CCRT Art and Culture Notes

Visual Arts
 The character of Indian art is best described as plastic, organic and sculptural.
 nature of Indian architecture-primarily a sculptural mass rather than a space enclosure.
 The “dominance” of the sculptural mode in India is due to the Indian propensity for carving
sculptural caves and temples out of the living rock, of mountain escarpment or
outcropping.
 Indian art is deeply rooted in religion and it conduces to fulfilling the ultimate aim of life,
moksha or release from the cycle of birth and death.
 not all Indian art is religious
 creation of art by the Indian artists are not "realistic" representations in the sense we
understand the term on Greek or Roman Art (but they are imagined and are idealised).
 In form, the males are virile beings broad shouldered, deep chested and narrow hipped.
The females are precisely contrary to the males narrow shouldered, having full and fir
breasts, and attenuated waist and' broad hips. The females according to the Indian artists
represent Matri or the mother.
 The earliest examples of miniature painting in India under Palas and Jains in 11 th-12th
centuries.
 Mughal School of painting originated in the reign of Akbar in 1560 A.D, which is primarily
secular.
 no pre-Mughal painting from the Deccan are so far known to exist. Early centres of
painting in the Deccan, during the 16th and 17th centuries were Ahmednagar, Bijapur and
Golconda. Influenced by Mughal style later in 17 th century.
 art of painting in Central India, Rajasthani and the Pahari region etc. is deeply rooted in
the Indian traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics, religious texts like the Puranas,
love poems in Sanskrit and other Indian languages, Indian folk-lore and works on musical
themes. The cults of Vaishnavism, Saivism and Sakti exercised tremendous influence on
the pictorial art of these places.
1. Indus Valley
 Town planning was excellent. Burnt brick was widely used, roads were wide and at
right angles to one another, city drains were laid out with great skill and
forethought, the corbelled arch and baths were constructed with knowledge and
skill.
 due to the fact that during this time sculpture and architecture was utilising
organic and perishable materials such as mud, mudbrick, bamboo, timber, leaves,
straw and thatch, these have not survived the ravages of time.
2. Post Indus
 The Rajagriha fortification wall is made in the roughest possible manner, unhewn
stones being piled one on top of the other. This belongs to the 6th-5th century,
B.C.
  at Sisupalgarh in the 2nd-1st century B.C. stone masons were at work using large
blocks of stones to make a very well-made fort entrance that could be closed with
huge doors turning on hinges.
 stone masonry and stone carving were imported in Ashoka's times from Persia.
Similar masonry seen in Persepolis.
 Rock-cut architecture: Lomas Rishi Caves of Barabar Hills built by Ashoka in 3 rd
Century BC for Ajivika Sect. The entrance is a representation in stone of a hut
entrance, with the end of the roof constructed of bent timber supported by cross
 beams, the ends of which are shown protruding. example showing the
development from earlier shapes in timber translated into stone
3. Buddhist Architecture
 Three types: Chaitya, Vihara, Stupa
 Largest Chaitya at Karle, built by Satavahanas in 1st century AD. excavated
from the living rock and is unparalleled for its lofty and elevated impression. well
proportioned great and bulky pillars, carrying capitals of great originality holding
up a vaulted roof that has real rafters of timber inserted into it. In the far distance
there is a stupa. Original wood unharmed till date.
 The stupa is a glorified, beautified, enlarged funerary mound: what was once the
resting place of the bones and ashes of a holy man.
 To the stupa which consisted of a domical structure, a base, sometimes circular,
sometimes square, was added in the 1st century B.C., a circumambulatory path as
well as the stone railing with four elegantly carved gateways in the four cardinal
directions.
 Ashoka constructed many stupas, including Sanchi
 The railing and gateways at Bharhut, Sanchi and Bodh Gaya are the most famous
in the north and at Amravati and Nagarjunakonda in the South.
 On these surfaces are carved the favourite symbols of Buddhism, the lotus,
elephant, bull, lion and horse and some of the Jataka stories of the previous births
of Buddha, depicted in low relief with exuberant details
 First imitations in stone of earlier wooden constructions.
