IADC/SPE 112687

Automatic Measurement of Drilling Fluid and Drill Cuttings Properties

A. Saasen, SPE, T.H. Omland, SPE, StatoilHydro ASA; S. Ekrene, J. Breviere, SPE, E. Villard, SPE, Geoservices
SA; N. Kaageson-Loe, SPE, A. Tehrani, SPE, J. Cameron, M. Freeman, SPE, F. Growcock, SPE, A. Patrick, T.
Stock, SPE, M-I Swaco; T. Jørgensen, F. Reinholt, N. Scholz, AnaTec AS; H.E.F. Amundsen, A. Steele, EPX AS;
G. Meeten, Schlumberger Cambridge Research;

Copyright 2008, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2008 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in Orlando, Florida, U.S.A., 4–6 March 2008.

This paper was selected for presentation by an IADC/SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not
been reviewed by the International Association of Drilling Contractors or the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect
any position of the International Association of Drilling Contractors or the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this
paper without the written consent of the International Association of Drilling Contractors or the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an
abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of IADC/SPE copyright.

Abstract
In order to remotely control the drilling process it is necessary to measure several drilling fluid parameters automatically. This
will increase objectivity of the measurements as well as make it possible to immediately react to changes. The current paper
describes in detail the design for an integrated tool combination and the results of a full size yard test of such a combined set of
tools for measuring drilling fluid parameters and formation properties automatically. Some of the automated tools have been
tested on rig site operations. Results from these individual tests are also presented.
The automatic drilling fluid analysis includes viscosity, fluid loss, electric stability measurements and chemical properties
like pH. Full viscosity curves for the drilling fluid are measured using configurations and shear rates similar to those
suggested by API procedures. Since gel formation curves and fluid loss properties require some sort of controlled static
periods, these measurements are made semi-continuous. However, they are automatic and are measured as frequently as
possible.
An automatic system is included to measure the particle size distribution, concentration and morphology. Knowledge of
these parameters is necessary, especially when drilling in depleted reservoirs where particles are added for increasing the
wellbore strength.
The produced cuttings volume is measured. An automatic system is adapted that determines, with accuracy comparable to
that of visual analysis, whether the particles separated at the shaker screens are drill cuttings or cavings produced by an
unstable formation. The mineralogy of the cuttings is analysed automatically using Raman spectroscopy, making it possible to
evaluate continuously the different formations being drilled.

Introduction
Controlling drilling fluid parameters is important for obtain proper drilling performance. To achieve this goal, the fluid
properties need to be measured with sufficient accuracy. Therefore, the industry has implemented a set of standards describing
the parameters to be measured and the methods of measurement1. Optimum drilling fluid performance is strongly dependent
on knowing the formation properties so that correct selections of drilling fluid additives can be made. Likewise, it is important
to know if the solids that are separated at the shakers are drill cuttings or cavings originating from unstable holes. In field
applications, one has been forced to use the anticipated performance of solids control equipment as the only method for, at
least to some extent, controlling the concentration and size distribution (PSD) of the particles in the system, since no
laboratory or field instrument has been available to produce the necessary measurements. However, there are other techniques
that can be applied to continuously monitor the particles in the drilling fluid and the drill cuttings2. Among them are
techniques for describing the mineralogy of the cuttings, thus providing a fast update on formation description. Such
techniques make it possible to automatically detect if there is potential for hole stability problems. The combination of these
techniques provides a significant potential to increase the knowledge of how the drilling and production performance is
affected by the solids addition to the drilling fluids.
National practices exist on environmental treatment of drilling waste. In this respect there is also a need for quantifying the
amount and the properties of drilling waste3. Therefore, even though the objective of applying the current automatic
measurements is to improve the quality of the drilling operation, it is possible to extract useful information about waste
production at the same time.
2 IADC/SPE 112687

Description of tools
The tests were conducted at the Cubility Test Centre, Sandnes, Norway. The test system is shown schematically in Figs. 1-2.
The active circulation system is 8 m3. From the active pit, drilling fluid is pumped at 815 litres per minute to the Thule VSM
100 shaker where cuttings are added to the flow just before the header box. Here Nitrogen is added to the drilling fluid to
simulate a drilling fluid with high gas content.
The schematic set up for monitoring the properties of the drilling fluid is shown in Fig. 1. After the shaker, drilling fluid is
collected directly from the shaker pit to the viscometer (Tool A) and densitometer (Tool B). On a bypass sampling loop a
selection of tools are connected. These tools include the electrical stability meter (Tool E), particle size distribution
measurement device (Tool F) and a pressurized fluid loss analyzer (Tool G). Both the particle size analyzer and the fluid loss
device require base fluid for cleaning purposes. Therefore, a base fluid supply is connected to these devices.

Fig. 1. Flow diagram of the drilling fluid circulation system and tool placement of the drilling fluid analysis equipment. For
description of the different tools, please consult the main text.

