GRADUATE SCHOOL

Doctor of Philosophy major in Educational Management

Name: MARY JOY P. PAGTAKHAN

Mobile No.:09298410585
E-mail Address: pagtakhan_maryjoy@yahoo.com
Course Title: Advanced Methods of Research and Statistics with Computer
Applications
Credit: 3 units
Faculty: Dionisio G. Magpantay, CPA, DPA, Ph.D, Ed.D, DBE

I. CONCEPT OF RESEARCH

NATURE OF RESEARCH

Research is a careful consideration of the study regarding a particular concern or

problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert
Babbie, “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the
observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods are used to analyze an observed event. Deductive

methods are used to verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated
with qualitative research and deductive methods are more commonly associated
with quantitative research.

Research is conducted with the purpose to understand:

 What do organizations or businesses want to find out?

 What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?
 What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?
 What is the evidence that will be required for people to believe in the idea or
concept?

Characteristics of research

1. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures
are an integral part of the process that sets the objective. Researchers need to practice
ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real-time from actual observations in
natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create
more research opportunities.

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 6. Research is analytical. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.

7. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is
obtained should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, laboratories provide a
controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used,
the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

The main purpose of the research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and
contribute to developing knowledge in a field of study. This article will highlight the
significance of research with the following points:

1. A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning

2. Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public Awareness
3. An Aid to Business Success
4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths
5. Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities
6. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information
7. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

1. A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning

Research is required not just for students and academics, but for all professionals
and nonprofessionals alike. It is also important for budding and veteran writers, both offline
and online.

For nonprofessionals who value learning, doing research equips them with
knowledge about the world, and skills to survive and improve their lives. Among
professionals and scribes, on the other hand, finding an interesting topic to discuss and/or
to write about should go beyond personal experience. Determining either what the general
public may want to know or what researchers want others to realize or to think about can
serve as a reason to do research. Thus, research is an essential component in generating
knowledge and vice-versa.

2. Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public Awareness

Television shows and movies ooze with research - both on the part of the writer(s) and the
actors. Though there are hosts who rely on their researchers, there are also those who
exert effort to do their research. This step helps them:

 get information that hired researchers missed,

 build a good rapport with the interviewee, and
 conduct a good interview in the process

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 For instance, Oprah Winfrey would have not achieved remarkable success as a
news anchor and television show host had she eschewed doing her research about
certain topics and public figures. According to entrepreneur and lifestyle coach Paul C.
Brunson, in his

interview with emotional intelligence expert and author Justin Bariso (2017), "Oprah
spends a disproportionate amount of her time gathering information from communities of
people outside of her core (different age groups, social classes, ethnicities, education
levels, careers, etc.) and then she shares that information within her community." This kind
of effort shows the necessary role of research in helping others and in raising social
consciousness.

3. An Aid to Business Success

Research benefits business. Many successful companies, such as those producing

consumer goods or mass-market items, invest in research and development or R&D.
Different business industries with science and engineering processes like agriculture, food
and beverage, manufacturing, healthcare and pharmaceuticals, computer software,
semiconductor, information and communication technology, construction, robotics,
aerospace, aviation, andenergy have high R&D expenditure because it is critical to
product innovation and to improving services.

4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths

Ever experienced a feeling that your mate is having an affair behind your back?
Some people would overlook that and say that it's better not to know; others thought would
take discreet action, hiring detectives to do the work. What does research have to do with
that situation? A lot.

Researching to reveal lies or truths involving personal affairs contributes to either

making a relationship work or in breaking away from a dysfunctional one. For the
monogamous lot, doing research to disprove or prove infidelity is not simply a trust issue,
but a right to find out the truth - unless one's intimate partner has already admitted
being polyamorous even before the relationship started. When a person dislikes
answering relationship-related questions, including her or his whereabouts, it is better to
see that as a red flag and take baby steps to save yourself from what could become a
more serious emotional mess later.

5. Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities

Research helps people nurture their potential and achieve goals through various
opportunities. These can be in the form of securing employment, scholarships, training
grants, project funding, business collaboration, and budget traveling, among others.

For those looking for a job or greener pastures, research is necessary. Through this
process, not only will the unemployed increase their chances of finding potential
employers either through job posting sites or employment agencies, but it can inform them
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if work opportunities are legitimate. Without research, the gullible, yet hopeful jobseeker or
migrant worker may fall prey to unscrupulous headhunters who might be involved in illegal
recruitment and/or human trafficking.

6. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information

The research entails both reading and writing. These two literacy functions help
enable computation and comprehension. Without these skills, it is less likely for anyone to
appreciate and get involved in the research. Reading opens the mind to a vast horizon of
knowledge, while writing helps a reader use her/his perspective and transform this into a
more concrete idea that s/he understands.

Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral in
conducting research. Interviews, attending knowledge-generating events, and casual talks
with anyone certainly aid in formulating research topics. They can also facilitate the critical
thinking process. Listening to experts discuss the merits of their studies helps the listener
to analyze a certain issue and write about such analysis.

7. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

Curiosity may kill not just the cat, but the human as well. Yet, it is the same curiosity
that fuels the mind to seek answers. The College Admissions Partners (n.d.) notes how
scientific research in particular "helps students develop critical reasoning skills...helpful for
any field of higher education..." Such a search or the thinking process is food for the brain,
allowing creativity and logic to remain active. It also helps prevent mental illnesses like
Alzheimer's.

Several studies have shown that mentally stimulating activities like doing research
can contribute to brain health. In "Educating the Brain to Avoid Dementia: Can Mental
Exercise Prevent Alzheimer Disease?", Margaret Gatz (2005) enumerated research
findings that support such a position. However, she also noted that there may be other
factors involved in averting said mental problem. One of these is intelligence. A study
involving 11-year-old pupils in Scotland in 2000, for instance, pointed to intelligence
quotient (IQ) scores as "predictive of future dementia risk". Gatz opined that clinical trials
are needed and that "conclusions must be based on large samples, followed over a long
time." She further posited:

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a
particular topic. Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life,
new problems, events, phenomena, and processes occur every day. Practically,
implementable solutions and suggestions are required for tackling new problems that

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arise. Scientists have to undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions,
explanations, and applications.
The research is broadly classified into two main classes: 1. Fundamental or basic
research and 2. Applied research. Basic and applied researches are generally of two
kinds: normal research and revolutionary research. In any particular field, normal research
is performed following a set of rules, concepts and procedures called a paradigm, which is
well accepted by the scientists working in that field. Besides, the basic and applied
researches can be quantitative or qualitative, or even both (mixed research).

1.Fundamental or basic research:

Basic research is an investigation of basic principles and reasons for the occurrence of a
particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or
investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic
research. Basic researches sometimes may not lead to immediate use or application. It is
not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original
or basic. It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates the
extraction of scientific and logical explanations and conclusions on it. It helps build new
frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the basis for much-applied
research.
Basic research

 Seeks generalization
 Aims at basic processes
 Attempts to explain why things happen
 Tries to get all the facts
 Reports in the technical language of the topic

2. Applied research:

In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well-known and accepted
theories and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies, and inter-
disciplinary research are essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic
research. Research, the outcome of which has immediate application is also termed as
applied research. Such research is of practical use to current activity.

Applied research

 Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize

 Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
 Tries to say how things can be changed
 Tries to correct the problematic facts
 Reports in common language

Basic and applied research, further divided into three types of research bearing some
characteristics feature as follows:

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Quantitative research

 It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics, and uses

numbers.
 It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
 The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
 It is conclusive.
 It investigates what, where, and when of decision making.

Qualitative research

 It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies to reason, and uses words.

 It aims to get the meaning, feeling, and describe the situation.

 Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
 It is exploratory.
 It investigates the why and how of decision making.

Mixed research
Mixed research- research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods
or paradigm characteristics. The nature of data is a mixture of variables, words, and
images.
Other types of research
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus group
interviews. The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researcher’s need
for better understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine
the best methods to be used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory
research is broad in focus and rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues.
The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables.
Descriptive research
The descriptive research is directed toward studying “what” and how many of this “what”.
Thus, it is directed toward answering questions such as, “What is this?”.
Explanatory research

 Its primary goal is to understand or to explain relationships.

 It uses correlations to study relationships between dimensions or characteristics of
individuals, groups, situations, or events.
 Explanatory research explains (How the parts of a phenomenon are related to each
other).
 Explanatory research asks the “Why” question.

Longitudinal Research
Research carried out longitudinally involves data collection at multiple points in time.
Longitudinal studies may take the form of:

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  Trend study- looks at population characteristics over time, e.g. organizational
absenteeism rates during a year

 Cohort study- traces a sub-population over time, e.g. absenteeism rates for the
sales department;

Panel study- traces the same sample over time, e.g. graduate career tracks over
the period 1990 – 2000 for the same starting cohort.

While longitudinal studies will often be more time consuming and expensive than cross-
sectional studies, they are more likely to identify causal relationships between variables.
Cross-sectional Research
One-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which data is gathered once, during days,

weeks, or months. Many cross-sectional studies are exploratory or descriptive in purpose.

