- a tomers who avail of fe Location ~ postions may aso be glove focation. An organization, for insane iision, a Visayas division, and Positions may be grouped according zed knowledge and skills that members For example, professors in universities are alized departments such as social science, and vocational. The advantage of this grouping, } lencies are obtained if specialists are grouped?Pe ne CES Se Le These are the following: 1. Supervision is made easier. 2. The sharing of resources, such as men, machines, ang materials results to maximum use of such resources. 3. Common measures of performance is established. 4. Communication is encouraged. UNIVERSITY Figure 38 ‘A SAMPLE GROUPING OF JOBS ACCORDING TO. KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS Figure 39 ‘A SAMPLE GROUPING OF JOBS ACCORDING TO. WORK PROCESS AND FUNCTION TEXTILE MANUFACTURER, ‘Second Shit Thon zoiterte Figure 40 A SAMPLE GROUPING OF JOBS ACCORDING TO’ TIME Soomro Tabrcarie Figure 41 ‘A SAMPLE GROUPING OF JOBS ACCORDING TO PRODUCTS ‘DRUG MANUFACTURER, Figure 42 = 'ASAMPLE GROUPING OF JOBS ACCORDING TO CUSTOMER Figure 43 3 yBS ACCORDING TO Loca ‘A SAMPLE GROUPING OF JO!eR Pattern of Authority, The pattern of authority as an element in designing organizational structure refers of the extent by which organization members are allowed to make decisions without geting the approval of another member. ‘Authority patterns may either be centralized or decentralized, Itis centralized when decision making is concentrated in the hands of higher-level managers. tis decentralized when decision making authority is granted to thiddle and lower management positions, No single pattern of dythority is aboropine for all organizations because environments of organization differ. Instead, the pattern of authority must match the organization's environment. Centralized authority is better suited for stable environments, while decentralized Authority is for complex and changing environments. Decentralized authority offe 1. - Efficiency ~red tapes and 2. Flexibility “managers can cope yith situations as they come 3. Initiative managers are highly hotivated by the challenge. 4S pevclonckeb Sinaaepes sie Doge Wilh OPM, for training. v Decentralized authority has also some disadvantages. These are as follows: 1. Control - coordinating overall activites is more difficult 2. Duplication ~ there is a great chance of efforts duplicated \ between departments. 3. Centralized expertise - home office experts may be overlooked or disregarded. 4. Competency~the organization may not be able to produce competent managers at all levels. following advantages: Jenecks are reduced, Span of Control. Another consideration in designing the organizational structure is span of control, This element refers to the number of subordinates reporting to a single supervisor. The span of control may either be narrow or wide. It is narrow when there are few subordinates reporting to a supervisor. The narrow span of control is characterized by the following: 1. there is closer relationship between manager and subordi- nates; there is less delegation of authority; aoe pin 3. controlling activities are more tight; and 4. there is more time for rewarding behavior. Span of control is wide when there are ‘eporting to a supervisor. The following characteris an organization with wide span of contol 1. employees work with little supervision; 2. there is a high level of delegation of authority; 3. controlling is lighter; and 4. there is less time for rewarding behavior. The appropriate span of control will depend on the situation. Neither the narrow or the wide of span of control is applicable to all types of situations. Figure 44 shows the situations appropriate for narrow span of control. There are also situations appropriate for the wide span of control and these are shown in Figure 45. any subordinates are inherent to + (ee c Figures pone SPA SITUATIONS APPROPRIATE FOR NARROW_—_——_—_ ae 1 Protessonat subordinates NS Sibontnale] S| ate wy tained Suboninaten 4] sretocated | ———P> inane ofco Tasks of subordinates donot require integration Figure 45 SITUATIONS APPROPRIATE FOR WIDE SPAN OF CONTROL Coordination. Another basic element considered in designing the organizational structure is coordination. This term refers to the linking of activities in the organization that serve to achieve a common goal or objective} , As the job is divided into several tasks and each is assigned t0 a corresponding unit, there is a risk hat one task may be done too well or too early to the detriment of the other tasks. For instance, 4 properly coordinated. Such requiremen ed. must be incorporated in the design of the organizational structure,COMMON ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS There are com following: 1. the simple structure 2. the bureaucracy 3. the matrix structure mon organizational designs which consist of