Fig. 2. Flow diagram of the drill cuttings circulation system and the tool placement for cuttings analysis. For description of the
different tools, please consult the main text.
IADC/SPE 112687 3

The current test is using oil based drilling fluids. Therefore, it is not practical to connect the pH-meter directly to the flow
loop. However, to illustrate how this is operated, this device (Tool C) is positioned in a bucket containing water based drilling
fluid. The automatic measurement of H2S in the drilling fluid is also conducted in a bucket (Tool D). However, for safety
reasons H2S cou8ld not be added to the drlling fluid during the tests. Therefore, only laboratory tests have been conducted.
Different materials, like sands, shales and calcium carbonate are added to the system to simulate drill cuttings or cavings.
These materials are added to the flow just before the shaker as shown schematically in Fig. 2. Most of the cuttings are
collected and measured using the cuttings flow meter (Tool J). A sampler is connected just above the cuttings flow meter,
collecting enough material to determine if the cuttings are real cuttings or cavings. This measurement is performed in the
cuttings morphology analyzer (Tool H). After the cuttings morphology has been determined the cuttings are fed directly to a
Raman spectroscope (Tool H) to measure the cuttings mineralogy.

Viscometer
Most drilling fluids have non-Newtonian properties including shear thinning viscosity and viscoelasticity. Therefore, simple
inline devices like vibrating pins or similar cannot be used since they cannot provide rheograms necessary to predict pressure
losses while circulating drilling fluids, or Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD). Inline measurement based on Ultrasound
Doppler effects are under development4,5, but are not yet ready for implementation in field applications. Viscoelastic
properties of drilling fluids are important if the desire is to understand behavior of the drilling fluid on a micro scale. Such
measurements are frequently performed6,7,8. However, the application of viscoelasticity does not affect ECD control. For
ECD control it is important to measure parameters that can be applied in the well know Bingham, Power law of Hershel-
Bulckley fluid models. Therefore, the use of a Couette viscometer with measurements at different shear rates has been
selected.
For easier comparison with current practice using the rotational Couette viscometer as described in API Recommended
Practice 131, an automated in line instrument, manufactured by Brookfield has been selected. The instrument covers the same
shear rate span as suggested by the API standard1: 5 to 1022 s-1.
In the automatic measurement tool, a control box has been developed to command the RPM changes, collect shear stress
reading and transmit them to the mud logging acquisition system. The duration at each RPM can be user defined over a
complete cycle. Considering one minute at each RPM, it takes about 7 minutes to cover a full cycle and obtain a rheogram.
The instrument has been installed upstream of a pump part of the standard by pass loop for volumetric degasser for gas
analysis. A temperature probe has been added to the measurement device. The temperature strongly affects the drilling fluid
viscosity. Therefore, by calibrating the temperature response of the drilling fluid over a reasonable temperature range, or by
using an Arrhenius equation, the viscosity curve can be shown at any prescribed temperature with an accuracy which is
comparable to that of the standard laboratory measurement accuracy.

Electric Stability
The measurement and application of Electrical Stability (ES) in invert emulsion fluids is described in two seminal papers9,10.
The ES Meter that is currently the industry standard, the Fann Model 23D Electrical Stability Tester, and the latest API
Recommended Practice (RP 13B-2) are based on these two references. The method measures the dielectric break-down
voltage of the emulsion between two electrodes spaced 1.5 mm apart. Key features of the method include:
• Voltage waveform that promotes self-cleaning of the electrodes.
• Automated waveform generation that provides reproducible and accurate “dielectric break-down” voltage, the ES
value.
The trends in ES value correlate fairly well with the HTHP Fluid Loss; thus together serving as indicators of the emulsion
stability of oil based drilling fluids.
A prototype fully automated ES meter has been constructed based on the designs of the standard ES meter (Fig. 3). The
primary modifications that have been made for autonomous measurement of electrical stability at discrete real-time intervals
include the following:
• Stand-alone dual electrode probe for measuring in a side stream from a mud flow line or suction line including
automated actuators for inlet/outlet valves.
• Automated wiper method for cleaning the electrodes between test measurements.
• Electronics for repetitive, automated cycling of the ES test.
• Modification of the cabling so as to minimize voltage/current losses between the probe and the meter.
• Modification of the meter read-out and display to obtain the readings automatically, save them and transmit them
electronically in real time.
During development of the AES it was found that increasing the drilling fluid flow rate decreases mean ES voltage and
increases the standard deviation and data error. This is shown in Fig. 4 and the results implied that static condition is best for
measuring ES. Hence, the instrument has been developed to measure on discrete, static volumes of fluid; i.e. batch mode
sampling.
4 IADC/SPE 112687

Mud Out
Mud In

Pneumatically
Actuated Electrode
Cleaner Electrodes

Fig. 3. Illustration of the Automated Electrical Stability prototype showing the electrode housing and cleaning system.

500
mean ES voltage and standard deviation

400 mean

300
mean ESV (V)
SD ESV (V)
ESVsto/sta (V)
200 SDsto/sta (V)

100
SD
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
OBM volume flow rate (ml/s)
Fig. 4. Illustration of how the measured ES voltage (ESV) and Standard Deviation (SD) are influenced by flow rate.