They are designed to look at how things are now, without any sense of whether there is a
history or trend at work.
Action research

 Fact findings to improve the quality of action in the social world

Policy-Oriented Research

 Reports employing this type of research focus on the question ‘How can problem
‘X’ be solved or prevented ?’

Comparative research

 To identify similarities and differences between units at all levels

Causal research

 It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship among variable

Theory-testing research

 It aims at testing the validity of a unit

Theory-building research

 To establish and formulate the theory

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

By Purpose:
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 Basic research is conducted solely for theory development and refinement. For
example, much basic research has been conducted with animals to determine the
principles of reinforcement and their effect on learning. Like the experiment of skinner on
cats gave the principle of conditioning and reinforcement.

Applied research is conducted to apply or test theory and evaluating its

usefulness in educational problems. For example, applied research tests the principle of
reinforcement to determine their effectiveness in improving learning (e.g. programmed
instruction) and behavior (e.g. behavior modification).

Research and development

Research Brings new information to light. Focuses on the interaction between
research and the production and evaluation of a new product. This type of research can
be ‘formative’

(by collecting evaluative information about the product while it is being developed to use
such information to modify and improve the development process).
For example, an investigation of teachers’ reactions to the various drafts and
redrafts of a new mathematics teaching kit, with the information gathered at each stage
being used to improve each stage of the drafting process.
It can be ‘summative’ (by evaluating the worth of the final product, especially in
comparison to some other competing product).
For example, a comparison of the mathematics achievement of students exposed
to a new mathematics teaching kit in comparison with students exposed to the established
mathematics curriculum.

Evaluation Research. The purpose of evaluation research is to facilitate decision

making regarding the relative worth of two or more alternative actions

By Method:

Historical research generates descriptions, and sometimes attempted

explanations, of conditions, situations, and events that have occurred in the past. For
example, a study that documents the evolution of teacher training programs since the turn
of the century, to explain the historical origins of the content and processes of the current
program
Descriptive research provides information about conditions, situations, and events
that occur in the present. It is also called statistical research. The main goal of this type of
research is to describe the data and characteristics of what is being studied. The idea
behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical
calculations. Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes
behind a situation.

Experimental research is used in settings where variables defining one or more

‘causes’ can be manipulated systematically to discern ‘effects’ on other variables. For
example, an investigation of the effectiveness of two new textbooks using random
assignment of teachers and students to three groups – two groups for each of the new
textbooks, and one group as a ‘control’ group to use the existing textbook.
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1.4.1 Synthesis

A dozen schemes proposing to classify research questions are surveyed, analyzed

and applied to the understanding and practice of inquiry. The extent to which the various
schemes account for questions found in educational journals is estimated. Some
principles and issues are identified to stimulate work on the classification of research
questions in education and other enterprises of inquiry. On the whole, little is known about
the kinds of questions that may be posed for research.

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

Surveys often involve questions to which the respondents respond. These questions may
be open-ended, semi open-ended, and closed-ended questions.

 Open-ended questions

Examples:
 What is your opinion on this?
 Why do you think it should not be done or it should be done?

 Describe your experience with a particular incident.

 Close-ended questions
Examples:
 Do you agree with the hypothesis? answer in yes or no.

On a scale of 1 to 5 how would you rate the restaurant 1 being the best and 5 being
the worst.
 Which of the following would be your color of choice? Red, yellow, green, or blue.
 Which city did you grow up in?
 What is your age?

 Semi open-ended questions

Example:
 How was your experience? Options – Good, Bad, Neutral, Other
(explain in detail)

 Focus Groups
 Questionnaires are designed for focus group interviews also but there may not be
any questionnaires for focus group discussions. Although in such cases follow up
questions may also be presented to the participants after completing the
discussions. focus group interviews are used by many companies before the launch
of their product to understand the views of the customers.

 Interviews | Research Techniques

 Usually conducted interview requires a detailed plan about the process of
conducting an interview and the flow in which the interview is to be conducted.
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 Brainstorming
Examples:
 Quantity first
 No criticism
 Out of the box ideas
 Improvement by combination

 Gamestorming | Research Techniques

Example:
If the ultimate goal of the business is to find the primary feature of the product then
the gamestorming game may involve each of the participants accompanying a
limited set of features or specifications which will allow them to bite or buy on
different features and see which one is on top.

 Web Analytics

 Web analytics can also be combined with gamification where buy bye we can come
to know about the impact on their behavior and we can adjust and optimize the
strategy as required.
5 ways:
 Set Goals. As we covered last week, people attach a great deal of importance to
metrics such as bounce rate, time on site, and page views. ...
 Check for Problem Pages. People will leave your site – that is a foregone
conclusion.
 Consider Your Target Audience. ...
 Leverage Top Traffic Sources. ...
 Curb Your Addiction.

 A/B testing | Research Techniques

 The goal of AB testing is not to improve the single point but to improve the overall
experience.
Small and one-by-one changes can be introduced in a b testing so that over time
the entire collection of changes can result in a drastic change.
Example of A/B Testing in the Travel Industry:
Increase the number of successful bookings on your website or mobile app, your
revenue from ancillary purchases, and much more through A/B testing. You may try

testing your home page search modals, search results page, ancillary product
presentation, your checkout progress bar, and so on.

 Playtesting
 A non-disclosure agreement may be signed for all of the forms of playtesting by the
participants.
Examples:
 How many collision errors are there in my game?
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  Where are the collision errors in my game?

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Quantitative Research

When we speak of research in public relations, we are normally referring to primary

research, such as public opinion studies based on surveys and polling. (The following lists
quantitative research methods commonly employed in public relations.) Surveys are
synonymous with public opinion polls and are one example of quantitative
research. Quantitative research is based on statistical generalization. It allows us to make
numerical observations such as “85% of Infiniti owners say that they would purchase an
Infiniti again.” Statistical observations allow us to know exactly where we need to improve
relationships with certain publics, and we can then measure how much those relationships
have ultimately improved (or degraded) at the end of a public relations initiative. For
example, a strategic report in public relations management for the automobile maker
Infiniti might include a statement such as “11% of new car buyers were familiar with the
G35 all-

wheel-drive option 3 months ago, and after our campaign 28% of new car buyers were
familiar with this option, meaning that we created a 17% increase in awareness among the
new car buying public.” Other data gathered might report on purchasing intentions,
important features of a new vehicle to that public, brand reputation variables, and so on.
Quantitative research allows us to have a before and after snapshot to compare the
numbers in each group, therefore allowing us to say how much change was evidenced as
a result of public relations’ efforts.

Methods of Quantitative Data Collection

Internet-based surveys

Telephone surveys

Mail surveys

Content analysis (usually of media coverage)

Comment cards and feedback forms

Warranty cards (usually demographic information on buyers)

Frequent shopper program tracking (purchasing data)

Segmenting the public in this manner is an everyday occurrence in public relations

management. Through their segmentation, public relations managers have an idea of who
will support their organization, who will oppose the organization, and what
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communications—messages and values—resonate with each public. After using research
to identify these groups, public relations professionals can then build relationships with
them to conduct informal research, better understand their positions, and help to represent
the values and desires of those publics in organizational decision making and policy
formation.

Qualitative Research

The second major kind of research method normally used in the public relations industry is
qualitative research. Qualitative research generates in-depth, “quality” information that
allows us to truly understand public opinion, but it is not statistically generalizable. (The
following lists qualitative research methods commonly employed in public relations.)
Qualitative research is enormously valuable because it allows us to truly learn the
experience, values, and viewpoints of our publics. It also provides ample quotes to use as
evidence or illustration in our strategy documents, and sometimes even results in slogans
or fodder for use in public relations’ messages.

Qualitative research is particularly adept at answering questions from public relations

practitioners that began “How?” or “Why?”Yin (1994). This form of research allows the
researcher to ask the participants to explain their rationale for decision making, belief
systems, values, thought processes, and so on. It allows researchers to explore
complicated

topics to understand the meaning behind them and the meanings that participants ascribe
to certain concepts. For example, a researcher might ask a participant, “What does the
concept of liberty mean to you?” and get a detailed explanation. However, we would
expect that explanation to vary among participants, and different concepts might be
associated with liberty when asking an American versus a citizen of Iran or China. Such
complex understandings are extremely helpful in integrating the values and ideals of the
public into organizational strategy, as well as in crafting messages that resonate with
those specific publics of different nationalities.

Methods of Qualitative Data Collection

In-depth interviews

Focus groups

Case studies

Participant observation

Monitoring toll-free (1-800 #) call transcripts

Monitoring complaints by e-mail and letter

Mixed Methods/Triangulation

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Both quantitative and qualitative research have complementary and unique strengths.
These two research methodologies should be used in conjunction whenever possible in
public relations management so that both publics and issues can be fully understood.
Using both of these research methods together is called mixed method research, and
scholars generally agree that mixing methods yields the most reliable research results.
Tashakkori and Teddlie

(1998). It is best to combine as many methods as is feasible to understand important

issues. Combining multiple focus groups from various cities with interviews of important
leaders and a quantitative survey of the public is an example of mixed-method research
because it includes both quantitative and qualitative methodology. Using two or more
methods of study is sometimes called triangulation, meaning using multiple research
methods to triangulate upon the underlying truth of how the public views an issue.

