PHYSIOLOGY OF STRENGTH CHARLES C THOMAS + PUBLISHER By THEODOR HETTINGER, M.D. Research Fellow, Max-Planck-Institut Dortmund, Germany Edited by M. H. THURLWELL St. Petersburg, Florida With Forewords by ARTHUR H STEINHAUS, Ph.D. Professor of Physiology and Dean George Williams College Chicago, Illinois and WILLIAM J. ERDMAN, II, M.D. Professor and Chairman Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Springfield * Illinois * U.S.A.01.87 Hat wre Aon Sp in, USA i a get eet (© 196, y CHARLES © THOMAS + PUBLISHER Wah THOMAS BOOKS aration i neato dita of Ieuting dt 100 the Pacers tee to fet Bl! root are tet inte quate se pies rote fr hat prt we THOMAS BOOKS lb tne tie at a uy tht moe «pod none eal ond Sia of Amie FOREWORD ‘That muscles grow in sie and Soerease ia strength with use was np doubt known to prehistoric man and may therefore be lstod among tho earliest physologle observa- tions, But the nature ofthis increase and its intimate cause ‘are sill only partly understood. In 1857, Professor B. Mor- ‘purgo ofthe Pathological Institute ofthe Univesity of Siena emonstrated on dogs that a fity percent increase in cross ‘section fllowing exeeio was duc to growth of muscle fibers already present, be. tue hypertopliy and not to an inerease fn the number of hers His Gndings also indicate that there was a maximum siz to whieh bers could grow. Ths toe produced data that explain why there fa limit to the mount of growth that any muscle can undergo. In 1005 Roux formulated the “akiittshypertrophic” theory and in 1817 his student, Lange, postulated that only ‘when a mosele was required to perform Work of an intensity beyond the usual, would it respond with growth. This was the first clear enunciation of the overload theory that bas ‘come to be the most basi principle in exercise physiology. In 1995 Petow and Siebert presented the frst experimental demonstration in support ofthis Uheory when they showed ‘hat hypertophy followed only when work of greater in- ‘tensity than usual was required of a muscle. An increaee Jn the duration of work without iereased intensity was without effect. With these foes established there remained yet a num ber of perplexing questions. How much is overload, i. how such inrease above the usual intensity of work is necessary to initiate hypertrophy? Is the hypertrophy greater or faster pending on tho extont of this inereate? At what level of* Physoogy Of Strength Intensity does the usual become overload? How is the strength that is requted of a mmusle for its usual work ‘elated to is maximal strength? What is the nature of the stimulus that elt a muscle to hypertrophy? "These questions have begun to find answer in the work of Miller and Hettinger atthe Max Planck Institot fir Atbeitsphysologic in Dortmund, Germany where for more ta tn yea systematic experimentation has been ‘ected towed thei oltion, Dr. Th, Hettinger, who until the summer of 1980 asa research associate In the Institut Jat worked with Profesor EA. Miller, isa most athorita- tive spokesman conccming tho Sndings ofthis monumental attack on the remaining problems of muscle strength. He is ko excellently qualia to interpet these findings for thse {interested in exercise programs and at once to indicate the present limits of our Knowledge. “A lange audience of those interested in physeal educa- tion, in muscle rehabilitation, and in weight traning will pro fom this rst Full exposition of the Dortmund work fn the English language. That the author has elected to present his material in @ somewhat popular and highly [raphe form adds to is usefulness Arson Hi Srenanacs Professor of Physiology ‘and Dean, George Williams College, Chicago FOREWORD Everyone who does occasional exercise has observed that there is relationship between the amount of exercise and its frequency and the strength of the museles. Every ‘coach or trainer puts his athletes through appropriate pro- grams to increase the strength of the muscles prior to under~ faking rgorovs contests. There are almost as many exercise rontines established as there are persons proposing them. Many conflicting and confusing statements appear in the Imerature concerning the advisability and preference of i0- metre of otonie exercises, ‘Dr, Hettinger has st forth very clearly and concisely the merits for particular voutine which he has demon- strated to have the greatest efeciveness in increasing ‘muscle strength. His statements compise a simulating nd challenging concept which certainly fe not belng employed inically at the present time. His observations and pro- posals are worthy of serious consideration by all physicians Interested in increasing the muscle strength of thei patients (rin the maintenance of good muscular tone. ‘The conclusions ate particulary appropriate for those situations where minimal movement of joints i permisable ‘during exercise. It isto be hoped that the conelusions will serve as further stimulus and challenge to those who may wish to implement or augment the routines for particular Stustions. Wintuse J. Broveax Hl, MLD. Profewor aud Chaomen, Drperinnt of Phys Medsne ul Rlabdcion, Scho of Madione ond Graduate dial Schoo Cnieraty of Fonsani, Phadtphie, PomsconePREFACE “This book i the reul of ten years of research and ex- periment in the problems of muscle strength and muscle Hing at the Max-Panck-Insitut-fir Asbetsphysiologe, Dortmiind, Germany supplemented by further work at the Lankenas' Hospital, Division of Research, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, There is provided the present status of these problems, and there i demonstrated how muscle strength ay be built snd maintained with a minimom of time and ot "The methods used are adaptable, with suitable modi ‘ation, to children, to average young people, to athletes in ‘raining to sedentary workers nd elder persons who wish ‘0 muntain body strength, and to those who have wider [oe surgery and need rehabilitation ofthe muscle structure fv sort, to anyone who wishes to dovelop end! maintain food inusele tone "A strong and wellbuilt body not only has pleasing sppearane, st pennits the undertaking of arduous physical otivtes or active sports without undue fatigue, and with real enjoyment Tis the authors hope that in this age of fast ving and nervous teson, when there often seems nether time nor place for extensive exerci, tit book wil asst those who ‘wish to maintain bodily stength and ftnessimply, at Thome, without elaborate equipment—on a dostyourselé Dasis Tt should prove of special benefit to teachers of phys ‘al education and rehabilitation “Twronon Hines, M.D.ACKNOWLEDGMENT My thanks are due to Mrs, Dorothy D. Robinson, Graphic Arts Department, Lankenau Hospital, Philadelphia, for her excellent drawings and general cooperation.CONTENTS Foreword by Acar H Senha, PAD. Porevord by Willan J. Erdman, TL, MD. Priface os Acknowledgement ooo ‘i CGxarren I—Teenonveron : CGrarm -Smaners i Reveion 10 Abt av Six “able I—Stengh in Wore Figue Mele Strength Relive to Age aed Sox Abolte Muce Suength - ‘ Figue 2—Mincle Strength per cn? Muse Suengh Related to Mie Leng Measures ia Mace Suengch ‘Guarnen I~ Muscie Tuatine —Centaas Herrococcs, ‘avo Cussneny Onstararon General Omron of sng Sti Stimlus Required for Increase in Muscle Senth Figure 5—Variation of Musle Sength is Relation to Seng of Tenning Sima Figure € Mele Stents Herein Proportion (o ration of One Training Selas Figure 5-Eet of Mace Training in Proportion 0 Nomberof Sl. ‘Tale 2 Tray in 102 Subjcss ‘gue 6 Dilerence in Tring Rae in Same Sajecs ‘igure 7—Enazpls of Weel Incr in Seng "of iteent Muscle Groupe igure 8 Rte of Stength Inca Dating Daly “Restance Training of Atophiat and Normal Nuc Inflaaee of Various Factors Upoo Trinbity ‘Bgare 9 Yeuey Vasaon ip Muscle Trainability ‘Doe to Ulravit Radiation tee ake 8ve Physiology Of Strength “Trinabilty fo Relation to Age and Sex. a ‘igue 10 Effet of Training on Masce Seng Relative to Age and Sex ssvsezccoeveeee “Table Machanieal and Horo Bit 00 ‘Steal Mace». a igre 11—Iollence of Male Sox Hormone Muscle Shad ny Sc Men Age 6570 AB Mascle Seng After Training Figure 12-Varaton in Muscle Strength Deng sd “Aer Training in Relton to Frequency of “Training Simul =. ceed Table + Sirength Decene Aer Teainng 3 Figute 15 of Iequet Stimuli Feline Dally Tring igre 1¢—Change in Mes Senn Davin Tiwudtitinaton and During Training With Vaio Begining Valores Py Figure 13 Elect on Mare Sten of Repeat “Fring Petite. 6 Figure 16-Change in Mae Seng Dating Tntermitent Testing = 7 oe Prstcal Aptations : 8 Mui Tring With Dyramomsers e Figure 17—Restance Bxereies Under Tremont Conte ed DoreYounelf Mc Tring CN Figue 18Marimary Resstnce Beccies “For Mise Sten —Neck Muces e Figure 1S -Masinan Resstance Exerc: for ‘Mace Suet Shoulders apd Am oon 20 Figure 20--Mamum Resitance Beweles for ‘Mcle Srongth—Legy and Trunk eso n ‘igure 21—-Masanum Restane Exerc Tor ‘Mle Srength—Legs 2 Moncie Tralning in Cie sit ‘igure 22—Maimam Resitance Faeries fo ‘Muscle Strength in Cidren».