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Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock and Irrigation
GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR
Formulation and Operationalization of National Action

Plan for Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development through
Agriculture (NAPA)
Working Paper - 1
CROP PRODUCTION, EXTENSION AND

RESEARCH
Yangon, June 2016

6.
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA)
Working Paper 1: Crop production, extension and applied research
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS ........................................................................................................... iii

ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................................................... iv
MAP OF MYANMAR ........................................................................................................................ vi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ vii
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1
2. BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................. 2
2.1. Importance of the crop sector in economic development ................................................................ 2
2.2. Contribution to the rural economy ................................................................................................... 4
2.3. Government policies and strategies ................................................................................................. 4
2.4. Overall sector scope......................................................................................................................... 5
3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE CROP SECTOR ............................................................................. 6
3.1. Farming and livelihood systems ...................................................................................................... 7
3.2. Cropping systems ............................................................................................................................ 8
3.3. Agro-ecological zones (AEZ) ........................................................................................................ 10
3.4. Productivity of irrigated and nonirrigated crops ............................................................................ 11
3.5. Farm size and land tenure .............................................................................................................. 11
3.6. Water resources and irrigation ....................................................................................................... 12
3.7. Farm power and agricultural mechanization.................................................................................. 14
3.8. Utilization of fertilizers ................................................................................................................. 14
3.9. Improved seed supply .................................................................................................................... 15
3.10. Value chains and marketing......................................................................................................... 17
3.11. Rural finance ............................................................................................................................... 17
3.12. Advisory services ........................................................................................................................ 18
3.13. Climate change and conservation agriculture .............................................................................. 18
4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................ 19
4.1. Government agricultural research and development organizations ............................................... 20
4.2. Constraints related to agricultural extension, research and education ........................................... 23
4.3. Donor and technical organizations in agricultural development .................................................... 27
4.4. Nongovernment organizations ....................................................................................................... 27
4.5. Civil society organizations ............................................................................................................ 28
4.6. Private sector entities ..................................................................................................................... 28
5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT ..................... 29
5.1. Crop sector constraints and opportunities ...................................................................................... 29
5.2. Opportunities for strengthening research and extension ................................................................ 30
5.3. Coordination mechanism for agricultural research, extension and education ............................... 33
6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS ............................................................................. 33
6.1. Situation analysis of rural poverty in Myanmar ............................................................................ 35
6.2. Mitigation of rural poverty through NAPA ................................................................................... 36
7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT................................... 37
7.1. Development of the agriculture seed sector ................................................................................... 37
7.2. Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming ..................................................................... 38
7.3. Improved agricultural extension and research system ................................................................... 38
7.4. Integrated area development planning and rural development ...................................................... 39
7.5. Improved information technology and communications ............................................................... 40
7.6. Crop diversification for improved livelihoods and human nutrition ............................................. 41
8. RELATIONSHIP OF CROPS TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS................................................... 42
Annex 1: bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 44
Annex 2: MAPS .................................................................................................................................. 50
Annex 3: AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF MYANMAR ............................................................ 54
Annex 4: MYANMA CROP SECTOR ............................................................................................. 60
Annex 6: KEY DATA, STATISTICS AND INDICATORS.............................................................. 75
Annex 7: MYANMAR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION, EDUCATION AND RESEARCH ....... 77
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Annex 8: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS IN the CROP SECTOR ............................. 102

Intervention 1: Improved agricultural extension and research system ................................................ 102
Intervention 2: Development of the agriculture seed sector ............................................................... 107
Intervention 3: Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming ................................................. 111
Intervention 4: Integrated area development planning and rural development ................................... 115
Intervention 5: Improved information technology and communications ............................................ 118
Intervention 6: Crop diversification for improved livelihoods and human nutrition .......................... 123
Annex 9: RURAL POVERTY AND AGRICULTURAL/RURAL SECTOR ISSUES .................. 129
Annex 10: ORGANIZATIONS MATRIX (SWOT ANALYSIS) ................................................... 133
Annex 11: COMPLEMENTARY DONOR INITIATIVE/PARTNERSHIP POTENTIAL ............ 142
Annex 12: TARGET GROUPS, PRIORITIES AND POTENTIAL NAPA RESPONSE................ 157
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CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS
(As of October 2014)
Currency Equivalent
US$1.00 = Kyat (MMK) 979
€1.00 = Kyat (MMK) 1 225
FISCAL YEAR
April 1 – March 31
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

1 acre (ac) = 0.405 hectares
1 hectare = 2.471 acres
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.200 pounds
1 000 kg = 1 tonne
1 kilometre (km) = 0.62 mile
1 metre (m) = 1.09 yards or 3.28 feet
1 square metre (m2) = 10.76 square feet
1 acre (ac) = 0.405 hectares
1 hectare (ha) = 2.47 acres
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.03937 inches
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ACRONYMS
ADB Asian Development Bank

ADP Agriculture Development Programme
ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
ADRA Adventist Development and Relief Agency
AED Agriculture Education Division
AEZ Agro-Ecological Zone
AHD Animal Health and Development
AMD Agriculture Mechanization Department
ASR Agricultural Sector Review
CARI Central Agricultural Research Institute
CARTC Central Agricultural Research and Development and Training Centre
CBM Central Bank of Myanmar
CBO Community-based Organization
CDZ Central Dry Zone
CIRDAP Centre for Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific
CSA Climate-smart Agriculture
CSO Central Statistical Office
Danida Danish International Development Agency
DAP Department of Agricultural Planning
DAR Department of Agricultural Research
DFID Department for International Development (UK)
DICD Department of Industrial Crops Development
DOA Department of Agriculture
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FFS Farmers’ Field School
FMD Foot and Mouth Disease
FSATG Food Security and Agriculture Thematic Group
FSWG Food Security Working Group
GAD General Administration Department
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GOM Government of Myanmar
GRET Group de Recherche et d’Echanges Technologiques
HDI Human Development Initiative
HIES Household Integrated Economic Survey
ICDP Integrated Community Development Project
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics
ID Irrigation Department
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
IGAs Income-generating Activities
INGO International Nongovernment Organization
IPM Integrated Pest Management
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
IRRI International Rice Research Institute
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IUPOV International Union for Protection of Seed Varieties of Plants

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
LBVD Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department
LIFT Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund
LUD Land Use Division
MADB Myanmar Agriculture Development Bank
MAS Myanmar Agriculture Service
Masl metres above sea level
M&E Monitoring & Evaluation
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MFI Microfinance Institution
MICDE Myanmar Industrial Crop Development Enterprise
MIS Management Information System
MLFDB Myanmar Livestock and Fisheries Development Bank
MLFRD Ministry of Livestock Fisheries and Rural Development
MOAI Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
MOECF Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry
MRF Myanmar Rice Federation
NGO Nongovernmental Organization
NSC National Seed Committee
NSP National Seed Policy
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OISCA International Organization for Industrial Spiritual and Cultural
Advancement
PACT Private Agencies Collaborating Together
PPP Public-private Partnership
PVP Plant Variety Protection
SALT Sloping Agricultural Land Technology
SCPI Sustainable Crop Production Intensification
SCSA Selective Concentrative Strategy Approach
SLRD Settlement and Land Records Department
TCP Technical Cooperation Programme
TGFSA Thematic Group for Food Security and Agriculture
TSC Technical Seed Committee
UPOV International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP-GEF United Nations Environment Programme – Global Environmental Facility
UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VDC Village Development Committee
VFRDC Vegetable and Fruit Research and Development Centre
WB World Bank
WRUD Water Resources Utilization Department
WDC Water Distribution Committee
WFP World Food Programme
WRUD Water Resources Utilization Department
YAU Yezin Agricultural University
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MAP OF MYANMAR
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has been requested by
the Government of Myanmar (GOM) to formulate a National Action Plan for Agriculture
(NAPA) for which the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT) provides funding.
The NAPA objective, through the National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural
Development (NSPARD), is poverty alleviation and rural development. The aim of the
NAPA project is to give strategic guidance for effective implementation of the NSPARD’s
agricultural component through a comprehensive agricultural and rural development plan
consisting of reform proposals for policy and institutions, which are backstopped by
investment plans.
As follow-up support, a technical study on the crop sector, involving the participation of
international and national experts in Crop Production, Extension and Applied Research, was
commissioned. Under the assignment’s Terms of Reference (ToR) the consultants were
expected to review all relevant aspects of activities related to crop production in Myanmar,
with an emphasis on crops of importance to smallholders and poorer rural households, while
other crops (e.g. plantation crops) should also be considered where appropriate. This report
describes and analyses related research and extension activities (whether government, NGO
or private sector), and presents a range of priority interventions/investments for inclusion
under NAPA.
This review is contains seven topic areas: (i) sector background, (ii) specific aspects of the
crop sector, (iii) institutional environment, (iv) key opportunities and constraints to sector
development, (v) poverty and social inclusiveness, (vi) recommended areas of intervention
and investment and (iv) relation of crop sector to other rural areas.
Crop sector development in Myanmar
Agriculture contributes about 34 percent of Myanmar’s GDP, hence among the GOM’s
economic objectives, the development of the agriculture sector is considered of paramount
importance. The major tasks of the agriculture sector, in which crops are a significant
contributor, are to realizing food security, increasing foreign exchange via export of
agricultural products and providing assistance to rural development. The main objective of
the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI) is the promotion of productivity in
agriculture by providing farmer support services and according high priority to rice and other
exportable crops, including pulses and oilseeds.
Myanmar has a huge potential to become a credible global food supplier and in order to
achieve this, it will need to intensify agricultural production and enhance farm productivity
and competitiveness. The scope for developing the agriculture sector, more particularly crops,
includes: (i) increasing cultivated land areas (Kachin, Shan and Chin states are promising
options for future agricultural expansion); (ii) increasing productivity, particularly for rice
and maize, as well as other crops (especially pulses and oilseeds, but also horticultural and
plantation crops), as yields have stagnated in recent years; (iii) increasing production and
sustainable farming in drought-prone zones and areas affected by climate change, particularly
in the Central Dry Zone (CDZ); (iv) diversification, especially in summer cropping, away
from rice and from rainfed rice in the CDZ and other areas not prone to flooding; (v) moving
from a command system of production towards a decentralized market-based economy
(presently in the transition phase) with emphasis on both large-scale commercial farming and
smallholder farming through value chain development; (vi) moving towards food security
and livelihood development for the rural poor while following a market development
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approach for cash crops; (vii) placing more emphasis on national food security while also
addressing individual poor household food security; and (viii) supporting these interventions
with higher production and use of quality seeds, and other appropriate technologies.
Value chain development with improvements in postharvest systems, marketing and
processing within the crop sector will be necessary to take agriculture forward. Value
addition processing linked to cash crop production (e.g. fruits, vegetables, oilseeds and
pulses) will also contribute to growth in the nonfarm sector. Similarly, rising agricultural and
rural incomes will help to promote growth in areas such as construction, retailing and
services, further strengthening the nonfarm sector. Opportunities in the nonfarm sector will
also become increasingly important in farmer and farm household decision-making. The
nonfarm sector tends to be particularly attractive to the younger generation, who may also
migrate to major urban centres rather than remaining on the land.
Research and extension
Given the importance of agriculture in Myanmar, agricultural research and extension systems
are crucial. Myanmar’s research and extension system has to date been commodity and
productivity focused, with little coordination among the many different institutions involved.
It has also suffered from a lack of funding. With a focus on maximizing yields, to the neglect
of cost and other issues of critical importance to farmers, as well as neglect of differences in
agro-ecological zones, the uptake of improved technologies has been limited.
A major re-orientation of both research and extension to a farming systems approach will be
required. Considering agricultural research, Myanmar can draw on the existing knowledge
base within the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) system
and other international research and development (R&D) entities, and focus on adaptive
research. For extension, appropriate retraining of the prolific government extension agents
will be needed. As with research, greater decentralization of the system is also necessary if
extension advice is to be relevant to farmers in different localities. Some newer approaches
have already been undertaken with external support under the multidonor-funded LIFT
programme and could now be scaled up. Finally, there is significant potential for private
sector involvement in both research and extension, including in the production and
distribution of improved seed. These are also areas where public-private partnerships are
possible. As in other areas, proper regulation of the private sector will also be required.
Poverty and social inclusiveness under NAPA
The aim of the interventions shortlisted in this report is considered to have potential for a
high impact on rural poverty in Myanmar. Benefits will either directly benefit the poor
through improved supply of inputs such as seeds and other improved technologies, the
introduction of climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming, integrated area
development planning and rural development of village lands, access to improved agricultural
advisory information through changes to the extension delivery system through information
technology and communications (ICT) and the introduction of a more diversified cropping
system for improved livelihoods, environmental protection and human nutrition. Farmers will
also indirectly benefit from the implementation of an intervention to improve the
coordination and effectiveness of the research and extension system.
While the geographical focus of the prescribed interventions is nationwide, specific focus
will be given to areas and communities most at risk such as in the CDZ and the more isolated
areas in the eastern hilly/mountainous regions.
viii
Proposed interventions and investments in the crop sector for NAPA

For the most part the interventions address technical support, organizational and institutional
change, capacity building, policy and strategy development, and area development
projects/programmes) or a combination of these actions.
A range of criteria was used in the selection of priority interventions: (i) impact on poverty
and livelihoods – contribution to poverty reduction and food security; (ii) alleviating gender
inequity/imbalance and assisting the landless (income-generating activities etc.); (iii) optimal
impact on immediate primary beneficiaries – smallholder farmers and the landless; (iv)
geographical focus – risk-prone areas; (v) the need for significant and sustainable long-term
benefits, with, to the extent possible, immediate short-term benefits; (vi) alignment to GOM
policy for agricultural development, poverty reduction and rural development; (vii)
encouragement of private sector/community participation; (viii) existing agri-business and
supporting infrastructure; (ix) where possible, community support with the involvement of
village development committees and farmers’ groups; and (x) no negative impact/effect on
the environment, ecology, productive resources (e.g. agricultural land) or existing
infrastructure.
It is important to note that interventions can have either direct benefit to the primary target
groups, or, through support to improving the enabling environment, have a longer term
benefit via support to the government, civil society organizations and/or the private sector.
After careful review of a wide range of issues and constraints that impact on the crop sector, a
total of six short-listed interventions/investments have been identified:
a. Development of the agriculture seed sector;
b. Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming;
c. An improved agricultural extension and research system;
d. Integrated area development planning and rural development;
e. Improved ICT for the farming community; and
f. Crop diversification for improved livelihoods, environmental protection and
human nutrition.
Relationship of the crop sector to other rural areas

The farming and livelihood systems across the four major agro-ecological zones (delta,
coastal, dry zone and hilly/mountainous areas) in Myanmar are a complex mix of systems
where the major sectors – crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry – are all closely linked into a
range of integrated systems. The relationships between these sectors vary considerably across
the country; while the crop sector tends to be the major sector in the context of food security
and income, the others have an important role in sustaining the livelihoods of the rural poor,
both in terms of on- and off-farm support.
Key areas where the linkages are important are: (a) integrated planning and development of
village lands and land use involving all sectors; (b) agroforestry for crops (annuals and
perennials) and forestry; (c) cropping systems and livestock, where crop production is heavily
reliant on animal draught power and farmyard manure, and livestock depends on the crop
residues which are their major source of nutrition; (d) integrated crop, livestock and fishery
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systems, common in the delta areas; (e) crop production (mainly paddy) and riparian
fisheries, where conflicts between the two sectors often occur in relation to water use; (f)
improved utilization of flood-prone land through better flood protection and integrated
farming; (g) climate change, which impacts on the need to diversify agriculture and
incorporate improved sustainable conservation farming and climate-smart agricultural
technologies; (h) value chains and marketing involving a range of stakeholders in both
agriculture and commerce, where private sector development is a central issue; and (i) rural
finance, where the current rural banking and loan system is one of the major areas
constraining the crop sector.
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1. INTRODUCTION
At the request of the GOM, FAO has been tasked with formulating a National Action Plan for
Agriculture (NAPA) over a period of approximately 18 months. The Livelihoods and Food
Security Trust Fund (LIFT) is providing funding support to NAPA. The ultimate objective of
NAPA, through the National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development
(NSPARD), is poverty alleviation and rural development in Myanmar. The NAPA project
aims to provide strategic guidance for the effective implementation of the agricultural
component of the NSPARD through a strategic and comprehensive agricultural and rural
development plan consisting of reform proposals for policies and institutions, which are to be
backstopped by investment plans.
The NAPA formulation process is to enable inclusiveness of the stakeholders at all levels to
have an overview and ownership of the project. Given the fundamental shifts in priorities and
policy orientation taking place in Myanmar, the scope of the NAPA is broad covering all
important segments and interlinkages within the agriculture and rural development sectors.
Agriculture in NAPA is defined broadly to include crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry but
also several subsectors of the rural economy closely linked to agriculture such as agro-
industries, product value chains, markets, finance, etc. The second important consideration is,
given its relevance to the NSPARD, poverty alleviation will be an overriding focus of the
NAPA.
For planning and budgeting purposes NAPA formulation has two phases. Phase I includes
detailed analysis of priorities and constraints, various themes and subsectors of the
agriculture and rural sectors, and stakeholder consultations and participation at the national
and regional levels, leading to the formulation of an interim NAPA, followed by the final
NAPA at the end of Phase 2. As further support, a technical study on the crop sector,
involving the participation of an international expert and national counterpart in crop
production, extension and applied research was commissioned; the findings of this consulting
team are the subject of this review report. Under the assignment’s ToR, the consultants
reviewed all relevant aspects of activities related to crop production in Myanmar, with an
emphasis on crops of importance to smallholders and poorer rural households, although other
crops (e.g. plantation crops) were also noted. The report also describes and analyses related
research and extension activities (whether those of the government, NGOs or the private
sector), and presents a range of priority interventions/investments with, where possible,
indicative budgets for inclusion under NAPA.
During the formulation mission from September to October 2014, a review was made of
pertinent documentation (Annex 1), followed by meetings and focus group discussions held
with a range of key stakeholders, including government entities, the donor community,
NGOs, the private sector and farming communities in the four agro-ecological zones (AEZ)
across Myanmar. The findings of these interactions together with a detailed review of the
available literature on policies, programmes/projects in Myanmar and more especially as they
relate to NAPA have been used in the preparation of this document. The kind support of the
many stakeholders met during the course of this assignment is acknowledged.
1
2. BACKGROUND
Myanmar is an agrarian country and the agriculture sector is the backbone of its economy,
contributing 34 percent of the GDP, 23 percent of total export earnings and employs 63
percent of the labour force. About 75 percent of the total population resides in rural areas and
is principally employed in the agriculture, livestock and fishery sectors for subsistence.
Rice is the predominating crop and is grown in a range of cropping systems, Out of the total
sown area of 10 million hectares; about 13 percent is under irrigation. The rest of the land
depends on rainfall for crop production.
The population will grow to about 60 million by 2014 and the demand for local rice
consumption alone will be in the region of 20 million tonnes. To be able to supply enough
food for the increasing population and export the surplus, rice production will have to be
increased by up to 25 million tonnes, by expanding the rice-growing area to up to 6 million
hectares. This will be further be enhanced by the adoption of new technologies and provision
of the required inputs.
Rice is the main crop covering some 60 percent of the total cultivated area. Other crops
include pulses, beans, sesame, groundnut and sugar cane. Livestock, fisheries and lumber are
also important. Shifting cultivation is still common, particularly in the hilly/mountainous
areas common in eastern Myanmar. Myanmar was formerly a major producer of opium, but
the government ban on its cultivation since 2002 has left farmers in some cases without any
viable source of sustained income.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI) is striving to develop agriculture by
taking measures such as creating more efficient utilization of land and water resources; farm
mechanization; introduction of new technologies; and supply of farm inputs. As agriculture
makes the most significant contribution to the national economy, the ministry is trying to
stimulate public awareness and interest for better participation and investment in the sector.
The GOM remains committed to contributing to national as well as world food security. The
agriculture sector in Myanmar has a dominant position in development of the national
economy and also has a definite bearing on other socio-economic activities. Because of the
high potential of land, water, human and mineral resources, Myanmar has been a prominent
agrarian country for many years and this will continue in the future. The country is presently
in a transition phase with a move from a command system of production to a market
economy, encompassing a change towards food and nutritional security for the rural poor
while following a market development approach for cash crops.
2.1. Importance of the crop sector in economic development
Myanmar was ranked 149 out of 186 countries in the 2012 Human Development Index and is
lagging behind its neighbours in most socio-economic indicators. It is the second poorest
country in Southeast Asia in terms of GDP per capita and it is estimated that around one-third
of the population lives below the poverty line. Despite ongoing democratic reforms and
recent liberalization, the living conditions of vulnerable populations in Myanmar, and their
access to basic services remain extremely challenging.
The importance attached to agriculture in the national development policy priority is reflected
in the first of the four national economic objectives, which states "Development of
agriculture as the base and all-round development of other sectors of the economy as well".
Agriculture, including crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry, is critically important for the
2
Myanmar economy in many ways. Agriculture is also the main source of raw materials and
other inputs for local agro processing industries; the sector is an important market for
domestic manufacture of goods.
The agriculture sector contributes 34 percent of the GDP, 23 percent of total export earnings
and employs 63 percent of the labour force. The food crop subsector alone constitutes 80
percent of the total value of sector production. The share of the agriculture sector as a
component of the country’s GDP has declined over the past, falling from 57.1 percent of the
GDP in 2001 to 39.9 percent in 2012. The sector has grown on a year-by-year basis over the
past decade. Between 2001 and 2005, growth reached as much as 21.1 percent, but slowed in
2008, in part due to the destruction caused by Cyclone Nargis.
The composition of exports by the agriculture sector (crops, livestock and fisheries) has
changed significantly in the past years as the nonagriculture sector, particularly the
manufacturing, mineral, gem, readymade garment, oil and natural gas subsectors, has
contributed to a greater proportion of the country’s export earnings. From over 76.6 percent
of the total in 1995/1996, agriculture’s share of exports dropped to 31.8 percent in
2013/2014, while that of other products increased from 23.4 to 68.2 percent, in which natural
gas export has predominated. However, the export value of all agriculture subsectors
increased during the past decade as a result of liberalization in production and marketing of
agricultural products, especially in the crop and fishery subsectors (Table 1).
Table 1: Composition of exports by product (%)
Products 1995/96 2000/01 2005/06 2007/08 2009/10 2012/13 2013/14

Agricultural products 76.6 33.0 30.5 26.5 27.9 37.6 31.8
(total)
1 Crop products 44.1 18.3 12.2 13.1 17.5 24.6 19.8
2. Livestock & fishery 11.3 7.5 5.6 4.7 3.6 6.4 3.9
products
3.Timber 21.2 7.2 12.7 8.7 6.8 6.6 8.1
Other products 23.4 67.0 69.5 73.5 72.1 62.4 68.2
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: CSO, Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development.
Note: Percent compositions are calculated based on export value.
3
Major agricultural exports are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Major exports of agricultural products (000' tonnes [T])
Crops 1995/9 2001/0 2005/06 2008/09 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/2014

6 1
Rice 354.0 251.4 180.0 666.4 536.4 707.2 1396.8 1192.3
Maize 62.0 147.9 90.0 120.3 44.8 166.5 566.2 933.6
Black gram 185.0 274.6 379.6 529.7 456.5 598.1 657.8 644.2
Green gram 185.9 186.0 174.1 264.8 166.3 229.0 360.1 339.9
Other pulses 238.7 370.7 323.8 656.8 206.6 469.3 465.8 316.8
Sesame 50.3 34.4 21.5 19.5 29.5 35.5 182.8 172.3
Niger - 14.1 0.3 4.7 - - - -
Onion - 57.5 24.3 18.4 - 1.1 7.6 57.3
Tamarind - 3.2 7.1 25.5 5.6 17.2 13.9 12.5
Oil cakes 31.1 0.4 - - - - - -
Raw rubber 24.8 20.4 29.3 13.6 46.5 33.6 71.2 86.5
Sugar - 3.2 1.0 8.7 - - - -
Source: CSO, Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development.
2.2. Contribution to the rural economy
The net crop coverage of all crops in 2013 was 11.84 million hectares (ha); accounting for 18
percent of the total land mass; approximately, a further 5.7 million ha (8.4 percent of the total
area) is still available for expansion; about 13 percent is under irrigation and the rest of the
land is rainfed.
Rice is the major cereal crop and also the national crop. Efforts are being concentrated on
production of rice not only to fulfil domestic consumption but also for export purposes. For
many years, rice had been grown as a seasonal mono crop. Since 1992, summer rice
cultivation has been initiated to increase rice production. Currently, the utilization of
improved varieties, appropriate technologies and effective irrigation systems has boosted rice
production.
Among the food crops, a major share of the land area is sown with paddy, although this is
declining currently. Official estimations (CSO 2012/13) revealed that the rice (paddy)
harvested area was 7.24 million ha accounting for around 34.4 percent of the total area sown,
with production standing at 27.7 million tonnes. Approximately 18-20 percent of rice
production comes from the summer crop season, while the bulk comes from the monsoon
paddy season. Other major food crops (2012/13 data) were pulses, which accounted for 21.1
percent of the sown area, oilseeds (16.2 percent), maize and minor cereals (3.3 percent),
industrial crops (4.8 percent), and vegetables/fruit (5.4 percent).
2.3. Government policies and strategies
An agriculture sector review was undertaken by FAO in 2004 which set out the broad
objectives for sector development. Subsequently a range of policies and strategies have been
formulated, namely (a) the national policy/development plan in Myanmar which comprises
the National Comprehensive Development Plan (2011-2012 to 2030-2031) and the Fifth
Five-Year Plan (2011-2012 to 2015-2016); (b) the Rural Development and Poverty
Alleviation Action Plan; (c) the Agriculture Sector Development Policy; (d) the 20-Year
Development Plan in the Agriculture Sector (2011-2012 to 2030-2031); and (e) the Fifth
Five-Year Development Plan (2011-2012 to 2015-2016).
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The Strategic Framework for Rural Development (2013) under the Ministry of Livestock
Fisheries and Rural Development (MLFRD) aims to reduce rural poverty in the high poverty
incidence areas. The policy has five strategies: (a) targeting, (b) synergistic interventions, (c)
sustainable financing, (d) collaboration and (e) good governance. Under this framework a
Township Development Fund for rural development is currently being implemented.
Correspondingly, there is the National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural
Development (NSPARD), of which the National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) is an
important component – focusing on poverty alleviation and rural development through
agriculture.
The agriculture sector has set the three objectives of achieving surplus in rice production,
self-sufficiency in edible oils and stepping up the production of exportable pulses and
industrial crops to realize the three national agricultural policy objectives of food security,
export promotion, and raising income and welfare of the farmers. The present approaches for
implementation of the policy and plan objectives are the so-called 'State-led Approach' and
'Rice-production-orientation Approach'. Under these approaches, the high priority accorded
to rice production rather than agricultural production is obvious, and state intervention has
not been significantly reduced. Although tangible progress has been achieved in the sown
acreage, production and exports of certain crops, especially paddy and pulses, the
performance of agriculture as a whole is far short of its true potential.
2.4. Overall sector scope
Among the state's economic objectives, "development of the agriculture sector as a base and
all round development of other sectors of the economy as well", expresses the importance of
agriculture in the state's economic sector. Major tasks of the agriculture sector are to fulfil
food security, to increase foreign exchange through export of agricultural products and
providing assistance to rural development. The main objective of the MOAI is "promotion of
productivity in agriculture through providing farmer support service" and to give high
priority to rice and other exportable crops including pulses and oilseeds.
Given the importance of agriculture in Myanmar, agricultural education, research and
extension are important priorities. In the process of developing the agriculture sector,
conducting training and offering educational programmes of international standard are crucial
to the development of human resources.
The thrust to develop the agriculture sector, more particularly crops, includes: (a) increasing
cultivated land areas (Kachin, Shan and Chin states are promising options for future
agricultural expansion); (b) increasing productivity, particularly for rice and maize, and other
crops, as yields have stagnated in recent years; (c) increasing production and sustainable
farming in drought-prone zones and areas affected by climate change, particularly in the
Central Dry Zone (CDZ); and (d) diversification, especially for summer cropping, from rice,
and from rainfed rice in the CDZ and other areas not prone to flooding.
In summary: (a) agriculture contributes about 34 percent of Myanmar’s GDP; (b) Myanmar
has a huge potential to become a credible global food supplier; (c) to attain this potential,
Myanmar will need to intensify its agriculture and enhance farm productivity and
competitiveness; (d) Myanmar will diversify its production base; (e) there will be a move
from the command system of production towards a market-based economy (presently in the
transition phase) with emphasis on both large-scale commercial farming and smallholder
farming; (f) there will be a move towards achieving food security and livelihood development
5
for the rural poor while following a market development approach for cash crops; (g) more
emphasis will be placed on national food security rather than individual poor household food
security; and (h) these interventions will need to be supported with higher production and use
of quality seeds and other appropriate technologies.
3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE CROP SECTOR
This section provides further analysis and discussion of key aspects of the sector. It provides
an overview of cropping across the country, highlighting significant differences in alternate
areas of the country and describing the different crops cultivated, the systems in which they
are grown and the stakeholders involved. As a starting point Table 3 provides a strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis of Myanmar’s agriculture and natural
resource sector.
Table 3: SWOT analysis of Myanmar’s agriculture and natural resource sector
Strengths Weaknesses
 Highly diverse agroclimatic conditions  Lack of clear strategy and policy
 Abundant fertile land  Landlessness
 Long seaboard (about 3 000 km)  Land policy still evolving – the new Land
 Extensive forest resources Law regulations have yet to be defined
 Strategic location for exports to China, and implemented; existing land tenure
India and ASEAN. policy does not act as an incentive to
 Ample land resources in the most increased farm production
populated parts of the country  Land titles not available for most of the
 A population experienced in agriculture population
and agricultural practices  Banking system underdeveloped
 Ample water resources in much of the  Rural indebtedness
country  Appreciation of the exchange rate since
 Ample labour resources 2006
 Available markets both domestically and  Poor and unreliable statistical systems
internationally  Weak capacity in policy formulation and
 Existing irrigation facilities and the analysis
technology to expand and improve  Little participatory planning systems in
irrigation infrastructure place
 A recent commitment to open market  Legal framework not conducive to
policies agribusiness investment (e.g. taxes, land
 Overall food self-sufficiency except for laws, banking regulations)
isolated regions  Poor connectivity (major roads,
agricultural roads, Internet, telephone
network)
 Inadequate physical infrastructure (rural
access, storage, processing, marketing
and power)
 Limited irrigated areas and low
efficiency of water use
 Power (electricity) scarcity
 Low competitiveness
 Serious price disincentives, at least
partially, as a result of macroeconomic
policies
6
 Limited access to needed inputs (seeds)

 Limited access to working capital
 Susceptibility to drought in some areas
 Incomplete irrigation infrastructure
 Weak support services (extension,
agricultural research, credit)
 Difficult terrain and poor soils in large
parts of the country, especially in areas
inhabited mainly by ethnic minorities
Opportunities Threats
 Huge productivity gaps can be filled with  Land grabbing might result in extreme
technologies readily available regionally social fragmentation
 Large areas for increasing irrigated  Neglect of smallholder farming might
agriculture result in persistence of poverty, social
 Major exporter of rice, including high tension, and might even be economically
quality produce through integrated rice inefficient
operations (seedlings, milling, logistics)  High input agriculture might lead to
 Huge potential for export of fruit, environmental damage and unsustainable
vegetables, pulses, etc. to China, India, use of natural resources
ASEAN  Natural disasters/climate change
 High potential in rubber, sugar cane,  Catastrophic climatic events would cause
pulses, timber further damage to the subsector; flood
 Potential for fertilizer production linked protection and salinity intrusion
to domestic natural gas supplies structures damaged during Cyclone
 Potential to focus on green growth Nargis remain unrepaired
 Prospect of substantial aid flows  Pace of human resource development too
 Investment in rural infrastructure and slow to sustain rapid economic reforms
rural electrification would offset price (i.e. absorptive capacity remaining too
disincentives low)
 Policy reforms in terms of taxation and  Slowdown in political reforms leads to
land would provide additional production reduced aid flows
incentives  Failure to address current disincentives
 The completion of partly constructed could lead to reduced production,
irrigation schemes can be undertaken at increased rural unemployment and
low capital cost increased landlessness
 Private sector initiatives in improved  Absence of regulatory mechanisms for
production and marketing can be scaled land use and zoning may divert cultivable
up areas to inappropriate commercial
 Off-farm wage and employment exploitation
generation potential  Shifting cultivation in upland areas ties
farmers to a subsistence existence; it
degrades forest, soil and wildlife
resources and causes siltation in lakes,
reservoirs, and rivers
Source: Adapted from: Vokes and Goletti (2013).
3.1. Farming and livelihood systems

Generally the systems are based on integrated farming where crop cultivation is linked
closely with other sectors – livestock, fisheries and forestry. Farming systems differ across
7
the country with predominantly monocropped rice cultivation in the delta; inland fisheries
and small-scale livestock production (pigs and poultry) are quite common. In the CDZ rice is
produced where water is available but other crops, most importantly pulses and oilseeds, are
also produced; livestock is important and an integral component of the farming system,
particularly oxen for draught purposes, sheep and goats for income generation. The
farming/livelihood systems in the CDZ areas which are not dependent on paddy production
and are located in nonirrigated rainfed areas, are characterized by a mixed farming system in
which crops and livestock are closely integrated and interdependent. In the hilly areas maize
is the predominant crop grown together with legumes and vegetables and a range of fruit
trees, and some plantation crops (tea and coffee); however shifting agriculture is still
practised in the more isolated mountainous areas. In the coastal regions small-scale farmers
cultivate rice and other annual crops and in more accessible areas have orchards; large-scale
cultivation of industrial crops (rubber and oil-palm) on a commercial basis is common.
3.2. Cropping systems
Myanmar is divided into two main climatic regions, namely the tropical south comprising
over two-thirds of the country, and the subtropical, temperate north which comprises the
remaining one-third of the land area. There are distinct seasons; the dry season occurs from
mid-October to mid-May and is followed by the wet season. There is a cold spell from
December to February during the dry season. The southwest monsoon varies with both
locality and elevation. Due to such variations in agro-ecological conditions, more than 60
different crops are grown in Myanmar. They can be grouped into six main categories: (a)
cereals: rice, wheat, maize and millets; (b) oilseeds: groundnut, sesame, sunflower and
mustard; (c) food legumes: black gram, green gram, butter bean, red bean, pigeon pea,
cowpea, chickpea and soybean; (d) industrial crops: cotton, jute, sugar cane, rubber and
tobacco; (e) food crops: potato, onion, chillies, vegetables and spices; and (f) plantation
crops: tea, coffee, coconut, cocoa, oil-palm, toddy palm, banana and other fruits. More details
on the crops and cropping systems are presented in Annex 4.
Rice is the predominant crop and is grown in a range of cropping systems, including in
saline-affected areas mostly found in lower Myanmar, especially in Ayeyarwaddy, Yangon,
Taninthayi regions and also in Rakhine and Mon states. Deep-water rice is usually grown in
areas of some restricted belts in Ayeyarwaddy, Bago, Taninthayi regions and Rakhine, Mon
and Kayin states. Elsewhere rice is mainly grown in usually well-managed systems in other
parts of the country and it is reliant on the monsoons. Approximately 18-20 percent of the
rice production comes from the summer crop season, while the majority comes from the
monsoon paddy season. The average rice yield is 4.1 tonnes/ha.
According to statistics, in comparison with other countries in the region, rice yields in
Myanmar are respectable. Myanmar seems to have higher average rice yields than Thailand,
India and Cambodia, but less than Viet Nam, Indonesia and China. The most important
comparison would be with Indonesia and Viet Nam where most of the rice grown (unlike
China) is high-yielding varieties (HYV). Myanmar could catch up with these countries and
increase its own yield by 30-40 percent.
Maize is one of the main staple foods after rice in some regions such as Chin State. Overall,
maize cultivation covered 422 000 ha in 2012/2013 including Sagaing Region, north and
south Shan State, Chin State, and Magway Region. The average yield is 3.7 tonnes/ha. The
highest yields were recorded in Kayin State, Ayeyarwaddy Region and Shan State (north).
The highest producers of maize were Shan State (north), Sagaing Region and Shan State
8
(south). Pulses are consumed almost daily in most areas of Myanmar, especially in dry-zone
regions. Pulses and oilseeds are also becoming important export crops particularly to China
and India.
Horticultural crops, including fruits and vegetables, have some importance in Myanmar,
accounting for 1.13 million ha (2012/2013). Among the most important individual crops are
chillies, onions and plantains. Horticultural crops are of particular importance in the highland
areas of Sagaing Region and Shan State, where higher precipitation levels allow for intensive,
year-round production; however their cultivation is common in other regions of the country
especially near large urban centres. Cotton, jute, rubber and sugar cane are the main
industrial crops.
Most paddy areas use HYV seeds. In 2012/2013, 61 percent of monsoon paddy was sown
using HYV paddy seeds and about 1 percent employed hybrid paddy seeds. Shan grew the
largest area of hybrid paddy among all states and regions because these seeds are easily
procured from the border with China. Almost 100 percent of the summer paddy was sown
with HYV and the remainder with hybrid seeds. Moreover, 54 percent of the total maize
areas sown used hybrid maize seeds and 28 percent used HYV maize seeds. Farmers are
currently sowing local maize varieties in up to 18 percent of all the maize-cultivated areas.
Shan State (both north and south) and Sagaing Division have the highest hybrid maize
cultivation among all states/regions.
The 2004 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Agriculture Sector Review
suggested three main potential avenues for growth in crop production: intensification of
production, expansion of the cropped area and diversification to financially more rewarding
combinations of crops. It was suggested that intensification and diversification would give a
significant boost to crop production and farm incomes in the short to medium term.
As of 2004, with few exceptions, increases in output have been driven largely by increased
sown area; generally the result of a switch from other crops rather than opening up of new
territory, although the latter may have occurred in more remote areas, especially for oilseeds.
Yield improvements have been limited; even an overall growth of 50 percent over a ten-year
period implies only 4 percent improvement per annum, and most crops have failed to achieve
even this. In fact, eight of the 12 highest performing crops in Myanmar over the last decade
achieved yield increases averaging less than 2 percent per annum (UNDP 2004).
According to domestic consumption needs and the potential for export earnings, certain crops
have been prioritized (Table 4). This table presents anticipated target yields set against
existing yields for the national level to achieve in the short term.
9
Table 4: Existing and target crop yields (tonne/ha)
Yield Target yield Yield gap