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

We introduce a curated list of user research and market research techniques pertinent to

gamification in an enterprise context. Each of these techniques could be used individually
or in combination, based on your objectives.

1.Observation

This technique focuses on seeing what the users do as opposed to what they say they do.

This refers to research conducted outside a traditional lab setting, in a user's natural work
environment. It involves visiting the site where the product is used and observing the
usage in action. It can reveal interesting insights on environmental circumstances affecting
the usage of the product, and supplementary tools and work-arounds used along with the
product.

 Contextual inquiry

The contextual inquiry research technique combines observation with interview-style

question and response. Participants get to explain their actions or "think aloud" as they
work through a task or activity.

2. Surveys / Questionnaires

Surveys or questionnaires are useful to gather information on the profile of the user, his or
her job responsibilities and opinion of the current version of product (if available) or similar
product (if this is a new release). It is easy to collect both quantitative and qualitative
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information using surveys. Surveys may be online or face-to-face. Online surveys may be
conducted using tools such as SurveyMonkey (footnote 1). Face-to-face surveys may be
conducted in combination with observational techniques such as site visits or
a usability lab.

It is important to know how to ask the right questions the right way to get quality input for
design. This means not asking leading or confusing questions.

3. Focus Groups

A focus group is a qualitative research technique where a group of individuals is asked

their opinions, perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, or practices regarding a product, service, or
concept.

It is important to pay attention to group dynamics when conducting a focus group since the
loudest voice may dominate the conversation and drown out other opinions.

4. Interviews

Interviews are a "guided conversation where one person seeks information from the
other." An interview may be conducted in conjunction with other requirements-gathering
activity such as a site visit, or as a solo activity.

There are various types of interviews you can choose from based on your project needs
and constraints. Interviews may be conducted remotely (via the phone), or face to face. A
structured interview is one where the list of questions is prepared in advance and the
researcher tries to solicit answers from all participants. A non-directed interview is one
where the interviewer primarily listens to the subject and provides minimal input or
direction.

5. Diary studies

A diary study involves asking the test participants to record and report their experiences
related to a particular subject over a while. Depending on the type of study, participants
may use paper diaries, emails, Twitter, or a combination. Such studies can be flexible and
easy to execute. They are particularly appropriate for understanding mobile device usage
since it allows the user to provide their input on-the-go.

Like most research methods, diary studies need to be well designed and have a focus to
be effective. A poorly designed study may yield a lot of data that may be difficult to sift
through to create meaning.

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6.  Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a tool for creative problem solving, wherein a group of people comes
together to contribute ideas spontaneously. It is particularly useful when you want to break
out of stale, established patterns of thinking so that you can develop new ways of looking
at things. When an interdisciplinary product team brainstorms to come to a common vision
of the solution, it helps get buy-in for the chosen solution.

7. Gamestorming

Gamestorming, as the name suggests, refers to the use of games for brainstorming. The
term Innovation Games also refers to this technique. Presenting the problem in a game
format suspends some of the normal protocols of life and frees the participants to think
creatively to solve problems. For example, if the goal is to prioritize a list of features in a
product, gamestorming may involve giving each participant a limited set of resources and
allowing them to buy/bet on features to see which ones come out on top.

8. Web Analytics

Web analytics refers to gathering and analyzing usage data to gain insights into consumer
actions and attitudes. Tools such as Google Web Analytics and Omniture have made it
possible for companies to adopt a real data driven approach to understanding usage
patterns to optimize the experience for the user. In the case of gamification, it is very
useful to know the impact on player behavior to adjust and optimize the strategy as
needed.

9. Playtesting

A playtest is a type of usability testing, in which a game designer tests a new game for
bugs and design flaws before release. The target player types are recruited via various
methods, and are given the game to play. The designers observe the participants and
study usagestatistics to collect qualitative and quantitative data on the product. They then
iterate to make the product better. This practice is beneficial to gamification as well.

10. A/B Testing

A/B testing is an experimental approach to user experience design. It presents two

versions of a website (Option A and Option B) to the user, and analyzes users' behavior.
Typically, it tries to track the effect of the differences of the two options against a desired
goal. For example, if a website is trying to increase click through rate, they may present a
version to one set of online

users, and a different version to another. They could analyze if these differences have any
impact on the metric they care about.
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11.  Other research methods

When designing enterprise products, it is helpful to know the domain via online research.
Researching competitors is an important part of the initial 360- degree research for any
product. Analyst and market research reports usually provide good insight into industry
trends and business practices.

Professional communities like LinkedIn offer groups for specialized categories of users.
Browsing such communities can provide a way to build empathy for your target users by
getting a glimpse of their view of the world.

SYNTHESIS

Research is a very important part of our daily lives and for our social development.
Everything that we are using or enjoying are products of research. Finding reasons why
research is important seems like a no-brainer. However, many people are not indulging
their selves in researching, many people avoid getting involved in the research. Some
reluctant students student is probably thinking - "Oh, no. Not again," while a disinterested
academic could just be doing it to secure job tenure and/or a promotion. Yet, for those
who like to learn, whether they are members of a learning institution or not, doing research
is not just an imperative, but a need.

Research and doing research can encourage people to explore possibilities, to

understand existing issues, and to disclose truths and fabricated ones. Without research,
technological advancement and other developments could have remained a fantasy.
Reading, writing, observing, analyzing, and social interaction facilitate an inquisitive mind's
quest for knowledge, learning, and wisdom. Research serves as a bridge to achieve that
goal.

The human quest to seek knowledge, satisfy one's sense of wonder, develop more
abilities, connect with others, and understand society is integral to research. Perpetuating
truths, as well as debunking lies and myths require inquisitive minds and priceless
integrity. As the world continues to evolve, doing research becomes more important as a
skill with enduring rewards.

Depending on the purpose of research, scientific research projects can be grouped

into three types: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. Exploratory research is often
conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are: (1) to scope out
the magnitude or

extent of a particular phenomenon, problem, or behavior, (2) to generate some initial ideas
(or “hunches”) about that phenomenon, or (3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more
extensive study regarding that phenomenon.

The research comes in many shapes and sizes. Before a researcher begins to
conduct a study, he or she must decide on

16
a specific type of research.  Good researchers understand the advantages and
disadvantages of each type, although most end up specializing in one.
Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular
topic. Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new
problems, events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable
solutions and suggestions are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists
have to undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and
applications.
The research is broadly classified into two main classes: 1. Fundamental or basic
research and 2. Applied research. Basic and applied researches are generally of two
kinds: normal research and revolutionary research. In any particular field, normal research
is performed in accordance with a set of rules, concepts and procedures called a
paradigm, which is well accepted by the scientists working in that field. In addition, the
basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both (mixed
research).
Research methods are generalised and established ways of approaching research
questions. Research methods are divided into qualitative and quantitative approaches and
involve the specific study activities of collecting and analyzing research data in order to
answer the particular research question. Not all methods can be applied to all research
questions: a. Qualitative methods should be deployed when the research aim is an in-
depth, contextual analysis of a phenomenon; b. Quantitative methods should be deployed
when the research aim is to produce generalizable results that show prevalence,
incidence, statistical relationships between variables and causation. Data collection
methods can be used in various study types, including: a. Empirical studies, these are field
based studies during which the research collects primary data. b. Desk Reviews, these
are non-filed based studies during which the researcher analyses and synthesises
secondary data to articulate new findings. c. Research Analysis and Evaluation, these can
be either field studies or desk reviews during which the researcher aims to recommend the
best policy or program option before implementation or aims to articulate the impact of a
policy or program after implementation.

17
 II. RESEARCH DESIGN

Research Design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a

researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are
suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.

The design of a research topic explains the type of research

(experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type
(experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study). 

There are three main types of research design: Data collection, measurement, and
analysis.

The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design
and not vice-versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how
they are used.

An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust
in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the least margin of error in
experimental research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential
elements of the research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis

Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies
provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets
all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics of research
design:

Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the
data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research design should be free
from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and
conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the derived
results.

Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar

results every time. Your design should indicate how to form research questions to ensure
the standard of results. You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your design is
reliable.
18
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct
measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the
objective of the research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.

Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be conducted on any
part of a population with similar accuracy.

The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and so all
the above characteristics should be balanced in a good design.

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to
select which model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your study
can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

Qualitative research design: Qualitative research determines relationships between

collected data and observations based on mathematical calculations. Theories related to a
naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using statistical methods.
Researchers rely on qualitative research design methods that conclude “why” a particular
theory exists along with “what” respondents have to say about it.

Quantitative research design: Quantitative research is for cases where statistical

conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better
perspective to make critical business decisions. Quantitative research design methods are
necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from hard numerical data and
analysis prove to be highly effective when making decisions related to the future of the
business.