- tibet Semmary i References : 7 Inder eer) PHYSIOLOGY OF STRENGTHChapter 1 INTRODUCTION Shooe the bering ofthe human rice, men have ex ated the steng man. His feats of strength and endirance Ihave boen recorded, forall ime, im piturer and logends ‘which thow hin invent combat wit hele ter and ‘wld animals Prehistorie drawings sratced onthe walls of ‘ive, tll us how early man survived by his strength, bis suility and his courage Tn ancient Groce and Rome, when man had travelled a Jong ay om the ealtral path and. no Tongee fought for snavival with his are ds and. blllike scent, the ‘rong man in atletes Dame the deal, Grek and Roman atts portrayed Jn magailcen suptue the well bul and sopeblyrained bodies of athletes. The ariginal Olympic ‘Games, which began more tan 70 years before the begin- fog of the Christan ee, wee the greatest festivals ofthe tines, Ie was, a it sll great honor tobe allowed to ‘artiipte, and only thor athletes who had tained ard Sod well wer lige ‘Today, the strong man ie still «exo in alot every ‘county, ad storie of is explts have become logendary Many a grandp,tling tales of his young imashood to is ‘small grandsons, resorts astounding stories of deeds of strength and valor. Theso ime young grandsons dream of {he day when they, to, wil be bg and wong and capture the adnitation of the whole word ‘Grandpa's tales may not be sey tr, jst at the ld legends are nt factually accurate, bt they do show ant undying admiration of strength, ality and counge. ‘Certainly the series do not confor to phipslogiel laws4 Physiology Of Sweneth and possbltes, but that how i is in stories and legends: fehere the teller is Hess concemed withthe truth and more with what he would like to think isthe truth. The stories ‘hows the srong mani ill tho ideal, ase ws in ancient time. Moreover in the ld legends and stories passed on from father to son the strong man snot merely strong. He is also an intelligent man and as keen a a fox ‘The present day youngster, too, wou like to be strom: to compete in football or baseball, basketball or tennis, to purticpate in athlete meets and t show off his prowess to is family and frends; and especially ~ as he grows older — twin the admiration of the female of the species. ‘Good though these reasoas ae, they should not be the only fector in making ur decide to train our bodies for fHrength and endurance in an era when everybody lives at fr fast pace and nobody seens to bave time to lok aft this bodily Rtnest: Many of ou famous politicians, statesmen dnd scientists were athletes at their universities or colleges, td in spite of thelr very busy lives inthe world today, they {ake timo to exercise «litle each day. They have learned they feel better and work with es tension and strain when they are in good physieal condition ‘Although this book deals anos ently with muscle teength ts physiology, development and measurement, we Ste concerned chiefly with mosle strength as an integral Dart of the whole performance capacity. At the very bexin- ing we must consider a basio question raised time and time gain by professionals and lay people alike. “Why should tre ty to develop mote performance capacity when we are ready quite able to carry out our daily responsibilities (Goffe factory, bratory, at home)?” Here are five good 1 Our “noma” performance captity, with which we co s0 wel stisied, i kept atthe level of daily requirement fonly by our evstomary dally activity. Any additional stress ‘wil seveeely tax our reserves. Physiology Of Strength 5 2, Whatever we do sles fatiguing if we ae in generale ly good physial condition. ‘3 We have greater resistance ines. “4, If loess should come, the body can put up a better fight against, and speed the process of recovery. 15. Last but not las, hfe bocomes more enjoyable when swe are in good physial condition Iti clear that man’s pro- fessional and pliysial specialization must be accompanied Dy general physical fitness fhe is truly to enjoy the fruits of ‘these labors. ‘What can we do to increase our performance capacity fn this fxtliving era? Most of us do not have the time to go to the gyminasiam or athletic Beld to give our bodies the necessary taining stimuli i sport and games, or else Ive do not want to for other reasons. On the other hand, T think C. 1. McCloy wat sight when he said that if every> Doriy wanted to go to a gymoasium there would not be ‘enough room for everyone. Most of us ike to do our exer- ‘sng at home, benuse i fs convenient and doesnot require ‘much tine All the organic systems of the body — circulatory, bronchopulmonary, moscular, nervous, endocrine, and 30 on “ave interdependent. When on ofthese systems is affected, ‘reaction coours in the other systems. While methods of taining thee various organle systems may vary from one {another itis a base biologieal law that if improvement in performance isto be achieved, th training stimulus must be {reater than the normal dally stress requirement upon the system being trained, In actual practice, any attempt to im ‘rove the performance of ono ofthese systems must be ac- ‘companied by attention to others. For example in improving rmusele performance by increasing the size and strength of {given musele group, stops must also be taken to increase the blood flow throwgh the muscles. De Lorme} in 1945, gave an excellent review of the various types of6 Physlogy Of Strength reslls obtained in both clinical and athletic Bol by these ‘empirical methods, summarizing the principles established as follows 1 Increase in muscle strength can be accomplished by 2 few repetitions against strong resistance, Increase in the perfomance of the circulatory system ce be acoumplished by many repetition agains slight resis- tance ‘3, These to methods are uot interchangeable; one can not replace the other "The above is tu, but It seoms necessary to point oot ‘hat am increase in muscle strength alone is nonsense, if at ‘the sume time more vessels do not grow in the muscle, to tive them, via the blood, more oxygen that they can uiize. {We know that no work of the muscles is posible without ‘xygen, Decne all chemical proceses in our body need ‘exygen.) Nevertheless, De Lorme aod his astocates'? were theft to develop complete modern taining program for clinica application, ‘There have boon numerous methods of trxning for physical fitness, poinarly im sport, down through the years nan of them entirely successful in the sense of achieving the immediate result dosed. Is, for example, a well known fact that when talnlag ~ whether for strength or sil — is pushed tothe pont of fatigue, the total effect is lower than ‘when training 1s interropted before the fatigue point is Teached: This was confirmed by Steiahaus in an interesting ‘vay when he interviewed Olymple athletes in Hels in 1052 Most of theo athleti stars, who are training for both strength and sil havea definite respect forthe fatigue point ‘and do not train beyond Tn the laboratory, if our purpose is to study the hase factors in a given process, we cannot approach the problem ‘om all sides at once. In the case of muscle tuinlng, itis ‘essential fo separate the problems involved in training for Increasing strength fom those eoncemed with developing Physiology Of Strength 1 skill and coordination, Interest the inflence of muscle training upon the circulatory system, nervous system and 420.0n, mutt be deferred for later stds. The preset report, therefore, will attempt only to establish certain sclentiic ‘erteria relovant to the taining of muscle for increased strength.(Chapter 1h STRENGTH IN RELATION TO ‘AGE AND SEX "Teoward the end ofthe 190 century, reports ou the de “elapent of mucle strength began {appear in scientific Tere ‘Those fst stodies were esed on meassrements tthe msclstore of empess?™* and fom these eaeuae flow the suitors proseded to consideration of mule Soength i lving subjects, Daring svbsequent yeas, nny frotent™ studied sense strength ta ving bodes with {ymtmometen, and recorded vartations in suength in rela ton to age and se. ‘Theale strengths inthe diferent mle groups of the boy vary coneably, In men, the strength In for tom exon about 0 kn forearm exten, about 20 grmeamured a te wrist wth the forearm 8 ht anges {othe upper arm, ‘The stength in sank xin is 15k in ‘Bank extensor, 60 kg measured atthe ankle with thigh a hank at ight angles, In foot exo, there i on the sreage a soength oF kg ‘The stength in ger pling ‘rin ger igitening between the diferent Sages about Take Miny measurements are made of various muscle rove wold be going tov far in this Book to expsin ST these meavarerent, bot sme examples aze given 10 ‘Bow wide varatons in the dierent susle grous- These ‘Siutdons nr. in pat s result of daly acuity. With Tene tooled a iting the weight ofthe Body, im walk Ing ar taking neps the fot flexors have «high strength; ise the nger adductor invelving the finger Ughtening Phosiotory Of Srngth ° Se eld fis nin lt fe ‘Thero is a relationship between the differences in strength in mea snd women reflecting the stmin of the Aliferent masle groups in daily use. In Table Ithe strength of women is given in relation to the strength of men, as a summary of experiments of five diferent authors. TABLE 1 Muscle Group Strength in Women (Strength in men=100%) Forearm flexors 8 and extensors ‘Trunk extentors and flexors, © Finger flexors and foot extensors Finger adductor, Shank extensors, 6 ‘Arm sinkere ‘Arm Mters, Hand extensors % and flexor, Finger addoctors Hip flexors and extensors, 0 Shank flexors, Masticating muscles A review of the iterture™® substantiates the state: ‘ment that general muscle strength n women ie abont fo: thirds that of men. This s only an average figure which we ‘an use for general ealeulations; it does not apply to every10 Physiology Of Srngth usele group. The diference in strength between men and women shows that the musele groups which we wse in our {ally life—for example, the forearm flexors and extensors— Ihave high intensity in relation to thelr maximum expacity ‘There is considerable difference in the strength of these Tuscles in men and women. Each day we have to carry ‘Things large package, a heavy bag, and so on, even if it f only from the store to our cat. This necessry muscle tension seens enough to keep the muscles in a relatively high condition of taining, On the contrary, the neoded tension of our mastcating muscles is Tow in relation to their ‘barimam possible capacity, Some centuries ago people ate ‘ur meat, and the need to chew this raw meat developed very high strength in the mastiating muscles. Nowadays fve prefer a tender steak and do not need as much strength in these muscles. ‘When the diference in strength n the same muscle groups i relatively alight, these muscles—in both men and ‘Nomen-arein comparatively untrained condition. Muscle [Buupr showing considerable difference in stength may, {bath sexes, have acquited more traning simply ehrough octal daily activity. Experiments have shown that the trainaility i lest in women