Crop
(2009)
1 2 3 4=(3-2)
Paddy 4.06 5.15 -1.09
Long staple cotton 1.46 1.61 -0.15
Sugar cane 61.61 74.13 -12.52
Black gram 1.48 1.61 -0.13
Green gram 1.24 1.61 -0.37
Pigeon pea 1.25 2.02 -0.77
Groundnut 1.57 1.40 + 0.17
Sesame 0.53 1.21 -0.68
Sunflower 0.89 1.79 -0.90
Maize 3.43 4.93 -1.50
Source: MAS (DOA) (2009).
The most important production factors for achieving the target yields are the efficient
utilization of the fertilizers and use of improved varieties. With limited credit and low
investment for farmers, utilization of fertilizer in even major crops is far below the
recommended dose. However the yields of these core crops have been reported to be
increasing over time despite minimal fertilizer use, but there seems to be official
overestimation of these statistics owing to administrative pressure. Research and
development activities on crop variety improvement are underway. The improved seeds are
disseminated to the farmers through extension agents and also among the farmers themselves.
If farmers can afford to use the correct dose of fertilizers and quality seed efficiently, there is
scope to achieve the targets. Thus investment in fertilizers, sufficient irrigation water and
development of seed programmes are the key factors for increased productivity.
The most common constraint to crop production is the lack of inputs or lack of money to
purchase them. Limited capital equipment (tools, daft animals, mechanical power) and land
are also common constraints. Overall, constraints to crop production are generally with low-
intensity production techniques that could be addressed with increased availability of credit,
technical advice and improved access to land, and problems associated with lack of
infrastructures for irrigation and water control.
3.3. Agro-ecological zones (AEZ)
In terms of agroclimatic conditions and characteristics, the country is divided into four AEZ:
the Delta Region, the Coastal Region, the Central Dry Zone Region and the Mountainous
Region. The Delta Region has the highest population density, highest land productivity
(mostly alluvial soil), moderately high rainfall, generally flat topography and an excellent
environment for growing rice. In contrast, the Central Dry Zone has the lowest annual
rainfall, sandy soils and the second highest population density. The Coastal Region has the
smallest land area but has the highest annual rainfall, exceeding 4 000 mm per annum, and,
accordingly, this region is highly suitable for growing perennial crops, such as coconut, palm
oil and rubber. The mountainous region has the largest land area covered by dense forest. The
region accounts for about 34.4 million ha or about half of the total land area, has poor road
infrastructure and low population density.
Cropping systems and patterns vary according to agroclimatic conditions. In the irrigated
areas, paddy-paddy or paddy-pulses-paddy patterns dominate. In the dry zones and other
10
upland rainfed areas, mixed cropping or intercropping of pigeon pea with sesame or peanut or
other pulses are practised. In mountain or hilly regions, upland paddy, maize, millet, oil crops
and pulses are also grown. Many farmers still practise shifting cultivation in these areas. Fruit
crops and vegetables are grown throughout Myanmar year round. More details on the AEZ
and the common cropping systems found in these zones are presented in Annex 3 .
3.4. Productivity of irrigated and nonirrigated crops
According to a farm household survey conducted by JICA (2013) annual income from
irrigated areas is lower than that from nonirrigated areas. This is observed in the CDZ,
Southern Shan State and the Ayeyarwaddy Delta Region; the gap between irrigated and
nonirrigated area is nearly 1 million kyat (US$825) per annum in the CDZ. The survey asked
farmers whether they irrigate by crops, and most farmers who irrigate in the CDZ grow rice
under irrigation conditions. However, farmers who practise irrigation for rice also plant
groundnuts and other cash crops under rainfed condition. Such cash crops, including pigeon
pea and sesame, are planted under rainfed condition in the CDZ, and profitability of pulses
and oil crops are usually higher than rice, with the most profitable crops being green gram,
black gram and pigeon pea, followed by groundnuts and sesame. For rice, production costs
are the highest and profitability the lowest. However, in many cases farmers prefer to grow
rice if irrigation water is available, because rice is their staple food. In addition, farmers have
been forced to grow rice under irrigation conditions, especially in the summer season.
3.5. Farm size and land tenure
All land in Myanmar is owned by the state and the cultivators only have the tilling rights. The
tilling rights cannot be transferred or mortgaged, taken in lieu of loan repayment, or used as
collateral for obtaining loans. They are, however, inheritable by adult children or other family
members who continue to remain as farmers and work the land by themselves. This pattern of
intergenerational land transfer has increased the fragmentation of the holdings and number of
small farm holdings.
Myanmar is richly endowed with natural resources. There are over 17 million ha of cultivable
land of which about 60 percent is currently under cultivation and the remainder has potential
for future development. Myanmar has extended the net sown area of crops to 11.84 million
ha and about 5.80 million ha are still available for cultivation. Land classification in
Myanmar is detailed in Table 5.
Table 5: Land classification in Myanmar (000’ ha)
Categories 1995/96 2000/01 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13

Net area sown 8 910 9 909 11 975 12 021 11 920 11 841
Fallow land 1 231 686 241 230 322 439
Cultivable waste land 7 971 7 205 5 610 5 396 5 374 5 361
Reserved forests 10 321 12 914 16 897 17 916 18 235 18 305
Other forest area 22 079 19 786 16 255 15 630 15 348 15 207
Other land 17 147 17 159 16 681 16 467 16 461 16 506
Total 67 659 67 659 67 659 67 659 67 659 67 659
Source: MOAI (2013).
The net area sown has increased over the years, reaching 11.8 million ha in 2013, which is an
increase of 32.9 percent from 1995 to 2013. This is attributable to land reclamation by the
government in Ayeyarwaddy and Taninthayi regions after 1991 and allocation of fallow lands
11
to private sectors for commercial farming. The government via notification No. 44/91 of 13
November 1991 prescribed the Duties and Rights of the Central Committee for the
Management of Cultivable Land, Fallow Land and Waste Land which has the authority to
grant the right to cultivate, the right to utilize land by state-owned, joint ventures, other
organizations and private individuals for commercial use of cultivable land, fallow land and
waste land to carry out agriculture, livestock breeding and rearing, aquaculture or other
affiliated economic development enterprises. Under this arrangement, the private sector has
also been given the opportunity to participate and develop large-scale farming by granting
large tracts of fallow lands and cultivable waste lands to private investors, both local and
foreign. The government has allocated about 0.7 million ha (1.73 million acres) of land to
some 216 private business groups, in holdings mostly of about 1 214 to 2 023 ha (3 000 to 5
000 acres), although some are even larger. Most large-scale oil-palm plantations and rubber
estates are in Taninthayi Region and other large-scale farms are located in Kachin State,
Sagaing, Magway, and Ayeyarwaddy regions.1
Land is the most important livelihood asset for households in rural Myanmar. Ownership of
sufficient land can ensure income and food security. However ownership of land is not
universal and highly inequitable in its distribution among the rural population. Within the
sample of 4 000 households, 50 percent of households did not own land (LIFT Survey 2012).
Only a quarter of households (26 percent) in the Hilly and Mountainous Zone does not own
land while 72 percent does not own land in the Delta/Coastal Zone.
There are also significant differences in the size of landholdings. The average landholding
size in Myanmar is 2.35 ha (5.8 acres). The very skewed distribution of landownership in the
Delta/Coastal Zone raises concerns of equity when providing agricultural assistance in these
areas unless programmes target the quite small percentage of small landowning households
(owning say less than 5 acres). Landless participants reported that the opportunity for them to
gain access to land for cultivation is very limited.
It should be noted that 2.35 ha is an average figure, which does not represent the distribution
of land sizes throughout the country. Holdings under 1 acre of land showed a big increase in
total area from 91 381 acres in 1993 to 155 100 acres in 2013 or 69.7 percent. Furthermore
the number of holdings of less than 0.4 hectare (1 acre) increased from 187 493 in 1993 to
513 221 in 2013, an increase of 173.7 percent. 2 This indicates that the increasing number of
families in rural areas has resulted in more fragmentation of farmland and consequently the
farm income of small farmers has been negatively affected.
3.6. Water resources and irrigation
There are potentially 1 576.6 km3 of water resources available in Myanmar. Less than 10
percent of the total water resources is utilized annually. Since 1988, following the
introduction of market-oriented economic liberalization measures, the government has
promulgated continuous efforts for the construction of dams, reservoirs and pump irrigation
facilities throughout the country via significant capital investment and by making use of
available domestic resources and expertise.
1
Myanmar agriculture in brief, 2013, Department of Agricultural Planning, MOAI.
2
Myanmar census of agriculture (2013).
12
The net irrigated area reached 2.28 million ha in 2009. Water management is critical and
contributes significantly to food security. The percent of net irrigated area was 15.5 percent
of the net area sown in 2009, from 12.6 percent in 1988. Consequently, cropping intensity
increased from 140 percent in 1995 to 158 percent in 2013. Most irrigated areas have been
used for paddy production. Paddy production increased from 18.58 million tonnes in 1995 to
27.70 million tonnes in 2013.3
Although the main irrigation infrastructure has been completed, distribution canals and water
courses to farmers’ field are still under construction. Renovation of the distribution canals of
completed dams and reservoirs has also been delayed due to limited maintenance budget.
Extension and education activities on efficient utilization of irrigation water by water users
are also inefficient due to suboptimal on-farm research and demonstration. There is great
potential for the expansion of irrigated areas by improving irrigation efficiency.
Water is a major limiting factor for crop production especially in dry-zone upland areas with
bimodal rainfall patterns of 750 mm of precipitation (even as low as 600 mm in dry years). In
such agro-ecologies, risk-prone farmers tend to adopt mixed cropping systems to spread the
risk and mitigate crop failure. In these areas in situ moisture conservation practices such as
minimum tillage, stubble mulching and so forth that retain as much of the rainfall as possible
and facilitate access to crop root systems should be extension priority. Unfortunately,
Department of Agriculture (DOA) extension services do not do this at the moment. Efficient
water use under irrigation in dry zones should also be a major concern; currently some pump
irrigation schemes are required to irrigate heavy water demand crops like paddy on unsuitable
light upland soils. In such situations water use is highly inefficient and relatively few farmers
benefit. The same volume of water could alternatively provide supplementary irrigation to
five times the crop area for low water demand crops such as groundnut, sesame, mustard,
etc., with greater overall returns per unit of water and greater financial returns, hence
benefiting many rural households in the CDZ.
Farmers receiving irrigation from government-constructed irrigation schemes are highly
subsidized, as the current water charges are only kyat 25/ha. Clearly this is insufficient to
cover system operation and maintenance (O&M) and does not provide an incentive for
efficient water use, rather it encourages overuse.
In dry zones, water-use efficiency should be a top extension priority and for dryland area
development the following actions are suggested: (a) applied research and demonstration
programmes for in situ soil moisture conservation on upland areas through conservation
farming practices; (b) irrigation of high water demand crops such as paddy and sugar cane
should be discouraged in upland areas and irrigation provided to more households for the
supplementary irrigation of crops with lower water requirements; and (c) irrigation water
charges should be radically increased to cover full scheme O&M to provide incentives for
careful water use.
In the flood-prone areas in the Delta region, irrigated farming systems need to be improved
through improved irrigation, drainage and flood protection (embankments), and better on-
farm management systems.
3
Source: Myanmar agriculture at a glance (2013).
13
3.7. Farm power and agricultural mechanization

In many areas of Myanmar farm power is provided by draught animals, mainly oxen and
buffalo. Comprehensive agricultural mechanization is still in its infancy. More needs to be
done to both improve the efficiency of animal draught power through better equipment and
animal husbandry, and to introduce appropriate farm machinery that is both economically
viable and is suited to the farming systems. There are repercussions to be considered when
animal draught power is replaced by mechanized systems, particularly with regard to the
current reliance in many areas on the use of farmyard manure as a source of crop nutrients.
Agricultural mechanization has been carried out by utilizing farm machinery and equipment
for various activities of agricultural production through private sector participation in
addition to state sector activities. Increased cropping intensity has expanded the use of
machinery in agriculture from land preparation to harvesting and postharvest activities. The
required machinery is being produced and assembled locally or imported for distribution to
farmers.
Efforts are being made to totally eliminate the traditional way of threshing paddy on the
threshing floor, through the introduction of threshers and combine harvesters. A number of
model mechanized villages (23 locations) were established with MOAI support throughout
the country to demonstrate the benefits of farm mechanization to farmers.
Land development activities for transformation from conventional agriculture to mechanized
agriculture are being undertaken as follows: (a) construction of feeder and farmland roads, (b)
construction of canals and drainage for irrigation, (c) transforming small plots to larger 1-acre
plots and (d) facilitating the purchasing process by introducing an instalment payment system
for agricultural machinery thus improving access to equipment and affordability for farmers.
The need for agricultural mechanization has been growing steadily due to the shortage of
labour during the busiest season for farming in many areas. After harvesting, paddy is left on
the farmland for one month in this context which results in degradation of rice quality. Farm
mechanization has benefited farmers in terms of savings in time and human labour costs. In
addition, it has contributed to increased cropping intensity, from 133 percent in 1996/1997 to
158 percent in 2012/2013.
Transformation from conventional to mechanized agriculture will enable farmers to grow
double and multiple crops, and increase per capita income and job opportunities. Expansion
of the use of farm machinery must be approached with caution. Introduction of machinery in
production systems which are not profitable/suitable may be counterproductive. However,
machinery can have a significant economic impact if it is included in production systems that
are suited to its use, such as intensive land use (double or triple cropping) or farming of large
areas.
3.8. Utilization of fertilizers
Currently there is a reliance on both organic and inorganic fertilizers, but crop production is
constrained by the shortage of organic manures sufficient to sustain cropping systems on
even the smallest of farms, and the present high price of inorganic fertilizers. The cause of the
decline in paddy production over the last few years is considered to be a direct result of the
high price of inorganic fertilizer.
The domestic fertilizer industry in Myanmar is concentrated around the production of urea
fertilizer from the abundant sources of natural gas in the country. As a requirement for plant
14
nutrients, phosphate and potash fertilizers are imported. The Ministry of Energy prefers to
export natural gas in order to obtain foreign exchange, and thus supplies of gas to the urea
plant have been decreasing. Although imports of fertilizers are liberalized to the private
sector, most farmers are unable to acquire sufficient amounts of fertilizer due mainly to
financial constraints.
Requirements for fertilizers vary from 2.1 to 3.7 million tonnes annually depending upon the
annual sown areas. Supply of fertilizers rose from 110 000 to 237 000 tonnes in the 1997-
1998 and 2000-2001 periods, but has declined drastically since 2001-2002 to low levels in
2012-2013. This is mainly attributable to the decreasing of urea fertilizer production. JICA
(2013) estimated fertilizer requirements for rice at 3 bags/acre (370 kg/ha) to achieve a target
yield for paddy of 100 baskets/acre equivalent to 4.94 tonnes/ha.
Before 1993 fertilizer prices were heavily subsidized by the government, which has since
then removed the subsidies on all crops. Subsequently, market prices have risen to
international levels and the government has also allowed the private sector to import and
distribute fertilizer, providing exemption of import tax. Despite a lack of competition in the
fertilizer market, most enterprises find it difficult to make profit due to less demand for such
expensive inputs. Fertilizer is one of the most important inputs to improve crop productivity,
followed by improved seed varieties.
3.9. Improved seed supply
The overall performance of the seed sector is weak although there some positive aspects are
emerging. The weakness of the sector can easily be captured by the low coverage of certified
seed. Rice-certified seed reaches a minority of the farmers who continue to have a low
replacement ratio of their seed stock. An informal seed exchange system is predominant and
the formal seed system for rice barely reaches 10 percent of the sown area. The situation is
even worse for the supply of improved seeds of pulses and oilseeds so it is particularly
important to introduce high-yielding drought-tolerant varieties for the CDZ.
Production of certified seed of all major crops covers only a fraction of the total planted area.
Estimates indicate that production of certified seed for rice may cover about 2 percent of the
demand, and for pulses and oilseeds the coverage ranges from 0.1 to 0.25 percent. While rice
receives a major share of allocations for seed production, pulses and oilseeds lack a seed
production programme. There is some involvement of the private sector in seed production,
but this is still relatively limited. In addition, the monitoring of the health status and quality of
certified seed, even for rice, does not comply with required technical standards.
Most commercial varieties of major crops were released a long time ago (most in the 1980s
or even before), which coupled with an inefficient seed production process, renders them
outdated, mixed, riddled with detrimental mutations, susceptible to pests and diseases, and
unresponsive to inputs. Although several improved varieties and hybrids have been released
by research institutions in recent years, many are not adopted by a significant number of
farmers. The yield gap (the difference between actual yield and potential) remains high. More
worryingly yield growth seems to be slowing down and there is the danger it might even
reverse. Conversely, hybrid vegetable seed is thriving particularly with the emergence of
private foreign and domestic seed companies investing in Myanmar. The agriculture sector is
currently attracting the interest of various investors and with the formation of the Myanmar
Rice Federation (MRF) private companies have access to registered seeds from the DOA for
multiplication purposes
15
In the current formal seed system, the Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) is
responsible for research and generation of breeder and foundation seeds. The DOA is
responsible for the registered seeds which are distributed either to private seed growers
(about 5 000 distributed around the country) and, more recently, to private seed companies
under the support of the MRF. Multiplication of foundation seeds is certified and good seeds
are then distributed to farmers and the market. Most notable for the Myanmar seed sector is
the absence of seed associations; it also lacks coordination mechanisms such as a Seed
Working Group or Seed Tasking Force (different from the Seed Committee which is only in
charge of release of new varieties).
The private sector in the seed industry: The Myanmar Rice Industry Association (MRIA) was
formed in 2007 and transformed into the MRF in 2011. Under the organization and
management of the MRF, 57 Myanmar Rice Specialized Companies (MRSCs) have been
formed. MRSCs are implementing contract farming programmes. A number of private
companies are currently working on seed for rice and hybrids (maize, rice and vegetables),
namely, CP Company, Known You Seed Company, Malar Myaing, Myat Min and Bayer
Crop Science. In the case of maize and vegetables there seems to be high interest in private
companies to engage in seed production, but less so for rice. The implementation of the Seed
Law might change this situation.
Facilitating private sector investment and fostering partnerships with the private sector and
communities to increase productivity and gain competitiveness: The main opportunities
related to investment, partnerships and coordination point to the possibility of leveraging
public investment through incentives for investment by the private sector, the cooperative
sector and communities. This will result in an expansion of use of good quality seeds (OPV,
hybrids and traditional varieties appropriate to certain agro-ecological environments),
increased productivity and increased resilience to pests, diseases and climate change impacts.
The Seed Law was enacted in 2011 and came into force in 2013; it paved the way for a
number of initiatives that could lead to a dramatic development of the seed industry. Core
policy issues need to be addressed, notably the combination of limited implementation of the
Seed Law with underinvestment in the critical areas of research, extension, quality assurance,
coordination and information dissemination. Key issues in this respect are (a) how to move
from formulation to implementation (from the Seed Law to Seed Industry Development); (b)
how to provide incentives to farmers for use of certified seed and for the private sector to
invest; (c) underfunded research and extension (1-2 percent of the MOAI budget); (d) low
capacity in quality assurance; (e) lack of coordination (private-public, centre-local, domestic-
international); and (e) lack of information about seed demand and distribution.
Incentives are the key. Farmers might not use certified seed because there is no incentive to
do so. It is always assumed that the issue is supply: just produce more seeds and farmers will
buy them. But seed availability per se without fertilizer, water, plant protection or a market is
not enough to attract a farmer. The Seed Law is expected to lead to an improved system in
which private sector incentives can work to the benefit of the overall system. Of course, in
addition to regulations, hard core investment in critical areas is needed. Otherwise the law
and regulations will simply remain unfulfilled promises.
Another key issue is to distinguish between needs and demand. Needs often are based on the
technical recommendations for seed replacement (e.g. renewal after three to four crops) or
seeding ratios and total sown area. Demand is based on the farmers’ actual conditions and
willingness to buy. There is a need to not only change the supply of good seed, but also to
16
understand what the farmers want and their incentives for buying or using certain seeds. For
example, technically, hybrid rice seed appears to be impressive. But is it what the farmers
want? Studies on the topic suggest caution. Demand is a function of several variables (price,
access, knowledge, assets, physical properties, etc.).
In summary although the seed industry’s overall performance is still weak, some positive
aspects are emerging, such as a regulatory framework and private sector investment. The
greatest opportunity for the development of a competitive seed industry is to leverage the
experience and resources of the private sector and communities to assure that farmers have
quality seed at the right time and at affordable terms. To overcome the numerous supply and
demand constraints, it will be necessary to formulate policies that facilitate the
implementation of the Seed Law (seed policy, rice policy and trade policy), provide
incentives to the private sector and farmers, and adjust underinvestment in the critical areas
of research, extension, quality assurance, coordination and information.
3.10. Value chains and marketing
While in the NAPA context it is critical to stress the importance of smallholders being at the
core of Myanmar’s agricultural (and rural development) strategy, this does not imply a hostile
or negative attitude towards larger-scale commercial agriculture and agribusiness. Clearly in
some subsectors, including rubber, sugar and oil-palm, large-scale plantation-based
agriculture may well have an important role to play and as noted above, can also effectively
complement and support smallholders operating in the same subsectors. However,
agribusiness has its most critical role in the development and improvement of the supply
chain. On the output side this not only includes traditional areas such as storage, processing
and marketing but also value addition in terms of packaging, branding, and logistics services.
On the input side it includes the supply of production inputs, particularly fertilizers and agro-
chemicals, seeds, feed, irrigation equipment, power tillers, tractors, threshers, combine
harvesters and increasingly extension and also finance.
Based on the survey by LIFT (2012), farm households organize themselves for
group/collective marketing of their crops. Overall 90 percent of households sell their crops
individually and consequently have no bargaining power with buyers and traders. Household
knowledge of crop sale processes and access to price information is lacking. Nearly a quarter
of households marketing crops have no price information before they sell their crops. Large
landholders are more likely to know the price of their main crops before selling them. Crop
price information comes predominantly from family and friends and crop buyers. Most
households sell their main crop immediately upon harvest (62 percent). Only 17 percent of
households sell their crops two or more months after harvest. Larger and wealthier
agricultural producers are more likely to store and sell their crops some months after the main
harvest season. Currently there is no market information system for farmers or rural
communities.
Postharvest crop losses are high where crops are stored but as most crops are sold
immediately after harvest this do not pose so much of a problem. However, if farmers do
change to storing their crop produce longer then storage technologies will need to be
introduced.
3.11. Rural finance
According to a baseline survey by LIFT (2012), family and friends are the most common
sources of loans among households in the survey. Forty-five percent of all households borrow
17
from family and friends, and 31 percent borrow from money lenders. Shopkeepers are the
next most common source of loans (19 percent). Households with no land are most reliant on
family and friends as a source of loan (48 percent), while only 21 percent of households
owning more than 20 acres borrow from this source. Most loans are for purchases of food (44
percent) clearly illustrating the importance of credit as a coping strategy for household food
security. This is particularly the case for households that do not own land or have low
monthly incomes.
Farmers have several alternatives for borrowing money such institutional finances such as the
Myanmar Agriculture Development Bank and Global Treasure Bank Public Co. Ltd.,
microcredit providers including PACT, OISCA, and other NGOs, and private money lenders
including local brokers and relatives. The interest rate of institutional finance (8.5 percent
/year) is lower than that of the private money lenders. However, since the banks request
mortgages, need more time to borrow money and provide quite limited loan amounts, most
farmers have to depend on private money lenders for conducting farming activities.
3.12. Advisory services
Regarding extension and technology support for crop production this aspect is covered
comprehensively in the next section – Institutional Environment. The DOA has a large staff
complement of around 17 800 most of whom are based at the village tract level. It is
responsible for imparting good agricultural practices (GAP) to the farmers through a range of
modalities and interventions. Currently the government-run extension system is understaffed
and under-resourced and is deemed to have little impact on smallholder farmer crop
productivity.
While there is a reasonably trained extension force available for technology transfer in some
areas of Myanmar, other areas are short of properly trained human resources. Extension is
currently provided to facilitate the achievement of central production targets for core crops
and especially for rice. To have a more significant impact on farm incomes, crop production
and the alleviation of rural poverty the service requires re-orientation within a new enabling
environment for farm production. Its main role should be to improve farm incomes through
the development of sustainable integrated farming systems. Extension should focus on key
themes including: (i) adoption of quality seeds and planting materials of new HYVs; (ii)
integrated balanced plant nutrition, capitalizing on the already good work in the use of
organics combined with increased use of chemical fertilizer; (iii) integrated pest management
techniques for pest and disease control; (iv) integrated cropping and farming systems; (v)
rainwater harvesting and water-use efficiency in irrigated systems and rain fed conditions;
and (vi) support to farm enterprises and value chains such as kitchen gardening, horticulture,
aquaculture and livestock production especially relevant for small and marginal farmers and
the landless.
3.13. Climate change and conservation agriculture
Over the past 50 years, Myanmar has experienced an upward trend in average and high
temperatures and decreases in monsoon duration. There appear to be no significant trends in
total rainfall, although a government study suggested a slight downward trend. Some recent
research suggests that pre monsoon climate patterns have led to increases in May
precipitation (thus possibly earlier monsoon onset) and increased and more intense cyclone
activity since 1979. While the upward trend for temperature is clear, more research and
analysis is necessary to understand rainfall and monsoon trends over the past decades (MOAI
2010).
18
Climate change is expected to have a considerable impact on Myanmar, particularly as a

result of increasing temperatures, more variable rainfall, the possibility of more intense
extreme climate events and sea level rise along the coasts. Myanmar is one of the most
vulnerable countries globally in terms of projected changes in extreme weather, agricultural
productivity loss, sea level rise and overall risk. Multiple studies downscaled to the regional
and national level indicate that Myanmar is projected to experience a mean annual
temperature increase of between 1-4oC by the end of the century, with variability throughout
the year and spatially across the country (World Bank 2012).
Very little in the way of conservation agriculture is followed, even in the dry zone of the
country. The impact of climate change is having a serious effect on the farming systems in
the CDZ, which is being exacerbated by a rising human and livestock population. It is
therefore important that this issue is addressed through the introduction of conservation
farming and more specifically climate-smart agriculture (CSA) techniques. This will involve
introduction to communities in the project area of a wide range of integrated techniques to
stabilize both the cropped lands and where feasible the community grazing and forest lands.
There is an important need to try to stabilize the environment and farming systems in the
CDZ townships, where as a result of climate change and increasing population pressure
(human and livestock) the natural resource base is at risk with high levels of soil degradation
and erosion. Dryland farming systems are adopted in areas where rainfall and water to
support crop cultivation are limited. The CDZ has limited rainfall, soil infertility, inadequate
agricultural inputs as well as poor farming practices which have led to low agricultural
productivity and income. The zone is also an area with high levels of soil erosion, mostly due
to the lack of soil conservation measures in the past, causing a loss of organic matter and a
low water infiltration rate. In addition, the vegetation cover in the area is highly vulnerable to
erosion due to the limited amount of rainfall and widespread grazing. It is important therefore
to maximize available resources to support crop cultivation and stabilize village lands.
Measures likely to improve fertility and increase productivity include the basic principles of
crop management such as good and timely land preparation, correct planting techniques and
maintaining a fine surface tilth or mulch to protect the natural moisture from evaporation.
The development community, including FAO with its initiative on CSA, can bring expertise
in this area, and support other important measures to promote cultivation techniques that
improve fertility such as mixed cropping, management practices to minimize soil erosion (for
example leaving land fallow during the summer in alternate years), the use of both artificial
and organic-based products – fertilizer and compost – to increase yields, and enhancing
varietal development and germplasm screening for high fertilizer efficiency. There is a need
to develop capacity in Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT), rapid compost
production, the Integrated Plant Nutrient System (IPNS) and vermiculture.
4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT
This section describes and analyses activities, strengths and weaknesses of relevant
institutions, be they the public sector, donor organizations, NGOs or private entities that
provide services of various kinds to the farming community. For further information refer to
Annexes 7 and 10.
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4.1. Government agricultural research and development organizations

The MOAI is responsible for all aspects of agriculture and irrigation as well as water
resources with its mission to develop agriculture and irrigation nationally. At the
state/regional level, agriculture is organized under a state/regional minister for agriculture
who reports directly to the MOAI at the Union level in Nay Pyi Taw where most budget
decisions are currently made. The main objective of the MOAI is stated as being to increase
crop production. Among several strategies identified by the MOAI for meeting agriculture
sector objectives are: (a) the provision of irrigation, (b) the application of modern
agrotechnologies including improved seed, (c) fertilizer and crop protection, (d) the
development and utilization of new crop varieties, (e) the adoption of cropping patterns that
fit the local agro-ecology and (f) the development of new agricultural land. The major crops
that are being promoted include paddy, long staple cotton, groundnut, sunflower, the grams
(yellow, green and black), sugar cane, pigeon pea and maize. The MOAI comprises the
following key departments: the Department of Agriculture (DOA) which was formerly the
Myanmar Agriculture Services (MAS), the Department of Agricultural Research (DAR), the
Department of Agriculture Planning (DAP), the Irrigation Department, the Agriculture
Mechanisation Department, the Water Resources Utilisation Department, the Myanmar
Agriculture Development Bank (MADB), Yezin Agriculture University (YAU) and the
Department of Industrial Crops Development.
It is important to note that government service delivery systems are experiencing a period of
transition from a traditional command system (top down) to a more market-driven approach.
A SWOT analysis of the relevant MOAI extension, research and education organizations is
presented in Table 6.
Table 6: SWOT analysis of MOAI extension, research and education organizations
Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities/threats Remarks

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI)
 Potential to take  More priority on  Need to provide for  Has potential to be a
considerable action production than on coordinated strong partner for
once convinced policies and service approach to farming NAPA investment
 Composed of a delivery systems under one in Myanmar
number of  Top down and ad ministry  New government
departments hoc approaches to  Potential for a more may positively
covering a range of planning and strategic approach influence role of
agriculture-related decision-making to planning MOAI in rural
issues  Lack of  Climate change: development
 Synergies between transparency in unusual rainfall  Need for a more
different budgets patterns, strategic and
departments under  Decision-making salinization, systematic approach
one umbrella centralized flooding, drought to agricultural
ministry  Poor coordination  National economic development
 Strong national with other line problems are likely  Important to focus
network covering all agencies including to impact on further on vision for
agro-ecosystems forestry, livestock investment in inclusive rural
 Good network of and fisheries agriculture development in
facilities located in  Lack of investment  Lack of investment Myanmar
all agro-ecological in service delivery in educational
regions and facilities institutions will
20
 Strong senior cadre  Emphasis on reduce availability

of committed production rather of qualified staff
managers than on food  Potential for conflict
security with other natural
 Paucity of new, resourced-based
qualified and skilled ministries e.g.
personnel to replace forestry, fisheries.
retiring staff
 Centralized
decision-making not
responsive to local
priorities
Department of Agriculture (DOA)
 Committed staff  Lack of investment  Continued lack of  Potential partner in
keen to help poor has resulted in a availability of helping to provide
farmers decline in number qualified extension extension services
 Presence of staff at and quality of personnel for NAPA project(s)
all levels of extension staff  Under-resourced  Potential partner in
governance in the  Lack of well-trained department unlikely giving farmers
country personnel with to be able to meet choice in selection
 Ability to take a participatory skills demand for of economically
farming systems  Insufficient extension services viable crops best
approach to resources for suited to local
extension effective field visits conditions
 Linkages with DAR  Poor links with  Potential for
(for research and DAR staff at the partnerships with
YAU (for training) township and civil society
are good at regional village levels, and organizations in
levels with farmers delivery of
 Townships and extension services
District Agricultural  Potential to build on
Supervisory coordination at
Committee provides village tract and
opportunity for township levels
coordination with  Potential to promote
other government local level land-use
agencies and local planning, working
councils with SLRD and
 Technical expertise local councils
in land-use planning
in Land Use
Division
Department of Agricultural Research (DAR)
 Highly committed  Lack of young well-  Research driven by  Potential partner for
staff but the more trained staff to take political priorities NAPA in selection
experienced are now over from retirees rather than by needs and development of
retiring  Lack of investment of farmers cultivars best suited
 Strong foundation has resulted in a  Climate change to local conditions
of applied research decline in number offers both an  Neglect of national
in the past and quality of opportunity (for research institutions
 Network of research staff adaptation) and aggravated until
agricultural research  Lack of investment threat (need for a recently by
21
stations throughout has resulted in a new mindset). international

the country decline of research sanctions
 Strong links with facilities
the DOA at senior  Lack of access to
levels external knowledge
and resources
 Poor links with
extension staff at
the township and
village levels, and
with farmers
Yezin Agricultural University (YAU)
 Highly committed  Knowledge of  Lack of investment  Neglect of national
staff but the more teaching staff by the government education
experienced are now outdated in infrastructure institutions
retiring  Poor teaching and aggravated until
 Close links with research facilities recently by
other MOAI depts.  Lack of young international
can foster a trained staff to take sanctions
cooperative over from retirees
approach  Lack access to
external knowledge
and resources
 Poor infrastructure
The DOA is responsible for coordination of farm advisory services and research across the
country, for agricultural education and for the delivery of farm inputs including seeds and
farm advisory services. It employs a total staff complement nationwide of around 17 782 but
relatively low salaries and uncertainty about the future have resulted in a loss of more
experienced staff to alternative employment with agricultural brokers and NGOs. The scope
of services has been directed mainly at government model farms which has meant that many
other farmers received limited to no services, such as provision of information and certified
seeds. However, with restructuring into the DOA, extension of agricultural advice is virtually
nonexistent for farmers who depend heavily on each other, private suppliers of inputs and
wholesale purchasers.
The DAR has seven crop research centres and 17 satellite farms. The mission of the DAR is
“to systematically conduct research activities that would suit to the needs of all stakeholders
which include producers, distributors and consumers in developing and dissemination of
regionally adapted crop varieties and crop production technologies”. Although the DAR is
carrying out suitable research, particularly with new varieties, there still remains the problem
of applying this to the farmers’ fields on a large scale and adequate dissemination of this
knowledge via extension services to farmers.
There are seven state agricultural institutes involved in agriculture extension training and
research with YAU at the apex, plus several agricultural research institutes that provide
specialized training for farm advisers. YAU is composed of nine major departments
comprising agronomy, agricultural botany, agricultural chemistry (responsible for irrigation
and water management), entomology, plant pathology, horticulture, agricultural economics,
animal science and agricultural engineering. Connections with other services supporting
professionals, technicians and farmers at the field level are very weak; this results in
22
knowledge and information developed at higher levels failing to trickle down to grassroot
levels. The situation is complicated as all actions are subject to final approval by the MOAI,
the Central Academic Council and the Central Administrative Council of the Universities and
Colleges of the whole country. The situation is exacerbated as the agricultural education
institutions that are meant to underpin the extension services with specialized crop advisers
and research staff, have had inadequate budgets over a number of years and struggle to
produce suitably qualified staff in the required numbers.
The Myanmar Academy of Agricultural, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Sciences was
established by the government in 1999. The main objective of the academy is to promote
science and technology for development of the national economy, and collaborate with
international scientific institutions. The mandate of the academy is to assist in the
implementation of human resource development programmes through various types of
training for existing staff. Another approach is to organize young scientists from different
fields to conduct research and to write papers on new findings, which could be published
later.
Although the MOAI has offered different areas of training and specialized training
programmes based on farmers’ needs and constraints, agro-ecological and socio-economic
conditions, farmers’ adoption of outputs by research and extension organizations is virtually
nonexistent. In Myanmar, extension officials and extension agents lack the needed
knowledge about market-driven and pluralistic agricultural extension and advisory systems.
4.2. Constraints related to agricultural extension, research and education