You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:

1. Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested

in describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design
method which is created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This
allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive
design helps others better understand the need for the research. If the problem statement
is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research. 

2. Experimental research design: Experimental research design establishes a

relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one
observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For
example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a
dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is a highly practical
research design method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand. The independent
variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is
often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups.
19
Researchers can have participants change their actions and study how the people around
them react to gain a better understanding of social psychology.

3. Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research

design technique that helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely
connected variables. This type of research requires two different groups. There is no
assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different variables, and statistical
analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables, whose value
ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a
positive relationship between the variables and -1 means a negative relationship between
the two variables. 

4. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to

evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one
learn more about the factors that create troublesome situations. 

This design has three parts of the research:

· Inception of the issue

· Diagnosis of the issue

· Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research design: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and

thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories. The research explains unexplored
aspects of a subject and details about what, how, and why of research questions.

2.2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The following seven steps outline a simple and effective strategy for finding information for
a research paper and documenting the sources you find. Depending on your topic and
your familiarity with the library, you may need to rearrange or recycle these steps. Adapt
this outline to your needs. We are ready to help you at every step in your research.

Step 1: Identify and Develop Your Topic

State your topic as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about use
of alcoholic beverages by college students, you might pose the question, "What effect
does use of alcoholic beverages have on the health of college students?" Identify the main
concepts or keywords in your question.

Step 2: Find Background Information

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 Look up your keywords in the indexes to subject encyclopedias. Read articles in these
encyclopedias to set the context for your research. Note any relevant items in the

bibliographies at the end of the encyclopedia articles. Additional background information

may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings.

Step 3: Use Catalogs to Find Books And Media

Use guided keyword searching to find materials by topic or subject. Print or write down the
citation (author, title,etc.) and the location information (call number and library). Note the
circulation status. When you pull the book from the shelf, scan the bibliography for
additional sources. Watch for book-length bibliographies and annual reviews on your
subject; they list citations to hundreds of books and articles in one subject area. Check the
standard subject subheading "--BIBLIOGRAPHIES," or titles beginning with Annual
Review of... in the Cornell Library Classic Catalog.
 
Step 4: Use Indexes to Find Periodical Articles
Use periodical indexes and abstracts to find citations to articles. The indexes and
abstracts may be in print or computer-based formats or both. Choose the indexes and
format best suited to your particular topic; ask at the reference desk if you need help
figuring out which index and format will be best. You can find periodical articles by the
article author, title, or keyword by using the periodical indexes in the Library home page. If
the full text is not linked in the index you are using, write down the citation from the index
and search for the title of the periodical in the Cornell Library Classic Catalog. The catalog
lists the print, microform, and electronic versions of periodicals at Cornell.

Step 5: Find Additional Internet Resources

 Nearly everyone is aware of and uses Google and its branches, Google Scholar, Google
Books, Google News, YouTube, etc., to search and find information on the open Internet
(as opposed to the subscription-only resources you will encounter in steps 2 through 4
above).

Step 6: Evaluate What You Find

See How to Critically Analyze Information Sources and Distinguishing Scholarly from Non-
Scholarly Periodicals: A Checklist of Criteria for suggestions on evaluating the authority
and quality of the books and articles you located.  Identifying scholarly journalsIdentifying
substantive news sources
If you have found too many or too few sources, you may need to narrow or broaden your
topic. Check with a reference librarian or your instructor.
 
Step 7: Cite What You Find Using A Standard Format
Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.
21
Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes, it gives
proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your
work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references.

Knowingly representing the work of others as your own is plagarism. (See Cornell's Code
of Academic Integrity). Use one of the styles listed below or another style approved by
your instructor. Handouts summarizing the APA and MLA styles are available at Uris and
Oline Reference.

RESEARCH PROBLEM
A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of
concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling
question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that
points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A
research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad
proposition, or present a value question.

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied . The
reader is oriented to the significance of the study.
2. Anchors the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow .
It offers a concise statement about the purpose of your paper.
3. Place the topic into a particular context that defines the parameters of what
is to be investigated.
4. Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is
probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present
this information.

In the social sciences, the research problem establishes the means by which you
must answer the "So What?" question. This question refers to a research problem
surviving the relevancy test [the quality of a measurement procedure that provides
repeatability and accuracy]. Note that answering the "So What?" question requires a
commitment on your part to not only show that you have reviewed the literature, but
that you have thoroughly considered the significance of the research problem and its
implications applied to creating new knowledge and understanding.

To survive the "So What" question, problem statements should possess the
following attributes:

 Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping

generalizations and irresponsible pronouncements; it also does include unspecific
determinates like "very" or "giant"],
 Demonstrate a researchable topic or issue [i.e., feasibility of conducting the
study is based upon access to information that can be effectively acquired,
gathered, interpreted, synthesized, and understood],

22
 Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden
words and terms,
 Identification of an overarching question or small set of questions accompanied
by key factors or variables,
 Identification of key concepts and terms,

 Articulation of the study's conceptual boundaries or parameters or limitations,

 Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into
general use,
 Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [i.e.,
regardless of the type of research, it is important to demonstrate that the research
is not trivial],
 Does not have unnecessary jargon or overly complex sentence constructions;
and,
 Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only
a snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation.

2.3 PREPARING BIBLIOGRAPHY

A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used in the process of researching
your work. In general, a bibliography should include:

 the authors' names

 the titles of the works
 the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the
sources
 the dates your copies were published
 the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source volumes)

Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography is the same as a bibliography with one important difference: in

an annotated bibliography, the bibliographic information is followed by a brief description
of the content, quality, and usefulness of the source.

What Are Footnotes?

Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of a page. They cite references or comment on
a designated part of the text above it. For example, say you want to add an interesting
comment to a sentence you have written, but the comment is not directly related to the
argument of your paragraph. In this case, you could add the symbol for a footnote. Then,
at the bottom of the page you could reprint the symbol and insert your comment. Here is
an example:

This is an illustration of a footnote.1 The number “1” at the end of the previous sentence
corresponds with the note below. See how it fits in the body of the text?

1 At the bottom of the page you can insert your comments about the sentence preceding
the footnote.

23
When your reader comes across the footnote in the main text of your paper, he or she
could look down at your comments right away, or else continue reading the paragraph and
read your comments at the end. Because this makes it convenient for your reader, most
citation styles require that you use either footnotes or endnotes in your paper. Some,
however, allow you to make parenthetical references (author, date) in the body of your
work. See our section on citation styles for more information.

Footnotes are not just for interesting comments, however. Sometimes they simply refer to
relevant sources -- they let your reader know where certain material came from or where

they can look for other sources on the subject. To decide whether you should cite your
sources in footnotes or in the body of your paper, you should ask your instructor or see
our section on citation styles.

Where Does the Little Footnote Mark Go?

Whenever possible, put the footnote at the end of a sentence, immediately following the
period or whatever punctuation mark completes that sentence. Skip two spaces after the
footnote before you begin the next sentence. If you must include the footnote in the middle
of a sentence for the sake of clarity, or because the sentence has more than one footnote
(try to avoid this!), try to put it at the end of the most relevant phrase, after a comma or
other punctuation mark. Otherwise, put it right at the end of the most relevant word. If the
footnote is not at the end of a sentence, skip only one space after it.

What's the Difference between Footnotes and Endnotes?

The only real difference is placement -- footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant
page, while endnotes all appear at the end of your document. If you want your reader to
read your notes right away, footnotes are more likely to get your reader's attention.
Endnotes, on the other hand, are less intrusive and will not interrupt the flow of your
paper.

If I Cite Sources in the Footnotes (or Endnotes), How's that Different from a
Bibliography?

Sometimes you may be asked to include these -- especially if you have used a
parenthetical style of citation. A "works cited" page is a list of all the works from
which you have borrowed material. Your reader may find this more convenient than
footnotes or endnotes because he

or she will not have to wade through all of the comments and other information in order to
see the sources from which you drew your material. A "works consulted" page is a
complement to a "works cited" page, listing all of the works you used, whether they were
useful or not.

Isn't a "Works Consulted" Page the Same as a "Bibliography," Then?

Well, yes. The title is different because "works consulted" pages are meant to complement
"works cited" pages, and bibliographies may list other relevant sources in addition to those

24
mentioned in footnotes or endnotes. Choosing to title your bibliography "Works Consulted"
or "Selected Bibliography" may help specify the relevance of the sources listed.

HOW TO CITE SOURCES

This depends on what type of work you are writing, how you are using the borrowed
material, and the expectations of your instructor.

First, you have to think about how you want to identify your sources. If your sources are
very important to your ideas, you should mention the author and work in a sentence that

introduces your citation. If, however, you are only citing the source to make a minor point,
you may consider using parenthetical references, footnotes, or endnotes.

There are also different forms of citation for different disciplines. For example, when you
cite sources in a psychology paper you would probably use a different form of citation than
you might in a paper for an English class.

Finally, you should always consult your instructor to determine the form of citation
appropriate for your paper. You can save a lot of time and energy simply by asking "How
should I cite my sources," or "What style of citation should I use?" before you begin
writing.