than in men, With the same ind of traning stimulus, the strength inereases more and faster fa men than in women, which means that the difer fence in msee strength between men and women increases titer a training period. Since a welltrsined muscle shows Tess response to trunlog, it seems permisible to consider the ponstblity that female muscles develop a greater degree ‘of hypertrophy than the male. This, then, is the reason for lesser tainability. However, when’ a normal distbution coveas it is in this case—on the strength of women shows normal statistical divston, we must conchade that this famot explain the diflerence in trainablity between men land women. These findings wil be referred to later, in more ‘etal. Phylogy Of Strength a A summary of all the studies known Sa which muscle strength s measured men and women in dilrent muscle ‘roups 1s Ulustated in Figure 1, which shows the average fhuscle strength according to age and sex in relative mm- ‘bers. The highest reading in male subjects I taken as 1008, Veriation in muscle strength Years ‘dernan Sram ren” 00) Figure 1 ‘otis values ae reckoned proportionately. This sr te shows hatin children pt te og often, there 0 {herr betron bop a i ster sped, monde Sten ieee ch fate bys han i ge: Doing the pea betes twenty and ay, mac me ‘eh seas i soa roa, att steve years age ma’ maseaa ste ts aporosintly i of that shown brtwecn th age of trent and thy. he Bee for worm ys ends, Storouintly woth ef hat for men ine same age8 Physiology Of Senate rou throughout Ife, begining with about twenty years of age. ABSOLUTE MUSCLE STRENGTH. ‘The investigators also found that slthoogh overall mus- cle strength varies greatly between men and women, the Strength ofthe muscle in relation tothe eros Section per ent {s practically the sume?" In other words, ii th actal size ofthe muscle which determines ts strength (Figare 2). At ‘ron 7on Ripe 2 present we caloulte muscle strength as belng about 4 kg Der cmt? croseaection of the missles, This calculation is based on the assumption that a voluntary isometric muscle contraction ccours at maximum physiological strength, al- though iiss question whether this is actually the cas. Tt 4s wel knowa the body has reserves which are not under Physiology Of Strength as the control ofthe will and are available for use only under stres, emotional or otherwise ‘The experiments of Steinhaus and Hai have shed a reat deal of light on this whole problem. They found that ‘ele strength by omete muscle contrections was about 0 greater when they tald the subjects, who were under hypnosis that they were physically very stron, than i had ‘been during eantrlled experiments before hypnosis. In other ‘words, maximum physiological strength is greater than our measurements of voluntary ‘sometric msele contractions ‘would indicate. This also suggests that muscle stength per cx is likewise proportionately greater. ‘This eeelent study of Stenhans and Tai shows farther that not only under hypnosis is strength higher than in a voluntary isometric moscle contraction, but also in other forms of stress, such a8 being startled by hearing a gunshot, ‘and so on. One other important fuet i pointed out in this study; tho increase of muscle stongth in hypnosis is much higher in untrained people than in athletes. This means that fetter the reserves in muscle strength shown only under stress in trained muscles are smaller, or the retardation point Detween posible voluntary contractions and reserves isnot constant. Looking forward, we hope thatthe stadies inthis laboratory will be able to answer the question in the mene futore, [MUSCLE STRENGTH RELATED TO MUSCLE LENGTH. Tn many experiments it sshown very clearly that mus- cle strength frelated to muscle length * For example, the strength of a muscle varies according to the angle existing between uppor arm and forearm, or between thigh and lower leg. The angle position i divectly related tothe muscle length and muscle insertion and the lever arm play an im- portant role. But in general, the strength ofa miscle grows ‘with ts length“ Phyvoogy OY Stensth ‘This means, for example, the strength in hip fesion is low when the hip angle shows a maximum flexion, and at that polat the muscle is extremely short; and the strength ofthe same musele is high when the leg angle shows a maxi- ‘mum extension. This relationship between muscle Tength and muscle strength shows ona graph asa curve In forearm ‘exors and extensors, for instance, the maximum value in strength is win the angle between upper arm and forearm {8 about 90°, In all Timb movements many muscle groups ae involved, and ata rerlt of te different insertion point, Aiferent muscles are more or lest involved inthe measured strength. Therefore, in measurements of muscle strength it {sical to analyze the portion of each muscle inthe di ferent points im movement. (On the other hand, sich measurements are very Im portant in practice; for example, in engineering, when ma- thines are to be but with elements which must be moved by human strength. Lovers, for instance, must be arranged ‘in sich a poston that the muscles are at optimal length, to tha the work ean be done with the lowest posible degree ‘of fatigue throughout the day: This means, in other words, ‘hat the werk ean be done with the most efficiency. Te would be going too far in this book to give all measurements in strength tat are Known in diferent muscle groups atthe Aiferent postions or muscle length, We refer readers to the literature already mentioned, MEASUREMENTS IN MUSCLE STRENGTH ‘To determine maximum muscle strength, is necessary to measure fa isometic contractions only. Muscle tension ‘must be malntained, without movement. It is not feaxble to measure muscle strength in ssotonie contractions, which ‘means movement of the muscle (asin extension ofthe arm, for instance) because movement changes the length of the ‘musele, and strength changes with the increase or decrease in length. These measurements of muscle strength are ut Physiology Of Strength 6 ually made with dynamometer, of which soverel diferent types are desribed in the literature >® All of the dynamometer known today give « subjoct= ive result. The tetinical constrictions in most cases are all right and show the given strength exactly and objectively. ‘The other factor in thi measinement, the patient or subject, 1s the subjective point which eannot be eliminated, The pre- ‘sion of such measurements depends upon the cooperation ‘of the subject. This means, for example, that i the subject {is willing to make a maximum muscle contraction, you have ‘8 good result; but if the subject isnot interested ia showing, ‘his maximum strength, the result of this measurement 1 ‘wrong. However, with some reeervations, it Is posible t0 {get good results with willing subjects. In practice, to get a ‘Beneral view, itis not absolutely nocossary to use presse instruments or complicated arrangements. Often only hooks in the wall, @ chain, a strap, and similar equipment wll salflce, when some postulates, such as the fiation of the ‘ody and 40 on, are observed. (See Figure 17 for sugges: ‘tions for using these simple devi.) ‘A general idea of the strength of « muscle group ean casly be gained without the ise of dymamometers, But the ‘usual method in elinial practice is misleading, For example, ‘when the measurement in eteumference of an atrophied rnuscle gromp is to be eompared with the normal muscle fon the other side. As explained earlier, the thickness of the muscle is related tothe strength; bat in making the eam: parison between circumference of atrophied miseles and the normal muscle group on the other side, we must re- rember that the measurements include not only the muscler ‘but also the skin, subcutaneous fat and bone. More exact {information can be obtained by comparing the diameter of ‘the two mules. For example, when the circumference of the eight arm 4 35 cm and that ofthe left arm 28 em, i inmecurate to ‘conclude that the muscles of the left arm are about 20%6 Physiology Of Sireath atrophied. When we caleulte from the messured diameter the cross seetion of each arm (= 1"); the nommal arm 4s Found to measure 953 em and the atrophied arm 63.8 em. Subtracting from these figures the thickness of the skin, subeutancous fat (measured by skinfold) and bone, amount ing to approximately 175 on (assuming thickness of skin and suboutanooos fat of € mm, and « bone diameter of 22 ‘cnthe average value for mea), we find that the muscle ‘cos section alone measures 807 emt on the right side and {458 ext on the left side. In other words, there is a mascuat stroply of 435 in the left arm, instead ofthe 205 orginally ‘timated, This is one example of possible ers when the ferleulations are not made in such a way as to exchde the {thickness of elements other than the muscle itself. Tnany event, itsbould be borne fa mind that such meas- ‘uoments as these, whether witha dynamometer or by other Ineats, are more or lee subjective and depend upon the ‘complete cooperation of the subject. They cannot be de~ ‘pended upon, for example, ia cases where insurance is i ‘olved since inthis instance the subject is interested mainly ‘in appearing weaker than he really Isso that he may claim sreater = "To draw a practical conclusion from the measurements fn muscle strength iti necessary to remember that all ‘measurements in strength are more or less subjective. Th ‘strength in th diferent muscle groups ofthe body ts quite ‘Afferent, ond measurements na great number of people show # very high standard deviation in the same muscle ‘group, For thi reason, for example, the engineer i not able {count on average flgures in muscle strength. Tn designing Inachinery, he mmstcaleulate the masimum strength neces ‘Sry for human operation ata level that Is about 20 - 30% Tower than the average strength in the different muscle groups, Fusther, he mst consider that only 15% ofthe max- ‘mum strength can be oreted throughout the day without murle