4. Temple Architecture
 Earliest evidence of temples: Mauryan. Mostly built of wood. So, very little
remains now. Eg. Wooden temples at Sanchi
 earliest structural temple still standing in its original condition is the one
constructed at Aihole in Karnataka. little structure built of huge almost boulder-like
blocks of stones.
 Ladkhan Temple, Aihole: very first attempt to raise a turret, a precursor to the
future loftier spire, the Shikhara. The idea behind it must have been that, a temple
being the home of the God must be seen from far and near
 Durga temple at Aihole is an apsidal temple of about 550 A.D. in which the
architect has made immense improvements upon his previous attempts.
 Rock cut temples at Mahabalipuram, called Rathas or Chariots. 5 temples named
after Pandavas. Built by Pallavas 5th Century AD
 Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram similar to Dharmaraja Ratha, but it is a Structural
Temple
 The Kailasanath temple at Kanchipuram was built by Raja Simha shortly after the
Shore temple in the 8th century A.D.
 Mahabodhi Temple, built around 2nd century has seen numerous renovation. Built
like a pyramid.
 Till about the 6th century A.D., the style of temple architecture was similar both in
the north as well as in the south.
 temple architecture developed most markedly were the Deccan and Orissa and in
both these areas the northern and southern style temples can be found side by
side.
 in India the sculptor and the architect were often one and the same person and it
would be highly misleading to treat sculpture and architecture separately
 The early Indian temple was provided with a flat roof and there was a problem of
letting out accumulated rain water.
 Orissa temple
 I. Gradually these slanting slab-roofs begin to increase from one to two and
from two to three and gradually by multiplying these roofs, a pyramidal
roof results over the shrine, called Jagamohana  in Orissa, which precedes
the main shrine.
II. Evolution towards pronounced ornamentation over the outside of the walls,
with decorative elements, including human figures, gods and goddesses,
flora and fauna.
III. Rajarani Temple, Bhubaneshwar, masterpiece of architecture.
IV. Lingaraja Temple (1000AD) marvel of architecture: Jagamohana, Lofty
Spire, Roofs adorned with a procession of infantry, cavalry, elephants and
miscellaneous other scenes.
V. in the later temples of Orissa, including the Lingaraja, there are two
additional shrines attached along one axis - in front of
the Jagamohana, a natamandapa,  or a hall of dance and music, and
a bhogmandapa, a hall of offerings
VI. Sun temple at Konark constructed by the eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha
Varmana, about 1250 A.D. originally consisted of a sanctum sanctorum,
with a curvilinear shikhara, a Jagamohana and a dancing hall, built on the
same axis, and an extensive compound wall with three entrance gateways.
The sanctum sanctorum and the dancing hall have lost their roofs and it is
only the Jagamohana which has remained intact with its roof.
 Most imp Pattadakal Temple: Virupaksha, built by queen of Vikramaditya II
datable to 740 A.D., was most likely built by workmen brought from
Kanchipuram, and in direct imitation of the Kailasanath at Kanchipuram.
Dedicated to Shiva
 Kailashnath Temple at Ellora: Built by Rashtrakuta King Krishna 8 th Century,
Rock cut. largely pertaining to the theme of Shiva and Parvati, Sita's abduction
and Ravana shaking the mountain.
 In some temples there are tanks surrounded by elegant pillared halls.
 The temples built in the 12-13th centuries under the patronage of the Hoysalas
of Mysore, are at Somnathpur, Belur and Halebid. vimana is of a star shaped
plan.
 Khajuraho Temples: Built of sandstone. Almost all the temples have an inner
shrine an assembly hall or mandapa,  and an entrance portico. Eg: Kandariya
Temple, the Mahadeva Temple, the Chaunsat Yogini Temple (the only temple
made entirely of granite and dedicated to 64 yoginis)
 South-East of Khajuraho is famous for Jain Temples. The Parsvanatha Temple is
most important one whereas the Ghantai Temple is named because of the bell
and chain ornaments at its pillars.
 Pala Period in Eastern India: Intense Buddhist and Hindu architecture period.