In the following sections, we will take you step-by-step through some general guidelines
for citing sources.

Identifying Sources in the Body of Your Paper

The first time you cite a source, it is almost always a good idea to mention its author(s),
title, and genre (book, article, or web page, etc.). If the source is central to your work, you
may want to introduce it in a separate sentence or two, summarizing its importance and
main ideas. But often you can just tag this information onto the beginning or end of a
sentence. For example, the following sentence puts information about the author and work
before the quotation:

Milan Kundera, in his book The Art of the Novel, suggests that “if the novel should really
disappear, it will do so not because it has exhausted its powers but because it exists in a
world grown alien to it.”

You may also want to describe the author(s) if they are not famous, or if you have reason
to believe your reader does not know them. You should say whether they are economic
analysts, artists, physicists, etc. If you do not know anything about the author, and cannot
find any information, it is best to say where you found the source and why you believe it is
credible and worth citing. For example,

In an essay presented at an Asian Studies conference held at Duke University, Sheldon

Geron analyzes the relation of state, labor-unions, and small businesses in Japan
between 1950s and 1980s.

25
If you have already introduced the author and work from which you are citing, and you are
obviously referring to the same work, you probably don't need to mention them again.
However, if you have cited other sources and then go back to one you had cited earlier, it
is a good idea to mention at least the author's name again (and the work if you have
referred to more than one by this author) to avoid confusion.

Quoting Material

What is Quoting?

Taking the exact words from an original source is called quoting. You should quote
material when you believe the way the original author expresses an idea is the most

effective means of communicating the point you want to make. If you want to borrow an
idea from an author, but do not need his or her exact words, you should try paraphrasing
instead of quoting.

How Often Should I Quote?

Most of the time, paraphrasing and summarizing your sources is sufficient (but remember
that you still have to cite them!). If you think it’s important to quote something, an excellent
rule of thumb is that for every line you quote, you should have at least two lines analyzing
it.

How Do I Incorporate Quotations in My Paper?

Most of the time, you can just identify a source and quote from it, as in the first example
above. Sometimes, however, you will need to modify the words or format of the quotation
in

order to fit in your paper. Whenever you change the original words of your source, you
must indicate that you have done so. Otherwise, you would be claiming the original author
used words that he or she did not use. But be careful not to change too many words! You
could accidentally change the meaning of the quotation and falsely claim the author said
something they did not.

For example, let's say you want to quote from the following passage in an essay called
"United Shareholders of America," by Jacob Weisberg:

The citizen-investor serves his fellow citizens badly by his inclination to withdraw from the
community. He tends to serve himself badly as well. He does so by focusing his pursuit of
happiness on something that very seldom makes people happy in the way they expect it
to.

When you quote, you generally want to be as concise as possible. Keep only the material
that is strictly relevant to your own ideas. So here you would not want to quote the middle
sentence, since it is repeated again in the more informative last sentence. However, just
skipping it would not work -- the final sentence would not make sense without it. So, you
26
have to change the wording a little bit. In order to do so, you will need to use some editing
symbols. Your quotation might end up looking like this:

In his essay, “United Shareholders of America,” Jacob Weisberg insists that “The citizen-
investor serves his fellow citizens badly by his inclination to withdraw from the community.
He tends to serve himself badly... by focusing his pursuit of happiness on something that
very seldom makes people happy in the way they expect it to.”
“He tends to serve himself badly...by focusing his pursuit of happiness on [money].”

The brackets around the word [money] indicate that you have substituted that word for
other words the author used. To make a substitution this important, however, you had
better be sure that [money] is what the final phrase meant -- if the author intentionally left it

ambiguous, you would be significantly altering his meaning. That would make you guilty of
fraudulent attribution. In this case, however, the paragraph following the one quoted
explains that the author is referring to money, so it is okay.

As a general rule, it is okay to make minor grammatical and stylistic changes to make the
quoted material fit in your paper, but it is not okay to significantly alter the structure of the
material or its content.

Quoting within Quote

When you have "embedded quotes," or quotations within quotations, you should switch
from the normal quotation marks ("") to single quotation marks ('') to show the difference.
For example, if an original passage by John Archer reads:

The Mountain Coyote has been described as a “wily” and “single-minded” predator by
zoologist Lma Warner.

As John Archer explains, “The Mountain Coyote has been described as a 'wily' and
'single-minded' predator by zoologist Lma Warner.”

How Do I Include Long Quotes in My Paper?

The exact formatting requirements for long quotations differ depending on the citation
style. In general, however, if you are quoting more than 3 lines of material, you should do
the following:

 change the font to one noticeably smaller (in a document that is mostly 12 point
font, you should use a 10 point font, for example)
 double indent the quotation -- that means adjusting the left and right margins so
that they are about one inch smaller than the main body of your paper
 if you have this option in your word-processor, "left-justify" the text. That means
make it so that each line begins in the same place, creating a straight line on the
left side of the quotation, while the right side is jagged
 do NOT use quotation marks for the entire quotation -- the graphic changes you
have made already (changing the font, double indenting, etc.) are enough to
27
 indicate that the material is quoted. For quotations within that quotation, use normal
quotation marks, not single ones
 you might want to skip 1.5 times the line-spacing you are using in the document
before you begin the quotation and after it. This is optional and depends on the
style preferred by your instructor

For example, a properly-formatted long quotation in a document might look like this:

Akutagawa complicates the picture of picture of himself as mere “reader on the verge of
writing his own text,” by having his narrated persona actually finish authoring the work in
wich he appears. In the forty-ninth segment of the text, entitled “A Stuffed Swan,” he
writes:Using all of his remaining strength, he tried to write his autobiography. Yet it was
not an easy task for him. This was due to his still lingering sense of pride and skepticism...
After finishing “A Fool's Life,” he accidentally discovered a suffered swan in a used goods

store. Although it stood with its head raised, even its yellowed wings had been eaten by
insects. He thought of his entire life and felt tears and cruel laughter welling up inside. All
that remained for him was madness or suicide.With this gesture Akutagawa ironizes the
impossibility of truly writing the self by emphasizing the inevitable split that must occur
between writing and written “self,” the Akutagawa still writing “A Fool's Life” cannot
possibly be identical with the narrated persona which has finished the work.

SYNTHESIS
A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge
that you will aim to address in your research. You might look for practical problems aimed
at contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge.Bear in
mind that some research will do both of these things, but usually the research problem
focuses on one or the other.  The type of research problem you choose depends on your
broad topic of interest and the type of research you want to do.

All research designs attempt to minimize potential threats to the validity of any

scientific conclusions. Unfortunately, all research designs contain one or more threats to
validity. Some threats to validity are plausible, while others are so unlikely that attempts to
control for them are not warranted. Threats to validity can be dealt with in two ways. One
way is to measure the plausible threats and statistically control for their potential influence
on the focal outcome analysis of interest . The second way is to incorporate explicit design
features that attempt to control the plausible threats to validity . Both the design and the
statistical approaches can be merged to provide even further controls for validity threats.
Finally, all research designs are only as valid and generalizable as the population that a
given sample represents. Too often, conclusions about a study are stated as if they apply
to a much larger universe of generalization than is warranted by the weaknesses in the
sampling of units. Here, sampling units include the sampled individuals as well as the
sampled contexts, occasions, and measured variables, for example

In terms of iimitating the author’s language structure in the summary or

paraphrase is a form of plagiarism, even if we provide a citation, because it gives the false
impression that the words are your own when they are not. This includes rearranging the
author’s sentences but using mostly the same wording, or simply inserting synonyms into
the author’s sentence arrangement. To avoid doing this, make sure to process the
28
author’s ideas and then present them in a way that is uniquely yours. Too closely mirroring
the author’s syntax and word choice not only shows disregard for properly crediting the
author, but does not give your own voice a chance to shine. 
A bibliography is a list of sources (books, journals, Web sites, periodicals, etc.) one
has used for researching a topic. Bibliographies are sometimes called "References" or
"Works Cited" depending on the style format you are using. A bibliography usually just
includes the bibliographic information (i.e., the author, title, publisher, etc.).
An annotation is a summary and/or evaluation. Therefore, an annotated
bibliography includes a summary and/or evaluation of each of the sources. Depending on

your project or the assignment, your annotations may do one or more of the following.
When you quote a source, you include the author's exact words in your text. Use "quotation marks"
around the author's words. Include signal phrases and an in-text citation to show where the quote
is from.

When you paraphrase or summarize a source, you restate the source's ideas
in your own words and sentence structure. Select what is relevant to your topic, and
restate only that. Changing only a few words is not sufficient in paraphrasing/
summarizing. Instead, you need to completely rephrase the author's ideas in your own
words. You do not need to use quotation marks.
Always use in-text citations when you paraphrase or summarize, to let the reader
know that the information comes from another source. Continue to use signal phrases as
well. For more information about paraphrasing, please review the content on
the paraphrasing page.