fatigue. That the roation between muscle length Phyto Of Strength 7 sand muscle strength has to be taken into secount, has al- ready been discussed. ‘Up tots point we have considered what we ell “not- tal stongth,” which is adequate to the indivivals daly fctvty without increase of strength asa result of taining, for a decrease of strength resulting from msclar inactivity “for instance, when lid up through illness, ete. Teas already been pointed out thatthe dillecent sys tems of the body; (1) Circulatory sytem, (2) Strength, (3) Ski, and s0 on, canbe trained, but the training of each of thee systems is govemed by another law. However, for all these ystems it @ common physilogial aw that an Increase in strength fllows only simul which is higher ‘than the normal day activity fa this eld. “The following chapters will explain the law of the sept i Bi ts osChapter MUSCLE TRAINING GENERAL HISTOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL OBSERVATIONS Ai cay os 1855 Root stenpted to develop formula cxprening the general empire orton that cease itimusele mass achieved only by nreare in work fort ther the noma day avy, and nat By repetition of rma day effort ors lngee ped nat about the ste time (1897), Morpurgo © threw those eal ight upon the proceso sel pete inthe coor of sania experiments Tn an extensive i tage sty he found that mul es In tad dogs v's larger co section thn in tae dogs. Te rss Section of mele fies, difeent in thle number in foe mocks and diferent indivi ite variable, bat Rows int inca which sot Iypectrophie er, on the ntray, fnan aopiedconton,« nomel dbo Serve Tn hypetophied mice ts earve moves towards the bigger ern set. “These figs were sibsequety cafe by other investigators (Thomers! Hofman and other) working tu skeletal males by nach onthe heart muscle nthe othe hand, Hettinger and Mille Wosker® found ‘he eopied mvc beste thier nero ection thn ‘oral be, and he dstion cove move foward the Sales eon section. Tt sao been demonstrated thatthe as of muck decreas In proportion to the mass of sce fies. ike Sethe ian ato ncente inthe mimber of ETE Phosiotory Of Sregth » ‘trained muscles. 8 Scheflerdecker* maintains that the muscle works more economically when the “relative mass of cle ie lower. ‘Other authors have pointed out that expillarisation also Increase in rained muscles" This isthe histlogieal proof that inereze in muscle eross section without increasing the cxpillarzation would be senseless. Later, further proof will be given ofthis fact in muscle taining in amputated men. ‘A number of chemleal studies in this fal havo clearly shown that the amount of protein in trained muscles {nereases in proportion as the musele weight intenses, Mus. cle fat, however, decreases in trained muscles. Tho percent- age of glycogen, glutathione, and so on also changes. In ‘conection with the mechanism of ineresse én muscalr hy- pertrophy tho effet of enzymes and coenzymes in the de- composition of tho reserve nutrients in the muscle also Increases, thus freeing more energy for mechanical work, ‘rained muscles produce less lactic acid during « certain workload than untrained muscles It has also been rhown, thatthe adrenal glands and the hypophyris exercise an in fluence upon the condition of the muscles®*™ ‘All thie indicates that the Biochemistry of «normal muscle andthe mechanism of its hypertrophie changes con- stitute a eomples process. The scope of the present book, however, dase not permit a more detailed discon of thi interesting field. Alo, the problems of the mechanism of ‘muscle contractions in which the group around Hil, Huey, Seent-Gyorgyi and Weber and others shed much light, will rot be discussed here. GENERAL ODSERVATION OF TRAINING STIMULUS Following 2 period of about thirty years, during which the role of a training stimulus in increasing muscle strength ‘was somewhat in doubt" Petow and Sieber? were able to confren Roux’ original statement, that greater work: ‘Alor rather than longer duration of effort is te elective20 Physiology Of Steath factor in increasing muscle strength. Petow and Siebert found that the muscle strength of rats increased as running speed was inreased not by prolonging the duration of the ‘inning test This means that an crease in muscle tension above that prevowsly demanded of «muscle isthe stimulus for an Sncrease in muscle strength "Farther experiments with Ssometsie muse contractions in Gertens taining experinents™ have served to clarify the nature ofthe suitable stimulus in masele traning. Linzbach® showed that even inthe heart muscle only inrease in mus tle tension provides traning stimulus. In particular, the remarkable experiments by Eyster™ and Bema, et at in which they placed a constricting ring around the aocta ficendens, demonstrated among. other things that hyper- twophy of the heart muscles resulted. This means that also in the beat the increasing ofthe muse tension in its effort to press the blood out of the cavum into the vessels is the traning stimulus, The muscle tenslon ofthe heart must be increased if the resitance in the blood vessl (aorta) is higher because of the constricting ving around it; the d- meter of the vesel it smaller, which requires that the pressure ofthe heart to fore the blood through this vessel rust be higher than usual. "in fecent years, it as been further shown in experi- ments with frogs snd in human experiments" tat iso- etre contractions canse a. greater increase io, muscle ‘Strength than isotonic contractions that, ts notte shot- fenlng of the muscle throug movement whichis important {Increasing mutele stength- Whea we attempt to com- pate the taining effect produced by isometric versus i0- tonie muscle contractions, using the work/time unit asthe tase factor of measurement, we find that such a comparison is imposible. Many contractions agalnst slight resistance may requlte the same ‘work’ as few contractions against strong resistane, On the other hand, the maximum strength ‘posble fm a ertain pasion during an isotonic mute con- Phyvoogy Of Stenath 2X traction, that is, during « movement, is much Tower than the strength that will be zached with an isometric con- traction. Moreover, mass and speed have an infence on the maner of the moscle contraction and thus a stitly ‘sotonie contraction is practically impossible. Te i therefore quite dillealt to measure strength in masimom isotonic ‘Sntractions. lk, in itotonie contractions, muscle strength ‘nd blood supply are the important factors. That is another eason why iis very diflealt to compare a traning effect {in muscle strength with training of isometric and isotonic isle contractions Tn later experiments the present write was able to new angh of Mice ithe beg eee 3 TO Weeks a | Fiewe 6 Phystogy Of Strength ” same subject and the same muscle group at diferent tes, We found a strength inceaee of abont 100% in two eases {inthis samo muscle group of forearm foors, arate of in- crease which is very seldom found. Soch a fast increase ‘was found only in these two cases in the ten years that we have been working with problems in muscle training. On the average, the strength increase in arm flexor stops at out 40 to 50 of beginning vale. Tes lateesting to note thatthe abnormal increase in _musle strength dusing this training period indicated by the slid line occured immediately after a summer vacation, ‘while the normal inerease in strength (dotted line) had ‘been recorded during anther traning period. The influence ‘of various factors on tralnabity wil be discussed later. "The reason for the sharp decrease in muscle strength ‘while training was still in progres i not clear. Tt may be that when there is such rapid enlargement ofthe erss see- tion ofthe muscle, the sucolemma does not grow at a cor responding rate and thus the point is reached where itis ‘unable to give a further strong contraction of muscle. It is als posible that when the point of maximum muscle Strength obtainable ir reached, one more hard muscle cone ‘waetion may rupture the muscle fibres or the sarcolemma which would explain the severe pain This explanation may be correct if such a rapid enlargement is found, but in the normal ease with the nosmal speed in inereasing muscle strength, we do not find such reactions. In the normal case the increas i tength stops when a certan pint reached. Whenever we abserve an abnormally rapid increase in mis- cle strength—in the following chapter the trainability of Aiferent muscle groups will be demonstated-we should ‘be earful not to allow the subject to reach the danger point. TRAINABILITY OF VARIOUS MUSCLE GROUPS ‘In talning the different muscle groups ofthe body, we find that the results achieved vary greatly from one group3 Physsory Of Stent to another. With exactly the same kind of muscle traning, for example, one iometic voluntary mule contraction ‘against a resistance in the same period of time and in the ‘ame subject, we find some muscle groups show avery slight increase in cle strength, while other muscle groups achieve fve to six tines a8 much. 1 Figure 7, a8 an example, the results of increasing strength duving a period of traning are given on one person In whom we have ualned many diferent muscle groups. ‘The numbers demonstrate the increase in strength week by week in percentage of the beginning value. The speod of Increase inthe diferent muscle groups is true in these given numbers only for this subject, bat the relationship in difer- tent muscle groups shouldbe similar fom subject to subject. Tn this ease, the muscles governing the bandyyip increase in xu oF cnr encase INSTT ourerER usc. 6S ‘epi Physiology Of Stength * suength about 1 pr week, while muslestength neeases out Oper weak in Ue calf ofthe log. In the subject of tis Stn yarn ofthe muscle raling, the muscle protein Jncreased about 10g in the whole body. That ts ierease vw teal protla wat proved by chemal analysis ‘The question ths arses as to why thee ie this ifr: ence in dhe vate of inreso in strength in diferent muscle soups in the