Problems with transfer of technology: Most of the extension messages are centrally designed
by managers and implemented by field staff over a wide range of agro-ecological and socio-
economic conditions, without proper consideration of farmers’ needs and limitations, and
available markets. The consequence of this approach is the low adoption rate of most
technical recommendations. Due to the top-down nature of the extension messages and
nonparticipatory approach of technology generation, the interactions and linkages between
institutions and farmers have become weak and nonfunctional. A list of constraints in the
extension system is presented in Box 1.
Box 1: Constraints in the Myanmar agriculture extension system
Transfer of technical information: Technical and scientific information does not flow
regularly from and to research, extension and farmers. There is no systematic and well-
established mechanism to disseminate research findings, farmers’ needs and constraints, and
extension messages. The linkages among public and private institutions are very weak.
Impact of extension: Apart from special extension programmes, which benefit only a small
percentage of farmers, the dissemination of improved technologies follows the traditional
one-to-one interaction between extension agents and farmers on the advantages and benefits
of certain production practices. Most messages are general blanket recommendations
designed by central managers, without due attention to the characteristics of production
systems, agro-ecological, socio-economic and market conditions.
Conflicting roles of extension agents: Field staff of the Agriculture Extension Division
(AED) and extension branches of the various enterprises are generally required to perform a
number of other activities such as promotion of area expansion, distribution of inputs and
23
machinery, procurement of products, surveys, loan collection, among others, which conflict
with their responsibility to effectively disseminate improved crop production technologies. In
addition, lack of transport facilities inhibits extension workers from visiting production areas
for demonstrations, training and other technology transfer activities.
Outdated technical skills: Extension services of the AED, departments and enterprises have
a very large number of staff assigned to all hierarchical levels and stationed in all
geographical units throughout the country. But the technical skills and academic
qualifications of this large work force are outdated and limited.
Constrained by lack of mobility: Effective dissemination of improved technologies requires
that field extension staff (village track level) have the ability to visit extension camps and
demonstration areas regularly, but presently most extension staff at the field level lack means
of transport and have extremely low and insufficient subsistence allowances, which
discourages most of them from participating in these activities.
Government policy: The policy of surplus production of paddy leads to cultivation in areas
not suited for the crop, creating unnecessary problems for research and major difficulties for
extension. This results in low yields, low profitability and low income.
Price controls and quotas system: Quota systems, such as those for sugar cane, and targets
of area expansion and production for most crops, which result directly from the
implementation of policies such as surplus production and export orientation, frequently lead
extension agents and farmers to divert their attention, interest and efforts towards complying
with these policies, rather than concentrating on the dissemination/adoption of improved
production technologies. Price controls and quotas exercised in certain commodities (sugar
cane) tend to restrict crop development (yield, area expansion), compared to the same
commodities that are cultivated free of these controls. Attempts to increase production by
increasing prices (e.g. cotton), but without due attention to production efficiency (cost of
production and profitability) tend to be short-lived and have little impact.
Source: Adapted from UNDP and FAO (2004).
Information and communication technology for agricultural extension: Myanmar started
installing ICT tools/applications more than ten years ago. Presently, there are over 250 ICT
companies in the country. The ICT coverage for some of Myanmar’s rural areas was initiated
by the Post and Telecommunications Department (PTD), which is organizationally under the
Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT). A multipurpose community telecentre was set up
at Phaunggyi village which is located about 48 miles from Yangon. The centre is assisted by
the Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB), and its purpose is to improve the living
standards of people in rural areas. The government plans to install about 6 000 small satellite
terminals at remote areas within three years. There is considerable potential to expand on the
use of ICT for the transfer of technology to farmers given the current constraints within the
DOA.
Agricultural research
Operational linkages between the various research institutions and among research, extension
and training organizations within the MOAI are very weak. There are many research
institutions that conduct research on a variety of crops, topics and problems, without any
systematic mechanism of coordination, exposing the process of technology generation to
24
duplications and overlaps with consequent low efficiency of utilization of limited financial
and human resources. Although research allocations of departments, institutes and
enterprises, seem to cover most current expenditures, they are, however, a very small
percentage of the total budgets of the institutions. If research volume and quality were to
increase significantly from present low levels, these allocations would represent a major
constraint.
The number of skilled research staff with advanced degrees is still limited, but has changed
quite significantly in the years since the Agriculture Sector Review (ASR) was undertaken in
2004. Those who have such degrees are, for the most part, assigned to managerial posts and
do not implement research projects. The vast majority of research staff that implement
projects have B.Sc. degrees or lower academic qualification. In addition, a significant number
of experienced senior staff is being retired and/or leaving research and extension institutions,
without an equivalent rate of replacement. The very low salary and incentives in research
contribute to exacerbating this problem.
Key areas that constrain R&D in Myanmar are the lack of understanding, diagnosis and
analysis of farming systems across the country, and the need for greater knowledge on
research and extension methodology and linkage. In addition to these major constraints other
constraints to the research capacity of the DAR are presented in Box 2.
Box 2: Constraints in the research capacity of the DAR
Commodity- and production-based research: Existing research programmes are, for the
most part, commodity-based and production-oriented. Most projects are ‘stand-alone’ and
isolated in the sense that they do not form building blocks of a carefully designed programme
targeted to solving identified constraints. Projects normally do not take into account farmers’
needs and constraints, production cost, profitability, marketing and insertion of the researched
technology into the prevailing cropping system. Many similar activities are repeated year
after year without a clear objective.
Centrally planned research: Most research projects are centrally planned at headquarters
for implementation in research farms. Those who plan do not have the in-depth experience
and knowledge of the local agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions, and those who
implement in many instances do not understand the technical design of the projects. In
addition, priorities are usually set at headquarters without effective involvement of research
field staff, extension agents and farmers.
Lack of focus on environmental and social limitations: Most research staff are conscious
of environmental and social limitations, and state that their objective is to develop relevant
low cost technologies, but often their evaluation and selection of genotypes and other
experiments are conducted under stress-free environments, which favours technologies
(treatments) that perform better under a high level of inputs.
Lack of specialist skills: Overall numbers of research and extension staff may seem
adequate, but most institutions lack sufficient numbers of skilled experts. Specialized training
programmes in research and extension based on farmers’ needs and constraints, agro-
ecological and socio-economic conditions, and realities of research and extension
organizations, are virtually nonexistent. Even training at the postgraduate level at YAU is not
specifically tailored to addressing priority constraints of research and extension.
Strategy for staff recruitment: Staff recruitment does not follow a logical strategy because
25
it is centrally controlled without proper consideration of the needs of institutions, projects,

objectives or priorities. Promotions and incentives do not take into consideration staff
performance and seem to be a major factor of discontent among research personnel.
Morale and motivation: Although not openly expressed, research staff seem to have low
motivation and enthusiasm because of low salaries, scientific isolation, lack of training, lack
of promotions, limited equipment and facilities, among others. This has a negative effect on
the creativity and initiative of the research staff. Some research staff seem to have additional
responsibilities for commercial production of certain commodities, hence deviating their
attention from research work.
Information exchange: The exchange of scientific information and research results between
research organizations, and among research, extension and training institutions is very
limited. Libraries of research, extension and training institutions are outdated and lack the
most important agricultural scientific literature. Scientific seminars and workshops are
limited and attended mostly by managerial staff.
Agribusiness and socio-economic aspects of farming: Issues of profitability, production
cost, marketing, environmental constraints and socio-economic conditions of farmers are
seldom considered in the planning and design stage of research projects. The planning
process is mostly top-down, due to previous experiences, lack of skilled personnel at the local
level and rigid organizational structure that does not facilitate creative thinking.
Mechanization and production efficiency: Production efficiency of major commodities is
an important requisite for improving the comparative advantage of Myanmar agriculture.
Proper farm mechanization will contribute to increasing the efficiency and reducing the cost
of production in suitable production systems, but research on farm machinery focused on
needs of small farmers is virtually nonexistent.
Research in agricultural biotechnology: Agricultural biotechnology research is restricted
mostly to tissue culture techniques for plant multiplication purposes, and to a lesser extent for
production of virus-free plantlets. Even this simple form of research encounters serious
limitations in facilities, equipment, materials and skilled experts. Any form of more
sophisticated biotechnology research would be even more constrained by lack of equipment
and relevant skills.
Source: Adapted from UNDP and FAO (2004).
Education and training
Skills and knowledge of YAU teaching staff are outdated. The institution lacks modern
facilities and equipment, has an outdated curriculum biased towards theory with less attention
to practical skills, has a weak communication system for exchange of scientific information,
has outdated farm equipment for research and teaching, has very limited laboratory
equipment and facilities, limited budget, very low salaries and incentives for teaching and
administrative staff, and weak external linkages.
The graduate and postgraduate education provided by the YAU is not modern and based on
the old curriculum framed 15 to 20 years ago. Most of the laboratory facilities are outdated
and much of the equipment does not work, hence education provided by the YAU is skewed
towards theory classes. The farm facilities are also substandard. Many important scientific
books and periodicals are not available in the library because of their high cost and limited
budget.
26
Formal training is often outdated with little relevance for the realities of the extension
service, resulting in young professionals who are not fully prepared. The capacity of these
training institutions to adapt is constrained by the weak interaction and restricted flow of
information between them and the extension institutions. The Central Agricultural Research
and Development and Training Centre (CARTC) has very good physical facilities for
informal training, but it lacks the most simple field and laboratory equipment, materials and
supplies. Training programmes for extension staff are very limited and seldom benefit
grassroots extension workers.
The university does conduct research programmes, but does not have outlying research
stations. Much of the research is for academic purposes (theses of MSc and PhD students),
but there is also focus on development of technologies for commercial production. A
substantial part of the research is done in collaboration with the DAR.
4.3. Donor and technical organizations in agricultural development
As presented in Annex 11 there are many donors currently involved in agricultural
development in Myanmar. A detailed description of development partner activities is also
presented in the JICA (2013) report on the agriculture sector survey of Myanmar.
The current problem with the provision of aid to Myanmar is the lack of proper coordination
notwithstanding the Thematic Group on Food Security and Agriculture in Myanmar
(TGFSA) and the Food Security Working Group (FSWG), which have the main failing that
they only involved the donor community and NGOs, but not government entities.
There are about 16 UN agencies and several multilateral and bilateral donors present in
Myanmar in spite of certain international sanctions. Various types of sanctions are being
imposed by individual countries and/or development agencies, for whatever reasons, that are
of little help in developing poor farmer communities. Only recently the international isolation
of Myanmar has started to fade due to long-awaited political reforms in the country. It should
be noted that Myanmar is a country full of natural resources, most of which have not been
tapped yet. There is no doubt that with enhanced involvement of the donor community, the
country can progress much faster in all aspects, including rural and agriculture development.
Examples of donors and technical organizations are: The Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) , the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the
United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), the European Union (mainly in poverty alleviation via
Millenium Development Goals), the Department for International Development (DFID), the
Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) and the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN).
4.4. Nongovernment organizations
Although most NGOs provide activities related to food security and livelihood improvement,
some other organizations offer activities for improving agricultural productivity,
consolidating irrigation infrastructure, provision of microcredit etc., while many others focus
support on health and education.
Almost all the NGOs working in Myanmar are international and have signed Memoranda of
Understanding or Letters of Agreement with the government. In spite of certain difficulties in
working in the field mainly caused by international sanctions, there were about 65 NGOs
27
active in various sectors, including agriculture, health and postdisaster rehabilitation. Most of
their funding comes from Japan, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France, Norway and
Italy. Examples of such NGOs are: Action Aid Myanmar (AAM), Water Research and
Training Center – Myanmar (WRTC-Myanmar), World Vision Myanmar (WVM), Capacity
Building Initiative (CBI), Population Services International (PSI), PACT and GRET.
Some of the operational constraints faced by the NGOs working in Myanmar include lack of
mobility of expatriate staff, changing visa approval rules, short-term donor funding, weak
local capacity, and lack of reliable data and government bureaucratic procedures. A list of
NGOs is presented on the Web site http://www.aseanpostnargiskm.org/knowledge-
base/links/ngos-in-myanmar
4.5. Civil society organizations
Civil society organizations include farmers’ organizations, farmer-based associations,
cooperatives and related societies. In general, there has been little encouragement in
Myanmar to form farmers’ associations at the village level and above. Apart from farmers’
groups formed by the Myanmar Agriculture Service, no significant extension-related
associations exist. The following two associations have been identified but they are
commercial and export-oriented in character: Myanmar Fish Farmers Association (MFFA)
and Myanmar Rubber Planters and Producers’ Association (MRPPA).
The Central Co-operatives Association, which is under the supervision of the Ministry of
Cooperatives, received a microfinance license recently and it is operating 46 microfinance
institutions that function as village banks in states and regions. Cooperatives focus primarily
on deposit mobilization and microloans, especially in urban areas. As of May 2012, its total
membership was 32 851. Cooperatives in agriculture have suffered for many years from poor
management and inappropriate use of funds, and at present are considered by most farmers as
an entity to be avoided.
4.6. Private sector entities
Presently, few private companies are involved in extension work, and those that are providing
advisory services are mainly the seed companies with contract growers. However, there are
commercial trade companies, some based in other countries, which handle export or import
of various agricultural commodities such as timber and a variety of other items. As
mentioned earlier in this report there are a number of companies involved in seed production
and also the supply of agricultural inputs – fertilizer, pesticides, machinery etc. For a list of
such companies supposedly in Myanmar refer to the Web site: www.list-of-
companies.org/Myanmar/Agriculture
Recently, the government created the Myanmar Rice Industry Association (MRIA) to
promote the export of rice. This was done by merging three existing associations, namely the
Myanmar Rice and Traders’ Association, the Myanmar Millers’ Association and the
Myanmar Paddy Producers’ Association.
Value chains, especially trading and marketing aspects, are undertaken with extensive
involvement of the private sector, with trading and marketing centres in the major cities
across Myanmar.
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5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT
This section outlines the aspects which currently impede the development of the crop sector,
and provides some details of lessons learned from previous interventions, and opportunities
for overcoming/ameliorating such constraints. In order to try to rationalize the shortlisting of
key contracts an effort has been made to define appropriate selection criteria.
5.1. Crop sector constraints and opportunities
Major issues related to the low productivity of agriculture and more particularly the crop
sector is presented in Table 7.
Table 7: Major issues and actions required to alleviate the low productivity of the
crop sector
Major issues Actions needed

 High incidence of small landholdings,  Increased public and private sector investment
landlessness in the agriculture production in agriculture and rural infrastructure and
areas services
 Insecurity of land tenure and user rights  Development of differential policies for
 Climate change resulting in increased promoting market-driven agriculture and other
incidence of severe droughts in the CDZ interventions related to using agriculture as a
(Sagaing, Mandalay and Magway divisions), tool for poverty alleviation
as well as seasonal droughts in other parts of  Promote evidence-based policy development
the country such as the border areas and the for the agriculture sector
Ayeyarwaddy Delta  Support dissemination of improved crop,
 Food insecurity, particularly on a seasonal livestock and aquaculture production
basis technology for sustainable agricultural
 Lack of productive farming resources and intensification and diversification
agricultural inputs including land, irrigation,  Support community seed production for
draught power, equipment, fertilizer and multiplication of the foundation seed at the
improved HYV seed farm level
 Lack of effective water harvesting and  Strengthen linkages between agricultural
management practices research and extension services
 Relatively weak agricultural extension service  Build links with the private sector for
especially in minority and remoter border marketing, input supply and other services.
areas  Introduce a cash-for-work programme to
 Inadequate investment in agricultural research provide rural employment and reduce rural
services poverty
 Lack of market-oriented production – top-  Focus on integrated farming systems to
down directives on quotas for rice production promote livestock and aquaculture
for export development
 High dependency on a single annual rice crop  Strengthen the capacity of the agricultural
as the main source of income for farmers in extension service and integrate it with
many areas livestock and fisheries extension
 Lack of access to credit, markets, marketing  Promote income generation for resource-poor
information, trading skills and input supplies; households through on-farm and off-farm
 Agriculture value chains are inefficient activities
 Promote climate change adaptation practices
at the community level
 Promote evidence-based policies and action
plans for adaptation to climate change
29
Cultivation of annual crops in Myanmar is characterized by low production and low

profitability. But, given the abundance of natural resources and labour availability, there is a
high potential for improving overall agricultural economic performance by intensification and
modernization of crop production and diversification of farm activities. This should be
implemented for all major commodities giving due consideration to the differences in
production systems and market conditions, but always focusing on maximizing financial
returns sustainably. There is a high potential for further development of irrigation with
participation of the private sector and involvement of users in the management and O&M of
irrigation schemes.
The opportunities that have been identified for the crop sector include: (a) an integrated
farming systems approach, (b) improved seed supply system, (c) integrated pest and nutrient
management, (d) climate smart agriculture and conservation farming, (e) rainwater
harvesting, effective irrigation, drainage and flood protection, (f) crop diversification, (g)
improved agricultural mechanization and (h) community-based farming systems and area
development.
Shortage of labour due to outmigration of rural youth is also becoming a major constraint for
agricultural development. Many of these rural migrants also go to foreign countries for better
remuneration. It is estimated that remittances received from this migrant labour force come to
US$3 billion annually. Moreover, most overseas migrants come from rural areas and
especially from the poverty-ridden dry zone or other areas. This is also considered one of the
biggest opportunities for private sector investment in agriculture. Making optimal use of
remittances from overseas migrant workers by their families back home for increasing
production and profit of their family farms would be a good opportunity for intervention by
extension services.
5.2. Opportunities for strengthening research and extension
Agriculture extension
The process of reforming extension strategies: In Myanmar under the current government,
political changes, the reform agenda and trade liberalization have brought the agriculture
sector into a better position to transform into agribusiness structure. The MOAI is now
preparing regional integration and revising land and virgin land law. Foreign companies are
now seeking opportunities in feasible areas of Myanmar agribusiness. Across the regional
economic corridors, Myanmar is now at a turning point for agricultural transformation. It is
expected to cover the supply of agri-inputs, production and transformation of farm produce
and distribution to final consumers. Their role will be increasingly important in strengthening
linkages between agribusiness farms, farmers, retailers and others throughout the supply
chain. The reform strategy and development plan of the AED is to also include the following:
(a) strengthening the agricultural extension mechanism and information dissemination
systems for rural development, (b) provision of training to produce quality seeds and other
GAP and (c) strengthening agro-based industries in the private sector.
For the extension system to sustain this process, it would need to decentralize its planning
approach in order to give local managers (state/division, district, township and village tract)
responsibilities and resources to plan and implement extension programmes relevant to their
specific agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions. Success in disseminating improved
technologies by extension organizations requires functional linkages with stakeholders
including farmers, research institutions, training centres and the private sector.
30
Decentralization of extension planning and upgrading of skills of extension staff would

facilitate the establishment of efficient linkage mechanisms.
There are many seed farms and skilled staff in the various extension institutions strategically
located throughout the country covering all agro-ecological conditions and production areas.
Some of these farms could be carefully selected and reorganized within a national seed
production programme, with participation of the public and private sectors, which could
assure production of sufficient and high quality certified seed to cover significant areas of all
major crops. Presently, public institutions do not produce enough seed of high quality to
satisfy the demand for all major commodities. There is a potential opportunity for active
participation of the private sector in seed production. The new Seed Law under consideration
by the MOAI includes regulations to guide approval for variety release from research
institutions. It is expected that these regulations will help to assure that proper varieties are
released for the relevant agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions intended.
The need for change in the research system of Myanmar is evident because there are many
institutional and procedural constraints leading to inefficiencies and low output, such as
duplication of research activities, weak linkages between research and extension, low rate of
technology adoption, top-down research planning, low research budget, low salaries and
benefits, low staff morale, inefficient use of research facilities, inadequate skills of research
staff, little attention to markets, outdated laboratory and field equipment, little attention to
poverty issues and social limitations, among others.
In order to determine what needs to be changed, a more detailed diagnostic study of the
research system and its institutions, with effective participation of stakeholders, including
farmers, should be implemented. This would be a mandatory component of an investment
programme designed to strengthen the research system. It would help to identify existing
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. If, for example, the bias towards high
production observed in current research programmes is in fact a reflection of the surplus, self-
sufficiency and export production policies, then maybe a change in policy is required to
realign research focus towards farm profitability rather than commodity production.
Even if the need for change in the research system seems to be obvious, the process needs to
be approached with caution. Small farming agriculture is, by nature, a conservative and
traditional business, very much risk averse and resistant to changes. Procedural and
institutional changes in research take time and affect many interests. Effective change will
only take place if all involved are sincerely committed to it, especially managers at the
various levels.
Myanmar has a large research network of institutions and physical facilities strategically
located in all agro-ecological regions of the country, and well suited for the development of
an efficient multidisciplinary research system capable of covering all agro-ecological and
socio-economic limitations and constraints of major commodities. But most institutions lack
systematic mechanisms of coordination, exposing the process of technology generation to
duplications, overlaps and low efficiency. Clear linkages and coordination mechanisms
among these institutions need to be established in order to rationalize facilities, resources and
operations to ensure efficiency and synergies. Rationalization of research facilities and
programmes should be considered in order to keep only strategic units that represent major
agro-ecological regions and host high priority programmes that have potential for significant
31
socio-economic impact. These facilities should have modern and updated equipment, and
provide proper working conditions for a professional research workforce.
A comprehensive review of human resources and expert skills in research is necessary in
order to develop a highly efficient, motivated, and professional research workforce.
Postgraduate training at YAU and abroad must be considered because the present job market
does not have the skills necessary in sufficient numbers for immediate hiring. A relevant
human resource development programme must be established within the research system
with salaries, allowances and incentives comparable to the private sector in order to attract
and retain high calibre experts.
The DAR has active links with IRRI, CIMMYT, ICRISAT, IAEA, IPGRI, AVRDC, CIP and
IITA. The maintenance and strengthening of this collaboration would be very important
within a revitalized research system in Myanmar. The DAR's germplasm bank has almost 15
000 accessions of major and minor crops. This carefully maintained germplasm bank is an
extremely important source of genetic variability for future plant breeding research projects.
The diversity of agro-ecological conditions, production systems, crops, and socio-economic
conditions poses difficulties for proper coordination and linkages among research, extension
and training institutions. Agricultural technology is usually location-specific, which calls for
decentralization of research, whereas cost issues and assembly of critical scientific mass
tends to centralize research operations in specific locations. Balancing these conflicting
requirements will be a major challenge for an efficient organizational structure of research in
Myanmar.
Agricultural education
The YAU is well located and has good infrastructure facility, experienced teaching staff,
functional interaction with national and international organizations, and a research farm with
access to irrigation. YAU is the only institution for higher learning in agriculture and has
strategic importance in preparing skilled scientists for strengthening the research and
extension systems. But the skills and knowledge of teaching staff are outdated. The
institution lacks modern facilities and equipment, has an outdated curriculum biased towards
theory with less attention to practical skills, has a weak communication system for exchange
of scientific information, has outdated farm equipment for research and teaching, has very
limited laboratory equipment and facilities, limited budget, very low salaries and incentives
for teaching and administrative staff, and weak external linkages. The MOAI should consider
as a matter of urgency a major review of the YAU (and also of the state agricultural institutes
and CARTC), followed by an investment programme to upgrade these institutions to a level
capable of producing high quality graduates for research and extension.
Strengthening the YAU would include affiliation with other foreign universities and
institutes, establishment of student and staff exchange programmes, modernization of its
teaching and research facilities, development of a modern information technology system,
improvement of the postgraduate programmes, closer collaboration with other organizations
of the MOAI and the private sector, participation in national and international seminars and
workshops, development of a systematic mechanism for revision and updating the teaching
curriculum and syllabus, strong emphasis on agro-industrialization, market-oriented
agriculture development, among others.
Areas needing improvement: (a) general review of the BS, MS and PhD curricula, develop an
agro-ecosystem-based curriculum and research programme; (b) improvement and completion
32
of the university strategic plan including the departmental strategic plans; (c) continuing an
expanded staff development programme for new programme offerings; (d) reviewing the
seven subcampuses as facilities for instruction, research, practise and extension; (e) creating a
Department of Agricultural Extension Education, conducting collaborative research with the
DAR and DOA and providing the university with a direct extension service to rural farmers
like the e-Agriculture Information Center; (f) modernization of the new campus layout,
building a paved on-campus road system, conducting student extra-curricular activities and
pro-student welfare facilities, providing IT-ready and connection facilities as well as staff
housing; (g) academic administration including university governance and organization for
higher effectiveness and efficiency need streamlining; (h) adjustment in pedagogy in the
teaching of courses, considering large class size, limited number of faculties, limited space
and equipment for use in instruction; (i) the process, structure and content of the university
research agenda and programming need to be clarified and defined; and (j) the collection,
system and facilities of the university library need to be upgraded and updated.
5.3. Coordination mechanism for agricultural research, extension and education
There are many organizations that conduct research in the country without proper
coordination and with high potential for overlaps and duplications. Practically, there is no
mechanism for coordination between research, extension and education. Education and
training institutions are doing some research on a ‘stand-alone’ basis which does not seem to
have much relevance for transfer of technology. In view of this, the MOAI needs to consider
the possibility of creating a National Agricultural Research and Development Council, which
would provide oversight and coordinate all agricultural research and extension activities.
The most common processes by which research and extension organizations interact in
Myanmar is through annual research meetings sponsored by the DAR with the participation
of extension managers at division, district and township levels; annual research seminars
convened by the Myanmar Academy of Agricultural Sciences; individual interactions
between field extension staff via SMS, which is mostly ad-hoc and not organized; and
organization of farmers by field extension staff for seed production, implementation of
demonstration plots and training, which is also neither systematic nor organized. There is
therefore a need to improve the management interface between research and extension
(including the Plant Protection, Land Use and Seed Division under the DOA). Furthermore,
there is a requirement to rationalize the use of DOA and DAR facilities, for example the
present research stations under the DOA should realistically be transferred to the DAR.
The Myanmar Academy of Agricultural Sciences aims to strengthen interaction and
coordination between research and extension. It promotes an annual research meeting where
scientists have a chance to present and publish their research results. Annual proceedings are
regularly printed and distributed mostly among research staff. Further support for the
academy is recommended.
6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS
This section outlines the relationship of the sector to rural poverty, gender equity and other
vulnerable populations. It endeavours to highlight the approaches and priority needs which
could reduce negative impacts identified and/or reinforce positive aspects. Reference should
be made in this regard to Annex 9, the main points of which are summarized in Table 8.
33
Table 8: Poverty analysis of rural poor, gender and disadvantaged groups
Poverty level and causes Coping actions Priority needs

Rural poor (especially small marginal and vulnerable farmers as well as ethnic groups)
 Living on less than US$1.25  Local agricultural wage  Household food security
per day  Work for larger farmers  Opportunities to
 Chronic food insecurity  Seasonal migration for work intensify/diversify
 Lack adequate access to (urban areas and overseas) agricultural production
productive assets (land, draught  Reduction in food intake (including traditional
power, water  Dependence on exploitation varieties, local breeds and
control/irrigation facilities) of natural resources such as traditional practices)
 High ratio of dependents to forests  Additional productive assets
workers  Home gardening and (land, draught power,
 Little or no wage subsistence fisheries for food water/irrigation facilities)
employment or off-farm security  Secure land tenure
income-generating  Selling off assets  Access to public and private
opportunities available  Borrowing from money sector agricultural services
locally lenders (extension, input supply,
 Small landholdings  Livestock/fisheries marketing, microfinance
insufficient for household etc.)
food security and decent  Availability of off-farm
living opportunities in rural areas
 High level of indebtedness (including traditional
 Lack of access to credit activities) and provision of
services at an affordable cost services
 Poor education and literacy  Improved health and
levels education services
 High levels of illness and  Improved rural infrastructure
expenditure on health  Capacity building of
 Vulnerability to drought and community organizations to
floods assist with extension and
 Lower wages for women development
compared to men
Rural women (particularly female-headed households; including women from ethnic groups)
per day  Work for larger farmers  Opportunities to intensify
 Chronic food insecurity  Seasonal migration for work and diversify agricultural
 Lack of adequate access to (urban/abroad) production (including
productive assets (land,  Reduction in food intake traditional varieties, local
draught power, water  Dependence on exploitation breeds and traditional
control/irrigation facilities) of natural resources such as practices)
 Little or no wage forests  Productive assets
employment or off-farm  Home gardening and  Secure land tenure
income-generating  subsistence fisheries for food  Access to public and private
opportunities available security sector agricultural services
locally  Selling off assets  Availability of off-farm
 Small landholdings  Borrowing from money income-generating activities
insufficient for household lenders (including traditional
food security  Taking children out of activities) in
 High level of indebtedness school rural areas & provision of
 Lack of access to credit services
34
services at an affordable cost  Opportunities for home

 Poor level of education and gardens, livestock and
literacy subsistence
 High levels of domestic fisheries/aquaculture for
violence food security
 High levels of illness and  Promotion of rainwater
expenditure on health harvesting through
 Vulnerability to recurrent encouraging
drought and floods farm/homestead/village
ponds for enhanced
availability of water,
recharging the groundwater
table and diversification of
family farming
 Improved health and
education services
 Support for children
 Improved personal and
livestock security
 Tackling domestic violence
 Capacity building of
community-based
organizations for women’s
empowerment
Landless and poor rural households (including ethnic group households)
per day labour  Availability of off-farm
 Little or no wage  Seasonal migration for work income-generating
employment or nonfarm (urban areas and overseas) opportunities (including
income generating  Reduction in food intake traditional activities) in
opportunities available locally  Dependence on exploitation rural areas and provision of
 High ratio of dependents to of natural resources such as associated support services
workers forests  Opportunities for home
 High level of indebtedness  Home gardening and gardens and subsistence
 Lack of access to credit subsistence fisheries for food fisheries for food security
services at an affordable cost security  Better use of remittances
 Poor level of education and  Selling off assets through agri-based
literacy  Borrowing from money productive activities
 High levels of illness and lenders  Improved health and
expenditure on health culturally sensitive
education services
 Improved access to livestock
 Capacity building and
strengthening of community-
based organizations to assist
with empowerment activities
6.1. Situation analysis of rural poverty in Myanmar
Myanmar is one of the poorest nations in Asia, ranking 149 among 186 nations rated in the
2013 Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Programme.
Myanmar is also the largest country in Southeast Asia, with rich endowments of land and
35
water, and a favourable climate for agriculture. In 2011, its ethnically diverse population was
estimated at 60.6 million, with an annual growth rate of 1.3 percent. The agriculture sector
(including livestock and fisheries) is considered the backbone of the economy and some 70
percent of the labour force is engaged in agriculture or depends to a large extent on
agriculture for income.
Despite its potential for growth, the agriculture sector has suffered chronically from
insufficient investment in research, extension, technology transfer, infrastructural
development, value chain upgrading and marketing. Furthermore, farmers have not received
remunerative prices for their products, leading to declining rural incomes.
Ironically for such a resource-rich country, there is a strong association between agriculture
and poverty in Myanmar. While it produces a surplus of food in aggregate terms, many rural
areas suffer from chronic and acute food insecurity. In addition, the incidence of poverty in
rural areas is significantly higher than in urban areas, and rural areas lag behind in terms of
health, social and educational indicators as well. The rural poor typically consist of the
landless, farmers with access to small and marginal landholdings (usually less than 2 ha each)
and ethnic groups. Most of the poor live either in the CDZ – where soils are sandy, rainfall is
low and population density is high – or in hill tracts populated by ethnic groups, which are
remote, has limited arable land and have been affected by conflict.
Rural women are among Myanmar's most marginalized groups, with high vulnerability to
food insecurity and poverty. While Buddhist customary law and the 2008 Constitution
provide equal rights to women, they are not well represented in the political and higher-level
administrative sphere outside of the traditional areas of social services, health and education.
At the local level, there are few women representatives in decision-making bodies.
Myanmar is ethnically diverse, with eight major ethnic groups, 135 subgroups and 108
different ethnolinguistic groups. As the ancestral lands of ethnic groups typically contain
valuable mineral resources, they have been exploited by outsiders, leading to conflicts. Ethnic
groups suffer from physical, social and economic isolation because of difficult topography
and political neglect.
6.2. Mitigation of rural poverty through NAPA
The interventions shortlisted in Section 7 of this report are considered to have a high impact
on rural poverty in Myanmar. They will directly benefit the poor through:(a) improved supply
of inputs such as seeds, (b) the introduction of climate-smart agriculture and conservation
farming, (c) integrated area development planning and rural development of village lands, (d)
access to improved agricultural advisory information through changes to the extension
delivery system via ICT and (e) the introduction of more diversified and integrated cropping
systems for improved livelihoods, environmental protection and human nutrition. Farmers
will also indirectly benefit from the implementation of an intervention to improve the
coordination and effectiveness of the research and extension system.
While the geographical focus of the prescribed interventions is country-wide, specific focus
will be given to areas and communities most at risk in the CDZ and the more isolated areas in
the eastern upland regions.
36
7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT
This section documents six priority recommended areas of intervention and investment under
NAPA and these are presented according to the required format in Annex 8. For the most part
the interventions included a range of actions according to the following categories: (a)
technical aspects, (b) organizational and institutional change, (c) capacity building, (d) policy
and strategy development, and (e) area development (regional projects and programmes).
A range of criteria was used in the selection of priority interventions: (i) impact on poverty
and livelihoods – contribution to poverty reduction and food security; (ii) assistance to
alleviate gender equity/imbalance and assist the landless (income-generating activities etc.);
(iii) greatest impact on immediate primary beneficiaries – smallholder farmers and the
landless; (iv) geographical focus – risk-prone areas (e.g. CDZ); (v) significant and sustainable
long-term benefits with as far as possible immediate short-term benefits; (vi) alignment with
GOM/MOAI/regional government policies for agricultural development, poverty reduction
and rural development; (vii) encouragement of private sector/community participation; (viii)
the presence of agribusiness and supporting infrastructure; (ix) community support with the
involvement of village development committees and farm groups, where possible; and (x) no
negative impact/effect on the environment, ecology, productive resources (e.g. agricultural
land) or existing infrastructure.
It is important to note that interventions can have direct benefits to the primary target groups
or through support to improving the enabling environment, and have a longer term benefit
through support to the government, civil society organizations and/or the private sector.
The six shortlisted interventions/investments are:
a. Development of the agriculture seed sector;
b. Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming;
c. Improved agricultural extension and research systems;
d. Integrated area development planning and rural development;
e. Improved ICT for farming communities; and
f. Crop diversification for improved livelihoods, environmental protection and
human nutrition.
7.1. Development of the agriculture seed sector
There is high potential for further crop yield enhancement through improved seed quality and
distribution, and the scope for this much needed change is to be brought about by:
a. Reducing the large gap between supply and demand as certified rice seed only
covers less than 10 percent of current needs.
b. As a result of the extremely low investment in agricultural research and
extension, increasing investment in the seed industry in particular.
c. Promoting seed associations, seed community-based production and seed
banks.
d. Increasing private investment in the seed industry.
37
e. Promoting mechanisms for coordination among government agencies and

among government, private sector and farmer organizations, and also
encouraging public and private partnerships.
f. Providing assistance in infrastructure for seed production, equipment for seed
quality control and capacity building of farmers, technicians and private sector
operators.
g. Promulgating a seed policy to effectively implement the existing Seed Law
7.2. Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming
There is good potential to mitigate the risks of climate change to crop and farming system
sustainability through improved R&D and extension delivery of climate-smart-related
technologies; the scope for this urgently needed change is given below:
a. While the intervention will target the country as a whole, particular focus will
be on the CDZ where the adverse effects of climate change are most apparent.
b. The initial primary concern will be the need to establish within the MOAI an
entity responsible for the coordination of the climate-smart initiative; this will
require cross sector collaboration and linkages (MLFRD and MOECF), and
strong bonds between the DOA and DAR.
c. The programme will need to source the whole suite of existing climate-smart
technologies that have been developed/used in Myanmar, while in addition
other appropriate technologies will need to be sourced from international
sources ‒ ICRAF, ICRISAT, IRRI, CIMMYT, FAO, etc.
d. Testing of technologies to closely involve the farming community, and where
wide-scale extension of climate-smart agriculture is undertaken, through the
involvement of village development committees and participatory dialogue
using integrated village watershed planning approaches.
e. A feed-back mechanism will facilitate a better understanding of the key
constraints to farmers in regards to the impact of climate change and the
appropriateness of the technologies.
f. There is a need to train both research and extension government staff in
climate-smart agriculture and sustainable agriculture methods and
technologies; assistance in this respect from development partners could be
appropriate to facilitate such capacity building of staff. Later, farmers would be
trained in the technologies.
g. Policy will be required to effectively implement the changes to the
development of village lands on a communal basis, especially with regard to
the impact that they will have on land tenure arrangements. In this respect a
legal framework on land tenure might need to be prepared for approval by the
GOM.
7.3. Improved agricultural extension and research system
There is potential for further crop yield enhancement through improved efficiencies in the
R&D and extension delivery systems, and the scope for this much needed change will be
brought about by:
38
a. As a result of the extremely low investment in agricultural research and