29
III. PARTS OF AN ADVANCED RESEARCH PAPER

THE PROBLEM
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved,
a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in
theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation. In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in
the form of a question. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a
vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.

3.1.1 How to Write a Research Introduction

The introduction to a research paper can be the most challenging part of the paper to
write. The length of the introduction will vary depending on the type of research paper you
are writing. An introduction should announce your topic, provide context and a rationale for
your work, before stating your research questions and hypothesis. Well-written
introductions set the tone for the paper, catch the reader's interest, and communicate the
hypothesis or thesis statement.

Introducing the Topic of the Paper

1. Announce your research topic. You can start your introduction with a few sentences

which announce the topic of your paper and give an indication of the kind of research
questions you will be asking. This is a good way to introduce your readers to your topic
and pique their interest. The first few sentences should act as an indication of a broader
problem which you will then focus in on more closely in the rest of your introduction,
leading to your specific research questions.
 In scientific papers this is sometimes known as an "inverted triangle", where
you start with the broadest material at the start, before zooming in on the specifics.
[1]
 The sentence "Throughout the 20th century, our views of life on other
planets have drastically changed" introduces a topic, but does so in broad terms.
 It provides the reader with an indication of the content of the essay and
encourages them to read on.

2.Consider referring to key words. When you write a research paper for publication you

will be required to submit it along with a series of key words which give a quick indication
of the areas of research you are addressing.You may also have certain key words in your
title which you want to establish and emphasise in your introduction.[2]
 For example, if you were writing a paper about the behaviour of mice when
exposed to a particular substance, you would include the word "mice", and the
scientific name of the relevant compound in the first sentences.[3]
 If you were writing a history paper about the impact of the First World War on
gender relations in Britain, you should mention those key words in your first few
lines.

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3.Define any key terms or concepts. It may be necessary for you to clarify any key
terms or concepts early on in your introduction. You need to express yourself clearly
throughout your paper so if you leave an unfamiliar term or concept unexplained you risk
your readers not having a clear understanding of your argument.[4]
 This is especially important if you are attempting to develop a new
conceptualization that uses language and terminology your readers may be
unfamiliar with.

4.Introduce the topic through an anecdote or quotation. If you are writing a humanities
or social science essay you can find more literary ways to begin your introduction and
announce the topic of your paper. It is common for humanities essays in particular to
begin with an illustrative anecdote or quotation that points to the topic of the research. This
is a variation of the "inverted triangle" technique and can generate interest in your paper in
a more imaginative way and demonstrate an engaging writing style.
 If you use an anecdote ensure that is short and highly relevant for your
research. It has to function in the same way as an alternative opening, namely to
announce the topic of your research paper to your reader.
 For example, if you were writing a sociology paper about re-offending rates
among young offenders, you could include a brief story of one person whose story
reflects and introduces your topic.
 This kind of approach is generally not appropriate for the introduction to a
natural or physical sciences research paper where the writing conventi

Establishing the Context for Your Paper

1.Include a brief literature review. Depending on the overall length of your paper, it will
be necessary to include a review of the existing literature already published in the field.
This is an important element of your paper which demonstrates that you have a strong
knowledge and understanding of the debates and scholarship in your area. You should
aim to indicate that you have a broad knowledge, but that you are engaging in the specific
debates most relevant to your own research.
 It is important to be concise in the introduction, so provide an overview on
recent developments in the primary research rather than a lengthy discussion.[5]
 You can follow the "inverted triangle" principle to focus in from the broader
themes to those to which you are making a direct contribution with your paper.
 A strong literature review presents important background information to your
own research and indicates the importance of the field.[6]

2.Use the literature to focus in on your contribution. A concise but comprehensive

literature review can be a very effective way to frame your own research paper. As you
develop your introduction, you can move from the literature to focus in on your own work
and its position relevant to the broader scholarship.
 By making clear reference to existing work you can demonstrate explicitly
the specific contribution you are making to move the field forward.
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  You can identify a gap in the existing scholarship and explain how you are
addressing it and moving understanding forward.

3.Elaborate on the rationale of your paper. Once you have framed your work within a
broader context you can elaborate more fully on the rationale of your research and its
particular strengths and importance. The rationale should clearly and concisely indicate
the value of your paper and its contribution to the field.[7] Try to go beyond saying that you
are filling a gap in the scholarship and emphasise the positive contribution of your work.
 For example, if you are writing a scientific paper you could stress the merits
of the experimental approach or models you have used.
 Stress what is novel in your research and the significance of your new
approach, but don't give too much detail in the introduction.[8]
 A stated rationale could be something like: "the study evaluates the
previously unknown anti-inflammatory effects of a topical compound in order to
evaluate its potential clinical uses".

Specifying Your Research Questions and Hypothesis

1.State your research questions. Once you have indicated where your research sits in
the field and the general rationale for your paper, you can specify the research questions
the paper addresses. The literature review and rationale frames your research and
introduces your research question. This question should be developed fluently from the
earlier parts of the introduction and shouldn't come as a surprise to the reader.[9]
 The research question or questions generally come towards the end of the
introduction, and should be concise and closely focused.[10]
 The research question might recall some of the key words established in the
first few sentences and the title of your paper.
 An example of a research question could be "what were the consequences
of the North American Free Trade Agreement on the Mexican export economy?"
 This could be honed further to be specific by referring to a particular element
of the Free Trade Agreement and the impact on a particular industry in Mexico,
such as clothing manufacture.
 A good research question should shape a problem into a testable
hypothesis.

2.Indicate your hypothesis. After you have specified your research questions you need
to give a clear and concise articulation of your hypothesis, or your thesis statement. This is
a statement which indicates your essay will make a specific contribution and have a clear
result rather than just covering a broader topic. You should make it clear briefly how you
came to this hypothesis in a way which references your discussion of the existing
literature.
 If possible try to avoid using the word "hypothesis" and rather make this
implicit in your writing.[11] This can make your writing appear less formulaic.
 In a scientific paper, giving a clear one-sentence overview of your results
and their relation to your hypothesis makes the information clear and accessible.
[12]
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  An example of a hypothesis could be "mice deprived of food for the duration
of the study were expected to become more lethargic than those fed normally".

3.Outline the structure of your paper. In some cases the final part of an introduction to a
research paper will be a few lines that provide an overview of the structure of the body of
the paper.[13] This could simply give an outline of how you have organised the paper and
how it is broken down into sections.

 This is not always necessary and you should pay attention to the writing
conventions in your discipline.
 In a natural sciences paper, for example, there is a fairly rigid structure which
you will be following.[14]
 A humanities or social science paper will most likely present more
opportunities to deviate in how you structure your paper.

3.2 Statement of the Problem

A problem statement is a short, succinct explanation of a problem a business is facing and
a proposed solution to the problem. Problem statements can be effective ways to define
an issue and communicate a solution within a short span of time. Before you write your
problem statement, think about the problem and your proposed solution, and be prepared
to back it up with facts!

Writing Your Own Problem Statement

 Describe the "ideal" state of affairs. There are lots of different ways to write a
problem statement — some sources will recommend jumping right to the problem
itself, while others recommend providing background context first so that problem
(and its solution)

 are easier to understand for the reader. If you're ever unsure of how to begin, opt
for the latter option. While conciseness is something every piece of practical writing
should aim for, it's even more important to be well-understood. Start by describing
how things should work. Before you even mention your problem, explain in a few
sentences how things would be if the problem didn't exist.

 For instance, let's say that you work at a major airline and that you've noticed that
the way passengers board your planes is an inefficient use of time and resources.
In this case, you might begin your problem statement by describing an ideal
situation where the boarding system isn't inefficient that the company should shoot
for, like this: "The boarding protocols used by ABC Airlines should aim to get each
flight's passengers aboard the plane quickly and efficiently so that the plane can
take off as soon as possible . The process of boarding should be optimized for
time-efficiency but also should be straightforward enough that it can be easily
understood by all passengers."

 Explain your problem. In the words of the inventor Charles Kettering, "A problem
well-stated is a problem half-solved." One of the most important goals (if
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 not the most important goal) of any problem statement is to articulate the problem
being addressed to the reader in a way that's clear, straightforward, and easy to
understand. Succinctly summarize the problem you intend to solve — this cuts to
the heart of the issue immediately and positions the most important information in
the problem statement near the top, where it's most visible. If you've just started an
"ideal" state of affairs as suggested above, you may want to start your sentence
with phrasing like "However, ..." or "Unfortunately, ..." to show that the problem
you've identified is what is preventing the ideal vision from being a reality.

 Let's say that you think you've developed a quicker, more efficient system for
getting passengers aboard our planes than the typical "back to front" seating
system. In this case, you might continue with a few sentences like, "However, ABC
Airline's current passenger boarding system is an inefficient use of the company's
time and resources. By wasting employee man-hours, the current boarding
protocols make the company less competitive, and by contributing to a slow
boarding process, they create an unfavorable brand image."