the The Simple Structure The simple structure is one of departmentalization, wi in a single person, and li support staff. It achieve: often by the chief execut that is characterized by a low degree ide spans of control, authority centralized ttle formalization. It has little technical and S coordination through direct supervision, ive in the upper echelon, The simple structure is Most appropriate for small businesses like the retail store, service shop, and small manufacturing firm. Under this arrangement, the manager is also the owner. This structure is illustrated in Figure 46, an organization chart for an automotive repair shop. Wilfredo Dungo owns and manages the shop. Although he employs six full-time mechanics and a cashier, he directs the activities of the shop. WILFREDO DUNGO, ‘ownerimanager Silvio Villena Oscar Sarmenta mechanic ‘mechanic Lee ‘Artemio Bumanlag ‘Apolinar Doblado mechanic mechanic Rodolfo Buado Florepido Tabalin mechanic mecha Milagros Garcia cashier Figure 46 A SIMPLE STRUCTURE (Wilfredo Dungo Automative Repair Shop) 221 eTThe advantage of the simple suctare 1 ened fee ihe wwner directly managing the organization, fh fas he ene i flexible because the owner ca” — itanytine ‘as the need arises. For instance, a mechanic nae needed ig Can be temporary assigned as partsman whenever Tree structure is also inexpensive to maintain, and accounta clear, The weakness of the simple structure is its inabity seve a large organization. This is because ofits low formalization and high centralization which tend to create information overload atthe top. As the organization grows in size, decision making becomes slower and after an extended period, the organization becomes dysfunctional, This isa prelude to failure. The Bureaucracy The bureaucracy is a rational, systematic, and precise form of organization in which rules, regulations, and techniques of control are precisely defined. Figure 47 isan illustration of this structure, of two types: machine bureaucracy and Bureaucracy consists professional bureaucracy.* ten ov ‘Number of Employees Operative Employees bow Figure 47 Moy THE BUREAUCRATIC FORM OF ORGANIZATION j 222 ‘Machine Bureaucracy. This is a moderateh This i ly decentralized form of ofeanization that emphasizes the technical staff and standardization 1 Non Processes. I is best suited to large organizations whose work 'S largely performed by production, technical, and support workers, The following are its characteristics 1 The existence of rules and procedure controlling organizational activities; 2. A high degree of differentiation a zat patioh mong, organizational 3. Ahigh degree of job specialization; 4. An organization of offices determined by hierarchy, each unitreporting to a higher unit and no unit free-floating, 5. Aheavy emphasis on rules and norms to regulate bet Interpersonal relations characterized by impersonality in place of favoritism; 7. Selection and promotion of employees and managers based on merit; and 8. All administrative actions are in writing, Professional Bureaucracy. It is an organization composed of a core of highly trained professionals that standardize skills for coordination. Among the organizations that are considered professional bureaucracies are law firms, accounting firms, hospitals, and universities. A professional bureaucracy has decentralized decision making and is less formal than machine bureaucracy. This is because of the difficulty of regulating the work of professionals, performing complex work. The structure of the professional bureaucracy is relatively flat with considerable differentiation across units. The professional bureaucracy emphasizes the expertise of the professionals in the operating core of the organization. The technical and support staffs serve the professionals. The advantages of bureaucracy consist of the followi The ability to perform standardized activities in a highly efficient manner. This is the result of putting specialties together in functional departments resulting in economies of scale, minimum duplication of personnel and equipment,and easier communication between employees who Speak a common language. a 2. Bureaueracy can operate nicely with les talented mide and lower-level managers. The result is lower costs, The disadvantages of bureaucracy are as follows: 1. Specialization, which is a feature of bureaucracy, creates subunit conflicts. Functional unit goals override the overall goals of the organization. ea 2. When cases arise that do not precisely fit the rules, there is ‘no room for modification. The Matrix Structure The matrix organizational design is one that superimposes a product or project-based design on an existing function-based design, Iris really an attempt to maximize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of both departmentation by function and by products ‘Matrix structures are found in organizations that: 