extension (currently only 1-2 percent of the MOAI’s budget) there is a need to
significantly increase investment in government entities responsible for service
provision.
b. The poor collaboration and coordination between the MOAI research and
extension services require the formation of a National Agricultural
Development Council which has the mandate to coordinate and manage the
R&D and extension activities in the agriculture sector. To be effective, this
should include the involvement of the crop, livestock and aquaculture
components of the farming system and hence the development of strong
linkages between the MOAI and MLFRD.
c. Serious consideration is required for much greater involvement of the private
sector in both research and extension activities.
d. Through a better understanding of the key constraints to farmers, there is need
to prioritize and develop interventions through a better planning process.
e. There is a need for assistance in infrastructure rehabilitation for research
centres, which also need to be properly equipped.
f. There is a need for much improved research planning and management systems
within the DAR.
g. The rationalization of the institutional arrangement between and within the
MOAI, more particularly the DOA and DAR, with the possible
incorporation/transfer of DOA research centres into the DAR.
h. Capacity building of research and extension staff to better understand new
technologies and production techniques, and matters that relate to climate
change, conservation agriculture, value chains and marketing, and the socio-
economic aspects of farming.
i. Policy will be needed to effectively implement the changes to the
organizational and institutional setup in the research and extension systems
within the MOAI.
j. Strengthen the coordination between all government, donor, NGO and private
sector entities involved in agriculture to avoid duplication and ensure that all
interventions follow government policy objectives.
7.4. Integrated area development planning and rural development
There is good potential to ensure that the sustainable management of the natural resource
base and the economic well-being of communities at the local level can be achieved through
community-based integrated area development; the scope for this change is anticipated to be
brought about by:
a. As regards the geographical focus, the intervention will target the country as a
whole in the longer term, but initially will focus on areas which are at greatest
risk ‒ the CDZ, the delta region and vulnerable communities in the hilly areas.
b. Initially the programme is to expand on the activities of the DOA Land Use
Division for detailed mapping of AEZs while incorporating the support of the
DAR and other entities in widening categorization of the various zones and
39
subzones to include information on the agro-socio-economic aspects of the

farming systems. Links with other ministries, namely MLFRD and MOECF,
will also be essential.
c. The programme will need to source the whole range of information, which will
entail close collaboration with concerned donors and CGIAR institutes. It
should be noted that FAO has done a considerable amount of work on the
development of AEZs.
d. Training materials will be prepared covering aspects of AEZs, farming
systems, integrated planning etc., and DOA extension staff will be trained in
the use of these materials. This exercise could involve the use of NGOs where
appropriate.
e. Subsequent to the definition of the zones, a pilot programme will be initiated
targeting the townships and villages as identified by the government for the
rural development programme.
f. An awareness and training exercise will be undertaken among the communities
in integrated village land development planning, using background material on
the characteristics of the farming and land-use systems.
g. Subsequent to the training exercise the selected village communities led by
their village development committee will prepare an integrated village
development plan, incorporating changes to land use and land development,
linked to sustainable development of the natural resource base and
improvements to livelihoods from both on- and off-farm sources.
h. The final stage will be the financing of the village development plans through
the GOM rural development fund administered by MLFRD.
i. Policy changes to the Land Law will be needed to address the issue of the
change to land use, land tenure and land management system, which will be
identified during the village planning process.
7.5. Improved information technology and communications
To increase access of smallholders, marginal farmers and poor households in rural areas to
GAP, technologies and information in order to diversify and improve their income through an
improved ICT system. The scope for this is:
a. The intervention will target the country as a whole in the longer term, through
better access to information technology, and will involve not only the MOAI
but other government entities including the Post and Telecommunications
Department (PTD), Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT) and
Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB).
b. The current capabilities of the DOA as regards ICT and the transfer of
information will be enhanced, and the latest proven technologies and GAP will
be made available from the DAR and other agriculture information providers,
through the Internet.
c. The latest communication technologies in terms of soft and hardware and
computer IT skills will be provided to government staff.
40
d. The intervention will incorporate the development of a completely revised and

comprehensive Internet interface that is both topical and user friendly. This
Internet site should be in both the Myanmar and English language.
e. Training at all levels – government staff, civil societies, NGOs, farmers and
farmer association, and the private sector will need to be conducted.
f. The possibilities of the involvement of the private sector and public-private
partnerships will be explored to enhance the efficiency of the networks and
information transfer, especially with regard to agriculture, soil and water
management, livestock, fishery and forestry sectors.
g. A range of interventions will be introduced including: (a) an agriculture market
information system (AMIS); (b) ICT for rural development planning and
implementation; (c) establishment of e-kiosks; (d) establishment of community
e-Centers; and (e) establishment of village information centers with
connectivity and content.
h. A number of GOM policies are anticipated that will need to be
reviewed/amended to ensure that the systems are able to function and private
sector access in support of the intervention is enabled.
7.6. Crop diversification for improved livelihoods and human nutrition
There is good potential to mitigate the risks of the ongoing poverty trap related to the
continuous reliance on the cultivation of rice through crop diversification through improved
R&D and extension delivery of improved cropping systems, and the scope for this urgently
needed change is anticipated to be generated as follows:
a. The intervention will target the country as a whole, with particular focus on
regions where large-scale cultivation of alternative crops like legumes and
oilseeds is predominant (e.g. the CDZ). For this to succeed, a cropping systems
approach to diversification will be applied.
b. Initially the programme is to expand on the activities of the Australian Centre
for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and other donor projects
within the MOAI working closely with the DAR and DOA. For this to transpire
and improve impact at the farmer level, linkages between the DOA and ACIAR
will need to be strengthened.
c. The programme will need to source the whole range of existing crop
diversification technologies that have been developed/used in Myanmar, while
in addition other appropriate technologies will need to be sourced from
international sources ‒ ACIAR, ICRAF, ICRISAT, IRRI, CIMMYT and FAO.
d. Testing of technologies to closely involve the farming community, and where
wide-scale extension of crop diversification is undertaken, through the
involvement of farmers and farmer groups/associations, village development
committees and participatory dialogue.
e. Farmers and rural communities are to be made aware of the benefits of
diversifying their existing cropping patterns, especially as regards nutritional
value and economic benefits.
41
f. A feedback mechanism will facilitate a better understanding of the key

constraints to farmers in regard to the impacts of changes to cropping systems
and the appropriateness of the technologies.
g. There is a need to train both research and extension government staff in
cropping systems R&D and diversification, human nutrition and other related
technologies; assistance in this respect from development partners could be
appropriate to facilitate this capacity building of staff; later, farmers would be
h. As regards legume cultivation, the DAR facilities for the production of
rhizobia will need to be radically expanded, if possible the production is to be
expanded through public-private partnerships and/or private sector entities.
i. To expedite the large-scale roll-out of the technologies, it will be important to
ensure that the seed supply of legumes and oilseeds is enhanced to meet
demand.
j. At the production level, suitable contract farming ventures will be needed
involving farmer groups/associations and private sector enterprises involved in
the marketing and export of the commodities.
k. Policy changes will be needed to address the issue of the change from rice
cultivation to alternative crops, as rice cultivation is often considered to be
mandatory by GOM staff, more especially the DOA whose role is to expedite
government policy.
8. RELATIONSHIP OF CROPS TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS
The farming and livelihood systems across the four major AEZs (delta, coastal, dry zone and
hilly/mountainous areas) in Myanmar are a complex mix of systems where the major sectors
– crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry – are all closely linked into a range of integrated
systems. The relationships between these sectors vary considerably across the country, while
the crop sector tends to be the major sector as regards food security and income, the others
have an important role in sustaining the livelihoods of the rural poor, both in terms of on- and
off-farm support.
Key areas where the linkages are important are: (a) the integrated planning and development
of village lands and land use involving all sectors, (b) agroforestry for crops (annuals and
perennials) and forestry, (c) cropping systems and livestock, where crop production is heavily
reliant on animal draught and farmyard manure, and livestock on the crop residues which are
their major source of nutrition, (d) integrated crop, livestock and fishery systems, common in
the delta areas, (e) crop production (mainly paddy) and riparian fisheries, where conflicts
between the two sectors often occur in relation to water use, (f) improved utilization of flood-
prone land through better flood protection and integrated farming, (g) climate change which
impacts on the need to diversify agriculture and incorporate improved sustainable
conservation farming and climate-smart agriculture technologies, (h) value chains and
marketing involving a range of stakeholders in both agriculture and commerce, where private
sector development is a central issue, and (i) rural finance, where the current rural banking
and loan system is one of the major areas constraining the crop sector.
42
43
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49
ANNEX 2: MAPS
Map 1: Myanma agro-ecological zone map
50
Map 2: Myanmar rainfall map
51
Map 3: Myanmar land-use – net sown area map
52
Map 4: Myanmar economic activity and land-use map
53
ANNEX 3: AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF MYANMAR
Agriculture zoning of Myanmar is made to divide the whole of the national land into four
zones, taking into consideration ecological environment of agriculture formed by topography,
land use, climate, sown crops and administrative state/region. Agricultural characteristics of
each zone are summarized as shown in Table 1 and Map 1.
Table 1: Agricultural zoning and characteristics
54
Map 1: Agricultural zoning map of Myanmar
55
Table 2: Agro-ecological zones of Myanmar
Agro Suitable crops

Constraints for
Ecological Location Cool season Perennial
Cultivation Monsoon crop
zone crop crop
Sesame, Coconut,
Sunflower, Betel nut,
Paddy, Groundnut, Rubber,
Delta region, -Low water holding Maize, Chilli, Banana,
Sittaung River, capacity Sugar cane, Maize, Mangosteen,
R3S1
Mon State and -High PH Jute, Vegetable, Durian,
coastal line -Salinity due to tide Tuber crop, Cow pea, Pine apple,
Fodder Green gram, Jack fruit,
Black gram, Dani,
Fodder Cashewnut
Sugar cane, Tea, Pears,
Sorghum, Walnut,
Western hilly Wheat, Olive,
region, -Undulating topography Ground nut, Mulberry,
Paddy,
Chin hills, -No resistance to cool Potato, Citrus,
Maize,
R3S3 Northern part of for some crops Sweet Lime,
Sugar cane,
Kachin state and - Difficulties in the Potato, Coffee,
Sunflower
part of Kayin and tillage operation Pulses, Cheroot leaf,
Kayah state Mustard, Orange,
Niger, Apple,
Tobacco Pine apple
Pine apple,
Banana,
Southern part of
Mango,
Kachin, Paddy,
Wheat, Jack fruit,
coastal area of -High acidity Ground nut,
Pulses, Papaya,
Rakhin, -Low content of Sunflower,
Rami, Guava,
R3S6 Northern part of phosphorus deep slope Sesame,
Sugarcane, Mulberry,
Bago Yoma, -Soil erosion due to Soybean,
Chilli, Rubber,
Tanintharyi, heavy rainfall Rami,
Vegetable Citrus,
Division Mon and Vegetable
Lime, Durian,
Kayin State
Palm oil,
Cashew nut
Paddy,
Upper part of delta Maize, Sugarcane, Banana,
region, -Flood during the rainy Sugar cane, Chilli, Citrus,
Western part of season Vegetable, Tobacco, Mango,
R4S1
Sagaing Division, -Soil erosion due to Chilli, Groundnut, Guava,
Sittaung river basin,flood at the river basin Sesame, Pulses, Mulberry,
Kachin State Sorghum, Vegetable Papaya
Sunflower
Wheat
Orange,
Eastern part of Shan Potato
-Undulating topography Vegetable Peach
R4S3 State, Groundnut
-High acidity Tobacco Avocado
Chin State Ginger
Pear
Vegetable
56
Niger, Maize
Upland paddy
Sugarcane
Cashew nut
Groundnut
Rubber
At the base of -Soil erosion at the Sesame
Pulse Almond
BagoYomahill, deep slop area sunflower,
R4S5 Sugarcane Toddy palm
At the base of Shan -Low water holding Corn
Vegetable Citrus,
hill capacity Pigeon pea
Custard
Sorghum
Apple
Cotton
Sorghum,
Pine apple
Corn,
Banana,
Groundnut
Mango
Sunflower
Northern part Apple,
Pulses, Wheat
of Sagaing Division, Orange
-High acidity and low Cassava Chick pea
Kachin State, Pear, Peach
R4S6 content of phosphorus Potato, Pulses
Central part Coffee,
-Undulating topography Soybean Barley
of Shan Siate Mulberry
Ginger, Rami Virginia
and Bago Yoma hill Guava,
Sugarcane,
Jack fruit
Vegetable,
Cheroot leaf,
Niger,
Tea
Upland rice
Tobacco
Dry zone area, Groundnut
Groundnut
At the point Pulses
Sesame
of the Ayeyawaddy Corn
-Flood during rainy Green gram
R5S1 and Chindwin river, Vegetable
season Butter bean
Along the Potato
Corn
Ayeyarwaddy Sweet potato
Sunflower
river basin Chilli
Onion
Wheat
Dry zone area -Difficulties in tillage Cotton Pulses
of Sagaing operation Lablab bean Fennel Tamarind
R5S4
and Mandalay -Draught during growth Chilli (somon saba) Toddy palm
Division state of crop Sorghum Chick pea
Pigeon pea
Toddy palm
Dry zone area of -Wind erosion
Cotton Chick pea Tamarind
Sagaing, -Draught
Corn Green gram Mango
R5S5 Mandalay and -Crop can't cultivate
Sorghum Butter beanCustard
Magway without irrigation for
Pigeon pea Castor Apple
Division whole year round
Plum
Western part Toddy palm
of Sagaing Division, Cotton Tamarind
-Mostly there is little Chick pea
Border area Corn Mango
R5S6 flat land Green gram
of Mandalay Sorghum Custard
-Water erosion Black gram
Division Wheat Apple
and Shan State Plum
57
AEZ - Agro-Ecological Zoning System

What is AEZ: The main system for land resource assessment is FAO’s agro-ecological
zoning (AEZ) methodology and supporting software packages for application at global,
regional, national and sub-national levels. AEZ uses various databases, models and decision
support tools.
When to use AEZ: Useful as a tool of assessment of land resources for better planning and
management and monitoring of these resources. AEZ can be used in various assessment
applications, including:
 land resource inventory;
 inventory of land utilization types and production systems, including indigenous systems,
and their requirements;
 potential yield calculation;
 land suitability and land productivity evaluation , including forestry and livestock
productivity;
 estimation of arable areas mapping agro-climatic zones, problem soil areas, agro-
ecological zones, land suitability, quantitative estimates on potential crop areas, yields and
production;
 land degradation assessment, population supporting capacity assessment and - land use
optimization modeling;
 assessing and mapping flood and drought damages to crops;
 assessment of impact of climate change; monitoring land resources development
The agro-ecological zones methodology has been in use since 1978 for determining
agricultural production potentials and carrying capacity of the world’s land area. An agro-
ecological zone, as originally defined, is comprised of all parts of gridcells on a geo-
referenced map that have uniform soil and climate characteristics.
The AEZ framework incorporates the following basic elements:
 A geo-referenced land resources database that contains some 2.2 million gridcells, and
includes (i) an environmental conditions component comprised of geo-referenced global
databases for climate, soils, terrain and elevation, and (ii) a spatial land use and land cover
component covering forests, protected areas, irrigated areas, population distribution and
density, land required for habitation and infrastructure, estimates of cropland, grazing land
and sparsely vegetated or barren land, and farming systems;
 a standardized framework for the characterization of soil, terrain and climatic conditions
relevant to agricultural production, and identification of areas with specific climate, soil
and terrain constraints to rainfed crop production;
 selected agricultural production systems with defined input and management relationships,
and crop specific environmental requirements and adaptability characteristics; these are
termed land utilization types (LUTs);
58
 procedures for calculating the potential agronomically attainable yield and for matching
environmental requirements of individual crops and LUTs with the respective
environmental characteristics contained in the land resources database, by land unit and
gridcell, thus permitting estimation of crop-specific suitability indices for each gridcell in
the database, under different levels of inputs and management conditions;
 quantification of crop and land productivity potential under different cropping pattern and
LUT assumptions;
 applications for estimating the land’s population-supporting capacity and for multiple-
criteria optimization of land resource use for sustainable agricultural development,
incorporating socioeconomic and demographic as well as environmental factors.
The AEZ starts with climate and uses terrain and soil types as modifiers; only if climate is
suitable will the suitability of the terrain and the soil type be considered. A complete
description of the methodology and results obtained for regions across the globe can be found
in FAO & IIASA, 2002 and 2003.
59
ANNEX 4: MYANMAR CROP SECTOR
With a wide range of climatic conditions, over 60 different crops are grown successfully such
as rice, wheat, sorghum, maize in cereal crop group; groundnut, sesame, sunflower, mustard,
niger, oil palm in oil seed crop group; chick pea, black gram, green gram, cowpea, pigeon
pea, lablab bean, lentil in pulses crop group; cotton, sugarcane, jute, kenaf, rubber, tobacco in
industrial crop group; potato, onion, chilli, garlic in culinary crop group; tea, coffee,
coconut, toddy in plantation crop group; tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, radish, lettuce,
coriander, mustard, carrot, etc. as vegetables group and mango, banana, pummelo, durian,
mangos teen, orange, apple, pear, cashew nut, tamarind, citrus, plum, jack fruit etc. as fruits
group.
Table 1: Total area planted, production and percent area by crop (2012/13)
Source: CSO (2013)
60
Table 2. Land potential by states and regions in Myanmar (2012-2013)
Source: CSO (2013)

Note: Myanmar land classification: Le = rice land; Ya = dry land; Kaing = alluvial/island
land; Dani = nin/nip palm land; Taungya = shifting cultivation land
Cereal crops
Among cereal crops, rice is the major crop and designated as a national crop. Efforts are
being centred on production of rice not only to fulfil domestic consumption but also for
export purposes. For many years, rice had been grown as a seasonal mono crop. Since 1992
summer rice cultivation was initiated to increase rice production. At present, the utilization of
improved varieties, appropriate technologies, and effective irrigation systems has resulted
into increase in rice production. As official estimation, rice harvested area increased up to 8.1
million hectares and its production increased up to 32.5 million tons, which produced 19.46
million metric tons of milled rice in 2008. The highest percentage of export (7.27 percent of
the total rice production) was found in 2001 and it was sharply declined to 0.08 percent of the
total production in 2006 providing the surplus gap of more than 30 percent. This surplus gap
could be explained in terms of informal export stock in private hands, inefficient data base on
rice sown areas, yield and production.
Maize is the second important crop among cereals which grows well in most parts of the
country. It is also important for export and feed stuff for domestic livestock industry. It can
be also used as a carbohydrate source for our daily food substitution to rice. As estimated
figure for year 2008, maize harvested area is 0.355 million hectares with the production of
1.20 million metric tons with 0.156 million metric tons for export.
Wheat cultivation in Myanmar has a number of limitations due to geographical, practices and
climatic conditions. This crop is not included in the priority crops, which main production
purpose is for use in various snacks. In 2008 crop year, it was grown on 0.1 million hectares
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and produced 0.17 million tons with self sufficiency ratio of 39 percent, which indicates
import will have to meet increasing domestic demand with growing population in future.
Oil crops
The important crops next to cereals, in terms of production and consumption are oil seed
crops which include groundnut, sesame, sunflower, and to a smaller extent, rapeseed, niger,
and oil palm. These oilseed crops are grown mainly in the Central Dry Zone, and, to a smaller
extent, also in the Delta and mountainous region Total sown area under oil seed crops in 2008
was 3.76 million hectares and total production was 3.33 million metric tons. The sown area of
groundnut is around 800,000 ha with an average yield of about 1.5 MT/ha. Sown area of
sesame has remained at around 1500,000 ha and is generally grown on low rainfall and low
fertility areas so that its yields are generally low at about 0.4 to 0.5 MT/ha. Sunflower is a
new crop introduced from Russia in the 1960s, but was grown on commercial basis beginning
from 1970. Since then the area under sunflower has increased steadily reaching 880,000 ha
by 2008 with an average yield of about 0.8 MT/ha. Although oil palm is the plantation crop
in nature, it is accounted for oil crop which is the main source for edible oil. Extension of the
oil palm plantation initiated commercially in 1995 and extended to 102,000 ha with 211,000
MT of fruit bunch in 2008. Despite the Government concerted effort to achieve self-
sufficiency in edible oil, the target has not yet been achieved as indicated by the fact that the
country was importing about 200,000 MT of edible oil annually. The oilseed production, in
fact, increased by double, from 1600,000 MT in 2000 to 3330,000 MT in 2008, mainly
through area expansion, but the domestic demand for edible oil was noted to grow at a faster
rate. Explanation for that is noted that it is due to export of oil seeds such as groundnut and
sesame and also those are widely used for Myanmar traditional snack and junk food. Apart
from those reasons, there are other reasons such as inefficient oil extraction technology, old
expeller machines, area and yield data under administrative pressure and among others.
Normally Myanmar has a high consumption rate of oil used in cooking of domestic food
style. Since edible oil is inadequate for domestic consumption, about 200,000 metric tons of
palm oil is imported from Malaysia annually to fulfil the domestic requirement.
Legume crops
Production of pulses and beans has been dramatically increasing due to high market demand
for export and domestic consumption. About 17 species of pulses and beans are broadly
cultivated in the country. External trade of pulses had been liberalized since 1988. As a result,
pulses production and export volume have increased dramatically. Sown area of pulses
substantially increased from 0.73 million ha in 1988 to 4.28 million ha in 2008, producing
5.27 million metric tons. Consequently, the country export volume increased from 17
thousand MT in 1988 to 1.46 million MT in 2008 and then declined mere over 1 million MT
in 2009.
Major exportable species are green gram, black gram and pigeon pea. Significant change of
production and marketing was earmarked over last decade. Myanmar stands at leading
country for promotion of pulses product among the ASEAN member countries and also as
one of the largest exporters in the world.
India is the largest producer as well as consumer of pulses in the world. About 74 percent of
pulse exports from Myanmar are absorbed by India which stood as regular customer of
Myanmar for pulses. Although Singapore is standing at the second place, most of the pulses
volume is not for its domestic consumption but for transit trading in raw form or adding value
after processing. It indicates that export of Myanmar’s pulses solely relies on import of India
62
which is importing various types of pulses mostly from Canada and Australia. Consequently,
changes in market price of pulses in India will reflect export prices of Myanmar. Market
information on India pulses trade and its import policy are the key factors to be considered
for policy implication on promotion of pulses industry in Myanmar. Quality improvement
and adding value on raw pulses are the alternative options for market promotion in order to
sustain the pulses production of Myanmar.
Industrial crops
Cotton, jute, rubber and sugarcane are the main industrial crops in Myanmar. Cotton is one
of the most important industrial crops in Myanmar as it has many uses. Clothing comes next
only to food in importance in our daily live. Cotton is economically important for its use of
cotton fibre, involving ginning, spinning, and textile manufacture. Besides, cotton with its
seed containing 15 percent oil and 24 percent protein is utilized as food crop. Cotton seed oil
is used for margarine, shortening, edible oil and other food products. It serves an important
raw material for soap and paint industry. Cotton seed meal is mainly used for animal feed
stock. Cotton linter, a by-product of the industry serves as important raw material in paper
and rayon industry and in manufacturing photographic papers, X- ray films and explosive
materials. Cotton stalks are a source of fuel in rural areas.
Myanmar at present is a net importer of cotton and fabric. There are three types of cotton,
namely War Gyi, short staple cotton and long staple cotton, grown in Myanmar according the
agro climatic and soil condition. War Gyi and short staple cotton are mainly used for local
made weaving products. Long staple cotton is used for factory spinning, weaving garment
cloth products. The short staple cotton was noted to be increasingly substituted by the long
staple cotton as indicated by the fact that, during the 1990-2007 period, while the area under
the short staple cotton was declining from 124,000 ha to 89,000 ha, the area under long staple
cotton increased from 30,000 ha in 1990 to 278,000 ha in 2007. The yield of cotton remains
stagnant at around 0.7 MT/ha for many years before 2008 and sharply increased 1.23 MT/ha
in 2009 as a result of introducing modern variety of Ngwe Gyi 6 cotton which is being
substituted in old varieties on long staple cotton. Production of raw cotton is only used for
domestic textile industries.
Jute is widely grown in the Delta Region initially to substitute imports from India and
Pakistan, but later to promote export since the country achieved self-sufficiency in Jute in
1966. After the introduction of summer paddy in 1992, the area under jute over the past
decades had drastically declined from 50,000 ha in 1995 to 17,000 ha in 2008 with
decreasing rate of 33 percent. Production of jute also decreased in the same period from about
43,000 MT to 13,000 MT with 30 percent decrease which affects idle in operating state
owned processed industries such as gunny mill and carpet factory. Jute cultivation is no more
attractive for farmers due to disincentive price set by the State Enterprise; Jute and Fibre
Division (JFD) under Myanma Industrial Crops Development Enterprise (MICDE). Profit
margin in jute cultivation is less compared to other substitute crops. As calculation by JFD
based on average yield, prevailing market price and cost of unit volume of produce (1 viss =
3.6 lb) in 2009, profit margin of 0.4 ha (1 acre) of hot pepper (Chilli) is accounted for
541,600 kyat while that for jute loss amount to 21,075 kyats in 0.4 ha (1 acre). It indicates
that cost of cultivation of jute in unit area is higher than the gross revenue. Buying price
occasionally readjusted by JFD does not cover the unit cost of production compared with the
other crops.
63
One jute paper mill and one kenaf pulp mill were established by JFD in Maubin township,
Ayeyarwady Division and Oak Twin township, Bago Division respectively. Production of jute
paper accounted for 606 MT and production of kenf pulp for 350 MT in 2009.
Rubber: Despite a long history of rubber plantation in Myanmar4, it has not become a major
perennial crop as in Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia. Since the commercial
planting of rubber started in Myanmar about a century ago, the economic importance of
rubber had been well known as a strategic commodity, which can provide foreign exchange
through export and also as raw material for local industries. The area under rubber increased
from 46,000 ha in 1956 to 74,000 ha in 1962 under the rubber expansion program initiated in
1956. It had been accorded the status of priority crop in national development plans
beginning in 1979. However, rubber plantation and production faced a severe setback during
the 1962-1987 periods under the socialist regime as the establishment of new plantations
slowed down following the nationalization of the privately owned rubber plantations by the
Government in 1963. Private sector rubber planters lost interest in investing and replanting
the felled old rubber areas and abandoned the low-yielding old pre-war rubber areas some of
which were utilized for other purposes. Even though, on the other hand, state-owned rubber
plantations were set up and the planting areas increased, the fall of private rubber areas could
not be coped with the increased area in the government sector. Well aware of it economic
importance and its role as exportable crop and also as industrial raw material for local
manufacturing industries, when Myanmar Perennial Crops Enterprise (MPCE) (now call
name as Perennial Crops and Farms Division - PCFD under MICDE) was reorganized and
formed in June 1994 as part of the reorganization program of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Irrigation (MOAI), rubber became one of the major crops to be developed and promoted by
MPCE.
Only after turning towards the market-oriented system since 1988, the area under rubber
gradually recovered and increased from 76,000 ha in 1988 to 428,000 ha in 2008. During the
same period, rubber yields increased two folds from 329 kg/ha to 650 kg/ha as the old
unproductive varieties were being replanted with new High Yielding Varieties. Of the total
production of 89,000 MT in 2007, about 19,000 MT were exported and 70,000 MT were used
for local production.
Sugarcane cultivation in Myanmar also has a very long history5, but its production over the
past decade fluctuated due to deficient production technologies, inefficient management
(Placeholder1), low priority being given to sugarcane compared to rice, oilseed crops and
pulses, inefficiencies of the sugar mills, weaknesses in procurement systems including price
policy and low productivity. During the Socialist Centralized Planning era, sugarcane was not
considered as nationally planned crop outside the mill area. Sugarcane growing outside the
mill area was then restricted. The stagnant production of state owned factories throughout
that period, had led to increased cane acreage in the area of private enterprises with
increasing domestic demand for white sugar. The entrepreneurs attempted to process jaggery
into white sugar by employing locally fabricated vacuum pans and centrifugal machines with
the improvement of the locally available technology. To step up the production and export
4
Rubber was introduced during the British colonial time in 1909.
5
Sugarcane was known to be cultivated in Myanmar since ancient time. Initially, people consumed sugarcane as
juice, brown sugar slabs and medicinal sugar. In the 16 th Century white sugar consumption began with the
establishment of the first sugar mill in Myanmar.
64
of sugar, the Government established the Myanmar Sugarcane Enterprise (MSE) in 1994,
which provides technical and extension services and distribute farm inputs to the sugarcane
growers. Consequently, the area under sugarcane tripled during the 1995-2008 period, and
production increased more than three times from 3.2 million MT in 1995 to 9.9 million MT in
2008. However, increases in yields were insignificant; increasing from 51 MT/ha to 61
MT/ha during the same period, indicating that the increased production has been achieved
mainly through expansion of sown area.
The private owned small and medium enterprises (SMEs) were setting the ground. In 1988,
the economy system was changed from socialist economy to market economy and the
sugarcane area rapidly expanded in Sagaing Division and upper part of Mandalay Division.
In Mandalay city, the small and medium scale sugar processing plants with centrifugal
technology grew in large number in the private sector. There were over 1000 members of
Myanmar Sugarcane & Sugar Related Products Merchants and Manufacturers Association.
Centrally fixed price at lower rate than the market price led to a decline in the area of
sugarcane, resulting low production in planning area around the state sugar mills. State own
sugar mills faced the difficulties at low operating ratio with less economic return to
investment due to insufficient crushing capacity. Starting from 2004 MSE (now Sugarcane
Division, MICDE) gradually handed over two sugar mills to the Ministry of Industry (1) and
six Sugar mills were privatized to the Union of Myanmar Economic Holding Co. Ltd. and
Myanmar Economic Cooperation. Under the Myanmar Foreign Investment Law, altogether
nine new sugar mills were established under MSE: eight sugar mills were constructed with
payment in sugar with 4 Chinese companies and one sugar mill was constructed on the joint
venture basis with one Thai company.
Culinary crops: Potato, onions, garlic, chillies, and vegetables are important culinary crops
used in the diet of Myanmar people. These crops are widely grown in the mountainous region
(particularly Shan State) and the Central Dry Zone. In 2008, culinary crops covered a total
area of 843,000 ha, in which vegetables accounted for the largest area (about 541,000 ha),
followed by chillies (130,000 ha), spices (73,000 ha), onions (69,000 ha), potato (37,000 ha)
and garlic (26,000 ha). Being high value crops, they offer high potential for crop
diversification in areas with sufficient rainfall for double cropping. Farmers apply large
amount of both chemical and organic fertilizers to obtain high yields and high incomes from
these crops. It has significant variation of the sown areas for onion annually due to market
uncertainty and fluctuation of the price.
Plantation crops: Fruits, tea, coffee, and coconut are important plantation crops in
Myanmar, whereas rubber and oil palm, although plantation types in nature, are classified as
industrial crop and oilseed crop, respectively, because they are used as raw materials to
produce value added products. A wide range of tropical and temperate fruits are grown in the
country, covering a total of about 746,000 ha in 2008. However, their yields are low and
quality poor, and will need to be improved through introduction of HYVs. Tea is an
important crop grown in the high land of Shan State and Sagaing Division with a total area of
about 90,000 ha mainly for domestic consumption. Coffee had initially been a minor crop
with a total area of only 24,000 ha but its importance is rising as it now becomes an export
item to Singapore and France. The demand for Myanmar coffee is increasing in the two
countries as the consumers there are reported to like its quality and taste. The potentials and
prospects of expanding coffee cultivation in Myanmar are also good. Coconut is widely
grown in the Coastal Region covering a total of about 53,000 ha but their yields are generally
65
low due mainly to primitive technology and lack of attention given by the government to
improve and modernize the coconut cultivation.
Source: Adapted from: JICA. (2013).Data Collection Survey on Agriculture Sector in the
Republic of the Union of Myanmar.
66
ANNEX 5: GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND STRATEGIES
The national policy/development plan in Myanmar is composed of the National

Comprehensive Development Plan (2011-2012 to 2030-2031) and the Fifth Five-Year Plan
(2011-2012 to 2015-2016). The Fifth Five-Year Plan was drawn up and submitted to the
congress for discussion as of June 2012. Up to now, related ministries and local governments
have been revising the plan in response to the comments by the Congress. Based on the
President’s address on 19, June 2012, the State will carry out reviewing and drawing the 30-
Year Plan after getting an approval from the Congress. The Agriculture Development Plans
are included in the National Comprehensive Development Plan as one of sector-wise
development. Relationships between the long and short term development plans and Rural
Development/Poverty Alleviation Plan are summarized in Figure 1.
Figure 1: National comprehensive development plan
Rural development and poverty alleviation action plan

Myanmar is an agriculture country, where the 70 % of the total population are living in the
rural areas and agricultural sector is the backbone of its economics. The President of the new
government delivered an address on “the National and People-centred Development Action
Plan for Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation.” at the national workshop held on May
20 to 22 2011. In this plan, the development of agricultural, livestock and fishery sectors,
food security against the climate change, income generation for local people and poverty
alleviation are prioritized issues to be tackled as the national level.
In response to the President’ policy, the Ministry of National Development and Economic
Development established the Central Committee for Rural Development and Poverty
Alleviation (CCRDPA). Under the CCRDPA, the Work Committee and Sub-Committee at
each State/Region were constituted in order to formulate and implement the action plans.
Objective of action plan: Based on the Millennium Development Goals in Myanmar, the
action plan for the rural and poverty alleviation will be implemented so effectively and
67
efficiently as to reduce the 50 % of the current poverty rate until 2015, in other words, the 32
% of poverty rate in 2004-2005 will be reduced to 16 % in 2014 to 2015.
Rural development function had been under the jurisdiction of Ministry of Border Affairs, but
is shift on September 2013 to former Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, which in turn
change its name to Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development (MLFRD). After
the shift, new movement for rural development has taken place as follows. To reduce poverty
rate from 26% in 2010 to 16% in 2015, MLFRD developed a strategic framework for rural
development, which includes 5 strategies for poverty alleviation.
 Targeting Strategy: According to a poverty profile developed by UNDP in 2010, number
of people under the poverty line of Myanmar, 300,000 Kyat/ year, is estimated at 16
million, which accounts for 26% of national population. To reduce the poverty headcount
ratio to 16%, 6 million peoples have to be pull out of the poverty line. For this purpose,
based on the UNDP’s poverty statistics, 28 districts was preselected as strategically
important target areas.
 Synergistic Strategy: This strategy suggests developing two different levels of rural
development plan, which includes participatory development plan at village level and
decentralized regional plan at district level aiming at synergize the multiplier effects to
reduce poverty. Purpose of the micro-level participatory village plan is to increase per
capita income of rural poor by implementing a set of strategies including a) increasing
working capital, b) providing livelihood assets for reducing the living cost, c) enhancing
income-generating opportunities, d) upgrading village infrastructure, e) restoring
ecological stability and productivity, and f) improving community resilience and adaptive
management to mitigate the risks of climate change and social conflicts. On the other
hand, objective of decentralized district-level development plan is to support generating
development benefits from the process of village level participatory planning in view of
(1) promoting investment in sustainable land-based economic development, (2)
connecting rural villages with development centre through better infrastructure (3)
enhancing rural community’s access to one-stop public services such as citizenry
registration, agriculture/livestock extension, land registration, professional health care, etc.
(4) improving market linkage and value chain development, and (5) developing
entrepreneurship skill and management.
 Sustainable financing strategy: To assure financial resources for rural development
sustainably, the strategy suggests establishment of Township Development Fund (TDF)
and District Development Fund (DDF). Ideal financial resources for the funds includes
utility and property tax, budget allocation from Union government and various
department, private sector’s investment and donation from individuals and institutions.
 Collaborative strategy: To assure all inclusiveness of multi-stakeholders in joint
implementation of development activities, the strategy suggests creating consortium of
development partners at national, regional and township level, as a common platform for
all to participate. Also, establishment of communication channel to bring voices from the
grassroots or bottoms up to the decision maker at national level is important, in addition to
coordination among stakeholders and sharing learning from best practices and lessons in
development intervention.
68
 Strategy of good governance process for rural development: The strategy of good
governance process for rural development includes transparency, accountability, active
participation effectiveness and efficiency, equity, rule of law, and responsiveness.
Agriculture sector development policy
The National Comprehensive Development Plan consists of sector development plans. The
President laid down the guideline for the Union ministries to draw the sector development
plans through holding regional workshops at Regional and State levels and to bring in voices
and suggestions from participants. According to the guideline, Ministry of Agriculture and
Irrigation has conducted the workshop for agricultural development in 2012 July to
November. Based on the outcomes of the discussion, the workshop has drawn policies and
action plans for agriculture projects under the long and short term development plan.
Hereinafter, the long term development plan of agriculture sector is referred to as “20-Year
Development Plan in Agriculture Sector”, whereas that of short term development plan is
referred to as “Fifth Five-Year Development Plan”.
20-Year development plan in agriculture sector (2011-2012 to 2030-2031): The President
of the new government delivered an address on the necessity of setting up of immediate short
and long-term agriculture sector development plan in accordance with the following mission
and vision. The 20-Year Development Plan in the Agriculture Sector (2011-2012 to 2030-31)
was established in compliance with the directions by the President. The mission of the
Sustainable Agricultural Development was to: (a) get the most of the market share at regional
and global markets for important crops and agro-based, value-added products, (b) to promote
the food security for rural people, and (c) to increase green-growth production in conformity
with natural environment. With the vision to: (i) keep a better competitive advantage than the
developed neighbouring countries, (ii) provide knowledge and technology know-how for
rural people being equal to the developed neighbouring countries in ability, and (iii) increase
rural industrial and social infrastructures just as neighbouring countries do.
Fifth Five-Year Development Plan (2011-2012 to 2015-2016): Accordingly 2010-2011
fiscal year, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of agriculture products would be expected to
increase average (1.8%) per year in Fifth Five-Year short term plan (2011-2012 to 2015-
2016).
69
Table 1: Target production in Fifth Five-Year Development Plan (2011/12 –