sume subject. When we consider these muscle Ero in elation to ther wa in dally activity, we find that those showing ony slight increase a strength per werk aro the very ones used mst steno daysto-day neti. “he season for this that muscles sed mest evi in relation to thelr capacity) are already operating st lval dover to. nado stengt. Conversely, mode groupe ‘sed less heailin elation tothe eapacity-show greter tein Taking an extreme example, when we begin teinng an avophied muscle group (Figure 8), we faa rate of increase in svength Sve t iz tnes a great as when we stat with an untuined normal msde in a condion of oral strength Tho experiments strated in Figire 8 ‘were cried out on two subjects with natal arm. The Toream stomp, like the upper erm muscles, has shown in Ith eases very high degiee of muscle avophy. With a special dynanometer which the paints ws a wai Ue aici tm, the tp and pra muscles were aed With omettc maximum musle contraction aguas the Aesstnce of the dynamometer. The tremendous ellest Ss shown inthis graph. When the traning period ended, the Strength went bak to a level which seem tobe all hat ended in dally city. Later nig experiments stating fom this ‘normal muscle strength’ ring much lower teining fet. ere, bly decibel is moter case. Aman, tye yeas of age, amputated in Word WaT, with a sti leg. The stump muscle shows high degree of stro. The« Phasilogy Of Sirangth trophy Tormel svengiy Daly ocity Teving ‘Aophy Figwe § patient complains about typical pain in the stump. After ‘some weeks of training—the patient trained daily with max- uum mele contractions ofthe stump muscles against the resistance of a bandagethe pain grew less and the steusth {nthe stimp mselesinereaed by about 30%, These stump alos ate typical of nervous pains and the reduction in pain {a this manner seems only to be explained by a better vascu- lavsation in the stump, comparable with the increase in strength dusing taining. ‘Trainabilty of muscle groups, im other words, shows direct relationship to thelr us (relative to thelr eapacty) In dally activity. Top athletes, for example, increase theit performance only slightly during tsning, for the simple ason thet their muscles are already so well tained that the absolote maximum in strength i already reached, Physiology Of Sirneih a INFLUENCE OF ‘VARIOUS FACTORS UPON TRAINABILITY In mosele training experiments, one fact is very inter- ‘sting to note The fact tha traning efector, in oer words, the speed in increase of strength during a traning session— {nthe same eubject and the same muscle group-may be ‘uit diferent in diferent training periods, This fet made {dificult or even imposible to eampare the results of f= ferent training periods; especially for example, the different cffcts in increasing masle strength by diferent traning tmethods. That compelled us always to wse one standard trsining method, ane masimum isometric vokmtary muscle contraction frm one t two seconds dally. The other results fre correlated with this standard test Tn trying to establish the reason for this differen tain- silty, we reviewed our traning. experiments of recent years, with a yew to identifying the month of the year uring which expeciments were initiated." ‘Then we as- Sembled the traning results obtained during diferent sea- tous. During tis period of five years, over 80 subjects were leained with the same method, using for this purpose only the am muscle groups. The inerease in muscle strength (Celative tothe beginning value) during each moots ofthe year was calculated for each subject. The average increase {n strength week by week in percentage of begianing value foreach subject daring the whole year was taken as 100E ‘In Figure 9 the revstsn the average of all subjects are demonstrated. In the abscissa the diferent months of the year are indicated; in the ordinate, the traning ellect in percent, in the way which se have deseubed before. The lowest tranabity was observed daving December, January and Febroary=the winter months—with a slight increase {8 spring came on. Th highest twalnabilty occurred during ‘the summer and autumn moaths, witha sharp drop in tain. ability as winter st in Tn analyzing these results, we fst connected the differ-2 Peery 0} Sng 7 i i g g °c ter Woy yee To [eee pminen a es mere | Figue @ ence fn the results obtained withthe fact that during sum- ‘mer and autumn the greatest quantities of fresh fruits ate avallabe, resulting in the highest intake of vitamins, This [s the case In Germany, where these studies were made, and it probably applies to all areas in the northern temperate zope. In experiments, therefore, ineeased amonints of it ‘in C were presrbed for our subjects, both in the natoral form as fresh fruit and in the pharmaceutical form. But in ro instance did this hypervitaminosis © affect the tain ability. Tn this series of muscle training, vitamin D also was presribed, likewise without effect on the tranabiity. 2 It {sof interest to note tat vitamin D hed not only no eect fn tzanabiity, bot when vitimin D war given simllan- ously with the ultraviolet radiation, th effets ofthe latter “to be described presentl~were eliminated." We do Physlogy Of Strength s ‘ot yet know why vitamin D eliminated the influence in trainablty of ultravielet radiation, but bad to accept this fact at the moment without explanation. The positive effect icyele performance and vice vers. The exact line of demar- ‘ation between the two influences cannot be established, Dut there seems no doubt as to the effect of testosterone Another testosterone effect which may be interesting2 Phylloy Of Svensth to note isthe increas in masle strength and in performance capacity, an effect which is found during th eight-weaks {njection period. During the seoond week ater one injection, ‘the inerease in both is about St less than the week in which the injection is given. In other words, the effect of test ‘tterone drops very fast. Yet, on the other hand, about toventy weeks after the lst injection the muscle strength as ‘well asthe performance capacity has lst only about 355 of the earlier increase. Although the increase induced by testosterone dropped very fast, there still seemed to be & stabilization effect in strength asin performance capacity. ‘The drop in both after the end of trsning ir much lower than we used to think. ‘Tescems hat the male sxchormones are an important factor in development, generally speaking, and in perform ance capacity including muscle strength, circulatory system, and #0 on. Summery Tn discussing carer the problem of muscle taining, ve showed Uhat the muscle tension taining stimulus has tn elect on traning strength of about % of the maximum ‘Meength obtainable in an isometric volintary masimam ‘uscle contraction aginst a resistance. The tension in which the muscle mst be held in one training session is about 10 10205 ofthe time necded for complete fatigue. Als, one training season per day i enough to give the maxinam training effect obtainable. ‘Thats the adequate training stimulus inthe physiolgi- cal sense. For the practical application, as indicated earlier, ‘one taining session por day with an isometric maximum ‘mule contraction of about one to two seconds is enough to achiowe the maximum speed in strength increase abtas able during muscle training. We have also demonstrated the trainabiity in elation to age and sex, the inlence of Phyiclogy Of Stengh 8 ultraviolet radiation, and last but not least, the influence of male sexchormones on strength, Te would next be of interest to find out what happens to the increased muscle strength gained during taining ‘when the traning period is over. [MUSCLE STRENGTH AFTER TRAINING Fit let ws mention a emt which was penal 26- eidetal When we sated a secoad training period the Same suljec, we again measured tho strength The Upper Segment of Figie 12 llstrtes the fact that when there {Sea baling sexion cach day, thee & 9 relatively fptd increase in usle stenglh and Wowk a elatiely rapid dlcine in muscle strength wen tlning 4 decontinved, ‘With ttning session each day atthe Bepling, and then a change to week traning esos, arate in muse strength slows dow after the chang, a strated Inthe Ile segment of Figure 12, end rousce strength also dkclines moe dowly after ining ie dicotinned. ‘The lower segment of Figure 2 shows the progress of tralning when mec stil are given only once 8 wee There is relatively slow increase in muscle strength In 2 manner which we eased before, but there fab a rel tively low losin snl steng fer tenation ae tog sesons, compared with the eal after dy traning seen Tn ove cate, which we were able to follow wp for ap- proxinately four years (B10 weeks) after teminatin of ning, nse strength til exceeded the begining va. But thi long-term rel was observed in nly thi be ease td re hvea y of king wheter let aly ‘ie ofthe mule peop which hod under ‘night Lvs boa putes Cats he bane Cag, cr Sates {ean inet be eredited tothe cle taining alone. We lo nt thin hat our man iereased is activ, ot he wasPhyroogy Of Strength ore | Figwe 12 8 teacher with no Interest in athletics, but we cannot heck it Te would appear that thre is a direct relationship be- tween the schedule of training sessions and the rate of ‘merease in muscle strength during this training*® Further- ‘more, both these ftctors-schedule of training sessions and rte of Increase in muscle strength-show a dieetvelation- ‘hip to th rate of deeveae in muscle strength after tain- fing is terminated. This direct relatoaship 1s maintained, however, oly up to a frequency of traning stimuli of one per day. Tnoreasing the mumber of stimuli per day to two, fhe, Seven, and more, results in no farther increase in tusele strength, Likewise, n studying the rate of decrease {in muscle strength after termination of taining, we find that increase inthe numberof taining sessions beyond one per day has no elect on the rato of decrease in muscle Phyilogy Of Strength 8 strength after termination of taining, Whenever