Pala school of art first flourished in the Magadha region. Early Pala- Buddhist,
later- Hindu
 Bengali architecture styles in particular shared many features with other
northern schools. From 17th century, greater Islamic influence.
5. Importance of Temples in South India
 Unlike the North, the South is literally dotted with thousands of temples, having
been relatively free from repeated foreign invasions to which the North was
subject. 
 It was the centre of all cultural and social life, the hub around which all activities
revolved.
 Employment generation in construction
 finest craftsmen from neighbouring provinces found employment and sculptors
were trained by them during its construction.
  assured employment to a large number of people, priests, musicians, dancing girls,
teachers, florist, tailors, etc.
 Poet pavillions, confectioners and others were allowed to become part of temple
complex.
 all these additional structures, more compounds were added to the original temple
compound, one inside the other, like Chinese boxes.
6. Indo-Islamic Architecture
 Very little developments in the Sultanate period. Mughal period saw flourish
 Many differences with Hindu styles
 Open courtyard for prayer, while garbha griha in Hindu temple usually in a
closed house
 based on arches, vaults and domes, on columns and pyramidal towers or slender
spires, called trabeate.
 The practice of the burial of the dead, as distinct from the cremation practised by
the Hindus, chamber, a mihrab  in the western wall and the real grave (qabr) in an
underground chamber. 
 he Hindu style or ornamentation is largely naturalistic showing human and animal
forms. But Muslims introduced geometrical and arabesque patterns, ornamental
writing and formal representation of plant and floral life
 The Muslims, like the Romans, were also responsible for making extensive use of
concrete and lime mortar 
 First structures built by destroying Hindu temples. Eg: Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque
built by destroying 27 temples
 Qutub Minar of Mehrauli was built around 1199 by Qutub-ud-din and finally
completed by his son-in-law and successor IItutmish 
 Sultan Ghari tomb: First Monumental Muslim tomb
 Fortified towns like Tughlaqabad look solid with sloping walls, with arches and
domes in Syrian and Byzantine styles, but very little ornamentation.Ornamentation
started with Mughal rule
 Local flavours in Ahmedabad, Golconda, Bengal etc developed. With the end of the
Delhi Sultanate, architecture became Indo-Islamic, with Hindu elements.
 Bengal Roof with sloping cornices, earlier used for bamboo roof construction, along
with bricks commonly found in the alluvial plains. Eg Dakhil Darwaja built by
Barbak Shah at Gaur
 The walls of Sidi Said Mosque, Ahmedabad, built in 1572 consist substantially of
perforated screens.
 The Gol Gumbad of Bijapur is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1627-57).
It is the largest dome cubicle in the world
 Surs: Tomb at Sasaram, Purana Quila in Delhi.
 first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture inspired by Persian
architecture, is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi. pink sandstone and white are used
with admirable effect
 Akbar: Capital at Agra. Made use of red sandstone. Town of Fatehpur Sikri
built. The city is a modest and compact township, consisting of halls, palaces,
offices, gardens, pleasure-resorts, baths, mosques, tombs. Most imp is Panch
Mahal, airy open pillared verandas for the emperor’s recreation. Diwan-i-Khas,
Buland Darwaza infront of the Jama Masjid.
 Shah Jahan: greatest builder. His architecture more sensuous with greater
ornamentation than Akbar. Used Marble extensively, unlike sandstone by
Akbar.
  Founded Shahjahanabad, Delhi. Red Fort that housed the Peacock Throne
and Kohinoor. Jama Masjid.
 Many Hindu rulers also adapted Islamic styles. Eg Kirtistambha, or Tower of
Fame, constructed by Solanki ruler of Gujarat, another in Chittor, Hawa Mahal in
Jaipur (best example) with numerous perforated jallis.
7. Modern Architecture
 Traditional Indian architecture revolved around religion and spiritualism, very
little around common day-to-day problems. Coming of British brought closer
to realism
 Best Example: Lutyens’ Delhi.
 Post independence: Le Corbusier’s development of Chandigarh
 Recent: Charles Correa and Inter-University Centre for Applied AstroPhysics
in Pune. Goa Museum
 Modern Indian Architects going abroad and meeting western architects and
learning from them.