Fluid Loss
The Automated Fluid Loss System (AFLS) is designed to autonomously measure the High-Pressure High Temperature
(HPHT) fluid loss properties of water- and oil-based fluids at discrete real-time intervals. The design, based on the
conventional HTHP fluid loss cell, provides equivalent HTHP measurements up to approximately 120oC and 35 bar (250oF
and 500 psi).
The design of the automated fluid loss cell is shown in Fig. 5. Fluid loss is measured across a metallic 5 micron surface
filter that has been selected to give equivalent values to those measured on HTHP paper and which allows for repeated use.
Unlike depth filters, such as standard HTHP filter paper and aloxite discs, the filter cake forms only on the surface of the
metallic filter thus making it possible to remove the cake, clean and re-use the filter. The surface filter used in the AFLS is
composed of very narrow slots etched into a very thin sheet; the slot dimensions are 5µm x 200µm. The volume of fluid loss
is measured optically using a vision sensor with built-in LCD monitor. This optical system identifies the boundaries of the
receiving vessel and the liquid interfaces and the separation of water from oil can be detected. In this way the system gives an
accurate measure of the fluid volume.
The instrument is capable of automated repetitive measurements through the use of a self-cleaning system incorporating
back flushing and sonication to lift and disperse the filter cake and dislodge drilling fluid solids trapped in the filter slots.
When a measurement is completed, the cell is emptied of drilling fluid and filled from the base with the wash fluid; base oil
for OBM and water for WBM. Sonication is then applied which dislodges and disperses any solid particles attached to the cell
IADC/SPE 112687 5

wall and to the filter. The cell is then once again back flushed with fresh wash liquid. The cleaning processes are repeated
several times in order to ensure the filter is returned to its original condition.

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Illustration of the prototype Automated Fluid Loss System (AFLS).

5(a) Schematic of the HTHP cell used in the automated fluid loss system. 5(b) The heating jacket (orange colour) surrounds the
HTHP fluid loss cell. The sonifier electronics and the cooling chamber are shown above the cell. The filtrate receiver can be seen
below the heating jacket.

HTHP fluid loss of different OBM on different filters

5.0

4.0

3.0
Filtrate (ml) paper
5µm
2.0
8µm

1.0 A

0.0 C OBM
paper D
5µm
Filter 8µm

Fig. 6. A comparison of the API standard HPHT measurements (on paper) and those made using the AFLS for four different oil-based
drilling fluids. The AFLS measurements were made with two surface filters of 5 and 8 micron slots.

The filter performance is checked by running a “Calibration Check”. In this step, a known volume of wash liquid is
charged into the cell, and the volume of liquid flowing out through the filter, under a differential pressure of 1.38 bar (20 psi),
6 IADC/SPE 112687

during a specified time period is measured. This volume is then compared with that obtained when a new filter is installed. If
the difference is above a specified threshold the filter has to be replaced. Experience in the laboratory and yard tests has
shown that the filters can be re-used for upwards of 100 times.
The AFLS is controlled by a SCADA system and a Mitsubishi Q series PLC with Modbus TCP Interface. These allow for
autonomous automated measurements, real-time communication with the data acquisition system in addition to providing for
remote-operations and overrides.
The automated fluid loss measurements replicate the industry standard API procedure for conducting HTHP fluid loss
tests. A comparison between the API standard measurements and those made by the AFLS is shown for four different oil-
based drilling fluids in Fig. 6. The AFLS measurements were made with two surface filters of 5 and 8 micron slots. The
results show close agreement in trends between the standard and the automated measurements.

Density
Continuous monitoring of drilling fluids density is a common practice in the industry. Among the various techniques
available, Coriolis mass flow meter11 is anticipated to be the instrument that provides the most accurate reading of the mass
flow. Use of a Coriolis mass flow meter to measure the volumetric flow rate requires a density measurement. The fluid
density is obtained form the same device by measuring the natural frequency of the filled Coriolis tube. This device is
typically installed on a by-pass sampling loop allowing installation in all rig configurations. Small diameter devices can be
selected, again for ease of installation and cost reasons. Small size devices does exist in straight tube shapes which is a major
advantage to limit solids deposits, ease maintenance and particularly cleaning in the presence of fluids highly loaded in sticky
solids.
Coriolis measurements are sensitivity to gas volume fraction and fraction of large particles in the fluids. In case of free gas
trapped in mud, the effect on density reading is two fold. First, the instrument is measuring an average density representative
of the two-phase mixture. The measured density is then lower than the pure drilling fluid liquid density because of the effects
of gas bubbles.
The second effect affecting the Coriolis meter accuracy is the presence of large bubbles or particles. The coupling between
the vibrating tube and the high density fluid can be significantly altered because the hydrodynamic forces are insufficient to
hinder slip velocity to the bulk flow. Hence accuracy is reduced and eventually it can come to the point the instrument is no
longer able to deliver any readings.
To overcome the difficulties mentioned above, the automatic measurement system is using a pressurized by-pass loop
featuring a Coriolis flow meter able to operate at up to 35 bars. The pressure in the flow loop has been set to 10 bars to
demonstrate the efficiency assuming high gas contents that can be encountered. Furthermore the evaluated fluid is collected
after larger particles are separated form the flow out of the well. Therefore, the accuracy should be optimal.

H 2S
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) represents one of the most vicious and deadly hazards in the oil and gas industry. It is a naturally
occurring gas mixed with natural gas or dissolved in the oil or brine and released upon exposure to atmospheric conditions.
Therefore, this gas can be dissolved into the drilling fluid during drilling. The presence of free hydrogen sulfide in drilling
fluid can create a severe hazard to rig personnel and others because of it’s high toxicity. H2S scavengers, generally zinc
carbonates, are used to transform sulphides into harmless complex via an acid-base ionic reaction. Hydrogen sulfide detection
is commonly performed with sensors located at the shale shaker area, rig floor and bell nipple. These sensors measure the
hydrogen sulfide concentration in ambient air and activate an alarm if concentration rises to 20 ppm or above. The drawback
of these sensors is that they only measure liberated H2S. Therefore, detection occurs late compared to a direct measurement in
the circulating drilling fluid.