1. Require response to rapid changes in two or more environments such as technology and markets; Face uncertainties hat generate high information processing requirements; and 3. Must deal with financial and human resources constraints; and 4. Want to take advantage of new opportunities and solve special problems. Figure 48 is an illustration of the matrix structure. ‘Strengths ofthe Matrix Design. The matrix designed organization hhas an array of strengths which are listed as followee 1. It allows demands from the environment to be met simultaneously It provides flexibility 't encourages resource efficiency. Itenhances skill development 224 ee "increases motivation and commitment. ‘among employees. "aids top management in planning, Weaknesses of th organization has its own i 5. 6 re Matrix Design. ‘The matrix-designed weaknesses, They are the following: creates dual-authority confusion, 2. It spawns power struggle, 3. Itis time-consuming, | 4. trequites interpersonal skills trai ing. | 5. generates high implementation cost. Price Maagerent Figure 48 ‘THE MATRIX-DESIGNED ORGANIZATIONES eee aN NN wn Ts al desigh Apart from the basic organizati¢ are using new designs. 7 SOME OFRAnIzaiang 1. Outsourcing onan 2. Team structure Outsourcing Organtzation gai A is an atrangement by which the organization have work performed for it by groups outside the organization. Instead of doing all work necessary tor producing a product or service, the organization enters intoan agreement with a jon to perform some specific actnities. For instance, a company which manufactures cars can ask other companies to provide manutactured car parts like tires, spark The outsourcing plugs. audio equipment, among others. Oursourcing is very useful because it can reduce the company’s need for employees equipment, and materials. Theresultisthe reduction of the costs of ining those three requirements. Outsourcing can cover almost any work performed by the organization. Examples are ig employees, packaging and distribution, product ‘services, transportation and delivery, and many All is not well, however, with outsourcing practices of couse outsourcing effectively reduce the ‘9 the organization and labor unions are not Companies that bid for outsourcing with an organization are under great pressure to offer the lowest possible price. This pressure oftentimes lead them to violate wage and child labor laws. Figure 49 is an illustration of the outsourcing organization wherein the management outsources all of the primary functions of business é / i v Figure 49 * [AN OUTSOURCING ORGANIZATION : Team Structure ‘The organization with a team sructure pgdgedatrcist f the central device to corrate wok acts, The tam dace is horizontal rather than vest oranzaion, Gods Rs Sure departmental bas ar token down 2 ee cleceriralizd 10 the lve of he werk tam, Te ar fuses 21 Small unit cul be mers ihe lene! wat the dlstrict team: the team leaders of the a ; : menberofamposdieacaniBele, sd ofthe team src that eam members mist ella specialists A requiveo™ te generalistsChapter ff CONFLICT AND NE GOTIATION Contlict in the workplace is inovitable, and when it happens, there is always that preat tendenc y for it to disrupt the flow of productive activities in the organization, As contlicts cannot be distegarded; efforts should be exerted to manage them, This chapter isa presentation of conflict and its alternate activity that i negotiation, THE NATURE OF CONFLICT Contlict in organizations may be defined as any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between two or more parties." Contlicts may be constructive or destructive. Constructive Conflict Constructive conflict is a healthy, constructive disagreement between two or more people. It can benefit the organization by means of the following: 1. the production of new ideas, learning, and growth among individuals; people engaged in constructive conflict develop a better awareness of themselves and others; 3. working relationships are improved when two parties work through their disagreement; N 4. morale is improved when tensions are released and problems solved in working together; 5. constructive conflict can lead to innovation and positive change for the organization; and 6. _ increased productivity may be expected.Destructive Confilct Destructive conflict is an unhealthy, destructive disagreement berween two or more people. An example are two employees why are unable to work together because of interpersonal hostilities, Destructive conflicts can decrease work productivity and job satisfaction and contribute to absenteeism and job turnover. LEVELS OF CONFLICT Conflict can occur at different levels which consist of the following? 