multiple Sessions are given per day, the decresse in strength later proceeds at the same rate, as thoogh there had been only ‘ne session per day. Greater detall in this veationship between training se. sions per week (which are highly coelated) to the speed of increase in muscle strength, and loss of strength after ‘waining is terminated, i shown in a sluple way in Table 4. This table shows very clearly the direct relationship bee {een tng seo and rng feeds and strength fon wel isha hl th Just 28 we could find no higher effet in muscle tine jing when we gave move training stimuli than ane a day, and no difference in loss of strength, s0 we do not find a reuc- tion either in relation to the tine the muscle tension i ‘observed in the diferent walning sessions, or in relation tothe teaning strength if the uncle contraction isin all ree areas ~ taining strength, tralning time, teining ses sion, In other words (1) The loss of suength after «tain ng peti is no higher i he subject has been trained several times a day, or only once a day. (2) The loss of strength after training period isthe same ifthe traning has been to the pont of complete fatigue, or if the muscle tension6 Phylogy Of Strength Is been hept for only afew seconds. (3) There is no ai ference in los of the strength reached in traning whether the taining sueng for example, 40% or 8 of the ‘maximum strength obtainable ‘By going hte deeper into theoretical considerations, wwe try to find out what could account for these Findings In early studs, Morpurgo® showed that taming cases an increase in th sizeof the muscle cos section (hyper trophy). Ie ako Inown tat the ers section of muscle fo which muscle strength directly rated ~ ean change relatively fast from hypotrophy 10 hypertrophy and vice ‘erst Thi hypertuophy probably the muscle fst rea thm to tring nul: When we give a tening simulos trey day, he muscle ibe eat by Increasing in sl, but Spparenty ther soslficleat ine between lang tin {or the physinlogal proces undeying retetion of this inereas in sueogh o run couse. Ths ftetion, hough wwe have no proof ofthis may be the expresion of an in ‘race in umber of mtele fibres in the place of erasing tos secon ofthe preset fibes#™°™ Maybe tis the aw that inerease and deerease in muscle stength show high relationship, perbape for chemical reasons. We eanot an ver this question st this ine. "The speed of inreae in muscle strength in relation to the diferent conditions ofthe muscles, as well the speed of decrease in musle suena fer a waning sesso, dl ‘usted fom the viewpoint of the Kind of eanier taining Tals presumes that the trained muscle ft otal with cut frter taining after the trlning period i ended. The ‘estoy asnes,ineestng ia the theoretical as in the ‘rectal fil, “What 10 be done to kaep tho increased Fron, after the Wang period Is over” An attempt Is made to ep the increased svength by giving twining ‘til nee every two, tre, or st weeks. From talaing ‘mull given Ina shythm of once every week, we find am increase in strength of about 400 ofthe increase which we Physiology Of Strength a ‘would find in dally training sessions. On the other hand, it 1s known that taining sessions in « two-week shytim do rot show any effect in increasing muscle strength ‘In Figure 15 three examples are shown of decrease in muscle strength after a period of daly training, In all three ‘eases the increase daring the training period is calculate a5 1008. The gray lft part of each ofthese cures demon- strates the inereae in strength during the dally training period. The right segient showe the Hine when the daily {taining period is terinated, Inthe upper eurve, the change in muscle strength after the training perod ie demoustated without any further taining stimuli, The central curve tives the development in strength after daly training, fl- Towed by one training session every si weeks, The lower cimve shows the result when a feaining session in a two" ‘week thythm is given, See aer S| 7 Figwe 1so Phyitgy Of Sivength ‘Without taining still, fllowing the training period, the strength drops veatvaly fast. After a traning peviod of twelve wooks, the beginning value is reached about thirty weeks later. One traning session every six weeks cannot keep the increased strength, but the speed in deeraso is redaced in sch rhythm according to the training stilt given. More than sinty weeks after the twelve weeks daily Uealning peviod is tenminated, the stength i still more than 206 higher than atthe beginning of the training se slons. Training stall givon in a three-week rhythm could ‘ot stop the deerease completly in tained strength, (This case is not demonstrated in tis graph.) The speed ia de- ‘reson this ees more redaced than when taining stilt Ina sicweek rhythm are given. The lower curve shows the fect when training stimu in a two-week rhythm are tiven, and demonstrates that this may be the way to keep the increased strength. We checked the strengt in these ‘cases over a period of one year and mo change in the in ‘creased strength could be recorded. For experimental tech eal reasons we could not ceck the strength in a yearomg ‘progam and s0 eould not tell exactly i this strength is 8 ‘ew “normal stength” or fi will drop again later. Three ‘months after our last measurement we checked again, but could find no decrease in strength. Neverteles, the ques- tion “nomal strength” or “decreased strength” I stl open hs book we have discussed s0 frequently the matter of increase and decrease in muslestength in tlation tothe Degining valve, during and after a period of training, that ‘can now be taken for granted that normal strength is a very stable factor. All our traning experiments begin with ‘this normal strength and all our values are related to it. We Jnow that normal strength is diferent in diferent people. ‘The taining elfect ie much lower in a welltesined athlete than in an vintrained man. Nevertheless, i seems that this oral strength isa relatively stable pont, which justlles ‘wn caleulting in this way. But even this apparent stability Phyilogy Of Srngth ” ‘of normal strength requires proof of its actual stability. Ta Figuce 1d we lve onthe abscissa the time in which the experiments were done in days, and on the ordinate the strength in percent of beginning value durig the time ofthe experiments, 8 inrettion to bopiening boys Figue 1¢ It should be remembered that the strength in atrophied muscles inereases duving taining five to sic times as fast before normal suength is reached ast does after the point ‘when nocmal strength is passed. One arm an each of several subjects was put ina plaster east for soven days. The meas- tured strength after these seven days showed an average ecrease in strength of about 155 in relation to the begin- ‘lag value. Daily traning sesions started immediatly alter the plaster cast was taken off, and the normal strength was reached in about fen days after the termination of the seven-® Phyvoogy Of Strength ays plaster-ast period. When ths point of normal strength ‘was reached the speed of increase in strength slowed down very sharply. During the fourteen to fifteen weeks training period the strength iereased by about SOE of the beginning value. A plaster cast was again put on the same arm for Seven dass. But the decrease im muscle strength during this time was about double as much as when a plaster east ‘was put on at normal stength. As soon as the cast was taken off, muscle taining — ar described before — began again. The ralning effect this second time was not the sume 1 the earlier one, aftr the removal ofthe first plaster cat, ‘when there was areal atrophied muscle in the usual defini. tion after inactivity. The increage in strength in this woond peviod of training was not more than normal when a muscle {s tained beginning from nonnal strength. These experi- rents, i our opinion, demonstrate the relatively igh sta- Dilty‘of normal strength, and it seems right to reckon — with reservations ~ in experiments, a in practial se, with toch a value. Inthe peatiea field of athletes these rents ‘mean that an athlete, for example, put in a plaster cat, very quickly loses the whole effect of talaing and needs hard and Tong traning again to get back his former strength. Considering that the lost of added muscle strength ‘after tennation of taining must be the expression of ‘etological and ehenieal changes inthe muscle fibes, ost ‘as wa the increase in strength during the taining period, the question arses as to whut proportion of the improve: ‘ment observed is retained. With thie problem in mind, we carried out several series of experiments on over fifty sub- jects. The present evaluation is drawn from work done over ‘period of about sx years, during which time we included All subjects given maximum muscle contractions while train ing inthe thre training periods. After obtaining an increase {in mosele strength during one training period, taining was terminated for several months and muscle stengdh was thea retested. Philo Of Srogth 6 igure 15 shows the strength increase (blac lines) during the thee different traning periods. The white lines in the gray felds indloate tho anticipated loss in strength based on our previous observations; and the level tt the star of the next traiing period indicates our average finding on retesting the muscle strength of these subjects ‘The traning period inal three instances was approximately twelve weeks. The rest periods, in which only the normal daily activity was followed, varied between 12 and 24 years. However, these findings were obtained in many dif- gh cc 200 300 Weeks EET OR HOSE RT Figwe 15 ferent individuals whose trainaility varied fom one time to another and alo from ope individual to another; and they were obtained at different seasons of the year, which swe have seen affects the results. It doesnot seem, therefore, that these relatively small varying levels in increase oF ine Physolory Of Strensth decrease of muscle strength, constitute a