2015/2016)
70
Agricultural sector review

An Agricultural Sector Review Investment Strategy was conducted in 2004 by FAO from
which it is important to highlight what were the key potentials for growth in crop production
as identified by the study at that time.
With a combination of ample agricultural land, abundant water resources and favourable
agro-climatic zones, Myanmar possesses a tremendous potential for future growth in
agricultural production. However, much of this potential is not currently being realized, as a
result of inadequacies in policy, investment and institutions. All three of these areas will need
to be tackled in order to change this situation.
There are three main potential avenues for growth in crop production. These are (i)
intensification of production, (ii) expansion of the cropped area, and (iii) diversification from
a current cropping pattern to financially more rewarding combinations of crops. Only
intensification will give a significant boost to crop production and farm incomes in the short
to medium term. The production impacts of both area expansion and diversification on crop
production and farm incomes will take longer to materialise.
71
Intensification: Given the generally low crop yields pertaining in Myanmar and availability
of technical know-how to achieve significantly higher yields, substantial agricultural growth
can be achieved from the existing cultivated area through modest increases in yields to levels
well within current regional averages. Rough estimates indicate that incremental production
of major crops through intensification in the medium term could amount to 3.3 million tonnes
of cereals, 265,000 tonnes of pulses, 310,000 tonnes of oilseeds, 110,000 tonnes of seed
cotton and 3.5 million tonnes of sugar cane. Particular potentials are believed to exist in
expanding the output of sesame through intensification under appropriate policy conditions.
Intensification will also increase demand for farm labour and thus contribute to improving
landless household and small farm incomes.
Key areas of action for successful intensification would include; (a) liberalization of both
domestic and export markets for cereals, oilseeds and perennial crops, so as to permit demand
and cost considerations to move growers towards intensified production of crops in which
there is a comparative advantage, as has been the case for pulses; (b) reorganization of
extension service linkages to research and outreach to producers, so as to ensure the
availability of information to growers which reflects optimal production practices according
to agro-ecological zones and input/output price relationships; (c) improved production and
investment credit availability to finance increased input usage, where economically justified;
(d) the promotion of small-scale supplemental irrigation – possibly at the expense of major
paddy-oriented irrigation schemes – to reduce risks to post-monsoon crop production; (e)
improved water use efficiency in both irrigated and rain-fed situations; and (f)significant
strengthening of the national capacity to produce improved, preferably open-pollinating seed
varieties for key cereal and oilseed crops (although for some crops, such as maize and
sunflower, hybrid production will probably be essential). Such increased capacity would
require legislative and institutional support for the emergence of a private sector seed
production capability working in collaboration with MOAI agencies such as CARI, the Seed
Division and the Extension Division.
Expansion: Whilst a significant part of the 7.2 million ha of the land classified as
cultivatable waste land must have a sustainable cropping potential, this review does not have
specific data on the total area suitable for conversion to crop production. Land clearing and
preparation for cultivation is costly and beyond the means of most small farmers without
access to special credit or capital grants. A survey of cultivable wastelands is required to
identify environmentally suitable areas of high potential within reach of population centres
that could be converted to permanent agriculture. GIS combined with ground-truth surveys
could facilitate this process. With such information, a land clearance programme combined
with re-distribution on a leasehold basis, especially to the small and marginal farmers and
landless, would contribute to both production and poverty alleviation objectives.
If one assumes a very conservative 1,000 kg/ha average yield across a range of crops – a
figure which would be much higher if a substantial proportion of rice, sugarcane or other high
yielding crops were sown – the opening up of just 20% of this available land could yield a
further 1.5 million tonnes of production. If undertaken in association with intensification
efforts, it is likely that this figure would be much higher.
Diversification: Given the wide diversity of the agricultural natural resource base, good
water resources and entrepreneurial farmers there is certainly scope for diversification from
current crops to higher value and more remunerative alternatives. However diversification
will not happen to any degree until the policy environment is liberalised to allow freedom of
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farmer choice within a market oriented system, backed by a more dynamic private sector
involvement in the sector overall. Diversification will depend upon innovation by individual
farmers responding to market opportunities. To be in a position to respond, access to the
basic services of credit, seed and input supply etc. will be essential. The prerequisites for
diversification are thus largely the same as those described above for intensification, and it is
believed that the two processes are inevitably linked; intensification in certain crops in some
areas will be accompanied by diversification into other crops in areas which prove less
competitive. The pace of diversification will depend upon how quickly these are
implemented and availability of market opportunities.
One area in which a considerable impact from diversification could be expected is in relation
to irrigated crops. Current policy is to impose the cultivation of paddy as at least a first
(monsoon) crop in all irrigated areas. However, rice is a heavy consumer of water, and a shift
into crops requiring low levels of water input, or even only supplemental irrigation in certain
months, could prove very advantageous, allowing farmers to greatly increase their area under
irrigation with no corresponding increase in water supplies.
Diversification would favour those crops for which Myanmar possesses a comparative
advantage within the region or which supply currently unmet needs of the national population
(currently limited by income or other factors). Analytical work in this respect is currently
underway as part of this review, but it would be likely to favour the following categories of
crops:
 Oilseeds, especially soybean which could grow significantly in area if appropriate
processing and utilization facilities exist for the oil and cake;
 Tree crops, where the extensive land availability and relatively low population density of
Myanmar would offer major advantages;
 Horticultural crops, where domestic demand could be expected to rise as incomes rise, as
well as meeting increased import needs from higher labour cost countries.
Specific actions required for sub-sector growth as identified in the ASR: The most
critical steps required to stimulate significant growth in crop production mainly involve
policy, process and institutional reform to provide an improved production environment
coupled with strengthened farm support services. Attempt is made below to identify some of
the more critical of the many possible actions.
 undertake a review of the centrally planned crop development process with a view to
agreeing and formulating a new “farmer first” approach based on improving farm
incomes, with a poverty alleviation focus; developing a planning and monitoring process
that is location specific relevant and need based;
 review current land policies to develop firm proposals for reform, whereby a form of
land ownership or leasing is introduced allowing agricultural land to be used as collateral;
 undertake a review of the current status of the transition to a market oriented system
as far as agriculture is concerned, identify steps required to complete the process and to
agree a short-term action plan for implementation;
 develop a programme for seed and planting material sourcing, testing, multiplication
and distribution;
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 develop a programme for reform of the agriculture finance sub-sector and future funding
and management of farm credit;
 develop a programme to reform and implement a private/public partnership for
improved farm input, fertiliser, sprays, cultures etc. manufacture, supply and distribution;
 review current functions and organisation of state institutions involved in crop
production and formulate plans that transform involved state institutions into regulatory,
monitoring and farm service providing institutions rather than central planners and
commercial operators;
 undertake analysis of cultivable wastelands to identify blocks suitable for conversion to
sustained cropping by smallholders, and develop a clearance and land distribution
programme with security of tenure;
 review options for diversification into more high value crops for new markets, especially
in the horticultural sub-sector where Myanmar has the resource base to grow a wide range
of high value products for export; and
 develop a programme to improve soil and water conservation and management in
dry and hilly rain-fed zones to improve food security, productivity and farm incomes of
the more vulnerable high risk farming systems.
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ANNEX 6: KEY DATA, STATISTICS AND INDICATORS
Indicator Value Year

Agricultural land (sq km) 124,400 2009
Agricultural land (% of land area) 19.03 2009
Arable land (hectares) 11,035,000 2009
Arable land (% of land area) 16.88 2009
Arable land (hectares per person) 0.23 2009
Fertilizer consumption (per hectare of arable land) 5.40 2009
Agriculture, value added (% of GDP) 48.35 2004
Food production index (2004-2006 = 100) 127.18 2010
Food exports (% of merchandise exports) 53.39 1992
Food imports (% of merchandise imports) 14.65 1992
GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) NA
Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) 92.02 2009
Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15-24) 95.31 2009
Literacy rate, youth male (% of males ages 15-24) 96.05 2009
Ratio of young literate females to males (% ages 15-24) 99.23 2009
Ratio of female to male secondary enrolment (%) 106.48 2010
Mobile cellular subscriptions (per 100 people) 1.23 2010
Internet users (per 100 people) 0.22 2009
Population, total 48,336,763 2011
Population density (people per sq. km of land area) 73.39 2010
Rural population 31,703,551 2010
Rural population (% of total population) 66.1 2010
Agricultural population (% of total population)* 66.55 2011
Total economically active population** 27,431,220 2010
Total economically active population in agriculture* 18,789,000 2010
Total economically active population in agriculture (in % 68.49 2010
of total economically active population)
Female economically active population in agriculture (% 47.81 2010
of total economically active population in agriculture)*
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ANNEX 7: MYANMAR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION, EDUCATION AND

RESEARCH
Agricultural extension
Agricultural extension service in Myanmar was started by the Department of Agriculture
in1927, that is, about 21 years before the country’s independence. The extension service was
responsible for providing educational activities, collection of statistical data, enforcement of
standard weights and measures, procurement and distribution of improved seed, farm
equipment, fertilizers and insecticides. The distribution of seed and the delivery of inputs
were considered as extension’s main activities. In 1976, the Training & Visit (T&V) system
of extension was introduced under a World Bank financed project. However, the operations
and resource persons could not be sustained after the end of the project. From 1979 to 1986,
the Selected Concentrative Strategy (SCS), more or less similar to the T&V system,
developed by the national staff was followed in a special production program focusing on
high-yielding crops in irrigated areas. This strategy along with the T&V system continues up
to the present time.
Currently there are 35 Seed Farms, 17 Research Stations, 53 Horticultural Farms, 10 Field
Crops Farms and five (5) Crop Substituting Farms in the opium cultivation areas—all under
DOA. Among these, Horticultural Farms, Field Crops Farms, and Crop Substituting Farms
are engaged in extension activities related to crop and horticultural production, crop
protection, systematic fertilizer application and soil and water management. All these
activities are undertaken under the supervision of the Agricultural Extension Division, which
is also responsible for seed multiplication and distribution in coordination with the
Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) and the Seed Divisions for major crops, that is,
rice, maize, pulses, oilseed, vegetables and fruits.
1.1 Agricultural extension organization
The Department of Agriculture (DOA), headed by a Director General, is the sole government
institution responsible for providing public extension services to the farmers. The DOA
performs functions including extension towards the following objectives:
 The increased production of major crops;
 The development of improved production technology through proper research on
management of soil crop and pest control;
 The development of suitable high-yielding crop varieties;
 The transfer of appropriate crop production technology through agricultural extension
program;
 The distribution of certified seeds through the seed program;
 The provision of agricultural inputs;
 The classification of soils and advising on soil conservation techniques;
 The exploration of export markets on some agricultural produce.
The DOA is one of 12 institutions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (Figure 1). It
has eight divisions, the Agricultural Extension Division (AED) being the biggest. Recently,
the AED has been undertaking the following extension activities:
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 Training and capacity building of extension agents;

 Training of farmers in transfer of technology through Farmers Field Schools (FFS);
 Farmers to farmers discussion, training and education;
 Farmer-based participatory demonstration trials and field visits by local authorities and
extension agents;
 Delivery of educational materials, pamphlets, newsletters and books on new crops;
 Education of farmers on the utilization of quality seed, drum seeder, combine harvester,
dryers, etc.
 Explanation of post-production losses in rice production to the farmers;
 Cooperation among government, non-government and other relevant institutions for the
dissemination of advanced technology at village level.
Figure 1: Organizational structure of Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
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The staff hierarchy of the AED is multi-layered. Starting from the top, it includes: Director
General of DOA, Deputy Director General, Director, Assistant Director, General
Manager(State/Region), Manager (District), Assistant Manager (Township Manager), Deputy
Township Manager, Village Tract Manager, and Village Manager. The following table
outline the number of public extension workers in Myanmar:
Table 1: Number of public extension staff in agriculture, forestry, fishery and rural
development in Myanmar (2009)
The extension coverage by various managers differs from locality to locality depending on
several factors including communication facilities. On average, a Village Manager, who is
supposed to maintain direct contacts with farmers, is required to cover a few village tracts or
villages with 1,215 to 2,430 hectares of cropland. As many as 10 Village Managers are
supervised by each Village Tract Manager. The village tract extension service is involved in
promoting rural development.
Table 2: Academic qualifications and gender of human resources in agricultural
extension in Myanmar (2010-2011)
Agricultural extension approaches, methods and strategies

The traditional extension approach has been practised in Myanmar since 1927. In this
approach, village extension managers meet with farmers individually or in groups for
discussions about technical problems and arrange field visits and field demonstrations. In
1976, a World Bank project introduced the Training and Visit (T&V) approach in most of the
rice growing areas in Myanmar. This approach succeeded by providing subject matter
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specialists: agronomists, entomologists, etc., and mobile facilities such as speedboats, small
ships and motorcycles. At the end of the project, however, this activity began to slow down
because of a reduction in the number of resource personnel and mobile facilities. In this
system, an extension agent receives one day rotational training every fortnight from
supervisors for some impact points (generally termed as lesson sheets) to be currently
applied, and passes on the same messages to a few selected farmers called “Contact farmers”.
The framework of the T&V approach consists of four components, farmer-groups, contact
farmers, coverage of extension worker and organizational structure. The T&V approach is
basically a top-down approach, including the “transfer of technology” philosophy from
research via extension to the farmer. Its “contact farmer” model (two- step flow of
information) may also not be universally valid (report on the performance of extension
activities, agricultural extension division, MAS 1996, p. 7).
In 1978, the Selective Concentrative Strategy approach (SCS) was born in Myanmar for the
whole township special high yielding paddy production program. The program is started
during the 1979-80 fiscal year and extended to cover about 2.4 million hectares in 1981-82
and involved78 townships. The paddy production has increased by a remarkable 65%, with a
national yield raised from 1.65 tons per hectare in 1974 to almost 3 tons per hectare in 1982.
The essence of the strategy is selective concentration. It consists of five components:
 A correct and proven technology: a working group involving researchers and extension
agents formulate technology packages in a simple fashion which will be put into practice
after analysing the research findings of a particular crop.
 Selectivity and concentration: in view of the scarcity of the production inputs, such as
seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, selective concentrated townships are located in areas
offering the most promising returns. As well as competent extension agents and subject
matter specialists are selected so that they can concentrate their efforts on the program
operation efficiently and effectively.
 Governmental support and leadership: this plays a key role because the program to be
implemented is a centralized diffusion system. For the program to run smoothly, the
government at each level provides supportive measures as well as leadership.
 Community organization and people involvement: the agricultural management
committee formed at all levels (divisions, townships, village tracts and villages). The
members are responsible for both giving the advice and implementing the program. The
people involvement activities are collective ploughing, collective harrowing and collective
transplanting.
 Emulation and competition: farmers are encouraged to emulate each other and to
compete for high yield production. The government rewards the farmers who produce the
highest paddy yield about 100 baskets/acre (4,200 kg/hectare). Likewise, the MAS reward
the staff who make a significant contribution to the implementation of the program.
The SCS approach is also utilized to improve the production of other crops. During 1980, the
whole township high yielding varieties special programs were launched for maize, groundnut,
sunflower, cotton, wheat, sorghum, jute, potato and pulses. These programs have already
produced significant yield increases in cotton, maize, wheat, groundnut and sugarcane and
the average yields were two to three times the national figures. The SCS approach was put
into effect for the program and was found to perform well under the Myanmar conditions.
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The AED uses the following approaches and programs for updating agricultural techniques of
farmers’ communities:
 Large scale education camps
 Farmers Field Schools
 Ten-member farmers’ groups (Se-Le-Su) for extension contacts
 Training & Visit system
 Special high-yielding programs
 Special crop production zones
 Block-wise crop production programs
 Farmers’ participatory technology development approach
As of 2002, there were 35 Seed Farms, 17 Research Stations, 53 Horticultural Farms, 10
Field Crops Farms and five (5) Crop Substituting Farms in the opium cultivation areas-all
under DOA. Among these, Horticultural Farms, Field Crops Farms, and Crop Substituting
Farms are engaged in extension activities related to crop and horticultural production, crop
protection, systematic fertilizer application and soil and water management. All these
activities are undertaken under the supervision of the Agricultural Extension Division, which
is also responsible for seed multiplication and distribution in coordination with the
Department of Agricultural Research and the Seed Divisions for major crops, that is, rice,
maize, pulses, oilseed, vegetables and fruits.
Agricultural Knowledge, Information and Technology (AKIT)
Agricultural research, education (training) and extension programs in Myanmar are covered
through obtaining and utilizing agricultural knowledge, information and technology
(AKIT).Specific activities include research, collection of existing AKIT from other countries,
training of research scientists and extension workers, provision of extension advice to
farmers, enabling farmers and community-based organizations to participate in the activities
of farmer development community or agricultural cooperatives. The training and extension
programs are organized with two objectives: first, to ensure that officials, farmers and others
interested in agribusiness have access to and are well equipped to benefit from the best
available AKIT related to agriculture, agri-business and farm management; second, to enable
the rural community to take common action in matters of agriculture, agri-business and farm
management. Education of farmers is done through mass media (newspapers, radio,
television and journals), distribution of pamphlets, and training and visits by the extension
agents to individuals or groups of farmers.
Agricultural extension services in Myanmar are traditional. Several factors pose as
constraints in the meaningful development of its farmers. For example, extension program
planning remains prerogative of the government with little involvement of men and women
farmers. In other words, farmers’ extension needs are not taken into consideration. There are
no well-established farmers’ associations to constitute a strong lobby. All along, the emphasis
has been on improved technology to enhance agricultural production while the importance of
developing skills, knowledge and proper attitudes of the farmers has not received much
attention. Rural infrastructure, and farm infrastructure in particular, is under-developed and
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the electrification is scant. Low salaries and benefits, lack of mobility and inadequate
operational budgets lower the morale of the otherwise sufficient number of extension staff.
There is only one agricultural university whose role in supporting extension has not yet been
defined. In addition, its agricultural extension curriculum is outdated. While it is good to see
coordination among the Agricultural Extension Division, Seed Division and the Department
of Agricultural Research in several important activities, there is no evidence of Agricultural
Extension Division promoting cooperation among public and non-public institutions. In fact,
contacting common farmers for imparting technical extension advice on food crops is not a
high priority for the private sector. Due to government rules, NGOs also face a number of
hurdles in carrying out human development work, especially in rural areas. Another factor
that lengthens red tape in extension matters is too many layers of bureaucracy in the public
extension service.
Training options for extension professionals
An important factor relating to technology transfer is the human resource development. The
MOAI, therefore has been undertaking educational activities, such as pre-service training, in-
service training, workshops, seminars, quarterly regular meeting and an annual conference for
its staff. In addition to the high education offerings, further training for agricultural extension
agents to improve their knowledge and skills are being carried out at the Central Agricultural
Research and Training Centre (CARTC), sometimes at the Central Agricultural Research
Institute (CARI now DAR)and Myanmar Academy of Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock and
Fishery Sciences. The irrigation and agricultural mechanization departments also offer
regular training for their own staff in related subject matters. The level of technical know-
how of each area is also being upgraded through overseas training. The extension workers
who received such training are doing their utmost to diffuse the technologies among farmers
by means of demonstrations, field days and field visits. The CARTC also provides pre-
service training for graduates from Yezin Agricultural University and State Agricultural
Institutes. Many of graduates from YAU and SAI are employed by the Extension
Department. The graduates from YAU are appointed as the village tract extension managers.
However, the graduates from SAI are appointed as the village extension managers and they
need at least 4 years work experience to promote the village tract extension managers
positions.
CARTC
The Central Agricultural Research and Training Centre was established with the financial
assistance of Japanese International Cooperation Agency in 1984. The main objective of the
CARTC is to upgrade the technical knowledge and the efficiency of the extension agents
through local training on modern agriculture technologies. In addition, the CARTC organizes
workshops and seminars to exchange the knowledge and experiences of the extension agents
from respective regions throughout the country. The CARTC has a training section
responsible for carrying out of training and improvement of teaching materials, a field section
for control and operation of the demonstration farm, a publication section for the compilation
and printing of training materials and an audio-visual section for the operation and
maintenance of training aids. The CARTC provides pre-service training, in-service training,
on-the-Job training and various kinds of technical training for the staff of the MOAI.
Pre-service training
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This training is provided for new graduates from the Agricultural University and Agricultural
Institutes for a period of 1 month. The duties and responsibilities of the extension agent and
the ideology of agricultural extension activities are introduced. The curriculum is based
mainly upon the theoretical education. Pre-service training consists of three sessions, namely
practical, research and lecture as follows: (a) Practical: cultivation of field crops and
horticultural crops and utilization of farm machinery are being practised; (b) Research: the
main research activities are conducting the yield trials, plant breeding, drawing the
experimental design, data analysis and interpretation, pure seed production, testing the
herbicides and pesticides, analysis of the crop yield from the sample plots and the crop
production cost per hectare; and (c) Lectures: the main topics are objectives, policies and
measures of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, duties and responsibilities of
extension staff, agricultural extension methods and basic agricultural research activities. In
addition, crop production technology, cropping system, soil fertility management, plant
physiology, plant protection technology, systematic water utilization, crop yield estimation
methods, pure seed production, agricultural mechanization and agricultural meteorology are
also emphasized.
In-service training
This training program consists of four courses for extension staff and specialists in every
field, such as subject matter specialists course, specialist comprehensive course, general
agriculture and extension course (administrative training) and planning analysis course
(advanced administrative training). The training period is 1 to 2 months. In-service training
consists of three main sessions like pre-service training but this is more concentrated in
practical rather than lecture. The research activities are the same as in pre-service training.
For practical session, the following activities are being practised. These are: program
planning, management of daily costs, drawing up a budget, harvesting the sample plot and
estimation of the crop yield, variety selection and pure seed production, high technological
modern farming, irrigation methods, soil analysis for different crop cultivation, application of
pesticides and insecticides and utilization of farm machinery. The main topics emphasized in
lecture session are agricultural development policies, seed technology, different cultivation
methods, systematic utilization of chemical fertilizer for crop production, plant protection,
weed control and management, postharvest technology, administration, budget and statistics.
On-the-job training/ training workshop
This training serves to improve the technical skill of extension staff from state/ division,
district, township, village tract, and village levels. The training period covers 1 to 2 weeks.
The curriculum applies to all levels of trainees and provides various kinds of technical
training and laboratory exercise training.
Department of Agricultural Research
The Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) organizes some training for the extension
agents in major crop production technology (rice, pulses, sesame, groundnut, sunflower),
plant protection technology, soil and water management and small farm machinery. The
Irrigation Department and the Agricultural Mechanization Department offer regular training
in related subject matters for their own staff. In addition, the Vegetables and Fruits Research
and Development Centre, the Plant Protection Department, the state and divisional research
stations and seed divisions also offer related training for extension agents and other MOAI
staff.
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Myanmar Academy of Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Sciences

Myanmar Academy of Agricultural, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Sciences was
established by the government in 1999. The main objective of the academy is to promote the
science and technology for the development of national economy, and collaborate with
international scientific institutions. The mandate of the academy is to assist in the
implementation of human resource development programs through various types of training
for the existing staff. Another approach is to organize the young scientists from different
fields to conduct research and to write papers on new findings, which could be published
later. Although the Ministry of Agriculture offered different areas of training, specialized
training programs based on farmers’ needs and constraints, agro-ecological and socio-
economic conditions, and realities of research and extension organizations, are virtually non-
existent. In Myanmar, extension officials and extension agents lack the needed knowledge
about market driven and pluralistic agricultural extension and advisory systems.
Information and communication technology for agricultural extension
Myanmar started installing Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
tools/applications more than ten years ago. Presently, there are over 250 ICT companies in
the country. The ICT coverage for some of Myanmar’s rural areas was initiated by the Post
and Telecommunications Department (PTD), which is organizationally under the Myanmar
Post and Communication (MPT). A multi-purpose community tele-centre was set up at
Phaunggyi village which is located about 48 miles from Yangon. The centre is assisted by the
Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB), and its purpose is to improve living
standard of people living in rural areas. The government plans to install about 6,000 small
satellite terminals at remote areas within three years.
Myanmar’s telephone system is the least developed in the ASEAN region and its electrical
system ranks second to last, behind Cambodia. According to the World Bank, in 2010, the
number of mobile cellular subscriptions in Myanmar was 1.23%. During the same year, the
number of Internet users in the country was 0.22%. However, the number of mobile phone
users dramatically changed in the year 2012, an increasing number of people now have
mobile phones in urban areas. In rural areas, however, only about 4% of the population has
access to a cellphone (LIFT 2012 Table 90). Starting from November 2012 free WiFi access
is provided by some public and private organizations in the City of Yangon and many other
towns across the country and increasing number of people have mobile phone with internet
access. Efforts are underway to liberalize and accelerate penetration rates by liberalizing the
telecommunication sector.
There has been talk of establishing an e-agriculture information centre in Myanmar to
efficiently publish and share essential information for agricultural business. The centre will
serve as two ways education: the main source of agricultural product distribution information;
answering calls from farmers re their field technical problems. Also, a website will be
launched for information sharing.
According to the extension management, publications are available on-line, around 60 to
65television programs are telecast per month, and about 16 radio programs are broadcast per
month. In addition a number of information bulletins and fact sheets are being distributed to
some farmers, but it is uncertain about the number of farmers actually receiving these
educational factsheets/information bulletins. Other than that, there is no evidence of any
significant modern ICT application in support of extension programs being used.
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Extension information and communication are essential components of the development

process and yet these systems are rarely well integrated into development strategies and
programs. For example, the rush to develop Internet access in developing countries needs to
be adjusted to the context of already established and effective communication systems, and
attention needs to be paid to bridging the rural digital divide between those who can afford
access to the new technologies and those who cannot. A very important consideration is that
information technology tools should facilitate the work of extension agents, not replace them.
Stakeholder participation in decision-making processes is crucial and requires multi-sectoral
collaboration and partnerships. Partnership is another way of saying “coordination”. There
are numerous, and interrelated, actors involved in development. Recognizing this pluralistic
environment means that extension must become more “extraverted” and cooperate with other
agencies within the public sector and with various organizations in the private sector.
Institutional linkages for pluralistic agricultural extension system
A farmer-centred, service-oriented extension system provides the conduit through which
common farmer problems get identified and flagged for the attention of researchers so they
can help farmers to solve practical problems that limit farm productivity. Linkages between
extension professionals and researchers are generally very weak in Myanmar. Extension
agents rarely come to the research stations and researchers do not routinely visit extension
offices or demonstration sites. The link between farmers and extension agents are also
limited. Farmers rarely see extension agents in the field. Farmers get some technical
information from local agro-input dealers like fertilizer, insecticide and pesticide distributors.
Recently, the government has created Myanmar Rice Industry Association (MRIA) to
promote the export of rice. The MRIA has been created by merging three existing
associations namely, the Myanmar Rice and Traders’ Association, the Myanmar Millers’
Association and the Myanmar Paddy Producers’ Association. In September 2012, MRIA
changed the name as Myanmar Rice Federation (MRF). Myanmar Agribusiness Public
Corporation (MAPCO) is a wholly-owned non-government Public Corporation, established
in September 2012. MAPCO is formed to mobilize public savings and to foster broader
investment in agriculture and agro-based industries of Myanmar.
In general, there has been little encouragement in Myanmar to form farmers’ associations at
village level and above. Apart from farmers’ groups (Rice farmers’ group and vegetable
growers group) formed by the Department of Agriculture, no significant extension-related
associations exist. The following two associations have been identified but they are
commercial and export oriented in character: Myanmar Fish Farmers Association (MFFA),
and Myanmar Rubber Planters and Producers’ Association (MRPPA)
The main problems faced by the current agricultural extension service were required to
determine before making suggestions on further development of extension services and
formulating an efficient extension system for Myanmar. In promoting development of
participatory agricultural extension services in Myanmar the effective institutional linkages
between governmental and non-governmental organizations will be required. In addition,
farmers’ organizations will play a vital role. With this in mind an institutional network that
can serve as a linking system for the government organizations (extension, research and
training institutions), international NGOs and the UNDP in Myanmar, as well as farmers’
association was proposed by Cho (2003) based on her research findings (Figure 2). She also
recommended a networking organizational structure covering the responsibilities of these
organizations for the participatory extension movement in Myanmar (Figure 2).
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Figure 2: The proposed institutional model for the implementation of a

participatory extension approach in Myanmar
Figure 3: Organizational structure of the proposed Forum for Participatory

Extension Movement
Process of reforming extension strategies
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In Myanmar under the current president's administration, political changes, reform agenda
and trade openness brought about the agriculture sector in better position to transform into
agribusiness structure. MOAI is now preparing regional integration and revising land and
virgin land law. Foreign companies are now seeking opportunities in feasible areas of
Myanmar Agri-business. Across the regional economic corridors, Myanmar is now in a
turning point to its agricultural transformation. It is expected to cover the supply of agri-
inputs, production and transformation of farm produces and distribution to final consumers.
Their role will be increasingly important in strengthening linkages between agribusiness
farms, farmers, retailers and other throughout the supply chain.
The structure of Myanmar agriculture is predominantly composed of small farmers. About
56%of the total farm households in the whole country are working on farm holdings with
smaller than 5 acres (<2 hectares). Despite their hard working in the fields, they do not often
enjoy fair profit share in the commodity supply chains. Some business entrepreneurs
exploited farmers by adopting unfair contract farming. They lose the bargaining power
because after they had sold all their farm products, the prices often went up. The
government’s rural development programs in collaboration with the international
communities have been directed to improve the rural livelihood of the rural people.
Reform strategy and development plan of Agricultural Extension Division includes the
following:
 Strengthening agricultural extension mechanism and information dissemination systems
for rural development
o Mobile facilities for agricultural extension staff
o Conducting demonstration fields and experimental field
o Provision of mobile vehicles for quick information assessment for farmers
o Establishment of modern farms for rice, sunflower, groundnut, and other
important crops
 Establishment of updated extension camp in states and regions
 Provision of intensive training to produce quality seeds and grains
 Establishment of modern rice mill to get quality rice and paddy
 Strengthening agro-based industry for fruits and vegetables
Reform Areas in Agriculture Sector Development (Policy Statement from the Ministry of
Agriculture, Myanmar) are presented in Box 1.
Box 1: Reform areas in agriculture sector development
Reform for Land Management and Administration (Precision of land, land map and land record
for effective land management)
Reform for Advanced Agricultural Practices and Seed Industry (Dissemination of Good
Agricultural Practices (GAP) and seed production of high yielding crop varieties for increases
production)
Reform for Water Resource Management (Construction and effective operation of reservoir and
dams, pumping and flood protection for efficient use of water resource)
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Reform for Agricultural Mechanization (Systematic cultivated land reform for switching to
mechanized agriculture)
Reform for Advanced Agro-based Industry_(Development of Agro-based industries including
construction of chemical and fertilizer factories and modernized rice mill for value added
Agricultural Products)
Reform for Human Resource Development (Human Resource Development in Agricultural
Sector)
Reform for Research and Technology Development (Development of Agricultural Research and
Technology)
Reform for Credit Services (Development of Farm Credit systems for Supply Chain Reform for
Market Information Service (Information and data accumulation for development of Agro-
marketing system)
Extension for food security in Myanmar
The role of extension: Today, extension is more than it used to be. Its function and tasks are
increasingly assumed by multiple public and private organizations. In developed countries,
and in countries where extension reform has been pursued, pluralistic involvement of
extension providers now exists- including non-profit non-governmental organizations, for-
profit private companies, rural producer organizations, commercial individual sand
associations of extension specialists, as well as national, state and municipal extension
services.
A new vision for extension is needed- one that views extension as a main pillar in serving the
public good of food security, taking into account the immediate and potential impact of
external forces, such as globalization and trade liberalization. Future economic and social
development needs to be considered in the light of production, marketing and micro-
enterprise development of poor people in the rural sector.
Strategy for a new extension vision involves determining target areas and populations,
calculating the potential and capacities of these targets, and developing appropriate programs
– with targeted populations- to promote the necessary capacities to meet the needs and
demands of the target areas and populations selected. Once these basics are determined,
complementary actions need to be undertaken, viz.:
 Design differentiated strategies to reduce poverty and food insecurity
 Pursue approaches that recognize diverse livelihoods.
 Implement programs to strengthen producer capacity.
 Focus on development of human and social capital.
 Establish social safety nets to enhance food security of the very poor.
Points to consider:
 Determine who should pay: A new consensus is needed on who should pay for extension,
communication and information services for poor rural communities.
 Ensure equitable access: New systems must deliver the right kind of information and
extension advice in the right format for poor people, to ensure that existing inequities are
not exacerbated.
 Promote local content: It may be more useful to promote information sharing between
local institutions than bring in new information from outside.
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 Strengthen existing policies and systems: Further work is needed to strengthen extension
and communication policies, and new systems would seek to build on existing systems.
 Build capacity: Capacity building is needed at all levels, to equip people with the new
skills necessary to develop and manage new systems.
 Use realistic technologies: The most effective systems use realistic technologies that
enhance and add value to existing systems.
 Build knowledge partnerships: New technologies provide enormous opportunities to build
knowledge partnerships that cross national, ethnic and social boundaries.
A pluralistic extension network: In principle, a pluralistic extension network aims to promote
the advancement of “mixed economies” whereby public and private sectors cooperate more
closely. A study on the rate of adoption indicates that high rates of adoption of improved
agricultural technologies occur when government organizations, NGOs, and private
organizations form partnerships in extending agricultural technologies to farmers. A
pluralistic extension pattern demands that programs be jointly planned, implemented and
evaluated by all service providers, in active collaboration with farmers. The role of the
government becomes crucial in a pluralistic extension situation in terms of national policy
direction, coordination and quality control to safeguard the interests of farming communities.
Focus on development of human and social capital: Food security is a mammoth challenge.
The public sector alone cannot finance, let alone deliver, extension services to meet all
requirements. Also, as funding has generally been reduced for public sector extension
services, field extension agents have been downsized and those who remain are less able to
operate effectively at village level, especially in remote areas. A reassessment of how to
ensure maximum impact from the use of public sector resources is needed. Following
assessments and mapping of food insure areas, a division of labour could be determined
whereby different entities undertook distinct efforts either within an area or between areas.
Separated agencies, organizations and projects working without coordination will not achieve
the goals of the World Food Summit. IF food insecurity is to be tackled full-scale, then a
concerted integrated national approach is a major first step, one that involves farmers and
community at the decision-making level. Demand-driven extension, i.e. extension programs
based on the need and demands of food-deficit producers and communities, need to be
strengthened through a wider variety of institutional interventions then just public sector
extension. If the poor are to benefit from extension, extension reform is needed but
importantly, reform that promotes local programs within the framework of a national
integrated food security strategy that helps the poor enter society’s mainstream.
Summary on agricultural extension
Extension Alone Cannot Do It: Extension is a support and educational agency focusing on
changing human behaviour in positive sense, and as such is a very important actor in any
national strategy of food security. However, no matter how efficient is an extension system,
how qualified and competent its human resources, how generous financing it enjoys and how
sound is its operational strategy, extension alone cannot guarantee sustained food security.
The Key - An Integrated Approach: While extension is allowed to play its role within the
context of new vision, the governments should:
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 build platform to promote dialogue and cooperation among relevant institutions and
programs in all sectors to develop a network for food security and income generation;
 create multi-disciplinary agricultural and rural development teams to respond to rural
community-expressed needs;
 build technical and operational capacity of public and private service providers as well as
recipients;
 establish and maintain links between policy-makers, support services, small farmers and
markets;
 explore multiple programs methodologies;
 create participatory mechanism to upscale proven best practices in food security.
Agricultural education
The agricultural education system in Myanmar includes three universities, all under different
ministries and focused on different segments of the agricultural sector. The Yezin
Agricultural University (YAU), under the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI),
covers crop sciences and in addition offers some courses in animal sciences and fisheries.
YAU also operates seven regional research stations where it deploys students to conduct
research during their final year. The University of Veterinary Science (UVS), also in Yezin
but under Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development (MLFRD) - covers
veterinary sciences and fisheries but not crop agriculture. The University of Forestry (UOF)
under Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry (MOECF) specializes in issues
of land management, environment and forestry. In addition to these degree-conferring
institutions, seven State Agricultural Institutes (SAI) under the MOAI offer the agricultural
education diploma program for high school graduates.
Yezin Agricultural University (YAU)
Yezin Agricultural University is the principal agricultural agency of higher education in
Myanmar, and most agricultural scientists at the government agencies graduated from this
university. It is located about 11 miles north of Pyinmana in the new capital Nay Pyi Taw,
and has a farm which has access to irrigation.
The goal of the university is to educate students to enable them to attain high standard in
agricultural sciences, and generate well qualified agriculturists for the country. The university
has nine (9) departments of basic and applied agricultural sciences, and offers both B.Sc. and
M.Sc. degrees in agricultural sciences. Recently, the university has started Ph.D. program.
The faculty is well qualified and experienced faculty. Some of the teaching staff has received
post-graduate training overseas.
The YAU is a well-established university with its glorious past since its establishment in
1924 in Mandalay. On 22nd of December in 1924, Governor Sir Spencer Harcourt Butler
inaugurated the Burma Agricultural College and Research Institute which offered 3 year
Agricultural Diploma program. Before being set as a separate institute under Ministry of
Education as Institute of Agriculture in 1964, it was just a faculty under Rangoon and
Mandalay University alternately. In1973 the campus was moved from Mandalay to the
present location due to location and suitability of crop production 5 years after which Master
Degree course was started. In 1993, the management was transferred from Ministry of
Education to Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation for better facilities. It was renamed as
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Yezin Agricultural University in 1998. Two years after its Diamond Jubilee celebration in
1999, the university opened Ph. D course as its highest curriculum.
8. The three missions of the university are to provide education and develop human
resources for increased production through green growth, to provide career and business
opportunities for the graduates who are well qualified and to contribute the nation through
research and education.
Organization of YAU
Under the administration of the rector, the university affairs are assisted by two pro-rectors of
academic body and administrative body. There are 7 major academic departments and 6
supporting subject departments, these are as follows: Agronomy, Agricultural Botany,
Agricultural Chemistry, Plant Pathology, Entomology and Zoology, Horticulture,
Agricultural Economics, Animal Science, Agricultural Engineering, Myanmar, English,
Physics and Mathematics.
Campuses of YAU
In 2006, the university curriculum was modified and improved and with it, 7 new campuses
around the country were established for final year students’ research and specialization
studies. Currently YAU has 7 outreached campuses nationwide. Aungban campus in Shan
state for maize and other cereal crops, Lungyaw campus in Mandalay for, cotton and other
fibre crops, Pharauk campus for perennial crops, Hlegu campus for Plant Protection and
horticultural crops, Hmawbi campus for rice crop, Nyaungpinthar campus for sugar crops,
Magwe campus for oilseed crops, and the main campus in Yezin for agribusiness
management and soil and water management. Here in the main campus, the emergence of
biotechnology specialization is being developed.
Selection and admission to YAU
Normally to be admitted in YAU, the students are required to pass Basic Education High
School with good scores and physical and mental fitness. Moreover, a good character record
is a must. First year undergraduate students are selected by the University Board of Education
through entrance examination and annually 400 students are admitted to the university. All
the admissions are determined by entrance exam composed of two parts: 1) Written
Examination: Biology subject for 3 hours and English subject for 2 hours and 2) Personal
Interview. The university follows bi semester system where first semester falls in November
through March and second semester, May through September.
Curriculum and Degrees Offered at YAU
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As its curriculum, Yezin Agricultural University offers 5 Degree programs (Table