1. intrapersonal 2. interpersonal 3. intergroup 4. imterorganizational Intrapersonal Conflict, Intrapersonal conflict is that kind of conflict that a person faces internally, as when an individual experiences personal frustration, anxiety, and stress, Intrapersonal conflict consists ofthe following types: 1. Approach-approach conflict which occurs when an individual must choose between two positive and equally attractive alternatives. For example, Leticia Is making a ghoice between an impending promotion as manager of his company or an opportunity to work and settle t% the United States. 2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict which occurs when an individual must choose betwe from her family. 9+ Approach: avoidance conflict which occurs when a person come fcide to do something that has posive and wegative buts ences For example, Leticia is offered a promotion but she wil have to work from 10:00 PM te eho 238 Interpersonal Conflict conilictis tl Interpersonal conflict is two oF more individuals who type of conflict may be cl 1 Figure 50 LEVELS OF CONFLICT hattype of conch occ bern ey eoppositin to one another. This, lassified into three sub-types: ang tive conflict. This occurs ne et a eyes = Substaeat over ends oF goals 10 Be see nae Seen on ‘credit to customers.2. Emotional conflict. This type of conflict inv} interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anges insist, site, feay, resentment, and the like. An exam is Leticia and Carol who continually disagree over enc} other's choice of office decor and wall paint, 3. Substantive and emotional conflict. This type is 4 combination of the twa types cited above. Intergroup Confllct Confit that occurs among, groups in an organization is referred 10 as intergroup conflict, This type of conflict may also be sub. classified as cither substantive, emotional, ot both, Intergroup conflict is quite common in organizations, and it can coordination and integration of task activities very difficult example of intergroup conflict is that which happens between ng and the accounting, department. The disage Usually occurs as a result of some expenditures that the animent considers as necessary in achieving, th company, but whieh the accounting, departme ceptable, i does nol that type of conflict that occurs st _-commonly referred to. the rating in the same markets. two giant telephone Fment on each other's ion and rivalry An example is the di Companie signed SOURCIS OF CONTICT HW contlict is to be manag ita ed effectively, one should understand YY sources, Thete are two broad categories of conflicts! retural factors Personal factors 240 ‘SIRTSTORA ACTORS ‘ovat lates stavsingensiene, wisn tes, FET RETR ‘aye atts nin ponactns Sao menos fers Figure 5 15 OF CONFLICT Structural Factors es of ¢ reer oof the ongai pict refer to the nate oF Ae OF lors inc ct ong rt (a work is 1 speci int edt to structural factors pe atid i He ean ane way i esourrces mon te 4. eon “A ggoatelifvenee> aA ay elation 2a6. _ status inconsistencies 7. jurisdictional ambiguities When people specialize on their jobs, they become less aware of the tasks that others perform. For example, a person who works all day inside his airconditioned office as a credit specialist will have limited knowledge about the difficulties of the job of the field salesman. A conflict may occur if the opposing views are provided with an opportunity to be exposed. The root cause of the Conflict may be traced to specialization of their respective jobs. Interdependence. When two or more units depend on each other in completing their respective tasks, work interdependence exists. Such situation has a potential for conflict, especially if itis badly managed. Conflict may also arise when all the groups involved are given too much to do. Conflict may also occur if dissimilar rewards are given to workers doing evenly distributed work. Ifa unit’s output is dependent on another unit's output, tension is created if the dependent unit cannot start working because of delays in the other units production. Common Resources. When an organization’s resources are shared by two or more parties, a potential for conflict is created. The possibility of conflict becomes greater when the resource becomes scarce. For example, the use of five company vehicles is shared by various units of the company, When the activities of the units are doubled, a conflict may occur. Resources include funds, personnel, authority, power, and valuable information. ‘ The forms of conflict over resources in an organization include inflating budgets, challenging the legitimacy of activities by other units, and covert efforts to prevent budget cuts. Goal Differences. Different work units sometimes have goals that are incompatible. When this is the case, conflict is not far behind. Ar example is a bank that has a unit assigned to dispose assets acquired by the bank. If that unit is expected 100 percent performance within a year and the unit receives acquired assets more than it can handle, conflict becomes a great possibility Specialization. ae ee Authority Relationshi