Acid-base ionic reaction with H2S liberation

16 0

14 -100
12
-200
10
-300
pH 8 E
pH -400 (mV)
6 Ceramic Sulfures electrode potential
-500
4

2 -600

0 -700
0 45 89 135 179 224 270 314 358 402
Time (sec)
Fig. 7. Acid-base reaction with H2S liberation versus time. H2S detection via ceramic electrodes
IADC/SPE 112687 7

Probes equipped with specific ceramic oxides and fluorides are used12. Here, specific electrodes are combined with
reference ceramic electrodes. These probes are not prone to clogging in cases where they are exposed to drilling fluids or
other slurries. Monitoring these ceramic electrodes simultaneously with the pH allows for an early and sensitive H2S detection
compare to H2S gas sensors (Figs. 7-8).
A simple experience can be done to assess the interest of having these specific electrodes for an early H2S detection. In a
water based drilling fluid containing sulfides under HS- form, acidifying the drilling fluid with HCl will lead to a H2S
liberation when the pH decrease below 7. Sulfide detection by these specific electrodes is shown in Fig. 7. A change in the
potential, indicating a change in sulfide formation in the drilling fluid which could lead to a possible H2S liberation, is
measured after one minute. The combination of pH measurement and sulfide potential indicates exactly when H2S is liberated
from the drilling fluid at 89 seconds, when sulfides go from HS- form to H2S at pH 7. Standard H2S gas sensor located just
above the solution lead to a H2S detection in the atmosphere after 3 minutes as seen Fig. 8. It could be even more delayed
depending on the sensor location at the rig site.

Acid-base ionic reaction with H2S liberation in water based mud

Sensor detection
250
H2S gas sensor placed above water based mud
200

150

100

50 Time
(min)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-50

Fig. 8. Acid-base reaction with H2S liberation versus time. H2S gas sensor detection

pH measurements
The continuous monitoring of water based mud pH has long suffered the lack of reliable probes. The standard ion specific
glass electrode is prone to clogging by fine particles and generally exhibits a limited lifetime in the drilling fluid environment.
More recently, a technology discovered thirty years ago has become a rugged industrial product, pulled by the wastewater
monitoring market. It is known as Ion Specific Field Effect Transistor.
Its principle, shown in Fig. 9, is based on the pH sensitivity of a particular arrangement of a Metal Oxide Semiconductor
(MOS) Field Effect Transistor (FET). The transistor gate is in contact with solution containing H+ ions. In a standard FET
arrangement for transistor function, a voltage is applied to the gate, allowing controlling the current flowing between drain and
source. The pH measurement configuration differs from the standard FET arrangement for transistor function in that no
voltage is applied to the gate. On the other hand, surface buildup of negative charges occurs on the gate side opposite to the
fluid. The amplitude of this induced charge build-up is directly proportional to the H+ concentration in the fluid. The voltage
potential difference is controlling the conductivity between the source and the drain.

Fig. 9. Principle of the pH measurements

8 IADC/SPE 112687

Liquid Particle Analyzer

The most commonly used instrument for determining particle size distribution within the drilling industry uses light
diffraction. Typically, red lasers are used, and when the laser beam hits a particle in the system it is scattered in a manner
dependent of the size and shape of the particles. The angular intensity is recorded by a series of photo detectors. Their signal
can be analyzed to provide a particle size distribution. There are several challenges employing such systems: The particle
sizes are determined by using algorithms based on some assumed shape for each particle. In addition, the method typically
does not give a proper representation of the actual particle content in the fluid, but only gives a relative figure, comparing
different particle size classes. During a drilling process, the particles are ground down, which shifts the PSD toward finer
particles. For practical reasons, one often compensates for this by a continuous addition of coarse material to the system, or by
using a high particle-content pill with known amount of particles, not paying too much attention to the measured PSD. To
overcome the challenges of using laser diffraction systems, a full frame photo imaging system13 has been applied for
measurement of particle morphology.

Fig. 10. Liquid particle analyzer, examples of images and image definitions. The numbers are referred to in the text.

Fig. 11. Examples of calculated images

IADC/SPE 112687 9

The liquid particle analyzer is shown in Fig. 10. A sampling system takes constant volume of drilling fluid sample from
the process as illustrated on Fig. 10. The Drilling fluid sample is diluted in a sample mixing tank (1) to a constant volume.
The diluted sample is fed down to the flow cell (3). Images of the particles are captures with a camera (2). The light source (4)
is below the flow cell, opposite to the camera. The different length scales are determined by filling the particle boundaries
with pre-defined numerical elements. By counting the number of elements in all directions, the length scales are determined
quickly. The third length scale can be obtained by rotating the particles and do a similar analysis immediately afterwards. An
example of an analyzed image is shown in Fig. 11.