3) and the medium of instruction is English.Table 3: Curriculum and degrees
offered at YAU
No Curriculum Period Study Programs

1 Bachelor Degree (B.Agr.Sc.) 4 Years 11
2 Master Degree (M.Agr.Sc.) 3 Years 7
3 Master of Philosophy Degree (M.Phil.) 2 Years 7
4 Doctorate Degree (Ph.D.) 5 Years 7
5 Post Grad Diploma (Dip. Agr.Sc.) 0.5 Year 7
Source: YAU, 2012
Bachelor Degree in Agricultural Sciences (B.Agr.Sc.): Yezin Agricultural University
offers undergraduate programs in the following specialization areas: rice crop production,
plant protection, horticultural crops production, plantation crops production, sugar crops
production, maize and other cereal crops production, oil seed crops production, cotton and
other industrial crops production, agribusiness management, and soil and water management.
Postgraduate Degrees (M.Agr.Sc.: Ph.D.: M.Phil.): As postgraduate degrees, Master
degree in Agricultural Sciences, Ph.D. degree and Master of Philosophy are offered in Yezin
Agricultural University and specialization are on field crop production, crop science, soil and
water management, plant disease protection and plant pest protection, horticultural crop
production and agri-business management.
Postgraduate Diplomas in Agricultural Sciences (Dip.Agr.Sc.): Postgraduate Diploma
course is another opportunity of studying at YAU and specialization are agronomy,
agricultural botany, agricultural chemistry, plant pathology, entomology, horticulture and
agricultural economics.
Table 4: Students statistics of YAU (2011-12)
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Table 5: Distribution of undergraduate students at YAU (2011-12)
Table 6: Academic qualifications of YAU staff (2011-12 academic year)
Regardless of inadequacy in materials and poor infrastructures, the university is proud to

possess such well qualified academic staff for teaching and research. At YAU, 42% of the
teaching staff are those who got their master and doctorate degree from abroad. Some faculty
members attended overseas training in nutrition and food science technology and
biotechnology. Although the department of agricultural extension education does not as yet
exist at YAU some faculties from department of agronomy provide extension education
courses to undergraduate students as well as conduct extension research activities.
Research activities at YAU
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The following are some of agricultural extension and agricultural economics research
activities conducted by YAU in 2011-2012:
Completed Master Students’ Theses in 2011-2012 (1st Semester)
 Market Integration Approach to Natural Rubber Market Development
 Ex-Post Evaluation of Rice Research and Extension Expenditures of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Irrigation
 Impact Assessment of Thonze Dam on Socio-Economic Status of Paddy Farmers in
Tharyarwady Township
 Food Security Status of Rural Households in Man Man Sai township, Wa Special
RegionNo.2, Northern Shan State
 Assessment of Sustainability in Rain-fed Cropping System of Natmouk Township
On-Going Theses in Second Semester, 2012 (2nd Semester)
 Technical Efficiency of Sesame Production in Magway Township
 Impact of Climate Change on Rural Livelihoods in Pakokku Township
 Impact of Farm Mechanization on Crop Productivity in Pyinmana Township
 Factors Affecting the Demand for Agrochemicals in Nay Pyi Taw
 Comparison of Different Types of Extension Services on Rice Productivity in Pyay
 Analysis of Rice Supply Chain in Waw Township
 Impact Assessment of Microfinance on Climate Change Resilience and Livelihood
Security of Rural Households in Pakokku
International collaboration
Regarding Faculty Capacity building and Faculty skill development YAU has long been
working with the international organizations and institutions and still in link of collaboration
with many international universities and institutes. Presently, YAU has been in active
international collaboration with Korean International Cooperation Agency (KOICA), India
Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA):
 Library automation software system cooperated by KOICA
 Establishment of Advanced Center for Agricultural Research and Education in
collaboration with IARI, India
 Strengthening human development institution in Agriculture sponsored by JICA
Strengths and opportunities:
Compared to other universities YAU has lots of strengths and opportunities and plays a vital
role in many areas of Agriculture Sector Development in Myanmar.
 Presence of a visionary, dynamic, energetic leadership who is getting broad support from
the faculty and staff.
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 High interest on the part of the Ministry of Agriculture, its sponsor and link in the cabinet,
in collaborating with YAU particularly in manpower training and development, seed
production, technology testing, extension and advisory service.
 Existence of critical number of highly trained faculty members from foreign universities
(35 PhD and 65 Master Degree holders).
 Although needing much upgrading and improvement, existence of classrooms,
laboratories, research farms and stations, scientific equipment, housing for faculty,
students and guests, free WiFi on the campus.
 Existence of land and stations for university’s field research, practicum for students, and
physical expansion.
Areas needing improvement
 General review of the BS, MS and PhD curricula, develop an agro ecosystem-based
curriculum and research program
 Improvement and completion of the University strategic plan including the departmental
strategic plans.
 Continuing and expanded staff development program for new program offerings.
 Need to review and rethink the 7 sub-campuses as facility for instruction, research,
practical and extension.
 Need to create department of Agricultural Extension Education, conduct collaborative
research with DAR and DOA and provide the University direct extension service to rural
farmers like e-Agriculture Information Center
 New campus layout, paved on-campus road system, student extra-curricular activities and
pro-student welfare facilities, IT-ready and connection facilities, staff housing, to mention
some, need modernization.
 Academic administration including university governance and organization for higher
effectiveness and efficiency need streamlining.
 Adjustment in pedagogy in the teaching of courses, considering large class size, limited
number of faculty, limited space and equipment for use in instruction need to be done.
 Process, structure and content of university research agenda and programming need to be
clarified and defined.
 The collection, system and facilities of the university library need to be upgraded and
updated.
Needs of technical assistance
Review of YAU different curricula and identify new curricular areas/programs
(Agricultural Extension Education, Agribusiness, Food Science/Nutrition Science,
Biotechnology, Information and Communication Technology-ICT, etc.). A more specific and
focused study and analysis of YAU is its curricula at the BS, MS and PhD levels. A
curricular review is essential because a curriculum is the recipe of the university in producing
graduates. The curriculum is the translation of the vision, mission and core values into
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program of studies, courses, academic and non-academic inputs, requirements and the total
learning experiences of the students while under the tutelage of the university.
Develop an agro ecosystem-based curriculum and research program at YAU (in partnership
with U.S. universities, Asian Agricultural universities). To make the university an inclusive
and unifying force to facilitate national unity and ease ethnic tensions, an agro ecosystem-
based curriculum and research program should be developed at the university, drawing on
indigenous knowledge.
Review of the organization, management and governance system of the university. The
organization, management and governance of an institution of higher learning is a system of
hierarchy. It provides the structure, and the players involved in making decisions, planning,
problem solving and communication. It programs the regular procedure in dealing with
emerging issues presented for resolution. The issues can be curricular, faculty and staff
welfare and conduct, infrastructural, budget allocation, staff development, etc.
Review of academic procedure and administration in the university (from admission to
graduation). There are set of rules, procedures and reviews at various levels in the journey of
the students from admission to graduation in a university. This is done to insure order and
quality of the guidance and supervision of the students so that the product is according to
design.
Develop strategy and approaches to strengthen the research function of the university.
YAU is not only an academic system of instructing students, imparting to them classical and
practical knowhow and do how in production, processing of products, making decisions,
problem solving agricultural problems. YAU is also mandated as a research arm of the
country through the Ministry of Agriculture so that cutting edge technologies and innovations
can be generated to spur growth and development in the sector. The U.S. and EU Universities
technical assistance can help structure the university’s research function so that it can respond
and be proactive in research for the country.
Develop ideas on utilization of the 7 sub-campuses of YAU. The seven sub- campuses of
YAU are vital assets that can be used to aid and realize the university goals in instruction,
research and extension. The activities at the stations should be driven by the needs of
instruction, research and extension programs of the university and relevant to the concerns
and reforms of the Ministry of Agriculture. The technical assistance should include how the
assets and resources can be positioned to serve the interest of the university including using
them to generate income for the university.
Establish a sub-campus in Ayeyarwaddy region. Since Ayeyarwaddy region is well known
for rice bowl of the country one of YAU sub-campus should be established in this region.
Presently, there are two sub-campuses in Yangon region. According to the current student
distribution at YAU, there are very few students from Ayeyarwaddy region. It is very
important to train youth for future Agriculture sector development in Myanmar. High school
children need to be motivated in studying agricultural and food sciences for future
Agriculture and food security in Myanmar.
State Agricultural Institutes (SAI)
The agricultural education training at the State Agriculture Institutes (SAI) was started in
1955 in Myanmar. There are seven agricultural institutes in Myanmar, such as Pyinmana
SAI, Thahtone SAI, Myaungmya SAI, Shwebo SAI, Patheingyi SAI, Pwintphyu SAI, and
Tharyarwady SAI. The annual intake for the first year students is about 200 for each institute
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and the total numbers of students for these seven Institutes is about 1500. The required period
of study is only three years. For the first year study English, Mathematics, Physics,
Agricultural Chemistry, Botany, Agronomy, Horticulture and Animal Husbandry courses are
introduced. Plant Protection and Farm Mechanics subjects are added to the courses for the
second year. In the third year, the courses follow eight major subjects, such as Agronomy,
Agricultural Chemistry, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Plant protection, Farm Mechanics,
Agricultural Extension and Farm Management and Accounting.
Students gain a Diploma in Agriculture after they completed three-year studies. The top ten
outstanding students can join the third year study of undergraduate program at YAU for
pursuing a Bachelor of Agricultural Science Degree if they pass the entrance examination.
Starting from1966, there has also been a golden opportunity for outstanding students from
SAI and service personnel holding diploma certificate of the SAI across the country to join
YAU and continue their academic destiny. However, only 30 seats for outstanding students
and 20 seats for outstanding service personnel per year are available.
The number of students that graduate annually from different educational training institutions
includes 300 from YAU and 1500 from seven SAI. Many of the graduates from YAU and
SAI are employed by different departments of the MOAI, while others go to NGOs and the
private sector.
Given the importance of agriculture in Myanmar, agricultural research and development is an
important priority. Agricultural research in Myanmar is overseen by three separate entities:
the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI), the Ministry of Forestry (MOF), and the
Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries (MOLF). The Department of Agricultural Research
(DAR), under MOAI, is the principal government agency involved in agricultural R&D. In
2003, DAR accounted for about 40 percent of the country’s agricultural research staff and 30
percent of its expenditures.
The DAR is headquartered in Yezin, about 250 miles north of Yangon. Agricultural Research
Institute (ARI) was initially established at Gyogon, Insein township, Yangon in 1954. ARI
was then shifted to Yezin, Pyinmana Township, Mandalay Division (now Nay Pyi Taw) in
1971. It became Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI) under the Myanmar
Agriculture Service (MAS) and then DAR became as a separate department in 2004.
Mission of DAR is to systematically conduct research activities that would suit to the needs
of all stakeholders, which include producers, distributors and consumers in developing, and
dissemination of regionally adapted crop varieties and crop production technologies. DAR’s
research focuses on increasing crop production through improved seed, crop management,
and crop protection techniques; and cropping systems tailored to suit the country’s various
agro-ecological zones.
The Forest Research Institute (FRI), under MOF, is headquartered in Yezin and operates
units on forest utilization and forest development. The Livestock Breeding and Veterinary
Department (LBVD) under MOLF is responsible for the development of Myanmar’s
livestock sector. It conducts research on biological production, veterinary medicine, artificial
insemination, and reproductive disorders. In addition, it produces vaccines and provides
extension services to farmers. LBVD is headquartered in Yangon and operates four
laboratories in Mandalay, Basein, Taunggyi, and Pyin Oo Lwin.
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Organization of DAR
Under the administration of Director General DAR is organized by two Deputy Director
Generals, 6 Directors, 8 Deputy Directors and over 700 staff including research officers,
research assistants, research technicians and others across the country. There are six major
divisions under DAR and each division is composed of 2-4 sections.
1. Rice and other cereal crops division
a. Rice section
b. Other Cereal Crops section
2. Oil seed crops and food legumes division
a. Oil Seed Crops section
b. Food Legumes section
3. Industrial crops and horticulture division
a. Industrial Crops section
b. Horticulture section
4. Soil, Water Utilization and Agricultural Engineering division
a. Soil Science section
b. Water Utilization Research section
c. Agricultural Engineering section
5. Agronomy, Agricultural Economics and Statistics division
a. Agronomy section
b. Agricultural Economics section
c. Statistics section
6. Biotechnology, Plant Genetic Resources and Plant Protection division
a. Biotechnology
b. Plant Genetics Resources section
c. Entomology section
d. Plant Pathology section
Agricultural research centres and satellite farms
The Vegetables and Fruit Research and Development Centre (VFRDC) was established in
1986by the cooperation of the governments of Japan and Myanmar research focusing on a
variety of issues related to fruits and vegetables. The Applied Research Centre for Perennial
Crops (ARCPC) in Mawlamyaing was founded in 1990 within the Myanmar Perennial Crops
Enterprise (MPCE), under MOAI. The centre conducts research on variety improvement and
production technology of plantation crops (mainly oil palm and rubber). The Myanmar
Cotton and Sericulture Enterprise (MCSE), under MOAI, was established in 1994. In
addition to carrying out cotton and sericulture research, it provides extension services to
farmers. The Myanmar Sugarcane Enterprise (MSE) was also established in 1994 under
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MOAI with the aim of integrating and developing sugarcane production and processing.
According to the new administration of MOAI in 2012 these three agencies of MPCE,
MCSE, and MSE are under the Department of Industrial Crops Development.
Table 9: Crop research centres and satellite farms under DAR
Table 10: Satellite farms and their mandate crops
Research activities conducted by DAR

The DAR engages in substantial collaboration at national, regional, and international levels.
Nationally, DAR conducts joint research projects with YAU and other departments like
LBVD. The DAR engages in collaborative research with a number of centres of the
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), including the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), International Maize and Wheat Improvement
Center (CIMMYT), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT), Biodiversity International, and International Institute for Tropical Agriculture
(IITA). Other international partners include the World Vegetable Center (AVRDC) and the
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International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).Some research activities conducted by DAR are
as follows:
Crop Improvement
 Development of improved high yielding crop varieties for favourable ecosystems
 Development of rice and other food crop varieties with good yield stability under both
biotic and abiotic stress conditions due to climate change and global warming
 Develop and promote food crop varieties with good quality
 Varietal Improvement:
 Rice varieties released:
o Irrigated rice (36 varieties)
o Rain-fed lowland rice (34 varieties)
o Upland rice (4)
o Drought tolerance rice (8)
o Deep water rice (8)
o Submergence tolerant rice (1)
o Salinity tolerant rice (4)
o Quality rice (4)
 Other varieties released:
 Maize and other cereals (32 varieties)
 Oil seed crops (19)
 Food legumes (37)
 Industrial crops (20)
 Horticultural crops (4)
Crop management
 Generate environmental friendly crop management technologies to fully capitalize the
genetic potential of each genotype
 Identify and promote crop management options to reduce yield variability under stress
conditions due to climate change
 Conservation and management of plant genetic resources for sustainable utilization
Ongoing collaborative projects with international and regional organizations
 Development of Iron Rich Rice through Nuclear Technique project (IAEA-MYA/5016)
 Increasing food security and farmers’ livelihood through enhanced legumes cultivation in
the Central Dry Zone of Myanmar (ACIAR and ICRISAT)
 Agriculture technology development and promotion of corn (ICF)
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 Korea-Myanmar collaborative agricultural research and development project (RDA)

 Biotechnology and pant genetic resources cooperation (NIAST)
 Thai-Myanmar soybean research and development project (NRCT+TICA)
 Consortium for unfavourable rice environment (IRRI)
 International network for genetic evaluation rice (IRRI)
 Irrigated rice research consortium (IRRI)
 Development study on sustainable agriculture and rural development for poverty reduction
in the central Dry Zone (JICA)
 Agriculture extension human resource development project (JICA)
 Development of participatory multiplication and distribution system for quality rice seed
(JICA)
 Capacity building and regional collaboration for enhancing the conservation and
sustainable use of plant genetic resources in Asia (FAO/Japan)
Source: Annex adapted from: Cho, Khin Mar (2013) Current Situation and Future
Opportunities in Agricultural Education, Research and Extension in Myanmar. Background
Paper No.5. March 2013.USAID.
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ANNEX 8: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS IN THE CROP SECTOR
Intervention 1: Improved agricultural extension and research system

Justification Agricultural R&D together with extension services are the pre-conditions
to get agriculture moving. These important activities are carried out by
the state agencies, and Department of Agricultural Research (DAR)
under Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI). Under budgeting
of funds for research and development activities results incapacitation
and ineffective extension services hence result in a serious constraint to
increase productivity. Extension works are the “agents of change” hence
should be equipped with the latest scientific knowledge and know-how in
agriculture (i.e. enable them to effective and productive). Currently there
is a lack of proper coordination between research and extension, where
the flow of information through these two entities to and from the
farmers is disjointed at best.
The development of the agricultural sector is largely influenced by
improvements in production efficiency which in turn depends on the
development and application of appropriate technology and adoption by
farmers. The knowledge and skills of the farmers and agriculture staff, as
well as their attitudes and commitments towards developmental change,
are critical to a scientific and sustainable growth of the agricultural
sector. In this context, agricultural biotechnology is another point out
back-up to sustain a viable and productive agriculture. The training of
farmers and technicians in new and modern farming technologies and
practices are important areas to consider hence capacity and in human
resource development should be given prominent emphasis.
With regards to the agricultural research activities in Myanmar, DAR is
the only central research institution for agriculture in the whole country.
Given the size of the country it is difficult to cover and integrate research
works for various crops among the different state agencies under MOAI.
There are also few research work conducted by some crop divisions but
coordination among the various agencies is still weak. The following
major weaknesses in agricultural research should be strengthened: (a)
giving priority in financing agricultural research and development; (b)
recruiting qualified more researchers and research staff:; (c)
strengthening modern equipment and laboratories for advanced research;
and (d) where appropriate involve the private sector in research (e.g.,
seed sector, biotechnology)
In agricultural extension, DOA is the principle agency in providing
extension and education services to farmers. Myanmar Industrial Crops
Development Enterprise (MICDE) also provides extension services for
industrial crops. However, extension activities cover only certain areas
where industrial crops are grown. Existing extension staff is inadequate
both in numbers and quality to provide for the target group i.e. farmers.
This has seriously constrained transfer of technology to farmers. For
example in paddy one extension worker is required to cover an average
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of over 2400 ha (6,000 acres). The current extension staff shortage is

inadequate to meet this target. There is a due need to address the issues
for farm productivities and income. Extension service alone is only
aspect in tackling rural poverty and productivity though it is an
important. The aspect is addressing farmers’ needs through providing
and institutional structure to mobilise and improve farmers’ capabilities
to meet the challenges brought about by socio-economic change and the
need for improved technologies for production and post-harvest
operations. Farmers must be equipped with their organisation to meet
their multipurpose needs, styled on an effective and sustainable farmers’
organisations. Such an organisation should be institutionalised and
supervised. With such an organisation, the transfer and dissemination of
knowledge and technology provided by the extension service will be
more efficient and cost effective.
Extension workers will address and promote the transfer of modern farm
management through and organise audience of farmers. This will be a
fundamental change in approach and methodology in dealing with
farmers. Such farmers’ organisation should multipurpose in function and
based on an “area and bottom-up approach”. External personnel need to
have equipped with adequate knowledge and skills related to production
and processing technologies, value addition, etc. However, they equally
need social mobilization skills to facilitate and strengthen farmers
organizations.
Considerations needs to be given to the involvement of the private sector
in the transfer of technologies. Cross border transfer of knowledge and
experience will speed up the process. In the absence of such an
organisation the farmers will always be exposed to exploitation by
middlemen/traders.
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years)
interventions, owing to the need to address the restructuring and
financing of R&D and extension at various levels impacting on
investment, policies and institutions.
Scope There is high potential for further crop yield enhancement through
improved efficiencies in R&D and extension delivery systems, and the
scope for this much needed change is anticipated to be brought about by:
 As a result of the extremely low investment in agricultural research
and extension (only 1-2% of MOAI’s budget) need to significantly
increase investment in government entities responsible for service
provision.
 The poor collaboration and coordination between the MOAI research
and extension services requires the formation of a National
Agricultural Research and Development Council which has the
mandate to coordinate and manage the R&D and extension activities
in the agricultural sector. For this to be really meaningful this should
include the involvement of both the crop and livestock components of
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the farming system and hence the development of strong linkages

between MOAI and MLFRD.
 Serious consideration is required for much greater involvement of the
private sector in both research and extension activities.
 Through a better understanding of the key constraints to farmers,
there is need to prioritise and develop interventions through a better
planning process.
 Need for assistance in infrastructure rehabilitation for research centres
which also need to be properly equipped.
 The need for much improved research management systems with
DAR.
 The rationalisation of the institutional arrangement between and
within MOAI, more particularly DOA and DAR, with the possible
incorporation/transfer of DOA research centres to DAR.
 Capacity building of research and extension staff to better understand
new technologies and production techniques, and matters that relate to
climate change, conservation agriculture, value chains and marketing,
and the socio-economic aspects of farming including use of social
mobilization and participatory tools.
Policy will be needed to effectively implement the changes to the
organizational and institutional to the research and extension system
within MOAI.
Strengthen the coordination between all government, donor, NGO and
private sector entities involved in agriculture to avoid duplication and
ensure that all interventions follow government policy objectives.
Activities MOAI should prepare a roadmap to better outline the comprehensive
changes required to bring about the much needed change to the research
and extension system, involving importantly agricultural education.
Firstly, it should update its infrastructure and equipment and increase the
amount of funds allocated to support R&D, testing, and extension
services. Technical training of public servants, staff of agriculture/crop
based associations, and farmers is also urgently needed, as is recruitment
of additional staff with government service. Consideration should be
given in looking for international assistance in this area from
development partners.
The intervention will impact at three levels – investment, policies and
institutions and the activities associated with these areas follows:
Investment
 Ensure the availability of adequate resources for an extension system
promoting more agricultural technicians able to provide training,
demonstrations—and awareness services to farmers at the townships
and village level;
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 Increase support to research for developing improved appropriate

technologies across the whole range of farming systems in the four
main AEZs;
 Improve government research station/centre facilities and capacity
skills of their staff.
Policies
 Formulate and adopt a policy to reinvigorate the agricultural R&D
and extension system in Myanmar, incorporating the required
institutional, organisational and budgetary changes;
 Create the formation of National Agricultural Research and
Development Council which has the mandate to coordinate and
manage the R&D and extension activities in the agricultural sector;
 Encourage community-based farmer associations, and promote R&D
and extension through private sector development and public-private
partnerships;
 Rationalise the institutional structure of MOAI to ensure that all
government implemented research comes under the direct
responsibility of DAR; this applies to all crops and cropping systems;
 Design and implement a new agriculture sector research and
development program;
 Collaborate with international research institutes in a whole range of
new and improved technologies, not least of which being
biotechnology and climate smart agriculture;
 Introduce policy reforms promoting a shift from the current top-down
structure to one based on a bottom-up approach, able to incorporate
grassroots and public sector views.
Institutions
 Facilitate coordination mechanisms at different levels:
o Between MOAI departments;
o Between the Union Ministry and State Ministries/Agencies to
ensure that a holistic integrated approach to agriculture
development is undertaken;
o Between the private and the public sector to ensure effective
partnerships to service delivery and mobilize investment;
o Between international and national research centres to improve
access to improved technologies;
o Between extension and research agencies to improve outreach
to farmers;
 Create farmer associations at the township and village level and
encourage growers to engage in contract farming and establish a range
of crop commodity based associations to better service the farmers;
 Develop and implement an improved system of research management
across all research units within DAR;
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 Promote the emergence of private companies involved in agriculture

production and value chain development, and streamline existing
private business entities;
 Establish a system to produce reliable statistics and marketing
information. Elaborate a clear marketing strategy for all major crop
commodities based on accurate and updated information base.
Expected Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
duration
Cost Estimate USD 100 million
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Intervention 2: Development of the agriculture seed sector

Justification The seed industry in Myanmar is in the midst of considerable change. A
Seed Law was enacted in 2011 and private sector participation in the
industry is growing. However, rice yield growth has been slowing down
since 2008 and certified seed production only accounts for less than 10%
of total rice area. The Department of Agriculture Research (DAR) and
the Department of Agriculture (DOA) of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Irrigation (MOAI) play a major role in developing new varieties and
production of breeder, foundation, and registered seeds. However, public
investment in agricultural research and extension is only 1-2% of
MOAI’s budget. Limited capacity in research and extension system is
also a major challenge for R&D.
The seed industry includes both formal and informal systems—over 90%
of cultivated rice is based on farmers’ own seeds which are often well
below agronomic potential. The seed availability situation is even worse
for other crops, more especially for pulses and oilseeds, and where
improved high yielding drought tolerant varieties are urgently needed for
the central dry zone. However in spite of the absence of a quality
assurance system, the informal seed system plays an important role in
preserving local rice bio-diversity and seed security in rural areas. The
formal seed system, consisting of research institutes, government seed
farms, and extension systems is mainly managed by DAR and DOA. The
many challenges the formal seed production system is facing include a
lack of infrastructure in production, processing, and storage facilities,
and quality control. International assistance is urgently needed in these
areas, also to support R&D and extension services.
The recent creation of the Myanmar Rice Federation has accelerated the
involvement of the private sector in the seed industry. More than 10 rice
companies are currently producing seeds. There are also foreign seed
companies investing in seed business, particularly in hybrid rice, maize,
and vegetables. Improved coordination among existing agencies in the
public sector and between the public and private sector is crucial in
developing a competitive seed industry in Myanmar.
Despite the existence of farmer organizations, there are not yet seed
growers’ associations or a national seed industry association. The 2011
Seed Law, which was enacted in the absence of the framework of a seed
policy, remains to be enforced. MOAI is currently working on the seed
policy with the support of FAO and other international organizations. A
Plan of Action for Implementing the National Seed Policy has been
prepared (FAO & MOAI, December 2013) and will form the basis for
moving forward on seed sector development.
interventions, owing to the need to address the seed sector at various
levels impacting on investment, policies and institutions.
Scope There is high potential for further crop yield enhancement through
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improved seed quality and distribution, and the scope for this much
needed change is anticipated to be brought about by:
 Reduce the large gap between supply and demand: certified rice
seed only cover less than 10% of current needs.
 As a result of the extremely low investment in agricultural
research and extension (only 1-2% of MOAI’s budget) need to
increase investment in the seed industry in particular.
 Promote seed associations, seed community-based production, and
seed banks.
 Promote mechanisms for coordination among government
agencies and between government, private sector, and farmer
organizations, encouraging also public and private partnerships .
 Need for assistance in infrastructure for seed production,
equipment for seed quality control, and capacity building of
farmers, technicians, and private sector operators.
 A seed policy is needed to effectively implement the existing Seed
Law
 The rice seed industry could also greatly benefit from introducing
a Rice Policy.
Activities MOAI should prepare a roadmap to strengthen the competitiveness and
productivity of the local seed industry. As a first step, it should update its
equipment and increase the amount of funds allocated to support R&D,
testing, and extension services. Technical training of public servants,
staff of seed-related associations, and farmers is also urgently needed.
There is merit to seek for international assistance in this area from
development partners.
Investment
 Ensure the availability of adequate resources for an extension system
promoting more agricultural technicians able to provide training,
demonstrations—and awareness services to farmers at the townships
and village level;
 Increase support to research for improving capacity in seed breeding;
 Improve government seed farms facilities and capacity skills of their
staff;
 Improve existing central seed laboratories and establish new seed
laboratories at the central and regional levels;
 Strengthen existing seed processing facilities.
Policies
 Formulate and adopt a seed policy to support the full implementation
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of the Seed Law enacted in 2011. The seed policy should facilitate the
development of an efficient and competitive seed industry which
meets the needs of all stakeholders;
 Encourage community-based seed production, and promote the seed
industry through private sector development and public-private
partnerships;
 Design and implement a new seed sector development program;
 Formulate and implement a national Rice Policy with the support of
national and international experts;
 Collaborate with international research institutes to establish seed
standards;
 Ensure border crossing control and proper quarantine procedures to
avoid illegal imports or export of seeds and planting material;
Institutions
ensure a successful dissemination and adoption of new
improved varieties;
partnerships to improve quality and mobilize investment;
pure varieties;
o Between extension and research agencies to improve outreach
to farmers;
 Create farmer seed associations at the township and village level and
encourage seed growers to engage in contract farming and establish a
“National Seed Industry Association” to support the development of
growers’ seed associations
 Promote the emergence of private seed companies and the adoption of
certified seeds;
 Establish a seed quality assurance system and a monitoring and
inspection system to improve the seed quality. Promote transparent
and simplified administrative procedures for quality seed certification
system;
 Adhere to the principles and standards of the International Union for
the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (IUPOV);
 Establish a system to produce reliable statistics and marketing
information related to seed supply, distribution, and seed demand by
farmers. Elaborate a clear marketing strategy based on accurate and
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updated information base.

duration
110
Intervention 3: Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming
Justification Climate change is a serious issue in Myanmar more particularly in the

drought prone CDZ which impacting on the livelihoods of the farming
community. There is therefore a serious and urgent need to address and
mitigate the situation through the introduction of a wide range of climate
smart agriculture technologies, incorporating an integrated system of
conservation farming. Currently these issues are not being addressed in a
comprehensive manner by the key Ministries in government, namely:
MOAI, MLFRD and MOECF.
Climate smart crop production contributes to food security, by
addressing different aspects of current and projected climate change
impacts through adaptation and mitigation actions. While agriculture
contributes significantly to climate change, it also provides opportunities
for adapting to, and mitigating, climate change effects. In this respect it is
essential to firstly outline the impacts of climate change on crop
production as it related to Myanmar. Secondly it is important to be able
to describe the Sustainable Crop Production Intensification (SCPI)
concept and illustrate how sustainable agriculture is inherently “climate-
smart.” In describing the underlying principles of SCPI, it is useful to
draw on the FAO publication Save and Grow: a guide and toolkit of
sustainable technologies and practices, but which also explores the
policies and institutional arrangements for the large-scale implementation
of SCPI. Furthermore, describes options for land managers and farmers
to adapt, and contribute to the mitigation of climate change.
Key messages are:
 Unpredictable and erratic climatic patterns resulting from climate
change will affect crop production; this will have an impact on farmer
livelihoods and food availability. Climate smart crop production
provides management options to farmers to both adapt to, and
mitigate, climate change.
 Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is sustainable agricultural production
“seen from the lens” of climate change. Sustainable crop production
looks at reducing reliance on non-renewable external inputs, and
capitalizing on/enhancing natural biological processes to improve
production in a more environmentally friendly way and avoiding
degradation of production relevant natural resources.
 To cope with the challenges of climate change, crop production must
adapt (e.g. crop varietal selection, plant breeding, cropping patterns
and ecosystem management approaches) and become resilient to
changes (frequency and intensity).
 Crop production can contribute to mitigating climate change by
reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions – for example by reducing
the use of judiciously using inorganic fertilizers, avoiding soil
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compaction or flooding to reduce methane emissions (e.g. in paddy

rice systems) and sequestering carbon (e.g. planting perennial crops
and grass species).
 Farmers are the primary custodians of knowledge about their
environment, agro-ecosystems, crops and cropping patterns, and local
climatic patterns. Adapting cropping practices and approaches will be
related to local farmers’ knowledge, requirements and priorities.
Sustainable crop production provides farmers with options for
farming sustainably, taking into account the local ecosystem.
 Integrated approaches – such as crop-livestock – aquaculture systems,
rice-fish systems and agroforestry – diversify food sources and
consequently strengthen the resilience of farmers’ livelihoods. They
also provide opportunities for mitigating climate change.
 CSA needs to be strongly supported by sub-national and local
policies. Agricultural ecosystems are site specific, with their own
environmental, social and economic specificities.
Agricultural approaches and practices contribute to climate change
adaptation. Different approaches and practices for sustainable crop
production can contribute to climate change adaptation. They provide
options for location-specific contexts and should be adapted with local
farmers/farming communities. Examples include: ecosystem-based
approaches, conservation agriculture, integrated nutrient and soil
management, mulch cropping, cover cropping, alterations in cropping
patterns and rotations, crop diversification, using high quality seeds and
planting materials of adapted varieties, integrated pest management,
integrated weed management, grasslands management; agroforestry,
water and irrigation management, rain and flood water harvesting,
landscape-level pollination management, organic agriculture; and land
fragmentation (riparian areas, forest land within the agricultural
landscape). For many of these approaches integrated community based
planning is required to develop appropriate and sustainable changes to
the villages lands/micro-watersheds.
interventions, owing to the need to address the financing of CSA R&D at
various levels impacting on investment, policies and institutions.
Scope There is good potential to mitigate the risks of climate change to crop
and farming systems sustainability through improved R&D and
extension delivery of climate smart related technologies, and the scope
for this urgently needed change is anticipated to be brought about by:
 While the intervention will target the country as a whole, particular
focus will be on the CDZ where the adverse effects of climate change
are most apparent.
 The initial primary concern will be the need to establish within MOAI
an entity responsible for the coordination of the climate smart
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initiative, this will require cross sector collaboration and linkages