 Explain your problem's financial costs. Soon after you state your problem, you'll
want to explain why it's a big deal — after all, no one has the time or resources to
try to solve every single minor problem. In the business world, money is almost
always the bottom line, so you'll want to try to highlight the financial impact of your
problem on the company or organization you're writing for. For instance, is the
problem you're discussing keeping your business from making more money? Is it
actively costing your business money? Is it damaging your brand image and thus
indirectly costing your business money? Be as exact and specific about the
financial burden of your problem — try to specify an exact dollar amount (or a well-
supported estimate) for your problem's cost.
 For our airline example, you might proceed to explain the problem's financial
cost like this: "The inefficiency of the current boarding system represents a
significant financial burden for the company. On average, the current boarding
system wastes roughly four minutes per boarding session, resulting in a total of 20
wasted man-hours per day


 across all ABC flights. This represents a waste of roughly $400 per day or
$146,000 per year."

 Back up your assertions. No matter how much money you claim your problem is
costing your company, if you can't back up your claims with reasonable evidence,
you may not be taken seriously. As soon as you start making specific claims about
how serious your problem is, you'll need to start supporting your statements with
evidence.

In some cases, this may be from your own research, from data from a related study
or project, or even from reputable third-party sources.
 In some corporate and academic situations, you may need to explicitly
reference your evidence in the text of your problem statement, while in other
34
 situations, it may be enough to simply use a footnote or another form of shorthand
for your citations. If you're unsure, ask your boss or teacher for advice.
 Let's reexamine the sentences used in the previous step. They describe the
cost of the problem but don't explain how this cost was found. A more thorough
explanation might include this: "...Based on internal performance tracking data,
[1]
 on average, the current boarding system wastes roughly four minutes per
boarding session, resulting in a total of 20 wasted man-hours per day across all
ABC flights. Terminal personal are paid an average of $20 per hour, so this
represents a waste of roughly

 $400 per day or $146,000 per year." Note the footnote — in an actual
problem statement, this would correspond to a reference or appendix containing
the data mentioned.

 Propose a solution. When you've explained what the problem is and why it's so

important, proceed to explain how you propose to deal with it. As with the initial
statement of your problem, your explanation of your solution should be written to be
as clear and concise as possible. Stick to big, important, concrete concepts and
leave any minor details for later — you'll have plenty of opportunities to get into
every minor aspect of your proposed solution in the body of your proposal.
 In our airline example, our solution to the problem of inefficient boarding
practices is this new system you've discovered, so you should briefly explain the
broad strokes of this new system without getting into the minor details. You might
say something like, "Using a modified boarding system proposed by Dr. Edward
Right of the Kowlard Business Efficiency Institute which has passengers board the
plane from the sides in rather than from the back to the front, ABC Airlines can
eliminate these four minutes of waste." You might then go on to explain the basic
gist of the new system, but you wouldn't use more than a sentence or two to do
this, as the "meat" of our analysis will be in the body of the proposal.

 Explain the benefits of the solution. Again, now that you've told your
readers what should be done about the problem, it's a very good idea to
explain why this solution is a good idea. Since businesses are always trying to
increase their efficiency and earn more money, you'll want to focus primarily on the
financial impact of your solution — which expenses it will reduce, which new forms
of revenue it will generate, and so on. You can also explain non-tangible benefits,
like improved customer satisfaction, but your total explanation shouldn't be too
much longer than a few sentences to a paragraph.
 In our example, you might briefly describe how our company could
conceivably benefit from the money saved with our solution. A few sentences
along these lines might work: "ABC Airlines stands to benefit substantially from the
adoption of this new boarding program. For instance, the $146,000 in estimated
yearly savings can be re-directed to new sources of revenue, such as expanding
its selection of flights to high-demand markets. In addition, by being the first
American airline to adopt this solution, ABC

 stands to gain considerable recognition as an industry trendsetter in the

areas of value and convenience."
35
 Conclude by summarizing the problem and solution. After you've presented the
ideal vision for your company, identified the problem keeping you from achieving
this ideal, and suggested a solution, you're almost done. All that's left to do is to
conclude with a summary of your main arguments that allows you to transition
easily into the main body of your proposal. There's no need to make this conclusion
any longer than it needs

 to be — try to state, in just a few sentences, the basic gist of what you've described
in your problem statement and the approach you intend to take in the body of the
article.

 In our example you might conclude like this: "Optimization of current

boarding protocols or adoption of new, more-effective protocols is crucial for the
continued competitiveness of the company. In this proposal, the alternative
boarding protocols developed by Dr. Right are analyzed for their feasibility and
steps for effective implementation are suggested." This sums up the main point of
the problem statement that the current boarding procedure isn't very good and
that this new one is better and tells the audience what to expect if they continue
reading.

 For academic work, don't forget a thesis statement. When you have to write a
problem statement for school, rather than for work, the process will be largely the
same, but there may be extra items you'll need to take into account to assure a
good grade. For instance, many composition classes will require you to include a
thesis statement in your problem statement. The thesis statement (sometimes just
called the "thesis") is a single sentence that summarizes your entire argument,
boiling it down to its bare essentials. A good thesis statement identifies both the
problem and the solution as succinctly and clearly as possible.
 For instance, let's say you're writing a paper on the problem of academic
essay mills — companies that sell pre-written and/or custom works for students to
purchase and turn in as their own work. As our thesis statement, you might use
this sentence, which acknowledges the problem and the solution we're about to
propose: "The practice of buying academic essays, which undermines the learning
process and gives an advantage to rich students, can be combated by providing
professors with stronger digital analysis tools."
 Some classes explicitly require you to put your thesis sentence at a certain
place in your problem statement (for instance, as the very first or very last
sentence). Other times, you'll have more freedom — check with your teacher if
you're not sure.

 Follow the same process for conceptual problems. Not all problem statements
are going to be for documents dealing with practical, tangible problems. Some,
especially in academics (and especially in the humanities), are going to deal with
conceptual problems — problems that have to do with the way you think about

36
 abstract ideas. In these cases, you can still use the same basic problem statement
framework to present the problem at hand (while obviously shifting away from a
business focus). In other words, you'll want to identify the problem (often, for
conceptual problems, this will be that some idea is not well-understood), explain
why the problem matters, explain how you plan to solve it, and sum up all of this in
a conclusion.
 For instance, let's say that we're asked to write a problem statement for a
report on the importance of religious symbolism in The Brothers Karamazov by
Fyodor Dostoevsky. In this case, our problem statement should identify some
poorly-understood aspect of the religious symbolism in the novel, explain why this
matters (for instance, you might

 say that by better understanding the religious symbolism in the novel, it's
possible to draw new insights from the book), and layout how you plan to support
our argument.

3.3 Explaining Your Study's Significance

 Discuss the previous work that your study will build on. No study occurs in a
vacuum. Research previous studies that tackled the same research question and
distinguish your study from those. Typically, you'll provide a brief summary of this
previous work in your rationale.[8]
 Going into extensive detail usually isn't necessary. Instead, highlight the
findings of the most significant work in the field that addressed a similar question.
 Provide references so that your readers can examine the previous studies
for themselves and compare them to your proposed study.

 Describe the shortcomings of the previous work. Distinguish your proposed

study from the work that has come before it by identifying problems with the
previous studies and explaining how your study will correct those issues. Previous
studies are best distinguished along 3 different lines:[9]
 Methodological limitations: Previous studies failed to measure the variables
appropriately or used a research design that had problems or biases
 Contextual limitations: Previous studies aren't relevant because
circumstances have changed regarding the variables measured
 Conceptual limitations: Previous studies are too tied up in a specific ideology
or framework

 Identify the ways your study will correct those shortcomings. Carefully explain
the ways in which your study will answer the research question in a way that the
previous studies failed to do so. Be persuasive to convince your readers that your
study will contribute something both useful and necessary to the field.[10]
 For example, if a previous study had been conducted to support a
university's policy that full-time students were not permitted to work, you might
argue that it was too tied up in that specific ideology and that this biased the

37
 results. You could then point out that your study is not intended to advance any
particular policy

SCOPE AND LIMITATION

 Begin with an end in mind (the "what"). Out of the seven habits as Stephen
Covey described in his all time classic book "Seven Habits of Highly Effective
People", this habit is absolutely key to success of any project. As you work with
your stakeholders, ask very pointed questions about "what their product or service
is expected to bring to the market or the organization?". Know the outcome and its
planned benefits. This is the critical milestone your project will aim to achieve.

 For example: Let's assume that in response to your "what" question, your
client told you that they are looking to roll out a web-based software to sell widgets
online, with potential customer base in North America and Europe. Through out
this article we will continue with this example.

 Know why a particular product or service is important for your client and may
be for your client's clients (the "why"). "Why" you might ask... well, if you know
the answer to this question, then you can draft the scope in a way that will
ultimately influence the design of the product.