Mud Solids Monitor

The Mud solids Monitor (MSM) is a fast, accurate, field-proven analytical technique that has been described in previous
articles14,15,16 The method utilizes X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectra and a multivariate calibration model to predict the
concentrations of solid phases (barite, low-gravity solids), liquid phase (water or oil and brine), as well as some ion
concentrations (potassium and chloride in water based mud, chloride in oil based mud). The quoted accuracy of the model was
0.32 volume percent (v/v %) for HGS and 0.8 v/v%. for LGS. The resolution by which variations in LGS content could be
detected was demonstrated to be approximately 0.3 v/v%. From this it was estimated that the XRF technique was some ten
times more precise than the traditional API retort technique for calculating solid volumes. The method was also more accurate
than perchlorate techniques for calculating chloride content.
The original MSM instrument used two radioactive sources to generate x-rays (Iron 55 @ 6 keV radiation &
Americium241 @ 59 keV) which allowed for effective stimulation of XRF from light to heavy elements: S through to Ba.
Hazard assessments by the instrument manufacturer ascertained that the maximum exposure rate for an operator was very low
relative to background radiation (< 1 microsievert (μSv) per hour relative to 100 - 1500 pSv/yr naturally occuring radiation).
However, the tight control of radioactive sources, in particular their transport has limited the take of the technology in the oil
field.
A significant part of the current activity has been to identify a portable spectrometer that uses a Peltier-cooled tube as an
alternative X-ray energy source. The advantage with this is that there is no X-ray generation when the tube is not energized, i.e
when it is switched off. This means there are far fewer restrictions related to transport and operator irradiation levels. However
the challenge has been to identify, from a relatively limited range of commercially available spectrometers, a suitable Pelletier-
cooled tube that generates equivalent X-ray radiation to the radioisotopes used in the original instrument.
The X-ray spectrometer that has been selected as basis for the new MSM does not detect the high energy Barium line. This
means it is not possible to completely deconvolve the lighter elements from the Barium/HGS signal. Therefore, for the time
being, a compromise solution has been adopted that accurately predicts HGS/Barite (Fig. 12) but has only a narrow range
calibration for LGS, brine and water contamination.

Barite Calibration Curve

Predicted v Actual

0.20
0.18
0.16
Vol% Barite Predicted

0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
-
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
Vol% Barite by Preparation

Fig. 12. Results for the Barite calibration model for HGS in OBM.

Cuttings Flow Meter

With the advent of extended reach drilling, assessing the hole cleaning condition of the well has been set upfront. A specific
tool measuring returned cuttings quantity has been developed originally for an exploration drilling campaign in Argentina ten
10 IADC/SPE 112687

years ago17. The instrument is collecting in a tray the cuttings at the outlet of the shale shaker. Weight sensors connected to the
mud logging acquisition system allow measuring the weight of cuttings. Regularly the tray is automatically flipped to empty it
and cuttings are released on the rig cutting collecting system, typically a screw conveyor. Each shaker is equipped with such a
device, allowing calculation of the total weight of returned cuttings. Conversion from mass to volume is performed thanks to
cuttings bulk density measurement by the mud logging crew.

Cuttings morphology
Evaluating the shape of the cuttings, observed at the surface when coming over the shakers, is often the first possibility to
identify wellbore instability problems. The dimension of the cavings, in this case length to thickness ratio (L/T-ratio), provides
valuable information of the down hole processes. These are collected and measured using the following equipment and
procedure, which is schematically illustrated in Fig. 13.
A cuttings sampling device is positioned in front of the shaker; just above the cuttings flow meter. A sample cup (1) for
collecting cuttings is mounted on a device that will move it across the front of the shaker to get samples falling off from all
cross sectional parts of the shaker decks. Thereafter the sample cup is lifted up in order to empty the sample into the washing
station. At position (2) the sample is emptied from the sample cup into the washing and drying section (3). After drying the
sample is emptied (4) into the particle analyzer (5). The particle analyzer is, like the liquid particle analyzer, a full frame
photo optical camera imaging system where the particle morphology is determined by a fast image analysis. Consult the
Liquid Particle Analyzer section for details of the method. After the cuttings morphology has been measured, the sample is
moved to the Raman spectroscope (7). The Raman spectroscope is described in the next section.

Fig. 13. Schematical illustration of the cuttings morphology measurement device including position of the Raman spectroscope

Raman spectroscopy
In addition to describing the content and PSD of the particles in the system, the mineralogy of the particles is also needed. The
mineralogy can be used to evaluate the possibility of drilling in a formation with potential for hole stability problems.
Furthermore, this technique can be used to determine if drilling has progressed into new formations. If the base fluids are
well described, it is anticipated that the Raman spectroscopy also may be used to determine formation fluid composition since
bounded fluid volumes on the drilled particles can contain measurable volumes of formation fluids. Raman spectroscopy is a
well-established chemical analysis technique18 that can be used to identify both minerals and fluids like hydrocarbons. It is
based on laser induced excitation of chemical bonds, including Si-O, O-H, C-H in molecules. Individual bonds emit distinct
frequencies of light which define "fingerprints" characteristic of different chemical phases. Raman analyses are non-
destructive with short signal integration times and require little or no sample preparation. The Raman system used in this test
uses a 785 nm laser coupled by an optical fibre to an Echelle spectrometer (InPhotonics RS2000), allowing Raman spectra to
be collected over 3600 cm-1.