(MLFRD and MOECF), and strong bonds between DOA and DAR.
 The program will need to source the whole suit of existing climate-
smart technologies that have been developed/used in Myanmar, while
in addition other appropriate technologies will need to be sourced
from international sources, ICRAF, ICRISAT, IRRI, CYMMIT, FAO,
etc.
 Testing of technologies to closely involve the farming community,
and where wide scale extension of CSA is undertaken through the
involvement of village development committees and participatory
dialogue using integrated village watershed planning approaches.
 A feed-back mechanism will facilitate a better understanding of the
key constraints to farmers in regards to the impact of climate change
and the appropriateness of the technologies.
 Need to training both research and extension government staff in the
CSA and sustainable agriculture methods and technologies; assistance
in this respect from development partners could be appropriate to
facilitate this capacity building of staff. Subsequent to this farmers
would be trained in the technologies.
 Policy will be needed to effectively implement the changes to the
development of village lands on a communal basis, especially with
regards to the impact that these will have on land tenure
arrangements. In this respect a legal framework on land tenure might
need to be prepared for approval by GOM.
Activities MOAI should take the lead and in collaboration with the other key
Ministries (MLFRD and MOECF) prepare a strategic and operational
plan to initiate the process of addressing the effects of climate change in
risk prone areas of Myanmar. Furthermore, technical training in CSA of
public servants, staff of agriculture based associations, and farmers, even
the general public is also urgently needed. Consideration should be given
in looking for international assistance in this area from development
partners.
institutions and the activities associated with these areas as follows:
Investment
 Focusing in particular on sustainable agriculture, conservation
farming and CSA, ensure the availability of adequate resources for an
extension system promoting more agricultural technicians able to
provide training, demonstrations and awareness services to farmers at
the townships and village level;
 Increase support to research for accessing and developing improved
appropriate technologies across the whole range of farming systems in
the four main AEZs, while focusing in particularly on CDZ; Costal
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zone - ?
 Improve government research station/centre facilities and capacity
skills of their staff to better facilitate the R&D in this area;
 Provide the necessary funds for DAR and other government staff to
study CSA technologies in suitable institutions abroad.
Policies
 Review the existing land tenure policy with a view to promulgating
changes to the legal framework to better address the issue of long
term and sustainable changes to land use in villages lands;
 Create the formation of a "climate smart/sustainable farming unit"
within the MOAI which has the mandate to coordinate and manage
R&D and extension activities in agricultural livestock, fisheries and
forestry sectors;
 Encourage community-based integrated planning through village
development committees;
 Design and implement a new sustainable agriculture research and
development program;
 Collaborate with international research institutes in a whole range of
new and improved technologies, focusing in particular on climate
smart agriculture;
grassroots and public sector views; being essential for the integrated
village planning required under this intervention.
Institutions
o Between the Union Ministry and State Ministries/Agencies to ensure
that a holistic integrated approach to sustainable agriculture
development is undertaken;
o Between international and national research centres to improve access
to improved technologies;
o Between extension and research agencies to improve outreach to
farmers for CSA;
 Build on the existence of the village development committees at
village and village tract levels and encourage farming community to
develop their lands in integrated manner to ensure negative impacts of
climate change are mitigated;
1. Support DOA and other GOM entities involved in climate and natural
resources to be better able to monitor the impacts of climate change.
duration
114
Intervention 4: Integrated area development planning and rural development
Justification In terms of agro-climatic conditions and characteristics, the country is

divided into four regions; namely, the Delta Region, the Coastal Region,
the Central Dry Zone Region, and the Mountainous Region. The Delta
Region is characterized by the highest population density, highest land
productivity (mostly alluvial soil), moderately high rainfall, generally flat
topography, and has excellent environment for growing rice. In contrast,
the Central Dry Zone is characterized by the lowest annual rainfall,
sandy soils, and the second highest population density. The Coastal
Region has the smallest land area but has the highest annual rainfall,
exceeding 4,000 mm per annum, and, accordingly, this region is highly
suitable for growing perennial crops, such as coconut, palm oil and
rubber. The mountainous region has the largest land area characterized
by dense forest. The region accounted for about 34.4 million hectares or
about half of the total land area, poor road infrastructure, and low
population density. Farming is to a large part less well developed than
other areas of the country.
Cropping systems and patterns and indeed farming systems vary
according to agro-climatic conditions. In the irrigated areas, paddy-paddy
or paddy-pulses-paddy patterns dominate. In the Dry Zones and other
upland rainfed areas, the mixed cropping or intercropping of pigeon pea
with sesame or peanut or other pulse cropping patterns are practiced. In
mountain or hilly region’s upland paddy, maize, millet, oil crops, and
pulses are also grown. Many farmers still practice shifting cultivation in
these areas. Fruit crops and vegetables are grown throughout Myanmar
all year- round.
While the Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZ) have been defined for Myanmar
further work is required to detail these zones and break them down into
sub-zones. Support to the MOAI more particularly DOA is required to
undertake a more detailed categorisation of the sub-zones, based on
climate, soils and other natural resource parameters, plus the need to give
greater definition to the cropping and farming systems in these areas. For
the zoning exercise to be really meaningful, additional information on the
socio-economic characteristics will be required, plus detail on the sub-
zones susceptibility to climate change; particularly important in the CDZ.
With the characterisation of the AEZ and sub-zones will provide a useful
basis for not only Regional, District and Township planning, but more
importantly be the basis on which location specific development can be
planned and implemented at the village tract and village levels. It will
enable holistic village development plans to be prepared involving the
village communities and the village development committees. It is only
by having an intimate understanding of the natural resource base,
existing cropping and farming patterns, plus the social dynamics of the
villages will meaningful development on a collective community basis be
able to be achieved. It is important to note that a large part of the village
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lands are shared community land, where any intervention as regards to

reforestation, agroforestry and establishment of common grazing areas.
Finally, the new GOM initiative on rural development, through the
MLFRD, the communities at the local level will be provided with funds
for a range of interventions in support of village development and to
enhance farm family livelihoods. It is therefore only through the use of a
systematic approach to rural development through agro-ecological and
agro-socio-economic study at the sub-and micro-watersheds will
meaningful sustainable development of the village lands be achieved.
This will need to integrate all aspects of the farming system, including
crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry, and linked to the markets and
value chains of the commodities traded in these locations.
interventions, owing to the need to address the proper development of the
integrated area development planning and implementation, impacting on
investment, policies and institutions.
Scope There is good potential to ensure that the sustainable management of the
natural resources base plus importantly the economic wellbeing of the
communities at local level, can be achieved through community based
integrated area development, and the scope for this much needed change
is anticipated to be brought about by:
 The intervention will target the country as a whole in the longer term,
but initially will focus on areas which are at greatest risk these being
the CDZ and the vulnerable communities in the hilly regions of
Myanmar.
 Initially the program is to expand on the activities of DOA Land Use
Division for detailed mapping of the AEZ's while incorporating the
support of DAR and other entities in the expanding the categorization
of the various zones and sub-zones to include information on the
agro-socio-economic aspects of the farming systems. Links with other
Ministries namely MLFRD and MOECF will also be essential.
 The program will need to source the whole range of information
which will entail close collaboration with concerned donors and
CGIAR institutes. It should be noted that FAO have done a
considerable amount of work on the development of AEZs.
 Training materials will be prepared covering aspects of AEZ, farming
systems, integrated planning etc., and DOA staff will be trained in
the use of these material. This exercise could involve the use of NGOs
where appropriate.
 Subsequent to the definition of the zones, a pilot program will be
initiated targeting the Townships and villages as identified by
government for the rural development program.
 An awareness and training exercise will be undertaken among the
communities in integrated village land development planning, using
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background material on the characteristics of the farming and land use

systems.
 Subsequent to the training exercise the selected village communities
lead by their village development committee will prepare an
integrated village development plan, incorporating changes to land
use and land development, linked both to sustainable development of
the NR base but also the improvements to livelihoods from both on-
farm and off-farm sources.
 The final stage will be the financing of the village development plans
through the GOM rural development fund administered by MLFRD.
 Policy changes to the Land Law will be needed to address the issue of
the change to land use and land tenure that will be identified during
the village planning process
Activities MOAI and MLFRD in liaison with other Ministries should prepare a
roadmap to better outline the requirements and modalities of developing
a system of integrated area development planning. Subsequently it needs
put in place the necessary capabilities in terms of physical and human
resources to expedite the preparation of the AEZ mapping and socio-
economic characterisation of the country on a pilot basis. Technical
training of public servants at all levels in the research and extension
services, plus the farming and rural communities will be an essential part
of the intervention. Consideration should be given in looking for
international assistance in this area from development partners.
Investment
 Ensure the availability of adequate resources for the development of a
unit within the LUD of DOA to undertake the AEZ exercise, this will
not only include physical resources but also training and information
technology;
 Provide support to DAR in a similar manner to LUD, where staff in
particular will need to be trained;
 Staff at field level and communities will need to be trained in
integrated development planning.
 The main aim of the intervention will be the funding for rural
development which will come from the MLFRD rural development
fund.
Policies
 Review current Land Law to ascertain potential changes that could
impact on this law as regards to the changes in land use which could
be an outcome from the intervention, especially at the implementation
stage;
 Formulate and adopt a policy to expand on the mandate of the DOA
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LUD which will link closely with the concerned departments within
DAR especially as regards to agro-socio-economic aspects;
 Create the formation of a focal point within GOM for integrated
planning and implementation – this would be a cross-sector entity;
 Encourage community-based farmer associations, and link these to
the village development committees for sound location specific
development planning;
 Collaborate with international research institutes in a AEZ and
integrated development planning;
Institutions
o Between the Union Ministry and State Ministries/Agencies to ensure
that a holistic integrated approach to agriculture development is
undertaken;
o Between international and national research centres to improve access
to improved methods;
farmers in integrated planning;
 Build on the existence of the village development committees to be
better able to ensure the equitable development of villages lands.
Create Land Use and Rural Development Planning Unit within MOAI
based on the DOA LUD, with strong links to DAR.
duration
Intervention 5: Improved information technology and communications
118
Justification The transfer of improved agricultural technologies to farmers in

Myanmar is currently through an under resourced extension system
run by the DOA, where most farmers have little access or are aware
of technologies to change their farming practices. The delivery
system needs to be improved in a cost effective and comprehensive
manner and on way of achieving this is through the use of improved
advanced systems of Information and Communalisations
Technology (ICT). The Myanmar ICT sector has seen increased
interest from investors as ongoing telecoms reforms promise
increased competition in the market and access to 60 million
customers, most of whom have little or no access to communication
services. While many are looking at telecoms operation and
infrastructure, there is more than this to the local market.
Reasonable-cost talent, increasing government support, and
organized industry and improved connectivity all make the
Myanmar ICT sector an enticing opportunity.
Though in the past Myanmar has been consistently ranked as one of
the least developed countries in the field of e-government, the new
administration is keen to adopt technology as a tool for not only
increased efficiency, but also "good government and clean
governance". The government has been working closely with the
Korean International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) to develop the
use of e-government platforms and incorporate ICT into policy-
making and legislation, mainly through the development of National
ICT Master Plan, starting since 2000. While implementation of said
plans had been behind schedule and the adoption of technology in
practice requires necessary trainings and facilities, the Myanmar
government is gradually implementing more and more e-
government projects, both within ministries, and in the interface
with other agencies and citizens.
Through ICT, farmers and agricultural producers can more easily
access relevant and timely information—from the acquisition of
quality seeds, credit and insurance, water supply for irrigation, to
livestock care and market prices. Efforts in this area can help create
and spread agricultural knowledge, disseminate up-to-date
technology, facilitate trainings, and connect rural enterprises to
markets.
An example of such an ICT system can be found in Cambodia,
where the government requested ADB to provide a capacity
development technical assistance (TA) for technology
demonstration and information and communication technology
(ICT) application for accelerated growth and diversification of
agricultural production and improved access to markets. The
intervention was aimed to address several interlinked constraints
facing Cambodia’s agricultural sector: (i) lack of secure and clear
property rights (land titles, rule of law, and policy transparency); (ii)
limited access to good practices in agricultural production, markets,
119
and timely and relevant information; and (iii) absence of proper

irrigation and extension services.
More specifically, Myanmar started installing ICT
tools/applications more than ten years ago. Presently, there are over
250 ICT companies in the country. The ICT coverage for some of
Myanmar’s rural areas was initiated by the Post and
Telecommunications Department (PTD), which is organizationally
under the Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT). A multi-
purpose community tele-centre was set up at Phaunggyi village
which is located about 48 miles from Yangon. The centre is assisted
by the Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB), and its
purpose is to improve living standard of people living in rural areas.
The government plans to install about 6,000 small satellite terminals
at remote areas within three years. There is considerable potential to
expand on the use of ICT for the transfer of technology to farmers
given the current constraints within the DOA.
The plan in Myanmar is therefore to expand the reach and content
of the agriculture messages to the farming community through ICT
using the internet and through the new generation of smart phones.
In the case of the latter it has been ascertained that presently in the
region of 60-70% of farmers have the use of or access to the latest
smart phones.
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5
years) interventions, owing to the need to address the resourcing
and financing of ICT at various levels impacting on investment,
policies and institutions.
Scope To increase access of smallholders, marginal farmers, and poor
households to good agricultural practices, technologies, and
information in order to diversify and improve income of
smallholders, marginal farmers, and poor households in the rural
areas of Myanmar through an improved ICT system. The scope for
this much needed change is anticipated to be brought about by:
 The intervention will target the country as a whole in the longer
term, through better access to information technology, and will
involve not only MOAI, MLFRD and MECF but other
government entities including the Post and Telecommunications
Department (PTD), Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT),
and Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB).
 The current capabilities of DOA as regards ICT and the transfer
of information will be enhanced, and where the latest proven
technologies and GAP will be made available from the DAR and
other agriculture information providers, through the internet.
 The latest communication technologies in terms of soft and
hardware and computer IT skills will be provided to government
120
staff.
 The intervention will incorporate the development of a
completely revised and comprehensive internet interface that is
both topical and user friendly. This internet site should be in both
the Burmese and English language.
 Training at all levels – government staff, civil societies, NGOs,
farmers and farmer association, and private sector will need to be
conducted
 The possibilities of the involvement of the private sector and
PPP will be explored to enhance the efficiency of the networks
and information transfer, especially with regards to agriculture,
livestock, fisheries and forestry sectors.
 A range of interventions will be introduced including : (a)
agriculture market information system (AMIS); (b) ICT for rural
development planning and implementation; (c) establishment of
e-kiosks; (d) establishment of community e-Centers; and (e)
establishment of village information centers (VICs) with
connectivity and content.
 There most likely will be a number of GOM policies which will
need to be reviewed/amended to ensure that the systems is able
to function and private sector access in support of the
intervention is enabled.
Activities MOAI in liaison with other Ministries should prepare a roadmap to
better outline the requirements and modalities of developing an
improved system of ICT which better services the rural farming
community. Subsequently it needs put in place the required facilities
and staffing building on the existing ICT units within DAO and
other communication units in other Ministries for livestock,
fisheries and forestry. Technical training of public servants at all
levels in the research and extension services, plus the farming and
rural communities will be an essential part of the intervention.
Consideration should be given in looking for international
assistance in this area from development partners. The intervention
will impact at three levels – investment, policies and institutions and
the activities associated with these areas as follows:
Investment
 Ensure the availability of adequate resources (infrastructure,
software, hardware and staff) for the development of a unit
within the DOA to undertake the ICT exercise, this will not only
include physical resources but also training and information
technology;
 Comprehensive training in ITC of all government staff in the
rural development sector to ensure that they are capable of using
the system but also to impact this technology to the farmers and
121
rural community;
 Large scale training of the rural community and private sector,
including farmers and farmer associations, community leaders,
deprived and landless households, and private sector SMEs and
large scale commercial enterprises.
Policies
 Review current legal frameworks related to ICT and if necessary
propose changes to ensure that the information transfer system to
beneficiaries take place;
 Formulate and adopt a policy to expand on the mandate of the
DOA to be better able to handle the new demands as regards to
ICT, a new stand-alone ICT Unit is proposed; which will link
closely with DAR and other R&D entities in the NR sector;
 Encourage community-based organisations to establish e-centres
and other IT facilities,
 Collaborate with the key donor organisations in the provision of
support to ICT, e.g. KOICA.
Institutions
ensure that a holistic ICT for agriculture development is
undertaken;
o Between the GOM Post and Telecommunications Department
(PTD), Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT), and
Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB);
access to improved methods;
farmers in integrated planning;
 Build on the existence of the village development committee and
community centres to be better able to introduce ICT facilities at
the village, village tract and Township levels
 Create an ICT Unit within MOAI based in the DOA, with strong
links to DAR, DOF, DOLB, DOF and other concerned R&D
and extension entities in the other sector Ministries.
duration
122
11. Intervention 6: Crop diversification for improved livelihoods and human

nutrition
Justification Ensuring food security is an important issue for all countries.

However, the driving force with mandatory production target on
food crops in all sub-national areas will lose the comparative
advantage in crop production because of the differences in agro-
climatic condition, physical environment and cropping practices of
the region in the country. Concurrence with the food security
programme is the need to address post-harvest and processing
facilities which needs to be developed simultaneously. Market price
is a signal to determine the magnitude of supply and demand.
Mandatory planning on summer rice under irrigation scheme needs
to be reviewed in some areas where paddy production is less
lucrative compared to other crops. Under this condition farmers’
planting programme and choice must react to market forces in order
for them to benefit from increase productivity and income.
Rice provides 71% of the average daily calorie intake for most
people in Myanmar. The per-capita rice consumption – 190
kilograms a year – is the highest in the world. Much of this rice is
grown in Myanmar’s Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Bago Regions during
the monsoon season, with more than 3.2 million hectares planted. In
the non-monsoon months, a second rice crop is planted, or
alternatively a pulse crop such as black or green gram.
With economic prosperity and the shift from agrarian to urbanised
societies, diets become more diversified. This is occurring in
countries such as China and Indonesia. No country has been able to
sustain a rapid transition out of poverty without raising productivity
in its agricultural sector. A key factor in this transition is the shift of
the greater part of a country’s population from agriculture to other
work.
In Myanmar 73% of the population lives in rural areas, with one-
third of the population living in poverty. In 2010, 35% of Burmese
children younger than five years had stunted growth. However, the
examples of rural-to-urban migration in China and Indonesia
suggest Myanmar is at the point of a large-scale transformation in
the demographics of the country. Already, millions of Myanmar's
people work in neighbouring countries’ cities, and the countries
own cities are growing. This situation is likely to accelerate with the
recent political and economic reforms.
In both China and Indonesia, economic reforms supported the
transition from rice production to more diversified farming. The
increased diversity of farm production has helped millions of people
in both these countries move from poverty and subsistence rice
farming to a better life.
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Growing rice at a subsistence level is known to be a poverty trap.

Farming is restricted to the growing of rice to feed families and
provide seed for following crops, without generating sufficient
income to break this cycle. This trap also has serious implications
for nutrition intake. A 195-gram serving of long grain, cooked
brown rice provides 11% of the recommended daily calorie value
(based on an adult diet of 2,000 calories a day). The same serving
provides no vitamin A, C or D intake, only 5% of recommended
daily iron value, 2% of daily calcium and no vitamin B12 value. Yet
for most people in Myanmar, rice is the main staple, providing
almost three-quarters of their daily calorie intake. So how can this
situation change?
A common approach to breaking the poverty trap and improving
dietary intake is diversifying farm production. The success of
diversification mainly depends on inclusion of higher value, non-
rice crops within rice-based farming systems. Applied correctly, this
approach increases the overall productivity and provides additional
income for farmers and their families. On a larger scale,
diversification of production can accelerate economic growth,
creating markets and the beginning of the transition out of poverty
and towards prosperity.
The experience of donor projects (e.g., ACIAR) elsewhere, such as
Cambodia, has seen farmers improve rice yields and expand into
other crops, increase their livestock numbers and begin to focus on
supplying markets. However, the complexities around farm size,
varying soil types and climate, agricultural inputs, seed varieties and
traditional customs mean that no one solution fits each country or
farm. Selection of the crops and management strategies best suited
to local conditions needs research and careful planning.
In Cambodia for example, tailoring research to the specifics of local
climatic conditions, agronomic skills and nearby markets has helped
farmers diversify production into maize and other valuable crops. In
Myanmar, ACIAR projects are similarly focusing on providing
locally appropriate ways to enhance crop yields and introduce crop
diversity. The aim is to not only enhance productivity and provide
income opportunities, but to also improve diets through access to
increased nutrition.
Legumes are the second-most-important group of crops in Myanmar
predominantly grown in the CDZ, after rice. They are a major
source of protein, minerals and vitamins, so improving legume
productivity is potentially one of the most successful strategies to
improve nutritional security.
ACIAR research into enhancing legume production in Myanmar’s
CDZ has been running since 2007. It has provided smallholder
farmers partaking in an ACIAR survey in the central dry zone of
Burma. Inspecting new pigeon pea lines in Burma’s central dry
124
zone, farmers with higher yielding crops and improved rhizobial

inoculants for natural fertiliser, and established the country’s first
village-based seedbanks. The improved varieties of chickpea,
groundnut and pigeon pea yield as much as 35% more than
traditional varieties and are being readily adopted by farmers. The
work is now being built on to capitalise on its achievements and will
also inform other projects in Myanmar.
In the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, opportunities for smallholder farmers to
increase diversification in rice–rice and rice–pulse cropping are
being examined. This research is determining best practice for crop
selection and management to both increase and sustain crop yields.
The adoption of new rice varieties and alternative management
options by farmers in the delta will allow them to advance their rice
harvest and also have better options for post-rice crops such as
black gram.
For many poor farmers in Myanmar, crop diversification will play
an important role in escaping poverty and lifting their daily nutrition
intake towards recommended levels. Younger family members may
especially benefit from opportunities to access improved nutrition.
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5
years) interventions, owing to the need to expand the ongoing R&D
and extension efforts on crop diversification at various levels
impacting on investment, policies and institutions.
Scope There is good potential to mitigate the risks of the ongoing poverty
trap related to the continuous reliance on the cultivation of rice
through crop diversification through improved R&D and extension
delivery of improved cropping systems, and the scope for this
change is anticipated to be brought about by:
 The intervention will target the country as a whole, with
particular focus on regions where large scale cultivation of
alternative crops like legumes and oilseeds are predominant. For
this a cropping systems approach to diversification will be
applied.
 Initially the program is to expand on the activities of ACIAR and
other donor projects within MOAI working closely with DAR
and DOA. For this to happen and improve impact at the farmer
level the linkages between DOA and ACIAR will need to be
strengthened.
 The program will need to source the whole range of existing crop
diversification technologies that have been developed/used in
Myanmar, while in addition other appropriate technologies will
need to be sourced from international sources, ACIAR, ICRAF,
ICRISAT, IRRI, CYMMIT, FAO, etc.
 Testing of technologies to closely involve the farming
125
community, and where wide scale extension of crop

diversification is undertaken through the involvement of farmers
and farmer groups/association, village development committees
and participatory dialogue.
 Farmers and rural communities are to be made aware of the
benefits of diversifying their existing cropping patterns,
especially as regards to the nutritional value and economic
benefits.
 A feed-back mechanism will facilitate a better understanding of
the key constraints to farmers in regards to the impacts of
changes to cropping systems and the appropriateness of the
technologies.
 Need to training both research and extension government staff in
cropping systems R&D and diversification, human nutrition and
other related technologies; assistance in this respect from
development partners could be appropriate to facilitate this
capacity building of staff. Subsequent to this farmers would be
 As regards to legume cultivation the DAR facilities for the
production of rhizobia will need to be radically expanded, if
possible the production is to expanded through PPP and/or
private sector entity.
 To expedite the large scale roll-out of the technologies, it will be
important to ensure that the seed supply of legumes and oilseeds
is enhanced to meet demand.
 At the production level suitable contract farming ventures will be
needed involving farmer groups/associations and private sector
enterprises involved in the marketing and export of the
commodities.
 Policy changes will be needed to address the issue of the change
from rice cultivation to alternative crops, where rice cultivation
is often considered to be mandatory by GOM staff, more
especially the DOA whose role it is to expedite government
policy.
Activities MOAI should take the lead and prepare a strategic and operational
plan to initiate the process of addressing the importance of
diversifying crop production away from predominantly paddy
cultivation. Furthermore, technical training in crop diversification
and the positive human nutritional benefits of the change, of public
servants, staff of agriculture based associations, and farmers, even
the general public is also urgently needed. Consideration should be
given in looking for international assistance in this area from
development partners, in addition to ACIAR and IFAD who are
already involved.
126
The intervention will impact at three levels – investment, policies

and institutions and the activities associated with these areas as
follows:
Investment
 Focusing in particular on crop diversification, ensure the
availability of adequate resources for an extension system
promoting more agricultural technicians better able to provide
training, demonstrations and awareness services to farmers at the
townships and village level;
 Increase support to research for accessing and developing
improved appropriate crop diversification technologies across
the whole range of farming systems in the four main AEZs,
while focusing in particularly on CDZ;
 Improve government research station/centre facilities and
capacity skills of their staff to better facilitate the R&D in this
technical area;
 Improved supply of important inputs, more especially improved
seed and rhizobia.
 Provide the necessary funds for DAR and other government staff
to study cropping system technologies in suitable institutions
abroad.
Policies
 Review the existing land use policies related to paddy cultivation
with a view to promulgating changes to the legal framework to
better address the issue of crop diversification and its impact on
land use in villages lands, especially as regards to irrigated lands
and summer cropping;
 Create the formation of a "crop diversification research unit"
within DAR closely linked to DOA extension system;
 Collaborate with international research institutes in a whole
range of new and improved technologies, focusing in particular
on the diversification of agriculture;
 Working with a wide range of government and non-government
entities, ensure that the policy for crop diversification is fully
understood by the farming communities and the general public to
inform the benefits of improved income generation and human
nutrition.
Institutions
access to improved technologies;
127
farmers for alternative cropping patterns and diversification;

 Build on the existence of the village development committees at
village and village tract levels and encourage farming
community to develop their lands in integrated manner to ensure
better management of irrigated lands, ensuring a move away
from rice monoculture to alternative crops (legumes, oilseeds
and vegetables).
duration
128
ANNEX 9: RURAL POVERTY AND AGRICULTURAL/RURAL SECTOR ISSUES
Priority areas Affected group Major issues Actions needed

Low productivity Poor and marginal High incidence of small Increased public and
of agriculture, farmers; land holdings, private sector investment
livestock and Farmers with small landlessness in the in agriculture and rural
fisheries sectors (>2ha) and medium agriculture production infrastructure and services.
(>4ha) landholdings; areas; Development of
Landless dependent on Insecurity of land tenure differential policies for
livelihoods from farm and user rights; promoting market-driven
labour, livestock or Climate change resulting agriculture and other
subsistence fisheries; in increased incidence of interventions related to
Communities dependent severe droughts in the using agriculture as a tool
on food security and Central Dry Zone for poverty alleviation.
livelihoods from use of (Sagaing, Mandalay, and Promote evidence-based
natural resources such as Magway Divisions), as policy development for the
forest sand fisheries; well as seasonal droughts agricultural sector.
Female-headed in other parts of the Support dissemination of
households are especially country such as the border improved crop and
vulnerable; areas and the livestock production
National ethnic groups Ayeyarwaddy Delta; technology for sustainable
are particularly Food insecurity, agricultural intensification
vulnerable. particularly on a seasonal and diversification.
basis; Support community seed
Lack of productive production for
farming resources and multiplication of the
agriculture inputs foundation seed at the
including land, irrigation, farm level
draught power, Strengthen linkages
equipment, fertilizer and between agricultural
improved HYV seed; research and extension
Lack of effective water services
harvesting and Build links with the
management practices; private sector for
Relatively weak marketing, input supply
agriculture extension and other services.
service especially in Introduce cash–for–work
minority and remoter programme to provide
border areas; rural employment and
Inadequate investment in reduce rural poverty.
agricultural research Focus on integrated
services; farming system to promote
Lack of market oriented livestock development.
production – top-down Strengthen the capacity of
directives on quota for the agriculture extension
rice production for export; service and livestock
High dependency on a agent.
single annual rice crop for Promote income
129
main source of income for generation of resource

farmers in many areas; poor household through on
Lack of access to credit, – farm and off – farm
markets, marketing activities.
information, trading skills Promote climate change
and input supplies; adaptation practice at
Agriculture value chain is community level
inefficient; Promote evidence-based
Traditional systems of policies and action plans
livestock husbandry with for adaptation to climate
high incidence of change
mortality (poultry) and
production inefficiency
(pigs, cattle & buffalo);
High incidence of animal
diseases with limited
monitoring and
surveillance systems and
poor access to
vaccination.
Irrigation Poor and marginal Severe water scarcity in Strengthen the role of
farmers, especially those some areas, e.g. water user community for
with small (>2ha) Mandalay, Sagaing, and O&M of the irrigation
landholdings and female Magway Divisions, and scheme
headed households; seasonal water constraints Promote local planning of
Landless, especially elsewhere in the country – seasonal cropping based
female headed e.g. parts of Bago and on farmers’ preferences
households dependent on Yangon divisions, as well and collaboration among
livelihoods from farm as Kachin and Shan scheme operators, water
labour; States; user groups and farmers.
National ethnic groups. Poor operations and Review of the Current
maintenance of irrigation Water Charges
schemes; Creation of an Enabling
Provision of irrigation Environment for the
facilities not well- Formation of Water User
supported by extension Associations
and agricultural research Establishment of a Water
services; Resource Management
Lack of water System
management and water Enhanced training for
catchment strategies; extension staff in
Strict cropping pattern participatory approaches
required by government to planning and
for those receiving implementation of
irrigation, limiting irrigation projects;
farmers’ choices in Improved access to credit
selection of appropriate for rural poor to enable
cropping patterns; them to pay water charges
Absence of an enabling and fees.
130
environment for the

formation of effective
water users associations;
Absence of sufficiently
experienced technical and
facilitating staff in
participatory planning,
management and training;
Inadequate financial
capacity of farmer and
water users to pay water
charges and fees.
Rural Finance Poor and marginal High incidence of debt Provide inputs (in kind
farmers, especially those distress; and cash) to groups of
with small (>2ha) The poor are still largely poor households, with
landholdings; dependent on high cost repayments used to
Landless dependent on informal credit; establish self – help group
livelihoods from small Extreme shortage of credit or savings and credit
businesses, livestock or shrinks bargaining power groups to finance
subsistence fisheries; of the poor farmer investments and for
National ethnic groups Household indebtedness is emergencies.
high and rising; Development of a national
Formal micro-finance institutional framework
fails to reach poorest and schemes for providing
HHs; rural credit, micro-finance
Lack of finance limits and group lending,
option for improved especially for women.
agricultural production; Fostering development of
Self-help requires more second tier organizations
than credit but provision of SRGs – federations to
of livelihood promotion take over support and
services need to be promotional tasks and to
developed. provide a stronger base for
Financial viability of lobbying for entitlements
SRG-bank linkage and of of the poor.
other microfinance Institutional development
initiatives is poor but of intermediary and
starting. support organizations such
Legislation to nurture the as NGOs, banks, training
sector has been passed but institutions and apex
not as yet fully organizations.
implemented. Promote off – farm
Targeting the poorest for activities that add value to
micro-finance will require agricultural, fisheries and
addressing the issues of non-timber forest products
vulnerability and risk, e.g. simple processing,
especially measures to re- grading etc.
capitalize the poorest Provide appropriate
households. vocational skills training.
131
Limited opportunities for Promote flow of

off-farm income information on off-farm
diversification. income diversification
opportunities.
Build linkages with the
private sector.
Gender Disparities Women and women- Low participation by Empowerment of women
headed households women in economic in social and community
especially poor and activities affairs through
marginal farmers from Lack of participation by membership of SRGs,
national ethnic groups; women in decision- village councils, etc.
Women and women making bodies at local Capacity building for
headed landless (village and village-tract) leadership and
households, especially levels; management for both men
those dependent on Lack of participation by and women.
livelihoods from small women in elected bodies Policies and programmes
businesses, livestock or at regional and national to promote equitable
subsistence fisheries. levels; access to land and other
Poor access to assets, productive assets for both
especially land and men and women.
livestock; Enhanced and equitable
Lack of access to formal education, literacy, skills
and informal credit and income generation
facilities; training for both men and
Heavy burden on women women rural poor.
to collect water and fuel Improved and equitable
wood access to financial services
Lack of opportunities for for both men and women
off-farm IGA. rural poor.
Reduce women’s
workloads by improving
access to water and fuel
wood and labour saving
technologies for rural
poor.
132
ANNEX 10: ORGANIZATIONS MATRIX (SWOT ANALYSIS)
Organisation Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities/threats Remarks

Enablers
1. Ministry of Potential to take More priority on Need to provide for Has potential to be
Agriculture and considerable production than on coordinated approach to a strong partner for
Irrigation action once policies and service farming systems under one NAPA investment
convinced; delivery; Ministry; in Myanmar;
Composed of a Top down and ad Potential for a more New Government
number of hoc approaches to strategic approach to may positively
departments planning and planning; influence role of
covering a range decision-making; Climate change: unusual MOAI in rural
of agricultural Lack of rainfall patterns, development;
related issues; transparency in salinisation, flooding, Need for a more
Synergies budgets; drought; strategic and
between different Decision making National Economic systematic
departments centralized; problems are likely to approach to
under one Poor coordination impact on further agricultural
umbrella with other line investment in agriculture; development;
Ministry; agencies including Lack of investment in Important to focus
Strong national forestry, livestock educational institutions on vision for
network covering and fisheries; will reduce availability of inclusive rural
all agro- Lack of investment qualified staff; development in
ecosystems; in service delivery Potential for conflict with Myanmar.
Good network of and facilities; other natural resourced
facilities located Emphasis on based Ministries e.g.
in all agro- production rather Forestry, Fisheries.
ecological than on food
regions; security;
Strong senior Paucity of new
cadre of qualified and
committed skilled personnel to
managers. replace retiring
staff;
Centralised
decision-making
not responsive to
local priorities.
Agencies within
MOAI:
a. Department of Committed staff Lack of investment Continued lack of Potential partner in
Agriculture keen to help poor has resulted in a availability of qualified helping to provide
(DOA) farmers; decline of number extension personnel; extension services
Presence of staff and quality of Under-resourced for NAPA
at all levels of extension staff; department unlikely to be project(s);
governance in Lack of well- able to meet demand for Potential partner in
country; trained personnel extension services. giving farmers
Ability to take a with participatory choice in selection
farming systems skills; of economically
approach to Insufficient viable crops best
extension; resources for suited to local
Linkages with effective field conditions;
DAR (for visits. Potential for
133
research and partnerships with