 Coming back home and applying traditional architecture to solve complex
socio-economic problems, eg: high pop density, lack of electricity, water
conservation, etc.

Sculpture
1. Indus Valley
  a male torso of polished red lime stone from Harappa, chiselled in the round. The
head and arms of this figure were carved separately and socketed into the drilled
holes of the torso.
 bust portrait of a bearded nobleman or high priest, from Mohenjodaro, weaving a
shawl with trefoil pattern. It bears a close resemblance to a similar figure
discovered in the Sumerian sites of Ur and Susa.
 bronze dancing girl of Mohenjodaro. a female dancing figure standing as if relaxing
after a dance number, with her right hand on her hip and the left dangling free.
She wears a large number of bangles
 Bronze figures made using lost-wax process
 Terracotta figure of Mother Goddess from Mohenjodaro. she is the bestower of
fertility and prosperity
 Bronze Bull. The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right and
there is a cord around the neck.
 toy animal, with a moveable head from Mohenjodaro, belonging to the same
period.  manipulate by moving their heads with the help of a string.
 Large number of seals. made of steatite, terracotta and copper , of various shapes
and sizes. Generally they are rectangular, some are circular and few are
cylindrical. representation of a human or an animal figure and have on top an
inscription in pictographic script which has not been deciphered so far.
 Seal of Pashupati or Lord Shiva. surrounded by four animals - a rhino, a buffalo, an
elephant and a tiger. There are two deer shown under the throne.
 After Indus, no evidence of sculptures or visual arts upto 6 th century BC as
perishable materials like wood used by Aryans
2. Buddhist Sculpture
  Earliest sculture from Mauryan age (4 th-3rd century BC). Inspired from the
Achamaenid Empire
 Large monolithic capitals and pillars of sandstone with animals like lion, bull,
elephant, etc. eg: Lauriya Nandangarh in Bihar, Rampurva Bull Capital, Lion capital at
Sarnath
 Rock cut elephant at Dhauli, Orissa. First attempt at carving a massive animal out of
a hill rock
 Yakhas and Yakshinis in Mauryan age. figure wearing elaborate jewellery and a
heavy undergarment. Eg Yakshi at Didarganj, Bihar
 Under Sungas, Yakshas and Yakshis continued to be made. dwarfish Yaksha from
the Pithalkhora caves in Central India
 Till the coming of Kushanas in 3 rd century AD, most Buddhist scultures didn’t have
image of Buddha but used other symbols like Bodhi tree, etc to depict him.
Hinayana Buddhism.
 Many Jataka descriptions also present
 Satavahana in 1st century BC also renovated the Sanchi stupa
 Similar sculptures in Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda
 With Indo-Greeks and Scythians came Gandhara Art – combination of Hellenistic, West
Asiatic and native elements.
 Buddha gets a human form: protuberance of the skull, the hair-knot, bindi between
the eyebrows and elongated ears. Result of mix of Buddhism with Hindu Devotional
Philosophy.
 Drapery clearly Greco-Roman but Buddha in yogic posture is purely Indian
 Another typical example of Gandhara art of 3rd century A.D. is the figure of a standing
Bodhisattava
 Mathura School: Developed under Kushanas. Used red sandstone. Eg Seated Buddha.
Catered to Hinduism and Jainism also. Coins with Emperor’s portraits also made
 Boddhisattva and Fair Maidens with typical Indian features also made in Mathura.
Acquired perfection under Guptas.
3. Gupta Sculpture
 With Guptas, India entered classical phase of sculpture. The art of Bharhut,
Amravati, Sanchi and Mathura came closer and closer; melting into one.
 Focus is on female figure. Nature recedes
 Ornaments, jewellery become minimal. Light drapery worn. But nudity absent.
 Adopted and locally modified in Siam, Cambodia, Vietnam, China and Japan
 Standing Buddha at Mathura and Sarnath, with Abhayamudra.