ips. How the superior and the subordinat feel about each other may sometimes be a cause for conf. Some people can take an authoritarian bi ci Nn 05, : hla ;, but some cannot, and this may lack we workers ofa certain ws unit thnk that th sper: lacks the necessary training and experience, they develop feelings of resentment over the ost, andthe breeding ground for conflict is created. Status Inconsistencies, tn many large companies, managers have certain privileges like the free use of company cars, flexible work schedules, the use of company telephone, cell phone privileges, parking space, and he ik. these arenotavailableto non-managerial employees, resentment and conflict becomes a possibilty Jurisdictional Ambiguities. Sometimes, there are situations when a part of the company’s overall tasks is left without a clear indication or who should be responsible. For example, handling customer complaints was not assigned specifically t0 any ‘employee of the trganization. In such situation, nobody would want 0 ert) ‘customer complaints. Some people will be agitated if they think that cusiOTpaction may afect the company, and they feat thal He} mY ae be affected. A conifct may be expected t happen ayeine Personal Factors Personal factors com of conflict. These factors are include: 4. skills and abiliti personalities perceptions values and ethics ie another broad category ofthe caine Prost of individual diferences wich levels of skills and ence co, experienced Y insane wl fd Wctkers. Also, when the surequired in the performance of tasks in his particular unit, workers may develop a negative attitude towards him. If that happens, conflict is not far behind. Personalities. People do not think, feel, look, or act alike, and these personality differences can cause conflict. Apart from such reality, experts have identified certain personality types as conflict magnets. Conilict-causing personalities may be described as follows: 1. The aggressor. This is that type of person who is a verbal bully and who is likely to shout, thump the table, or point the finger in order to emphasize his point. He or she cause unhappiness and friction within the group and may become involved in a one-on-one confrontation with another member of the group. The passive aggressor. He or sheis that person who manages to block progress at every turn. He or she never volunteers to do anything, never puts forward any ideas or suggestions of his or her own, and never works as hard as he or she is capable of doing. The chronic absentee. This person makes repeated absences from work. The person who makes too many errors. 5. The negative person. This person is always critical of other people and their achievements. A variation of the negative person is the one who foresees failure in every suggestion. 6. The chatterbox. This person is one who often comes into a workplace, full of gossip or inconsequential news, and distract or disrupt workers from their production activities. The do-nothing person. This person does not want to do anything because he or she is scared of making a mistake. This forces others to do what he or she is supposed to do. When this happens, conflict becomes highly probable. 8. The unreliable person. This person wants to do liked by others and because of this, he agrees to do what everyone asks. He even volunteers to undertake further tasks and to help any or all of his colleagues. Because he gets himself Ea overloaded with work, he ends up unable to do most of the 3. ™ tasks he set himself to do. eS The time-waster, This is the person who thinks co time can be spent for his Son pad benefit Tike ae for personal telephone calls, preparing a shopping list, or playing computer games. 10. The resentful person, This is the person who alvays fel resentment. What he does negatively affect others. His feeling of resentment isa result of any or all of the following: a. Personal dislike of a certain person b. Bigotry (prejudice against a particular race or culture) c. Prejudice against women d. Prejudice against younger people Perceptions. Conflicts may also be caused by differences in perception. For instance, when employee output or performance ‘cannot be measured accurately, the perception game will come into play. This is the case in universities. When a teacher is perceived by his superior as the most effective and revvards him with a promotion, conflict occurs when the other teachers disagree withthe perception. vers Values and Ethics. Differences in valuesand ethicsamong wo" be a source of disagreement. When a new employee works hard oe pected by his superiors, he may be regarded by the old workers Pe h shortcomings. For it jing that may expose their shor 3 trying to do something that may ex none ‘quantities instance, the old workers ae producing quanies Way 0 y pany. Id be enough to keep them employed Le wowemployee will exceed that predetermined production qu conflict may occur. ; Emotions. Uncontrolled emotio ‘stance, a worker just workers. For ais ot rk ned isangetm ; spose ea pont bcoes a hab = co riven offing. Commu! fkers is NOt yor ors to effective Com! can cause conflicts among, ‘had 2 violent quarel with his ‘This first incident may flict may be in the tion between ication Baers. When con out One othe sit for conflict em effective, a req is language and an example ay muni “under the supervisir Barriers to effective OF a worker i recy ure derstand cet wore hs, he thinks His Ad help him, ishman. The eee is an Englishman. 