Description of the Test Fluid and Test Program

A conventional Oil-Based drilling fluid (OBM) is used over the two week period of the yard trial. The fluid parameters for the
start formulation used for the first week is illustrated in Table 1; here the fluid density is 1.69 s.g. OBM. In the second week
of the yard trial the fluid is diluted so the density is reduced first to 1.52 s.g. thereafter to 1.39 by mixing in 0.9 s.g. premixed
OBM.
IADC/SPE 112687 11

Table 1. Fluid parameters for the OBM used in the yard trial.
Start
Formulation
Mud Weight SG 1,69
600 71
300 41
200 32
100 21
6 7
3 6
10 sec lbs/100ft2 8,0
10 min lbs/100ft2 14,0
PV cP 30
YP Pa 5,5
HTHP F/L ml 6,0
ES Volt 574
Excess Lime kg/m3 5,92
Chlorides mg/l 105312
Solids % 27,8
O/W ratio 80,3/19,7
HGS kg/m3 883
HGS % 20,9
LGS kg/m3 164
LGS % 6,3

To verify the different equipments’ functionality various test sequences were run. Initially sand and gravel was added, at a
rate to simulate an ROP of 20 m/hr in a 17 ½” section, with special focus on testing the potentials of the Raman spectroscope
and the cuttings morphology instruments used to describe mineralogy and determine if the particles are cuttings or cavings.
The Aplite, also having a distinct different PSD, was thereafter added which was also anticipated to affect the fluid loss
and viscosity to some extent in addition to mineralogy and morphology description. Due to the wide PSD with a portion of the
material finer than 125 microns, a size being the approximate Cutt-point (D50) of the shaker screens used in this sequence, the
LPA would be tested for its potential to detect changes in the PSD of the drilling fluid.
A mix of CaCO3 with a particle size range from 2-1600 microns was then added. To observe for potential effects of fine
grinding in the pumps, the shaker was bypassed initially and the fluid circulated for 2 hrs. The material was then screen out
over the shaker using fine meshed shaker screens: 145 mesh screen on top shaker deck and 215 mesh screen on bottom shaker
deck.
Later in the test sequence, coarse dolomite was also added to the system, with significant material apparently having a high
aspect ratio simulating cavings. Slate chippings (shale) was also run over the shakers simulating the same effect.

Result of the test

Viscosity and Electric Stability
During the test the different particulate materials added to the fluid had an impact on the viscosity. As expected, a significant
decrease in viscosity was observed when adding premix, which is un-weighted drilling fluid, to the system. This is shown in
Fig. 14. The figure show how the shear stresses vary with time at different shear rates. The automatic measurements were
compared to standard manual viscosity measurements and correlate well with these. In the figure it is also shown the density
(blue line). It is clearly shown how the shear stresses, and thereby the viscosity, are reduced at all shear rates when premix
was added at 17:30. During this time period, the temperature varied only slightly, resulting in stable viscous properties. The
temperature variation is shown in Fig. 15. Note that the time scale is different in these two plots.
The electric stability was measured continuously throughout the yard test. The tests showed an expected change when
altering the fluid composition. An example is shown in Fig. 16. After addition of 200 litres of water, the effects on electric
stability, shear stress and density were observed and displayed in the same chart. Note that the change in density is not very
large, but because of the density meter's accuracy, the reduction in density equal to 0.006 s.g. is observed. The electric
stability was reduced from 1450 V to 1000 V. This reduction is reasonable because of the water addition. The shear stress at a
shear rate equal to 1022 s-1 increased from 16.5 Pa (32.5 lbf/100ft2) to 18.5 Pa (36.5 lbf/100ft2).
12 IADC/SPE 112687

Fig. 14. Variation in shear stresses resulting from adding premix

Fig. 15. Temperature variation during a time period including the time period of Fig. 14.
IADC/SPE 112687 13

Fig. 16. Variation in electric stability

Fluid loss
The automated fluid loss system (AFLS) was used to measure the HTHP fluid loss properties of the test fluid at 122ºC and 500
psi, and at different times. The test fluid was a mineral oil-based drilling fluid from Norwegian field operations, which
contained fine-grind barite as the weight material.
Two filter sizes were evaluated during the trials, 5 and 8-micron slots. Both proved effective and gave similar
performance. However, the presence of traces of fines in the filtrate suggested that for fluids formulated with fine-grind
weight materials, a finer filter type, e.g. a 2-micron surface filter, may be more suitable. The cleaning stage of the automated
process proved highly effective and eliminated the need for replacement of the filter.
The fluid loss values measured by the AFLS during the Yard Tests reflect the changes made to the initial OBM. The initial
30-minute HTHP fluid loss value of 3.04 ml (Table 1) was close to the 3ml value as measured manually by the standard API
method in the laboratory.