 Temple building started. Characteristic properties of temples emerged.
 temples at Deogarh  and those from the temples of Udayagiri  and Ajanta. large
panel of Sheshashayi Vishnu  from the Deogarh temple
 The Head of Shiva is an elegant example of Gupta terracottas, depicted with
matted locks, tied in a prominent and graceful top knot.
 Vakatakas, contemporary of Guptas in South. can be best seen in the later caves
at Ajanta, the early ones at Ellora and those at Aurangabad.
4. Medieval Indian Sculpture
 Instead of classical simplicity and sobriety, moving more towards
ornamentation, jewellery and unusual imaginary creatures like half human,
half monster
 Women: The hips are more slender, the waist more supple, the legs longer. No
longer mother goddess, but divine charmer
  Pallava style in Mahabalipuram Rathas: Arjuna’s Penance or Descent of the Ganga,
The thin and elongated limbs emphasise the tallness of the figure. The female
figures are much lighter in appearance
 8th century Rashtrakutas: Best example Kailashnath Temple at Ellora. Best
sculpture: Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha
 cave-shrine at Elephanta is another great monument of the Rashtrakutas, which
contains the famous Mahishamurti. 
 Cholas who succeeded the Pallavas and ruled over South India from the 9th to
13th centuries A.D. created the great temples at Tanjavur, Gangai Kondo
Cholapuram, Darasurama. Chola art not only influenced the art of Ceylon, but it
travelled as far away as Java and Sumatra.
 good example of Chola craftsmanship in the 11th century is the relief carving of
Siva as Gajsurasamaharamurti. Fiery dance of ecstasy after killing elephant demon
 Chandellas built Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho with sensuous and
erotic figures
 Pala and Sena Rulers of Bengal and Bihar influenced by Nalanda and
Vikramsila. Pala rulers had intimate relations with Java which are evident in
Hindu-Javanese sculpture
 Eastern Ganga dynasty in Orissa from the 7th to the 13th centuries have left
monumental temples at Bhubaneswar, Puri, and Konarak 
 Orissa school took sensuous delight in woman body forms. Orissa temles
dotted with Nayikas- seductive creatures with lot of ornamentation
 The famous temple at Konarak, was built by Narasimhavarman in the middle of the
12th century and dedicated to Surya or the sun-god. It has been conceived as a
huge stone chariot on immense wheels, dragged by seven rearing horses. 
 Gujarat and western India: Marble scultures, as seen in Dilwara Temple, Mount
Abu (Jain temple)
 Hoyasala 12th Century: Emphasis more on ornamentation than movement of
human body
 By 13th century, ornamentation runs riot. Human body disappears under
ornamentation
 Vijayanagara: Hampi, Kanchipuram, etc. show the Chola and Chalukyan art
traditions. Ramayana and Krishna Bal Lila became favourite themes. The
Vijayanagara emperors caused excellent portraits to be carved by the sculptors. Eg
portrait of Krishnadeva Raya at Chidambaram
 Under the Muhammadan rulers great impetus was given to architecture, but
sculptures are rarely found 
5. Modern Indian Sculpture
 alienated from the great Indian tradition, though and even more strongly hinged to
the modern, eclectic, international concept.
 began in the academic style, based on mid-Victorian ideas of naturalism and
smugness, and was a legacy of the British. so called realist or naturalist school 
 story of contemporary Indian sculpture is the story of a transition from academism
to well-defined non-objectivism.
 introduced to new and unconventional materials, most certainly in the manner of
employing them, such as, sheet metal, welded bric-a-brac wire, plastic, hardware
and junk.
 Nandalal Bose, pupil of Abanindranath Tagore, important artist in the pre-
independence era
 Jamini Roy, contemporary of Nandalal, deeply inspired by Bengal folk art tradition
  K. Sreenivasulu, also inspired by South Indian tradition
 A.A. Almelkar we enter a different phase of contemporary Indian painting. largely
inspired by Indian miniature and mural tradition
 The radiating, iridiscent concept of light by Biren De: a vision of spiritual light, a
primeval, self-emanating concept of light.
  '50s, Satish Gujral expresses the idea of desolation beautifully.
 In "Two Figures' Husain reduces the figures to a purely orchestrated concept of
colour, in mutual contrast.