2 of is manager eS perorand because OS the lan¥28 Ce affected. Nobody in perforects frustrated 2nd helpless an 245 ~STAGES OF CONFLICT Conflicts develop in stages, or at least most of them. The stages Consist of the following:* antecedent conditions perceived and felt conflicts manifest conflict conflict resolution or suppression conflict aftermath Figure 52 THE STAGES OF CONFLICT Antecedent Conditions at ae af confi are the antecedent conditions that set irst stage of conflicts. An example is mesence of the negat aa ple is the presence of the negative Perceived and Felt Confllets. The second stage in the conflict process consists of either the perceived conflict or the felt conflict. Perceived conflict refers to the awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to occur, For example, two departments of the company may want to occupy the company’s newly constructed building. Felt conflicts that tage of the conflict process wherein emotional involvement becomes a patt of the contlict creating anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility Perceived confliet may or may not lead to felt conflict, Manifest Conflict Manifest conflict is that stage in the conilict conilicting parties ar may be verbal, written, or even physical attacks Manifest conflict is more likely to have longer lasting effects or perceived or felt conflict focess where the than ¢ Conflict Resolution or Suppression Xx Conflict resolution occurs when the reasons forthe conflict are climinated, There are various techniques used in resolving conics. These are the following: aa c meeting of the 1. Problem solving. This is a face-to-face meeting Poatlcting parties for the purpose of identifying, the prem and resolving it through open discussion, schnique, a shared goal that 2. Superordinate goals, 'n this te ee ee i ed it the cooperation of each of the cannot be attained without the compet a ‘conflicting parties is created. A the company which cannot be ry increases is nok withdrawn. eae salat actively engaged in conflict behavior, There possible if the demand forExpansion of resources. When scarcity of resources is the 3 ‘cause of conflict (e.g., money, promotions, opportunities, work space) the expansion of resources could avert the conflict 4. Smoothing. This is the technique where differences are played down while emphasizing common interests between the conflicting parties 5. Compromise. This is the technique wherein each party to the conflict gives up something of value, for instance, management agrees to grant educational benefits for children of employees provided that the demand for housing allowances is withdrawn. 6. Altering the structural variables. This technique involves changing the formal organizational structure and. the interaction patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign, transfer, creation of coordinating positions and the like In contrast h conflict resolution, conflict suppression happens when no change inv antecedent conditions is made and the manifest conflict behaviours are controlled, An example is when one or both: contlicting parties chose (0 ignore the conflict in their dealings with each other. Suppression is a superficial and temporary form of resolving contlcts, When conflict iy suppressed, it may continue to fester and Cause future conilict over similar issues. Suppressing contlicts take the following forms. 1. Avoidance. This happens when the manager is faced with quareelling groups but avoids taking a position. Other forms of avoidance consist of (a) pretending to be unaware that contlict exists; and (b) refusal to deal with conflict by stalling and repeatedly postponing action, 2. Authoritative command. This happens when mana, i tuses its formal authority to resolve the conflict and then Communicates its desires 10 the parties involved. Conflict Aftermath What happens after the conflict L 1 may be regarded as either postive OF negative development. Unresolved conilicts can result LEIS Ay 248 4 ee wer in sustained emotional discomfort and escalate jeta dystunctionat emotional conflict between individuals, When a conflict is resolved. however, it may establish conditions that reduce the potential fo future conflicts, and if they so occur, it will be easer to deal with them. NEGOTIATION When a conflict is already in