Table 1. Variation of HTHP fluid loss measured by the AFLS with different additions to the initial OBM.
HTHP at 122ºC (ml) AES
Date Time Mud Changes Spurt 30-minute (V)
30 Nov 11:44 Initial OBM 1.90 3.04 1590
11 Dec 16:10 + Carbonate 0.22 0.71 1076
12 Dec 14:49 +1 m3 premix 0.46 5.95 1080
13 Dec 04:46 +1 m3 premix 4.16 9.16 1352
13 Dec 10:23 + dolomite 4.02 6.99 1388
13 Dec 15:15 + offshore cuttings 0.23 5.07 1491

Addition of carbonates reduced the fluid loss to 0.71 ml. In the next addition, 1 m3 of premix, together with settling out of
most of the carbonate, was responsible for the increase of fluid loss to 5.95 ml.
Addition of another 1 m3 of premix diluted the fluid further and increased the fluid loss to 9.16 ml. At this stage, a
qualitative investigation of settling in the mud tank was made which revealed a significant amount of settling at the bottom of
the tank.
Addition of dolomite to the mud tank improved fluid loss to about 7.0. There was a further improvement when claystone
cuttings (from offshore operations) were added to the fluid. This reduced fluid loss to 5.07 ml.

pH measurements
The pH measurements are only meaningful in water based fluids. Since the tests were conducted in oil based drilling fluid, the
pH measurements had to be performed in a separate bucket not connected to the circulation system. In the first part of the tests
the probe was positioned in a buffer solution with the pH equal to seven for one week. Calibration remained unchanged since
14 IADC/SPE 112687

the beginning and reading was very stable within 0.5 % of reading. Later, the probe was dipped into a cleaning solution and
thereafter into a buffer solution with pH equal to ten twice to check scale factor and response time prior to be dipped into
WBM. The water based drilling fluid had a pH equal to 8.32. These measurements are shown in Fig. 17.

Fig. 17. pH measurements

Liquid particle analyzer

Throughout the time of the yard test, the circulating fluid showed a decrease in particle size as a result of the fine grinding
occurring in the pumps. The Liquid Particle Analyzer (LPA) was also tested for its potential of detecting the concentration of
particulate additions by adding 100 kg/m3 of CaCO3, a material often used for formation strengthening19, to the reference fluid
sample of density 1.51 SG (sample at 17:00). If the particle additions have a distinct different PSD from the fluid, i.e. barite,
the LPA will be able to detect the concentration of this material. In Figs. 18-19 it is shown the increase in particle sizes
occurring because of addition of the CaCO3 to the drilling fluid. In Fig 18 it is shown how the coarser fraction of the drilling
fluid particles increase when the calcium carbonate is added. This also reflects the particle size distribution curve which is
shown in Fig. 19.

Fig. 18. Response in the particle size due to addition of carbonate, timeseries
IADC/SPE 112687 15

Fig. 19. Response in the particle size due to addition of carbonate, particle size distribution

The samples were taken from the circulation sampling loop shown in Fig. 1. In order to prevent sedimentation in the
sampling device, a steady turbulent-flow was maintained at all time through the sampler. The samples were later diluted in
base fluid. The dilution was approximately at a ratio of 1:3000 on the liquid analyzer.
The LPA image analyzer was started in the morning 3rd of December and was running continuously until noon of 14th of
December, except for the weekend 7th – 10th of December where all instruments were shut down. The Image analyzer has
shown variations in the PSD as a function of the operation of the shaker and the mud process.

Mud Solids Monitor

The Mud Solids Monitor instrument was manually operated in an offline mode, simulating results from online operation.
There was more variation in QC sample readings (+/- 10 v 3% RSD) than seen in the laboratory, possibly due to voltage and
temperature differences.
Initial results for volume percent High Gravity Solids (HGS), i.e. barite, were too low, and a new hyperbolic calibration
curve was required. During the test, re-determination of the inter-element correction factors needed to account for the matrix
effects of Low Gravity Solids (LGS), non-barite solids, less calcium chloride internal phase was not performed. While less
accurate than expected, the results closely track the expected trends in HGS/LGS as LGS are removed by solids control
equipment or diluted with solids-free, fresh drilling fluid.

Fig. 20. Particle size distribution for simulated cuttings & cavings.

Cuttings morphology and Raman spectroscopy

Samples have been automatically taken from the outlet of the upper deck of the shaker, thereafter washed and dried before
analysis of PSD and shape in the image analyzer. The shaker has been run irregularly in parts of the test series. In these parts,
manual sample collection was necessary to provide samples for the measurement device.
16 IADC/SPE 112687

The image based cuttings analyzer showed clearly difference between cuttings and sample simulating cavings. As shown
in the Fig. 20, the larger particle sizes of the sample containing cuttings are clearly shown. Also the length/thickness ratio
clearly indicates the difference between cavings and cuttings. The sampling, washing, drying system and the analysis
instrument has worked without any problems during the total test period.
After the cuttings morphology device had determined if the particles were cuttings or cavings they were analyzed by the
Raman spectroscope. Different spectra were recorded as different cuttings types were analyzed. The artificial cuttings used in
the tests consisted primarily of an aplite and of calcium carbonate. The cavings were mostly shales. An example of how the
Raman spectra of the analyzed sample are shown in Fig. 21. The dominant material of the cuttings measured here was
dolomite. The instrument automatically detected the mineralogy of the other artificial cuttings types.