 A collage is an organisation of an assortment of materials, both conventional and
unconventional to produce an integrated pictorial concept. Piraji Sagara  used
broken pieces of wood along with metal and point

Literary Arts
1. Ancient Indian Literature
 Includes prose, poetry, science, religion, epics, songs and oral traditions
 Earliest literature: Vedas
 Rig Veda: Hymns in praise of Indra, Agni and other Gods. Purushasukta-  the
whole creation as a yajna extended by the divine forces of nature. Yajna means
the worship of the divine, coordination and giving (sacrifice). 
 Yajur Veda: related to yajna
 Sama Veda: mantras of the Rig Veda are adapted to certain melodies and this
collection is named Sama Veda
 Atharva Veda: deals with the peace and prosperity of human society and is
concerned with the daily life of man
 Brahmanas: Discussion on the Vedic rituals
 Aranyakas: Treatises on the forest, explanation of rituals
 Upanishads: expressions of philosophical concepts
 Ramayana: Seven books called Kandas, together called Kavya. Talks about victory
of good over evil, and how to achieve fourfold objectives (Purushartha) of human
life: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. Valmiki called Adikavi- first among poets
 Mahabharata: mythical history. Bhagwad Gita incorporated in the Mahabharata
primarily to give an integrated view of Dharma. Dharma means to perform
righteously one’s duty in a selfless way (Nishkama Karma) with complete
dedication to the will of God.
2. Puranas
 Means: That which renews the old. Always used with Itihasa
 to illustrate and expound the truth of the Vedas, through popular legends and
mythology
 18 Mahapuranas, and 19 Upapuranas
 Synthesis of the traditions and philosophy of the Aryans and Non Aryans
3. Classical Sanskrit Literature
 includes the Kavyas (epic poetry), the Nataka (drama), lyric poetry, romance,
popular tales, didactic fables, gnomic poetry, scientific literature on grammar,
medicine, law, astronomy, mathematics, etc. Classical Sanskrit literature is on the
whole secular in character.
  In the Kavya tradition, more care is bestowed on the form, such as the style,
figure of speech, conceits, descriptions, etc., and the story-theme is pushed to the
background.
 drama is stylized and is packed with poetry and descriptive prose. Also has Rasa
(theatrical experience or aesthetic sentiment), as explained in Bharata’s
Natyashastra
 Kalidasa
I. Kumarasambhava (the birth of Kumar)
II. Raghuvamsa (the dynasty of the Raghus)
III. Malavikagnimitra (Malavika and Agnimitra)
IV. Vikramorvasiya (Vikram and Urvasi)
V. Abhigyana Shakuntala (the recognition of Shakuntala)
VI. Meghaduta (the cloud messenger) poet makes a cloud a messenger to tell
the story of two lovers who are separated
 Bharavi (550 A.D): Kiratarjuniyam (Kirat and Arjun)
 Magha (700 AD): Sishupalvadh (killing of Shishupal)
 Sudraka (248 AD) : Mrichhattika (clay kart) characters are drawn from all stratas of
society, which include thieves and gamblers, rogues and idlers, courtesans and
their associates, police constables, mendicants and politicians
 Bhasha : Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in dream)
 Bhavabhuti (700 A.D.) : Uttar-Ramcharitam (the later life of Rama)
 Jayadeva (12th century): Gitagovinda (the song of Govinda) to describe every phase
of love beween Krishna and Radha
 Vishnu Sharma : Panchatantra (practical wisdom and politics)
 Narayan Pandit: Hitopodesha (man-animal stories of advice)
4. Pali and Prakrit Literature
 Prakrit: Derived from Sanskrit. Adopted by Jains
 Pali: Archaic Prakrit. Adopted by Buddhists
 Tripitaka and Jataka Kathas (bodhisattva) in Pali
 Buddhacharita by Ashvaghosha in Sanskrit
 Grammar on Prakrit by Hemchandra
 Gathasaptasati by Hala (300 AD) erotic Jain literature
 poetesses like Pahai, Mahavi, Reva, Roha and Sasippaha
 Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha of Siddharasi (906 A.D.) in Sanskrit
5. Early Dravidian Literature
 Indian languages 4 major groups: Austric, Sino-Tibetan, Dravidian, Indo-
Eurpoean
 Dravidian literature mainly consists of the four languages, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada
and Malayalam. Tamil oldest
 Early classical Tamil literature is known as Sangam literature meaning ‘fraternity’
 Two Schools: Aham (Love) and Puram (Valour of kings)
 Sangam classics, consisting of 18 works (eight anthologies of lyrics and ten long
poems), included women poets
 Tolkappiyam: Tamil Grammar
 Thirukural by Thiruvalluvar: manual of precepts to guide one to noble living. It
expounds a secular, moral and practical attitude towards life.