existence, negotiation may seem to be the best strategy. This may be so especially in complex confcts Negotiation may be defined as a process in which hwo oF more Parties attempt to reach an acceptable agreement in a situation characterized by some level of disagreement * Negotiation could be useful if the follwing conditions are present: 1, There are two of more parties There is a conflict of interest between the parties For example, one party prefers housing. privileges as an employment benefit, while the other party wants transportation allowances; 3. The parties are willing to negotiate, and They prefer to work together than 10 fight openly, give in, break off contact, or take the dispute to a higher authority Major Negotlating Approaches There are two major approaches to negotiation 1. distributive bargaining, integrative negotiation 1 negotiation appreaach Distributive Bargaining. This 1 that negotiation app herein the goals of the parties are in conflict, and each party seeks to maximize its share of the resources. This win-lose approach is” 1 sly a process of dividing or “dstbuting” scatce esos 4 nis the windowe negstiation | ‘An example of this approach isd 4 undertaken in the budgeting seston of the natal government winere each department attempts to negotiate the best budget whe earably. atthe expense of some other department, Another cramp is the negotiation in exganizations that take place between, 249labor and management. This is regarded as a conflict over limited resources involving wages, benefits, working conditions, and related matters Integrative Negotiation. This i a negotiation approach in which the goals of the parties are not regarded as mutually exclusive and in which the focusis on making it possible for both sides to achieve their objectives. ‘An example may be provided as follows: The training unit of a company was ordered by top management to provide a series of training sessions to all employees. The heads of the various departments, however, are worried about the reduction in the number of working days that have been allotted to achieve their respective departmental targets. Clearly, the objectives of the training unit and the other department are in’conflict. To solve the problem, the parties agreed that training will be done on days that the employees are not very busy. ‘The Negotiation Process ‘The negotiation process consists of five steps: 1. preparation and planning 2. definition of ground rules 3. clarification and justification 4. bargaining and problem solving 5. closure and implementation Preparation and Planning. In this frst ste i p, the person assigned to negotiation fora certain party should determine the following: 1. the nature of the conflict : the history leading up to this negotiation + who ate imolved and what are their perceptions of the 4. what his party wants from the negotiation 5. what his group is prepared to accept what the other party wants from the negotiation what intan, phat intangible or hidden interests may be important to z 250 : ‘what the other party is prepared to accept - what negotiation strategy may be adapted Definition of Ground Rules. The next step is to define the ground rules and procedures withthe other pany ove the negotiation el ‘As such, the following concerns must be cleared: who will do the negotiating where will the negotiation take place ‘what time constraints, if any, will apply to what issues will negotiation be limited what specific procedures must be followed if an impasse is reached Clarification and justification. In this step, the parties may need to explain, amplify clarify, bolster, and justify the original demands of each other. This must be done in a nonconfrontational manner. This step must be regarded as an opportunity for educating and informing each other on the issues, indicating their importance, and how each of the party arrived at their initial demands. Bargaining and Problem Solving. In this step, the parties will make an attempt o reach an agreement through give-and-take action Tike the offering and acceptance of concessions. There are occasions when bargaining and problem solving would be easier to undertake is aided by focusing on a superordinate goal. This kind of goal is ‘one that cannot be attained by one group singly and supersedes al Gther concerns of any ofthe individual groups involved inthe conflict. For example, if the conflict is already causing heavy financial losses to the firm, the conflicting parties may agree on pursuing company cavival as superordinate goal. As a result the parties may agree 10 withdraw some or all of their demands. ure and Implementation. This final step involves formalizing the a i hhas been worked out and developing any procedures that are necessary for implementation and monitoring. Major negotiations usually requite formal contracts. Otherwise, a handshake would indicate closure of the negotiation