statistically sigall- ‘ant difference. ‘The main Interest ln this graph is not the ineresing and decreasing curves during the training and the rest periods, but the curve of normal strength which sinereasing ‘thronghout the years. The sighlly upward movement of the values observed at the beginning of a period of traning can, however, justifiably be considered a statistical curve On the average, we found that the musle strength was about 26 higher after 12 years thn the normal value Fst ob- served befare the ist training period began — a difference which i nt statistically signifcant. Another series of tain. {ng sessions was given and the musele group was retested 24 years later. Again we found retention of a smal per- centage of the increased muscle strength, amounting to bout 56 of the original value ~ representing twice the standard deviation. Then a tied series of talwing sessions was given and again the muscle strength was tested 12 years later. The muscle strength now, was found to be about {% higher than the beginning value. Thi last resicaun is vor tiveo times the stindard deviation, The demonstrated decrease in strength after the different taining periods are terminated is the probable decrease calculated fron the results of our cai studies. & Tong time before the next ‘measurement in strength is made, the stength will have reached the value which is then found. ‘The general conclusion tobe drawn from these inings 4s that the “normal” musele strength gradually increases 8 further series of training seasons are given; thus thre {is a slow but steady improvement in muscle strengts, due ton acenmolation of the rsidves of improvement let by cach period of training “Experience in tho fed of athletics has shown thatthe best procedure isto push taining hard for «certain period, then give a rest period with only sufclentexereise to keep ‘the body in condition; then push training hard gain, fol Phyilogy OF Strath 6 lowed by another rest petiod, and soon. By this procedure, overtraining is avoided. It is tue, as mentioned earlier, that the general taining of athletes isnot exactly the same as the mele traning we have been discussing. Athletes have to train not only their matele strength, but also thelr el caulatory system, thelr sl, and so on, ‘Nevertheless we followed a siar procedure on several subjets in connection with intermittent waiing. Training With Isometric muscle contractions was given for several ‘weeks, then a net peiod for approximately the same num ber of weeks, then another taining period and rest period covering, in all a total of about eighty weeks of experi- ments. The results are given in Figure 16. The black lines {n the white fields show the increase in muscle strength dir- ing the period of daily muscle traning with one isometric voluntary maximum muscle contraction agains «resistance The white lines in the grey flelds denote the decrease in strength during the rest periods. Ten weeks after terminating the thid training period the musle strength was matured ‘again. The last check-up followed twenty-ive weeks later. ‘The rate of increase in mule strength was found to be a litle greater during the second traning peviod than ‘during the fist and third period. The probable reason for this is thatthe seeond training period was begun én the ‘summertime. As we have noted above, ultraviolet radiation ‘apparently has a beneficial effect on the increase in muscle strength. Decrease in muscle strength during the diferent rest periods was about the same. It is interesting to note that following the final trining petiod, when muscle strength ‘was checked after roughly the same interval as the *¥0 ‘receding rest periods, epprosimataly the same rate of lass ‘nmusele strength was observed. The ial check on muscle strength during the S2nd week ater initiating tning (and. ‘owenty-five weeks after the preceding check) showed a stmewhat slower decline in muscle strength. It appears thato Phyilony Of Sirens hones a matte sang sn lekon fe apoig veooe Weeks the slowdown in the destine of muscle strength bears a ‘lationship to this fatenmitent type of taining, as com. pared with asugle training period, The greater cetention of ‘muslo strength (note the rising curve shown by the step-ups ‘in beginning muscle strength each tine training Is vested after a rst period) must likewise be due to the use of vest periods betveen taining periods. It is as though the new {raining ‘grafts’ new strength upon the strength previously ‘ined by the muscle. Is interesting to note that the chock ‘of muscle strength during the 88nd week shows an actual slowdown is decline of muscle strength as compared with the valuas found after the previous period. Our subjects do ‘ot seem to have altered thelr dally activity in a way that ‘might eause such activity to act a a taning stinalas which ‘would serve to maintain moselo strength. Theso subjects ‘were members of our Institute, and did not appear to change Physiology Of Srenath « thei way of living uring the period covered by the experi ‘ments Teappears more plausible that this intermittent taln- {ng does result in long-term maintenance of increased muscle strength. Although the results of many experiments already discussed, have demonstrated an obvious increase in normal Strength, it snot posible to say atthe presen time whether this level of muscle strength is maintained indefinitely. On the bars of obrerations, however, we believe that it i possible to accomplish retention of increased strength, but ‘shouldbe remembered that the individual eyular normal strength, but up and maintained by daly activity through out lif, i elatvely stable. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Up to this point, we have considered what constitutes training stimulus, tranabilty in relation to age and sex, Influence of various factors upon tunability, effect of tain. Ing sessions of varied duration and frequency, intermittent training, and soon. It has also been demonstrated that an ‘tometre muscle contraction of 40 to 50% of the maximum Strength in isometric voluntary muscle contraction is sufi cient to furnish a training stimolas. But in actual practice (when working without a dynamometer, stopwatch, et.) {Us simpler to give one maximum ismetric muscle contrac= tion, aghinst a resstance, of one to two seconds duration per day in order to achieve the maximum possible muscle strength. ‘Tho taining stimulus roqured to inorease the strength of the muscle is of such short duration that no measurable effect on the cardiovascular system — sich as increase in pulse rate and blood pressure — is obsored. Consoquenty, ‘this type of muscle traning ean be used in heart eases with ‘out fear of eansing unfavorable cardiac reactions. The reslt Js that with a generally improved physical condition, the ‘cardiac patient is able to carry on his daily work with lest fatigue, henee with les strain on his heart.o Phosilogy Of Srength De Lorme? et al, have previously reported practical spplications of musle waining i the Beld of physical med- ‘he and rehabilitation. In hospital rehabilitation, sch as after a fracture, the desenbed method can be wsed to prove muscle suength in the extremities almost as soon as 1 plaster cast is applied. By working with all the muscle groups in the injured member, and with the patient making the necessary muscle contraction against the resistance of the cast itself, mascle strength can be maintained which otherwise would gradually decrease. When the tne comes for resumption of activity not ony isthe patient spared the unneeessary pain of beinging an atrophie muscle back to strength by exercise, but time spent in e-training by both, patient nd clniian saved, Liberso® made the personal ‘comment that this kind of resistance-muscle-ralning brought ‘od results in poliomyelitis eases, ‘fore ging examples of practical ways of testing ‘and training muscle strength, let us emphasize again that we method we have been discussing is designed to improve conly muscle strength and ie not concerned with either the ‘rculatory othe nervous system. Ako, i s not applicable to the type of ease where there isa stiff joint and an snerease fn lesblty i desired. Other specific methods must be used {in such cass. Nevertheless, i seems necesary and econo ‘alto combine different methods. In practice, «case of stil joints without atrophied muscles fs very seldom found. Examples of simple muscle testing and muscle training procedures, which can be carried out in dally practice rather ‘than in the laboratory, cam be divided roughly into three ‘soups. The first group can be used in clinical practice or in alhletic tining the second, with amblatory patents who ‘ean perform muscle contraction at home without any eqip- ‘ment ata, or with individuals who wantonly to maintain ‘muscular ness; the thd group i Intended for work with ilzen, who eannot be instructed simply t “make « maxi Physiology Of Siregth o ‘mum voluntary (sometso muscle contraction” In this Ist ‘sroup, the particular muscle groups are tained by games ‘which could be included in regular physial education cases “The following dustrations are ooly samples and are primarily intended to give the reader some Ides, aba start. Ing point. ‘MUSCLE TRAINING WITH DYNAMOMETERS Several examples ofthe testing und training of different rnusele groups are ilstrated in Figure 17. The left igure in the upper part of Figure 17 demonstrates the kind of meat ‘urement ia strength and simultaneously the kind of muse training which is given by the measurement of maxianm strongth for trunk flexion and extension, and for shank igwe 17« Physloey Of Strength ‘extension and flexion. The numbers in the citcles are the average maximum strength in Klograms fora man in these body positions. In the upper par, on the right side, meas tuemente of forearm flexion and extension are demonstrated. ‘The middle figure shows the possblty of measuring. or training the muscles which are responsible for the plantar Alexion of the