  Two epics: Silappadhikaram (story of the anklet) by Ilango Adigal, and
Manimekalai (story of Manimekalai) by Chattanar
 Tamil reveals a triumph of Brahmanic and Buddhist knowledge, Kannada shows
Jain ascendency in its ancient phase. Malayalam absorbed a rich treasure
contained in the Sanskrit language.
 Tamil Bhakti movement started with 12 Alwars, including poetess Andal, and later
the Nayanars
6. Medieval Literature
 Later Prakrit became Apabhramsa which led to development of modern
Indian languages
 Elements of Bhakti
I. love poetry. Love for one’s Lord, Krishna or Rama, the two main
incarnations of the great God Vishnu
II. This love is depicted as love between husband and wife, or between lovers,
or between servant and master, or between parents and child.
III. Worldly love is Kama (Eros) and divine love is Prema (mystic Eros).
IV. poetic approach to religion
V. did away with the elite tradition of Sanskrit
VI. Bhakti also attacked the age-old caste system and devoted itself to the
worship of humanity
VII. movement was in essence subaltern, as most of its poets belonged to the
so-called ‘lower’ castes
 Kannada: Pampa, Basavanna (both Shaivite), Allama Prabhu
 Marathi: Gyaneshwar, Eknath, Tukaram
 Gujarati: Narsi Mehta and Premananda (both Vaishnavite)
 Kashmir: Lal Ded, poetess
 Bengal: Sri Chaityanya turned Vaishnavism into a movement
 Assam: Sankardev used Kirtan (devotional songs) and Ankiya Nat (plays) to
propagate Vaishnavism
 Orissa: Jagannath Das wrote Bhagavad( story of Krishna)
 Muslim and Hindu saint-poets of rural Bengal known as Bauls (mad lovers) created
oral poetry of divine intoxication
 Medieval Muslim Bengali poets like Daulat Kazi and Saiyad Alaoal (17th Century
A.D.) wrote narrative poems based on Sufistic philosophy
 Hindi: Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas, Meerabai
 Translation of Ramayana and Mahabharata to regional languages
 Hindi: Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas
 Tamil: Kamban
 Bengali: Krittibasa Ojha
 Oriya: Sarala Das
 Malayalam: Ezutuchattan
 Telugu: Nannaya
 Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote Sufi and Vaishnava poetry
 Bulleh Shah : Muslim Punjabi popularised Sufism through Punjabi Kafi
 Shah Latif in Sindhi wrote Risalo
 7. Women Poets of Bhakti
 In Vedic age: Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala, Romasha Brahmavadini
 Buddhist literature: Mutta and Ubbiri and Mettika in Pali 
 Alwar: Andal in Bhakti
 Lal Ded : Muslim poetess from Kashmir
 Meera Bai :Gujarati, Hindi
 Avvayyar, in Tamil, and Akkamahadevi in Kannada
 Wrote about the social conditions prevailing at that time, and the position of
woman at home and in society.
8. Other Trends in Medieval Literature
 Love Ballads and Heroic poetry in Punjabi: Kissa and Var
 most famous Punjabi love ballad is Hir Ranjha, an immortal book by a Muslim poet
called Warris Shah
 Similar experiments with erotic literature in Hindi
 Amir Khusro experimented with Hindi and Persian- gave birth to Urdu.

REFER NIOS AND CCRT WEBSITE FOR MODERN LITERATURE