YAU (for civil society in
training); delivery of
Townships and extension services.
District Potential to build
Agricultural on coordination at
Supervisory village tract and
Committee township levels.
provides Potential to
opportunity for promote local level
coordination with land use planning,
other working with
Government SLRD and local
agencies and councils.
local councils;
Technical
expertise in land-
use planning in
Land Use
Division.
b. Department of Commitment of Few well-qualified Move to Nay Pyi Taw Potential partner in
Agricultural staff, desire to staff to replace likely to increase distance coordinating
Planning(DAP) really help the retiring managers; from farmers; NAPA activities
poor; Tends to be Nay Emphasis on policy with other Depts.
Well-trained Pyi Daw focused influenced by politics of MOAI;
senior staff; with little feel for rather than realities in the Can help to ensure
Potential for regions. field; lessons from
coordinating New post-election projects are fed
different Government structures back into the policy
departments in may allow for better development
MOAI. responsiveness in planning process at the
for regional needs. national level.
c. Irrigation Technically Tendency to take a Climate change likely to Potential partner in
Department qualified and technological increase demand for giving farmers
(ID) committed staff; approach to irrigation but will reduce choice in selection
Potential for delivery of services consistent supply of water; of economically
strong linkages Lack of financial Potential for good viable crops best
with other MOAI resources for coordination with other suited to local
departments and investment in line depts. under MOAI; conditions in
with Local irrigation facilities Poor coordination with cooperation with
Authorities; and service other line agencies such as DOA;
delivery; forestry; Potential partner in
Lack of a farming Potential for conflicting NAPA projects to
systems and water demands for water. provide irrigation
management and supporting
approach; services to poor
Lack of trained farmers.
personnel with
participatory skills.
d. Settlement and Potential ability Land tenure Lack of a national land Will play a key
Land to coordinate land insecurity linked to policy that defines user role in linkage
Records tenure issues with failure by farmers rights and assures security between security of
Department agricultural to comply with top- of tenure; land tenure for
134
(SLRD) priorities; down cropping At local level, security of farmers and their
Ability to work directives; land tenure at whim of choice of cropping
with other MOAI Political local officials patterns.
depts. to foster a imperatives can Potential to work
farming systems influence access to with DOA in land-
approach; land; use planning.
Mandate allows Land-use decisions
for a systematic are made on an ad
approach to land- hoc basis.
use planning.
e. Water Ability to work Lack of a planned Climate change likely to Potential partner in
Resources with other MOAI and strategic increase incidence of NAPA projects to
Utilization depts. to foster a approach to water droughts and floods; provide access to
Department farming systems management and Potential for conflicting groundwater and
approach; water catchment; demands for water; supporting services
(WRUD)
Mandate allows Tendency to take a Poor coordination with to poor farmers.
for a systematic technological other line agencies such as
approach to water approach to forestry;
resources delivery of
planning services;
Lack of investment
in water resources;
f. Yezin Highly Knowledge of Lack of investment by Neglect of national
Agricultural committed staff teaching staff Government in education
University (YAU) but the more outdated; infrastructure institutions
experienced are Poor teaching and aggravated by
now retiring; research facilities; international
Close links with Lack of young sanctions
other MOAI trained staff to take
depts. Can foster over from retirees;
a cooperative Lack access to
approach; external knowledge
and resources;
Poor infrastructure.
g. Dep. of Highly Lack of young Research driven by Potential partner
Agricultural committed staff well-trained staff to political priorities rather for NAPA project
Research (DAR) but the more take over from than by needs of farmers; in selection and
experienced are retirees; Climate change offers both development of
now retiring; Lack of investment an opportunity (for cultivars best
Strong foundation has resulted in a adaptation) and threat suited to local
of applied decline of number (need for anew mind-set). conditions;
research in the and quality of Neglect of national
past; research staff; research
Network of Lack of investment institutions
agricultural has resulted in a aggravated by
research stations decline of research international
throughout the facilities; sanctions
country; Lack of access to
Strong links with external knowledge
DOA. and resources.
Ministry of Main Poor absorptive As a Myanmar The sanctions on
Finance and Government capacity to utilise Government institution, Myanmar mean
Revenue financial new investment; the MoFR is subject to that the MoFR
135
institution that Lack of skilled international sanctions; cannot be a

has oversight of human resources; New parliamentary partner institution
the Myanmar Poor institutional structure may improve for management
economy; capacity; transparency of of UN & other
Central bank is Segregated from budgetary processes. donor funds.
now economic
independent planning
because of processes;
reforms; Centralised
Financial and decision-making
economic being addressed
reforms provide to improve
a foundation for responsive to
inclusive local priorities.
economic
growth.
Ministry of Technically Infrastructure is Need to provides a Potential partner
Livestock, qualified and outdated and direction for future for for alternative
Fisheries and committed staff; suffers from lack of livestock and fisheries; IGAs for landless
Rural Some laboratory investment; Recognised lack of human in livestock
services; Lack of qualified resources and the need to production.
Development
Provides younger staff provides for capacity
vaccination Lack of resources building but resources not
service in some for surveillance of certain;
areas of the major animal Threat from too strong an
country; diseases; emphasis on export sector
Ability to respond Fishing licensing for fisheries;
to major disasters system does not Threats to livestock sector
(e.g. Cyclone support small-scale from increasing incidence
Nargis) to help fisheries; of disease.
replace lost Centralised
livestock; decision-making
Fisheries is a not responsive to
major export local priorities;
sector; Lack of effective
Fishing implementation of
legislation national legislation
supports at local levels.
sustainable and
equitable use of
resource on
paper;
Good extension
services in some
areas of the
country;
Ministry of Umbrella Lack of Framework required for Poverty root cause
Environmental organization for coordination with sustainable management of deforestation
Conservation and all forest related other Government of forest resources, forest and so MOECAF
Forestry activities – agencies in natural plantations, and for IGAs needs to work
conservation and resource for rural poor; closely with
sustainable management; Need to address problems MOAI;
136
management of Inability to with lack of coordination Could be a

forest and implement forestry with other sectoral potential partner
biodiversity legislation in some agencies. for FAO/LIFT
estate; remoter parts of (with MOAI) in
Technical country; providing IGAs
competence at Centralised and greening of
national level; decision-making CDZ project areas.
Extension not responsive to
services reach local priorities;
down to local Lack of
level; transparency in
History of statistics on forest
working with estate and illegal
local NGOs in logging.
community
forestry;
Forestry
Instruction (1995)
allows for
community
forestry.
Service Providers
Myanmar Sole financial Need to streamline Enhancement of MADB retains
Agricultural institution loan procedures; institutional capacity monopoly on agric.
Development permitted to loan Too much needed; credit;
Bank money to bureaucracy; Policy of requiring Could be a
farmers; Weak credit immediate repayment of potential partner
(MADB)
Network of assessment; loans creates severe for NAPA
branches all over Funding constraints burden on farmers programme funds
the country down limit loans to poor but this could be
to township level; farmers; subject to
Staff know local Access to loans is sanctions.
conditions not equitable.
FAO FAO presence in Experience more Previous history of Could provide both
Myanmar since with technical working with IFAD in technical
1978; implementation; other countries; support(with a
Good working High level of Government favours FAO cost);
relationship with technical and as partner but concerned Strong
Government – overhead costs; about costs; complementary
trusted partner; Substantial reliance Would provide strong with IFAD for
Sound local on international linkages with technical support in
knowledge and consultants for TA; NMTPF/CPF and UNCT procurement and
works throughout Lacks close country strategic infrastructure
the country; relationships with framework for 2012-15; development,
Good partnership local NGOs; financial
with MOAI, Does not share management, and
MLFRD, and information easily oversight.
MOECAF; with other donors; Potential partner
Assisted the Both NMTPF and for strategy
Government to CPF lack development for
prepare NMTPF consultation with agriculture and
and CPF; stakeholders; rural development.
Experience of
137
managing
agricultural
projects;
UN agency with a
mandate to work
with Government.
UNOPS Good experience Lacks technical Provides potential linkages Could be a
of fund expertise in with LIFT; potential NAPA
management in agriculture; Linkage with country partner for
Myanmar; No existing strong strategic framework for procurement,
Manages 3MDG links with 2012-15 for IFAD. project
and LIFT funds; MOAI,MOBA or management and
Able to provide MLFRD. financial
financial and management;
project services;
Core support staff
based in Yangon.
WFP Experience of Seen by the Keen to work with on A potential partner
food security government as a poverty and vulnerability in carrying out a
situation across UN watchdog on analysis in project areas baseline poverty
Myanmar; food security issues Provides linkage with and vulnerability
Experience of and human rights; UNCT country strategic analysis in CDZ for
vulnerability Links with local framework for 2012-15 selection of project
analysis in NGOs and CBOs areas and
country; are not as strong; beneficiaries
Strong human Some activities are
and technical restricted by
resources needed Government;
for surveys; Focus is on food
Has worked with aid to tackle food
MOAI in past; insecurity;
Strong links with Does not have
INGO sector strong links with
MOBA.
UNDP Experience with Spread very thinly HDI experiences provide A potential partner
HDI since 1994 over country so lessons and best practices for NAPA in
ICDP operational CDZ experience is for NAA carrying out
in townships in limited Body of evidence in baseline poverty
23 townships, Previous building social capital and vulnerability
including some in Programme through SRG – analysis in CDZ for
CDZ addressed five areas experiences + skilled selection of project
Focus is on the and lacked focus people areas and
poor in rural Resources are Government tolerates beneficiaries, and a
areas – marginal insufficient for the community-based partner for
farmers and areas addressed activities of HDI providing implementation
landless Sustainability is not for acceptance of IFAD activities.
Experience with assured – relies too targeting of rural poor
microfinance in much on donor HDI activities were
22 townships inputs subject to annual IAM
Solid body of No Government reviews and continuity of
experience in ownership of HDI UNDP support was not
working with programme assured – this will be
poor - Lack of a policy / rectified in the full-scale
138
documented legislative country programme

through annual framework that New country programme
IAM reviews would allow developing partnership
Experience in replication in other with the Government
working with areas
Government Tension with donor
agencies community in
Experience of coordinating donor
strengthening activities.
community based
groups.
New country
programme now
approved
LIFT programme MOU with Multi-donor Focus is on livelihoods LIFT keen to work
Government consortium means and food security and on with FAO and
allows LIFT to that donor priorities rural poor – allows for other UN agencies
operate may not always partnership with like LIFT plans in CDZ
throughout concur minded donors would complement
country LIFT consortium involves IFAD & ACIARD
Funding many donors – both an projects
approved for opportunity for Funding
livelihoods and partnerships and a threat in mechanism
food security terms of continuity of provides a model
projects in CDZ funding for future projects
Works through Assured funds have been
national and less than requested but
international lifting of sanctions offers
NGOs new opportunities.
Building on
previous
experience to
forge partnerships
with Government
agencies since
lifting of
sanctions.
INGOs Some agencies Some activities Experiences with Nargis Since cyclone
(e.g. ActionAid) were restricted by have fostered trust Nargis more room
have good track Government in the between NGO community and freedom to
record of working past; and Government; work
with Some did not have Nargis has built capacity
Government; trust of old of local NGOs for
Solid experience Government; development activities;
of working with Some restrictions
communities in on where they can
Myanmar; work in the
Good country;
participatory Some challenges in
skills; working with UN
Some have a agencies in the
wide country;
geographical Lack of experience
139
coverage, in managing size of

including CDZ; funds such as the
Mix of IFAD loan
international and
national staff in
INGOs;
Work well with
LIFT (a potential
partner for
NAPA);
Work well with
local government.
Local NGOs Strong Lack of capacity in Experiences with Nargis Since cyclone
commitment to technical areas and have fostered trust Nargis more room
empowering participatory between NGO community and freedom to
communities; planning; and Government; work
Some have teams Lack of financial, Nargis has built capacity
of committed technical and of local NGOs for
young people and human resources; development activities;
retired Some NGOs are
Government subject to political
officials able to pressures;
work with Some NGOs are
national line controlled by Govt.
agencies; Lack of project
Work well with management and
Local financial
Authorities; management skills.
Good knowledge
of local
conditions;
Generally have
trust of local
communities
Client
Organisations
Formal Village Strong links with Lack of capacity New constitution and LIFT projects able
Institutions: local and trained human changes in legislation give to work with Local
Village and communities; resources formal local institutions Government;
township level Sound local Lack of financial more powers; Potential partner
knowledge; resources – Potential for role in for delivery of
development
Support of dependent on participatory rural NAPA programme/
committees national national development; project services to
formed as a result Government Government for Potential conflict between communities;
of recent institutions; funding local and military Potential to build
changes to the Personnel Local level priorities in some areas; on existing
Village/tract committed to development Potential for fostering coordination
administration law local committees have partnerships between structures at village
communities little experience; donors and Local tract and township
Townships and Not clear if officials development committees levels
District will be elected or Government
Agricultural not reforms and
Supervisory Subject to national decentralisation
140
Committee directives. provide

provides opportunities for
opportunity for working with local
coordination government
between relevant
Government
agencies and
local councils and
authorities.
Informal Village Based on strong May lack Changing political Social capital
Institutions social capital; Government situation may provide a provides a solid
Farmers Strong support; stronger role for informal foundation for
associations commitment to Lack organization institutions. water user groups,
local issues; and outside support Major role in participatory women’s
Water-user groups
Trusted by local at present; rural development; organizations, and
Self-reliance communities; Subject to pressure Strengthen ability of farmers’
groups (SRG) Often associated from local community members to associations
with religious authorities and interact with Government UNDP programme
communities; Peace and agencies and outside on HDI offers
Ability to development service providers. some lessons and
mobilise councils; Legislative changes best practices for
assistance in Lack of capacity provide opportunities for NAPA.
emergencies; and resources – formation of local level Government
Brings private financial, human, informal organizations. reforms and
sector and local etc. decentralisation
communities provide
together opportunities for
Sound local working with local
knowledge. informal
organisations.
141
ANNEX 11: COMPLEMENTARY DONOR INITIATIVE/PARTNERSHIP POTENTIAL
Agency Priority sectors Areas of focus Period of Complementarities/Synergy

current Potential
country
Strategy
UN Family
UNCT UN Strategic Four strategic 2012-2015 Potential for partnerships and
Framework (2012- priorities: synergies with UNCT on
2015) provides a 1. Encourage strategic priorities 1 (poverty
framework for inclusive growth alleviation in rural areas of
coordinated UN (both rural and CDZ), 3 (climate change
assistance to urban), including adaptation) and 4(policy
Myanmar. agricultural advocacy).
development and
enhancement of
employment
opportunities.
2. Increase equitable
access to quality
social services
3. Reduce
vulnerability to
natural disasters and
climate change
4. Promote good
governance and
strengthen
democratic
institutions and
rights
WFP New Country Old HDI focused on 2013-2015 Complementarities with IFAD
Programme activities such as: programmes and high potential
focuses on 3 pillars: Strengthen village for collaboration in
Transition from community community dev. and micro
HDI to sustainable institutions
community Strengthen Local lessons and best practices from
development; Community Based HDI projects, esp SRG for
Climate change, organizations NAPA initiatives.
environment and Capacity building Assessments of Integrated
DRR; Policy advice for local Household Living Conditions
and review on communities on Regular review of Agricultural
poverty reduction basic social needs Sector, with FAO.
and democratic such as health, Experience with self-reliance
governance education, groups (SRG).
HIV/AIDS Potential for strong linkages
Assist communities with Pillars I and III of 2013-
to gain access to 2015 country programme.
cultivable land and
land development,
agriculture inputs
and tool.
Community forestry
142
activities.
Provision of micro
finance through
NGOs;
Renewed focus on
Climate change,
environment and
DRR
Support policy
dialogue and
discussions with
development
partners.
FAO Agriculture / rural Support for 2012-2016 Strong complementary with
development sustainable IFAD for technical support
Health & nutrition agriculture and rural and policy intervention at
livelihoods in higher level
Northern Rakhine Strong complementarities with
State; IFAD programmes and high
Capacity building potential for collaboration in
and technology the Central Dry Zone.
adoption for
sustainable food
security and the Wa
Special Region;
Support for ex-
poppy farmers and
poor vulnerable
families in the
border areas;
Preparation of a
National Medium
Term Priority
Framework and a
Country Programme
Framework;
Support income
generation of coffee
small holders,
oilseed crops farmer
and oil palm small
holders, and dairy
farmers;
Strengthening the
capacity and
upgrading the Forest
Research Institute;
Avian Influenza
programme
UNOPS Multi-sectoral Increasing 2010-2013 Strong complementarities with
programme agricultural FAO/IFAD programmes and
Management production high potential for collaboration
Food Security & Diversifying income in the Central Dry Zone
143
Livelihoods sources (primarily, Strong complementary with

Health but not only for IFAD for technical support in
Rural infrastructure landless) procurement, project
Improvements in management, financial
nutrition and management, and oversight
hygiene
Improved social
protection measures
in place
Improvements in the
enabling
environment for
food security and
livelihoods,
Reduce the burden
of communicable
disease mortality
and morbidity for
Tuberculosis (TB),
Malaria and HIV
and AIDS
Turnkey project
management &
procurement of
goods and services
UNODC Drug control Supporting On going
alternative
livelihoods to opium
production
ILO Labour rights Labour migration On going Potential for
Social protection complementarities with
and discrimination NAPA in terms of ensuring
Child labour and that only voluntary paid
forced labour
labour is used for irrigation
Assist Government
with formulating infrastructure and other
legislation on trade project activities;
unions and workers’ Help to monitor land tenure
rights and user rights in project
areas.
UNAIDS Health AIDS policies and On going
briefs
Drivers of the
epidemic
Gender
Greater Involvement
of People Living
with HIV/AIDS
HIV care and
support, prevention,
testing and
counselling,
treatment
144
Human rights
Key populations
Monitoring and
evaluation
Resources and
funding for AIDS
Science and
research
UNHCR Humanitarian Builds houses, On going
assistance peace of mind for
Refugees Cyclone Nargis
victims
Protect refugees and
resolve refugee
problems
UNICEF Health & Nutrition Work to protect On going Potential for
HIV/AIDS children from many complementarities with
Education deadly diseases, NAPA projects in terms of
Water & Sanitation improve their improved incomes, food
Child Protection access to healthcare
security and nutrition for
Communication and essential drugs,
and enhance their rural poor.
mental and physical Potential for synergies in
development. capacity building activities
Work to empower for communities
children, youth and
women to protect
themselves against
HIV/AIDS, and help
ensure that people
infected with and
affected by
HIV/AIDS are
supported.
Work to help
primary school
children receive a
quality education,
and to help ensure
that children are
being taught
fundamental life
skills in the
classroom.
UN-HABITAT Water Sanitation Support for On going Potential for cooperation
and Infrastructure, Coordination of with IFAD on land tenure
urban development Early Recovery rights and DRR
and land records Shelters
The Mekong Water
and Sanitation
Initiative
Agreement with the
government on DRR
145
and DRM
Urban and regional
development;
Working with
Settlement and Land
Records Dept. to
modernise land
tenure title records
and cadastral maps.
UNFPA Health Support to its On going Potential for
partners focuses on complementarities with NAPA
reducing maternal projects in terms of improved
mortality maternal and child nutrition,
Preventing the and empowering women.
spread of HIV
World Bank Interim Strategy Pillar I: 2013-2014 Potential for working with
Note (2013- Transforming community development
14) Institutions – programme and also with
institutional Pillar I of ISN on institutional
strengthening for the strengthening.
government; Experiences of CDD provide
Pillar II: Building opportunities for joint
Confidence in activities and learning from
ability of current experiences
reforms to deliver Carrying out Public
benefits to the Expenditure and Financial
people; Accountability
Pillar III: Assessment(PEFA) and Public
Preparation for Expenditure Review (PER) –
resumption of full useful for future NAPA
country programme investment
for
Myanmar.
Grant programme
for national
community-driven
development (CDD)
of $85million.
Asian Interim Re- Building human 2012-2014 Potential for working with
Development engagement resources and NAPA programme in
Bank Strategy for capacities in ADB’s strengthening human
Myanmar areas of focus; resources, promoting an
Promoting an enabling environment, and
enabling economic improving access to services
environment; for rural livelihoods
Creating access and Sector assessments provide
connectivity in rural useful materials for NAPA
livelihoods and project design
infrastructure
development.
WHO Health Prevention and On going Potential for
control of complementarities with NAPA
Communicable projects in terms of improved
146
Diseases nutrition, and health.

Health System
Development
Child, adolescent
and Reproductive
Health
Non-Communicable
Diseases and Mental
Health
Country Health
Profile.
Donor Agencies
ACIAR Agricultural/rural ACIAR’s medium- 2012-2014 Potential for
development; term strategy aligns complementarities with NAPA
directly with the projects in terms of cropping
priorities of the systems, plant breeding, seed
Australia–Myanmar multiplication, diversification,
Aid Program smallholder livestock, in CDZ
Strategy (2012–14) & Delta areas of Myanmar
for improving the
livelihoods of the
rural poor through
agricultural
development and
sustainable
economic programs.
Future research
priorities will be
within the following
spectrum:
Further
collaboration for
improvement in the
productivity of grain
legumes
Diversification and
intensification of
rice-based cropping
systems to increase
overall productivity
and farm income
Smallholder and
community
aquaculture
development, and
post-Nargis
community
remediation, in the
Ayeyarwaddy Delta
Research support for
smallholder
livestock-based
cattle enterprises in
147
the central dry zone

Strengthening of
institutional
capacity and
extension services
affecting the
acceptability and
adoption of
promising
technologies in the
central dry zone and
Ayeyarwaddy Delta
regions.
Diseases Fund Health Reduce the burden On going
(3DF) of communicable
now expanded disease mortality
to and morbidity (TB),
Malaria and HIV
3MDG Fund
and AIDS – now
includes maternal
and child health
Japan (JICA / Agricultural/rural JBIC provided On going Recent discussions between
JBIC) development; bridging loans of JICA and IFAD have focused
Education; $900 million to on possibilities to have
Health clear WB and ADB collaboration in the Central
Provides grant aid, arrears in January Dry Zone.
technical assistance, 2013
loans, and Eradication of
assistance through Opium Poppy
regional cultivation and
organizations improvement of
Encourages private drug law
sector investment enforcement
by Japanese Agriculture
companies extension human
resource
development
Nutrition and child
health
Malaria control
Rural Water supply
in the Central Dry
Zone
Education, training,
scholarship
programme to
government staff
Rehabilitation of the
Yangon port and
main inland water
transport facility
Technical support to
fishery and livestock
148
sector
Climate change
early warning
system
Community
reproductive health
Social welfare
administration
Animal disease
control
Study on sustainable
agriculture and rural
development for
poverty reduction
programme in the
Central Dry Zone
UK - DFID Humanitarian Aid – Health On-going – Potential for learning from
Nargis and other Rural development now also experiences in environment
areas; Education contributing (forestry) and rural
Non-humanitarian Civil society to LIFT development
aid strengthening Potential for learning /
Environment synergies from policy
advocacy experiences
Swiss Agency Humanitarian Aid Access to and On going
for quality of social
Development infrastructure and
and networks among
vulnerable
Cooperation
communities in the
SDC Delta, eastern of
Myanmar and
in/around the
Myanmar refugee
camps
Food and livelihood
security of internally
displaced persons
(IDPs),host
communities and
ex-poppy farmers
EU Food Security & Increasing On going Potential for
Livelihoods agricultural complementarities with NAPA
Rural development production projects in terms of rural
Health Diversifying income development and assisting
Rural infrastructure sources (primarily, rural poor (once Government
but not only for approves LIFT activities in
landless) rest of country).
Improvements in
nutrition and
hygiene
Improved social
protection measures
in place
149
in the enabling
environment for
food security and
livelihoods,
KOICA Agriculture A specialised On going Potential for
ICT laboratory in upper complementarities with NAPA
Myanmar to develop projects in terms of ICT and
the agriculture technology transfer
sector and improve
irrigation
Myanmar ICT
Development
Master Plan
Study of Fuel
production The
central dry zone
Training programme
on Hydro-graphic
Survey
USAID Support for political Income generation, On-going and Potential for cooperation on
and economic Micro credit, expanding in projects in CDZ
reform Livelihood, health, the
Democracy and sanitation future
promotion improvement
Humanitarian May also contribute
Private sector to LIFT
development Future programme
details to be
announced
LIFT Program Food and livelihood Agriculture Five year Donor Consortium of the LIFT
Livelihoods and security of the production support programme: Fund comprises Australia, the
Food poorest and most for poor households; 2009-2014 European Community, the
Security Trust vulnerable On-farm and off- Netherlands, Sweden,
populations farm market and Switzerland, New Zealand and
Fund.
employment support the UK – others also joining.
for target Initial focus on Nargis-
populations; affected areas but now
Social protection expanded to other food
measures for poor; insecure areas, including the
Capacity building CDZ- potential for
for local collaboration on food security,
organizations to poverty alleviation and
support livelihoods capacity building
and food security;
Support for poor
households for
nutrition and
hygiene.
IFAD Smallholder IFAD's efforts, Five year Planned IFAD project in CDZ
agriculture therefore, focus on programme: would like with other projects
Rural development agricultural 2014-2018 in area.
modernization,
150
value-chain
upgrading,
agribusiness
linkages, livelihood
diversification, rural
enterprise
promotion and non-
farm employment
generation. The
overarching goal is
to contribute to
reducing poverty
among poor rural
women and men –
particularly
smallholders, the
landless, ethnic
minorities and other
marginalized
groups. Strategic
objectives in
Myanmar include:
Empowering rural
people with access
to agricultural
resources,
technologies,
services and markets
Creating business
and employment
opportunities for
rural women and
men
Promoting the social
and economic
empowerment of
marginalized
populations,
especially ethnic
groups.
Coordination
Mechanisms
Thematic Food security Forum for Five years – to Provides a mechanism of
Group on Agriculture coordination of align with coordinating NAPA activities
Food Security Assist Myanmar activities of UN NMTPF with poverty alleviation and
and achieveMDG1 system, donors, and food security activities of
INGOs in other development partners in
Agriculture in
agriculture/ food the CDZ and nationally.
Myanmar security A constraint is that
(TGFSA) Coordination of Government agencies are not
needs assessments members of the TGFSA
for food security Presence at township level
and poverty would also help in
151
Design and coordination activities with

implementation of Local Authorities
strategies for food
security and
agriculture in
specific areas
Sharing experiences
and lessons learned
Information
management on
food security and
agriculture
Food Security Food security Learning and On-going Provides a mechanism of
Working Group Livelihoods exchange on best coordinating NAPA activities
(FSWG) Poverty alleviation practices on food with poverty alleviation and
security food security activities of
Promote access to national NGOs and INGOs
knowledge on new
areas for improved
food security and
livelihoods
Networking and
collaboration
Advocacy to help
voice local issues at
national level.
INGOs
Action Against Humanitarian Life-saving On going
Hunger Assistance programs in
nutrition, food
security &
livelihoods, and
water, sanitation, &
hygiene
Action Aid Human Rights Activist rights to On going Potential for synergies with
food, shelter, work, NAPA projects in terms of
education, improved extension services
healthcare and a and utilisation of irrigation
voice in the facilities in CDZ;
decisions making. Potential for synergies with
NAPA projects for capacity
building for participatory
planning activities in CDZ.
ACTED Humanitarian Emergency relief On going
Assistance Food security
Micro finance Health promotion
Health Education and
Education training
Economic
Development
Micro finance
Advocacy,
institutional support,
152
regional dialogue
Cultural promotion
Basic Human Grass-roots Medical Radio On going
Needs Telecom Network
Association infrastructures Telemedicine
Humanitarian
Community Radio
Other VHF radio
network
ICT vocational
training for local
people
Installation of PBX
at rural medical
facilities and
educational
institutions
CARE Agriculture and Support production On going
food security more food and
Education income generation
Health Promotes and
Economic facilitates discussion
development between parents,
Water, Sanitation teachers and other
and Environmental members of the
Health community to
overcome the
barriers to education
that can keep
families in a cycle
of poverty
Improving access to
quality health
services, nutrition,
family planning,
immunization and
HIV awareness and
prevention
Supporting money-
making activities,
especially those
operated by women
Help prevent
malnutrition,
including
demonstrating
effective breast
feeding, cultivating
and preparing
nutritious food,
providing food as
part of emergency
relief efforts, and
153
managing food-for-
work projects to
help communities
improve
infrastructure
Build and maintain
clean water systems
and latrines and
educates people
about good hygiene
practice to reduce
the risk of illness
Caritas Peace and Bring divided On going
reconciliation communities
Emergencies together at
Economic justice grassroots level
Climate Change Emergency release
Health to post natural
disaster
Advocacy for
economic justice
Advocacy the
impact of climate
change
Support HIV
affected family
IDE Small – plot Introducing and Start from
irrigation promoting valuable 2004
Agriculture small scale
Food security irrigation
Rural Livelihood technologies to
boost household
income, food
security and
productivity
including treadle
pumps (food –
powered irrigation
pumps) and drip
irrigation systems
and low – cost water
storage
MercyCorp Humanitarian Aid Emergency response On going
and relief to bring relief and
recovery
Water and sanitation
project
Medical aid supply
Clean up fold
damaged village and
replant rice paddies
Repairing
embankments,
154
rebuilding irrigation
canals, clearing
walkways, and
desalinating fields.
PACT Micro Financial Provide credit On going Potential for learning from
Myanmar Services without collateral PACT’s activities in the
Health for micro-enterprise provision of rural credit.
development,
mobilizing
members’ saving
Strength community
responses to
TB/HIV and other
disease burden
Promote sustainable
access to health for
the needy
communities by
increasing
community
capacities in term of
health awareness
and income
generation activity
to support health
Cetana Education Help support On going
Educational students to pursue
Foundation university study at
universities abroad
Habitat For Humanitarian Aid Support shelter to On going
Humanity local community
Myanmar
Oxfam Emergency Save lives, swiftly On going
response delivering aid,
Development work support and
Campaigning for protection
change Help communities
develop the capacity
to cope with future
crises.
Support poor people
to take control,
solve their own
problems, and rely
on themselves.
Campaigns hard,
putting pressure on
leaders for real
lasting change
Solidarités Health and Access to drinking On going
Sanitation water
Agriculture Sanitation
Civil work Hygiene
155
Rehabilitation
program for
agriculture and
fishery activities
Civil work
reconstruction
Save the Health SCF is lead agency On going Could be a good partner to
Children Nutrition for Myanmar NGO carry out poverty and
Fund Food security Consortium on vulnerability assessments in
HIV/AIDS working CDZ for NAPA, IFAD in
with 3D fund; partnerships with WFP.
HIV prevention for
high risk groups;
Prevention of
mother to child
transmission;
Household food
security and
nutrition surveys in
CDZ
World Vision Community Children in crisis On going
development Child, maternal
Child health & nutrition
Responding to Child rights &
disasters participation
Health Climate change
Trafficking Conflict & peace
building
Economic
development
Gender
HIV & AIDS
Human trafficking
Urbanisation
Regional Priorities
156
ANNEX 12: TARGET GROUPS, PRIORITIES AND POTENTIAL NAPA RESPONSE
Typology Poverty Level Coping Priority Needs Support NAPA

and Causes Actions from Other Response
Initiatives
Rural poor, especially Living on less Local Household Food Limited NAPA will
small than $1.25 per agricultural security; support target
marginal and day; wage Opportunities to services from assistance to
vulnerable farmers as Chronic food labour with intensify/diversify Government; rural poor in
well as ethnic groups insecurity larger farmers; agricultural UN Strategic project areas
Lack adequate Seasonal production Framework in the CDZ
access to migration for (including will help by providing
productive assets work (urban traditional coordinate access to
(land, draught areas and varieties, local support from irrigation
power, water overseas); breeds and UN agencies services and
control/irrigation Reduction in traditional on poverty supporting
facilities) food intake practices). alleviation services;
High ratio of Dependence on Additional and food Coordination
dependents to exploitation of productive assets - security of NAPA
workers natural (land, draught activities; activities
Little or no wage resources such power, water TWGFSA with UNCT
employment or as forests; /irrigation strategy for strategic
off-farm income Homes facilities) CDZ will framework,
generating gardening and Secure land tenure complement UNDP CP,
opportunities subsistence Access to public NAPA/IFAD LIFT and
available locally; fisheries for and private sector project with
Small food security; agricultural activities in TWGFSA
landholdings Selling off services CDZ; activities in
insufficient for assets (extension, input Proposed the CDZ and
household food Borrowing supply, marketing, JICA support other AEZ's.
security; from money microfinance for poverty
High level of lenders etc.) reduction
indebtedness Availability of initiatives in
Lack of access to off-farm CDZ will
credit services at opportunities in target rural
an affordable rural people in
cost; areas(including target villages
Poor education traditional in the area of
and literacy activities)and the pilot
levels; provision of project;
High levels of services; FAO
illness and Improved health managed
expenditure on and education OFID project
health; services (since 2005)
Vulnerability to Improved rural on oil seeds
drought and infrastructure production in
floods Capacity building 37 townships
of community in Myanmar
organizations to to increase
assist with farmers’
extension and incomes
development through
improved
157
seeds,
extension
services and
market outlets
for their
crops.
Some
sporadic and
scattered
INGO and
local NGO
initiatives on
income
generating
opportunities;
UNDP HDI
programme
was
operational in
limited areas
but new
country
programme
will have a
wider
geographical
focus and is a
potential
partner for
NAPA,
especially in
targeting rural
poor;
WFP only
able to
provide
emergency
food aid and
food-for-work
in a limited
number of
areas;
LIFT active in
all areas,
including
CDZ and is a
potential
partner
especially its
“learning and
innovation”
window.
158
Rural women, Living on less Local Household Food Limited NAPA will
particularly than $1.25 per agricultural security; support target
female —headed day; wage Opportunities to services from assistance to
households; including Chronic food labour with intensify and Government; rural poor,
women from ethnic insecurity larger farmers; diversify Proposed and
groups Lack of adequate Seasonal agricultural JICA support especially
access to migration for production for poverty women-
productive assets work (including reduction headed
(land, draught (urban/abroad); traditional initiatives in households in
power, water Reduction in varieties, local CDZ will project areas
control/irrigation food intake breeds and target rural in the
facilities) Dependence on traditional people, Myanmar by
Little or no wage exploitation of practices). including providing
employment or natural Productive assets; women, in access to
off-farm income resources such Secure land tenure target villages irrigation
generating as forests; Access to public in the area of services and
opportunities Homes and private sector the pilot supporting
available locally; gardening and agricultural project; services,
Small subsistence services UN Strategic including
landholdings fisheries for Availability of Framework training;
insufficient for food security; off-farm IGAs will help Coordination
household food Selling off (including coordinate of NAPA
security; assets traditional support from activities
High level of Borrowing activities) in UN agencies with UNCT
indebtedness from money rural areas and on poverty strategic
Lack of access to lenders provision of alleviation framework,
credit services at Taking children services; and food UNDP CP
an affordable out of Opportunities for security to and with
cost; school home gardens and help reduce TWGFSA
Poor level of subsistence gender activities in
education and fisheries for food inequities; the Myanmar
literacy; security; Some
High levels of Improved health sporadic and
domestic and education scattered
violence; services INGO and
High levels of Support for local NGO
illness and children initiatives on
expenditure on Improved income
health; personal and generating
Vulnerability to livestock security opportunities
recurrent drought Tackling domestic targeted at
and floods violence women;
Capacity building UNDP HDI
of CBOs for programme
women’s was
empowerment operational in
limited areas
but new
country
programme
will have a
wider
geographical
159
focus and is a
potential
partner for
NAPA,
especially in
targeting rural
women;
Limited WFP
food aid and
food-for-work
in
a some areas;
LIFT active in
all areas,
including
CDZ and
Delta.
Landless and poor Living on less Local Household Food Limited NAPA will
rural than $1.25 per agricultural security; support target
Households(including day; wage Availability of services from assistance to
ethnic group Little or no wage labour; off-farm income Government; rural poor,
households) employment or Seasonal generating Proposed and
non-farm income migration for opportunities JICA support especially
generating work (urban (including for poverty women-
opportunities areas and traditional reduction headed
available locally overseas); activities) in initiatives in households in
High ratio of Reduction in rural areas and CDZ will project areas
dependents to food intake provision of target rural in the
workers; Dependence on associated support poor, Myanmar by
High level of exploitation of services; including providing
indebtedness natural Opportunities for landless in access to
Lack of access to resources such home gardens and target villages irrigation
credit services at as forests; subsistence in the area of services and
an affordable Homes fisheries for food the pilot supporting
cost; gardening and security; project; services,
Poor level of subsistence Improved health UN Strategic including
education and fisheries for and culturally Framework training;
literacy; food security; sensitive will help Coordination
High levels of Selling off education coordinate of NAPA
illness and assets services; support from activities
expenditure on Borrowing Improved access UN agencies with UNCT
health. from money to livestock; on poverty strategic
lenders Capacity building alleviation framework,
and and food UNDP CP
strengthening of security and with
community-based targeted at the TWGFSA
organizations to landless; activities in
assist with FAO the Myanmar
empowerment managed
activities DFID project
(since 2005)
on oil seeds
production in
160
37 townships
in Myanmar
may increase
access to farm
wage labour;
Some
sporadic and
scattered
INGO and
local NGO
initiatives on
income
generating
opportunities;
UNDP HDI
programme
was
operational in
limited areas
but new
country
programme
will have a
wider
geographical
focus and is a
potential
partner,
especially in
targeting
landless and
poor
households;
WFP only
able to
provide
emergency
food aid and
food-for-work
in a limited
number of
areas;
LIFT active in
all areas,
including
CDZ& Delta.
161

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Ministry of Agriculture,

Livestock and Irrigation

GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR

Formulation and Operationalization of National Action

CROP PRODUCTION, EXTENSION AND

Yangon, June 2016

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS ........................................................................................................... iii

Annex 8: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS IN the CROP SECTOR ............................. 102

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

ADB Asian Development Bank

IUPOV International Union for Protection of Seed Varieties of Plants

Proposed interventions and investments in the crop sector for NAPA

Relationship of the crop sector to other rural areas

Products 1995/96 2000/01 2005/06 2007/08 2009/10 2012/13 2013/14

Major agricultural exports are summarized in Table 2.

Crops 1995/9 2001/0 2005/06 2008/09 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/2014

3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE CROP SECTOR

 Limited access to needed inputs (seeds)

3.1. Farming and livelihood systems

Table 4: Existing and target crop yields (tonne/ha)

Yield Target yield Yield gap

Categories 1995/96 2000/01 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13

3.7. Farm power and agricultural mechanization

Climate change is expected to have a considerable impact on Myanmar, particularly as a

4.1. Government agricultural research and development organizations

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities/threats Remarks

 Strong senior cadre  Emphasis on reduce availability

stations throughout has resulted in a new mindset). international

4.2. Constraints related to agricultural extension, research and education

it is centrally controlled without proper consideration of the needs of institutions, projects,

5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT

Major issues Actions needed

Cultivation of annual crops in Myanmar is characterized by low production and low

Decentralization of extension planning and upgrading of skills of extension staff would

6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS

Table 8: Poverty analysis of rural poor, gender and disadvantaged groups

Poverty level and causes Coping actions Priority needs

services at an affordable cost  Opportunities for home

7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT

e. Promoting mechanisms for coordination among government agencies and

a. As a result of the extremely low investment in agricultural research and

subzones to include information on the agro-socio-economic aspects of the

d. The intervention will incorporate the development of a completely revised and

f. A feedback mechanism will facilitate a better understanding of the key

8. RELATIONSHIP OF CROPS TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS

ACIAR (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research). 2011a. Final

Map 1: Myanma agro-ecological zone map

Map 2: Myanmar rainfall map

Map 3: Myanmar land-use – net sown area map

Map 4: Myanmar economic activity and land-use map

ANNEX 3: AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF MYANMAR

Map 1: Agricultural zoning map of Myanmar

Table 2: Agro-ecological zones of Myanmar

Agro Suitable crops

AEZ - Agro-Ecological Zoning System

ANNEX 4: MYANMAR CROP SECTOR

Source: CSO (2013)

Table 2. Land potential by states and regions in Myanmar (2012-2013)

Source: CSO (2013)

ANNEX 5: GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND STRATEGIES

The national policy/development plan in Myanmar is composed of the National

Rural development and poverty alleviation action plan

Table 1: Target production in Fifth Five-Year Development Plan (2011/12 –