Fig. 21. Raman spectra of dolomite and dolomite-rich cuttings after processing through cuttings morphology measurement device

Conclusion
A series of yard tests have demonstrated the applicability of a tool package that provides automatic measurement of
drilling fluid properties and also automatic measurement of cuttings properties. The tests were all successful. The drilling
fluid property measurements include measurements of:
• Viscosity
• Density
• Fluid loss
• Electric stability
• pH
• H2S content
• Particle content and particle size distribution
Furthermore, the oil water ratio of an oil based drilling fluid was monitored on a device that can be configured for automatic
measurements.
The amount of cuttings produced was also detected automatically. The morphology of the cuttings were analyzed to
determine if the particles were cuttings or cavings, based on image analysis. Finally, the mineralogy of the cuttings was
determined using a Raman spectroscope.

Acknowledgement
The help and contribution from the Cubility Test Centre is highly appreciated.

References
1. American Petroleum Institute, API Bulletins 13, Washington DC, 1985.
2. Omland, T.H., Saasen, A., Taugbøl, K., Dahl, B., Jørgensen, T., Reinholdt, F., Scholz, N., Ekrene, S., Villard, E., Amundsen, P.A.,
Amundsen, H.E.F., Fries, M. and Steele, A., “Improved Drilling Process Control Through Continuous Particle and Cuttings
Monitoring“, paper SPE 107547 presented at the 2007 SPE Digital Energy Conference and Exhibition held in Houston, Texas, U.S.A.,
11–12 April 2007.
3. Paulsen, J.E., Jensen, B., Pettersen, J., Svensen, T. A Management Technique That Integrates And Glues Cost And Environmental
Performance Targets In E&P Drilling. SPE/IADC SPE-102004. Paper presented at the 2006 SPE/IADC Indian Drilling Technology
Conference and Exhibition held in Mumbai, India, 16–18 October 2006.
IADC/SPE 112687 17

4. Wiklund, J., Stading, M. and Trägårdh, C., “Ultrasound Doppler Based In-Line Rheometry for Processing Applications”, Ann. Trans.
Nordic Rheol Soc., vol. 15, pp. 135-139, 2007.
5. Wiklund, J., Ultrasound Doppler Based In-Line Rheometry – Development, Validation and Application, Lund University, Lund,
Sweeden, 2007. ISBN 978-91-628-7025-6.
6. Tehrani, A., “Behaviour of Suspensions and Emulsions in Drilling Fluids”, Ann. Trans. Nordic Rheol Soc., vol. 15, pp. 17-25, 2007.
7. Marshall, D.S., “Laboratory Investigation of Barite Sag in Drilling Fluids”, Ann. Trans. Nordic Rheol Soc., vol. 15, pp. 173-179, 2007.
8. Maxey, J., “Rheological Analysis of Static and Dynamic Sag in Drilling Fluids”, Ann. Trans. Nordic Rheol Soc., vol. 15, pp. 181-188,
2007.
9. Growcock F.B., Ellis C.F., Schmidt D.D. and Azar J.J. “Electrical Stability and Oil Wetness of Oil-Based Muds" SPE 20435 presented
at the 65th Ann. Tech. Conf. & Exhib. of Soc. Pet. Eng., New Orleans, Sept. 23-26, 1990.
10. Growcock F.B., Ellis C.F. and Schmidt D.D. “Electrical Stability, Emulsion Stability and Wettability of Invert Oil-Based Muds" SPE
Drilling & Completion, March 1994.
11. Anklin, M., Drahm, W. and Rieder, A., “Coriolis Mass Flowmeters: Overview of the Current State of the Art and Latest Research”,
Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, vol.17, pp. 317-323, 2006.
12. Vijayakumar, M., Pham, Q.N. and Bohnke, C, “Lithium titanate ceramic as sensitive material for pH sensor: Influence of synthesis
methods and powder grains size”, Journal of the European Ceramic Society, vol. 25, pp. 2973-2976, 2005.
13. Allen, T., Particle Size Measurement, Volume 1, Powder sampling and particle size measurement, 5th edition, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, 1999.
14. Gilmour A., Davison M., “Advanced Monitoring Techniques for Pro-Active Drilling Fluids Management” AADE Annual Technical
Forum – Improvements in Drilling Fluids Technology, Houston, Texas, March 30-31 1999.
15. Houwen, O.H, Gilmour A., Sanders M.W., Anderson D.R, Prouvost L., White D.B., “Measurement of Composition of Drilling Mud by
X-Ray Fluorescence” SPE/lADC 25704 presented at the 1993 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, 23-25 February 1993.
16. Davison J.M., Daccord G.,Prouvost L., Gilmour A., “Rig-site monitoring of the solids content of drilling fluid and discharges from
solids control equipment”. SPE 36831presented at the 1996 SPE European Petroleum Conference, Milan, Italy, 22-24 October 1996.
17. Naegel, M., Pradié, E., Delahaye, T., Mabile, C., Roussiaux, G., “Cuttings Flow Meters Monitor Hole Cleaning in Extended Reach
Wells”, paper SPE 50677, presented at SPE European Petroleum Conference held in The Hague, The Nederlands, 20-22 October 1998
18. Hendra, P.,Jones, C. and Warnes, G., Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy, Instrumentation and chemical applications, Ellis
Horwood Limited, Chichester, 1991.
19. Omland, T.H., Dahl, B., Saasen, A., Taugbøl, K. and Amundsen, P.A., “Optimisation of Solids Control Opens Up Opportunities for
Drilling of Depleted Reservoirs”,paper SPE 110544 presented at the 2007 SPE Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference and Exhibition held
in Jakarta, Indonesia, 30 October –1 November 2007