fot (calf muscles). The figures inthe lower pat show how to measure the strength in adlvetion and ab Ation of the logs, or, in tho right part, hip flexion and ‘extension. The accuracy of such measurements increases when the body is held in a fim positon. For example, ‘hon th arm is held ata 60° angle nal the measurements, the results willbe comparable; but for instance, the angle ‘is sometimes 75° and at other times 105, the results eannt the compared as the strength itself s diffrent and thro is no relationship between the two measurements, On the ‘other hand, the errs in measirement in training activities emonstrated tn Figure 17 will not be more thin abot 105, hich is satisfactory for practical application. Tei often Ihlpfl ifthe exarinor will help the subject to extablish and maintain the correct postion, From these few examples those working inthe eld can pursue the same method in connection with other muscle gramps. One needs only a Toop made of leather or some ‘other strong nonelastc material, a hook, sales, a chain, and Another hook at a convenient height inthe wall. With this simple equipment (see Figure 17), itis easy to read the ‘muscle strength onthe scales snd thus to check the progress ‘of muscle taining But again iti important to bea in mind that the length of the muscle bears a dzect relationship to te strength of the musle. When a number of readings re taken of one muscle group, therefore, the muscle must al- ways be kept at the same length — with the same angle, for example, between the upper arm and forearm. Only in this way em we accurately interpret the effect and the re: salts during the training period in patents or athletes, Phylogy Of Stenath « DO--YOURSELF MUSCLE TRAINING In the nest pages (Figures 18, 19, 20, 21) some ex- amples are given of muscle taining exercises without equipe ‘ment. These exercies ean easly be done at home. In such tes, however, we are unable to test either the rate or the Alogree of increase in muscle strength during taining. ll the human figures in these ilstations show the exercises tuted, and the small dotted-line boxes show the muscle ‘groupe truined by these exercises. ‘The examples demon- Fred do not need more than thity seconds per day, and in this ime the muscle groups recaive al tho stimulus neces- sary for muscle taining for that day. Figure 18 shows the manner oftxning the neck muscles which ate responsible forthe movement of the heed. With lasped fingers over the forehead, the head is pushed as i |ny Phyology Of Strength dard as posible against the resistance ofthe arms, The arms, fn tum, give a muscle contraction aginst the existance of the head, and the neck muscles give an isometric muscle contraction which provides a training stil, Hf the arms ate held behind the head those muscles which move the head {in the opposite direction are tained. To tran the sie neck ‘muscles the head should be pushed against the resistance of ‘the am, Figure 19 illstretes the method of traning the muscles of the shoulders and arm. Here the individual stands in a doorway and pushes hard with the hands against the jamb as ‘though to push it apart, o links the hands tightly together and “pulls them apart” without loosening the sep. To train the leg flexors and extensors or trunk muscles (Figure 20), the subject can use a towel ora rope, or ean esicrance | oR zero Photog Of Sregth " é esisnnee sit oven inthe doorway with is back against one side and his feet against tho other. The push in there situations is against the resistance of the towel, rope, or doorway. The limiting factor in developing stength oe muscle tension, as Aeserbed above, isthe muscle group withthe least strength, But asthe necessary strength In Walniog whieh gives the ‘maximum training stimulus is not more than about 40 to [50 of the maximum strength of the musele, it should be ‘enough to give the taining stimulus forall muscle groups ‘teking pat inthis kind of mosele training Figure 21 shows a method of taining the muscles on the inner side of the leg. (edductor group). The subject (center) sits on the flor ata projecting corer, with one foot agunst each wall, and etompt to pll the legs together. To train the calf and hamatring muscles, presvure fe ex.Physiology Of Strength igure 2. ‘rtd fem shoulder to hea in the doorway (upper left). To train the outer thigh muscles (abductor group), the other siting igure in tho group presses the legs apart against Uh two sdes ofthe dor jamb, Figures 18-91 are only examples which may give an {dea of howe muscle traning ean be done, even if time sms so shoct as to provent any exercise at all, though badly ‘needed. Examples of muscle tring for practical appica- tions have also been given by Stinhaus'® and McCloy: ‘McCloy, who hed heard of these experiments, advanced the good and very practical idea that maximam voluntary fsometrie muscle contractions cin be undertaken as a wale ing stimulus while the subject is siting ia chal, without the we of equipment, and sp unobtrusively thet persons sitting nearby’ do not notice anything. He claims this Phyloy Of Strength n cxcallent training for people who st for many hours. Siting {na chair, the subjeet pushes or pulls the hands against the resistance of the arm vest, of pushes the arm against the thigh and tres to ft up the log while doing a flexion in the ankle; or pushes his head against the resistance of his Ihand, with the elbow supported on the armrest ofthe chai. ‘Ty il Many muscle grovps ean be tained inthis manner. ‘An addtional gains that a arevult ofthese muscle contae- ‘dons an inreased eiveultion provides & stimulus to the cerebrum, the mind is aroused from lethargy, and the tou dency to’ doze is minimized. We do the seme in these ‘muscle contractions as eats and dogs do when they wake up. ‘They stretch their muscles. When the contractions are made against a resistance (the armrest, for instance), the muscles fare given a training stimulus, time is saved, and the cere Iam is aroused ut ofits sleepiness ~ a state that usualy happens at conferences, lectures, et cetera "The benefit of this method is that we need pratially ‘no space, and this taining can be done also in tains, aero- planes and 20 on,” Phyrology Of Strength MUSCLE TRAINING IN CHILDREN When working with children, muscle training cannot be achieved by quite the same means. The advantages of taine ing certain muscle groups seem far removed from realty toa child. He sees uo need for ‘physial fines hence he i not interested enough to cooperate. We ean accomplish the ‘same results, however, by tranating the same kind of exer ses or, etter, muscle traning into games. Figure 22 a. Tnstrates some of the games which can bo made part ofthe physical education program. ‘This type of gume can be ‘used with relatively lage groups of eildren, and wil not consume a great part of the physical eduction time, woximun cy, nesetance By | Brencises 4 FOR udscte N | STRENGTH | is CHIUDREN | Phylogy Of Strength SUMMARY We have discussed some problems io muscle strength and have analyzed the base question aboot the real tain: Ing stimulus. Several conclusions have been reached 1. Teas been shown that muscle tension, i, the train- ing strength, seems to be the important point in ameletalnng 2. The minimum taining stimulus in masele tension is bout ofthe maximum strength obtainable in val ‘entary isometric muscle contractions, and an exer tion of 4 to 508 of the curent maximum strength ofthe musle gives the musle the maximum obtain. able tetning elect. 3. Tes unnecessary to keep up this tension tothe point of complete fatigue of the muscle to get the max- ‘um in taining effet. A period representing 10 to 20 percent of tho time it takes to reach complote fatigue ofthe msle ~ which prevents further hold- {ng of tmusele tension — i enough to reach the max- sm obtainable taining elect. 4. One single taining stimuli per day is adequate for te masimam obtainable taining eet for a certain muscle group, in certain individual, during a cer tain te For practical purposes, inorder to traln the muscle f Increasing muscle strength, we suggest exerisng the muscle group which isto be trained y making ae isometric maxi- ‘mum muscle contnction agunst a resistance each day. "The effect of witaviolet radiation on muscle traning relative to increasing muscle strength has been demoa strated, ‘The dicot relationship betwoon male sex hormones and ‘muscle strength and trainability of the muscles has been shown. "Te was shown that after a texning period the strength ‘gino during the period decreased at speod which was6 Physiology Of Siregth sbout one-third ofthe speed at which it had inreased dur- ing traning. Further it was demonstrated that aftr a taining period small part of the total increased strength remained indel- nitely, which means that “normal strength” was ralsed that amount by each training period. ‘The increased strength gained during straining period ‘can be maintained by giving taining stimuli every fourteen days. Im practical examples the possibility of muscle taining ‘with and without equipment is pointed out. ‘The results deseribed above have recently been con- firmed in Some laboratories and in hora, REFERENCES 1, De Lorme, Th Le J Bone & Joint Sarg, 27648, 1985 2 Gallagher, JR and Th, 1. do Lanme: Bone ® Joint Surg ‘1a:0, 190. 5. Meleband, FA ALM. Parich and S. 1. Hout: Arch Phys. Med, 28:3, 1987 4, DeLorme, Th Le J. 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The Darnall, ‘Corporation, Chicig, 1957. 119, McCloy, CH: Repos of tte Unit of Twn (ar 195). INDEX et Cans Mt ean 18142921, 25 adie i aac hin 6,3 6 608 acim Ss Mu Pr tte Wen SST ETS, vo, le ee Sp 1 1 1 82, Damen tio 1,47 htmsnd dea 8 2,84 ‘a, ae acne Sem 3 Eno sd Cote, etl io ‘ti 8 58 a i Sie tena hm, 8 por 1 Pal Fan, 5, 6,48 metre ve Hetnie Contnstion, "Yon OB eco, scwcy of 58 Par Ca, et 26,58, 68, sie Fade, 618, 18, Sse are izagh, Reaiotip e558 soca be le of 45 Stent been en aad 5S Herm (Tete), sua sey Sota ef 18 Sei isle Se Somer Yanni 57