 Continuing with the example taken above, in your discovery session you
figured out that the customers of your client are multi-national organizations with
foot-prints spanning across two continents. Your client is a major supplier of those
widgets for

 them. In order to streamline their supply chain management and reducing

cost while enhancing the customer satisfaction, it is important for your client to
move their business online. Order acquisition, order processing and payment
collection all these aspects will drive their cost reduction strategy. Once you know
this level of detail, you gained additional understanding of the scope that the end
product should have a user interface for order capture and receipt of the
payments, it will also become clearer that since user base is spread across
continents, you may need to care for additional language on the front-end tool and
currency conversion when processing payments.
Do you see how important it is to capture these facts in your scope to ultimately
influence the design?
 Know who are other key stakeholders in the project (the "who"). Stakeholder
by definition, is an individual or an organization who has a vested interest in the
project; in other words, the existence of the project will have an impact on their day-
to-day business and potentially profitability. A few examples of stakeholders in the
example we have taken may be end users, back office order processing unit, a
shipping company who will deliver the widgets, a third party payment processor, the
finance unit of your client organization who may look for very clear metrics and
38
 reporting of orders etc. How does it impact scope? As you assess different user
bases of the application your client is looking to build, you will realize that the
application is going to touch a lot more areas of your client's organization over and
above the primary customers. You will also note that there are back office
processing requirements. Since there are external payment processors involved
you will need to include connectivity, networking and payment gateway
requirements in your scope. Missing one of the key stakeholders can have a
significant impact on the success of the project.

 Take a deep breath - it's time for the "how". How you are going to approach the
project is the question you will end up spending most of your time during discovery
session. Answering "How" will bring you closest to the design and might make you
feel like you are stepping outside of your "comfort zone", but that's not the case. It
is important to know about "how" of the product delivery at a high level because
when

you gathered information on the "what", "why" and "who", you documented part of
scope. however, say one of the customers is in a country where credit cards

processing is not widely accepted or have substantial amount of chargeback if paid

thru credit cards. Obviously this may not make financial sense for your client.
 At this point, your role is not to identify what the alternative payment
processing solution may be, rather it will be important for you to note that an
alternative payment processing method will be essential for the success of the
project and that is the direct impact on the scope of the project.

 Consider the "where" next. One of the key success factors for any project is its
location strategy. Where is the project going to be developed? Where are the
supporting systems going to be held? Where will the back office operations such as
order processing, packaging, accounting etc. located? What about any customer
service center? From a scope perspective, it is important to know the "where"
because it could impact strategic partnerships your client may need to establish to
hire talent and management staff for an ongoing business. Your project plan is not
complete until a capacity plan is complete and human capital pool is identified.
Inclusion of "where" in scope is the foundation for a project plan that will likely have
a successful impact.

 Consider the "when" of your project. If there is one question your client is very
eager about is "when" will this project be delivered. The scope you define based on
your

 discovery has a direct impact on when can it come to fruition. Alternatively, you can
ask your client "when" do they want it delivered. Sounds contradictory however, if
you know with what level of urgency your client is pursuing the delivery of the
project, you will be better positioned to negotiate the scope itself.

39
  Going back to the example, during answering "what" your client mentioned
customers will be in North America and Europe. one of the things you are asked to
include is multi language support in the front-end tool. Then the client turns around
and demands the project be delivered in six months. You might say that it is
possible however, you recommend reducing "project scope" to English only in the
first cut and in subsequent rollout you will introduce other language
support. Answering to "when" is the key to adjusting project scope either to include
more or less than what client is asking for. It is also a great way to manage your
clientele expectations and positively impact their bottom line.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, providing a description,
summary, and critical evaluation of these works. Literature reviews are designed to

provide an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic
and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits into the larger field of
study.

All contect is from a Literature Review please refer to the sub-tab under The
Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee.
A literature review may consist of simple a summary of key sources, but  it usually
has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often
within specific conceptual categories. A summary is a recap of the important
information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that
information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research
problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

 give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old

interpretations,
 trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
 depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the
most pertinent or relevant, or
 usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how
a problem has been researched to date.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

 Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the
research problem being studied,
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration,
 Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in previous research,
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies,
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort,

40
 Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research, and
 Locate your own research within the context of existing literature.
All contect is from The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee.

Types of Literature Reviews

As Kennedy (2007) notes*, it is important to think of knowledge in a given field as

consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers
conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and
offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies.
Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are
shared informally that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature
review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited
as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and
secondary literature reviews.

Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis
of pertinent sources you have explored, there are several approaches to how they
can be done, depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study. Listed
below are definitions of types of literature reviews:

Argumentative Review
     This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument,
deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the
literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian
viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g.,
educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the
literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that
they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary
claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review
     Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes
representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks
and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all
studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review
meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and
replication.

Historical Review
     Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are
focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the
first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing
its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in
a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to
identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review
     A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they
said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at
41
different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data
collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of
knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in
fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative
and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis,
and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as
we go through our study.

Systematic Review
     This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly
formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to
identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse
data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very
specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what
extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review
     The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has
accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical
literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between
them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop
new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of

appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new
or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical
concept or a whole theory or framework.

SYNTHESIS SEARCH

The literature review refers to any collection of materials on a topic, not necessarily
the great literary texts of the world. “Literature” could be anything from a set of government
pamphlets on British colonial methods in Africa to scholarly articles on the treatment of a
torn ACL. And a review does not necessarily mean that your reader wants you to give your
personal opinion on whether or not you liked these sources. A literature review discusses
published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a
particular subject area within a certain time period.

A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has
an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a
recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a
reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine
new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field,
including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may
evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant.

The main focus of an academic research paper is to develop a new argument, and
a research paper is likely to contain a literature review as one of its parts. In a research
paper, you use the literature as a foundation and as support for a new insight that you

42
contribute. The focus of a literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize the
arguments and ideas of others without adding new contributions.

Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have
limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a
stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with
what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review
emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a
solid background for a research paper’s investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the
literature of the field is essential to most research papers.

Literature reviews are written occasionally in the humanities, but mostly in the
sciences and social sciences; in experiment and lab reports, they constitute a section of
the paper. Sometimes a literature review is written as a paper in itself.

A literature review, like a term paper, is usually organized around ideas, not the
sources themselves as an annotated bibliography would be organized. This means that
you will not just simply list your sources and go into detail about each one of them, one at
a time. No. As you read widely but selectively in your topic area, consider instead what
themes or issues connect your sources together. Do they present one or different
solutions? Is there an aspect of the field that is missing? How well do they present the
material and do they

portray it according to an appropriate theory? Do they reveal a trend in the field? A raging
debate? Pick one of these themes to focus the organization of your review.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Population

 In research terminology the Population can be explain as a comprehensive group of

individuals, institutions, objects and so forth with have a common characteristics that are
the interest of a researcher. The common characteristics of the groups distinguish them
from other individual, institutions, objects and so forth. The term universe is also used as
synonyms to population. Suppose a researcher proposed to conduct a study on awareness
and use of ICT among the secondary school teachers in Telungana, the entire secondary
school teaching community in Telungana constitutes as the population of the study. 

Sometimes population can be counted easily, which is called finite population. Population
of medical students is an example of finite population. The unlimited or unknown number of
population can be called as infinite population. The adolescents, youths in Telungana can
be treated as examples for infinite population, though they can be counted but in complex
procedure. 

43
Any value which is identified or measured from the characteristics of entire population can
be called as Parameter. The process of conducting a survey to collect data from the entire
population is called a census.

2. Sample 

In social science and educational research, practically it is not possible to a

researcher to approach all the individuals\elements in a population for the purpose of data
collection. Instead they select and approach a representative group of individuals/elements
who falls under the particular population to collect needed information regarding the group.
Based on the results, the researcher generalizes the characteristics of the representative
group as the characteristics of population. This 2 small group or representative group from
a population is called as sample. So sample can be defined as the small portion of a
population selected for a particular study. The sample should clearly represent the
characteristics of intended group. According to Young “A statistical sample is a miniature
picture of cross selection of the entire group or aggregate from which the sample is taken”.
The process of conducting a survey to collect data from a sample is called sample survey.
The value which is identified or measured from the characteristics of the sample can be
termed as statistic.

3. Sampling 

The process of selection or the drawing of the accurate representation of a unit,

group or sample from a population of interest is called as sampling. Sampling can be done
through various sampling techniques in accordance with the nature of the sample as well
as the subject matter of the study. It is the Sampling procedure, which will decide the
accurate

representation of the sample selected for the study as well as the relevance of
generalization made from the research. 

4. Sampling Unit 

Each individual or case that constitutes a sample is called a sampling unit or

sampling element. For example if a sample constitutes 200 teachers, each teachers in the
sample are considered as a sampling unit. 

5. Sampling Frame 

Sampling frame is the list of subjects/people under the study, such as household,,
students, teachers, principals and so forth. The list should be comprehensive as well as
latest.

For example, Telephone directory, Students data base from department of school
education, list of school principal from the official website of concern department and so
forth.

 6. Sample Size 

44
 As name indicates sample size is the total number of sample selected for the study.
For example, it is the number of teachers, students or stakeholders from a researcher
intended to collect information regarding his research questions. There is no notion about
the minimum or maximum number of sample; instead the sample size should be optimum.
Usually the sample size is denoted by the letter (n).

7. Sampling Error 

The variation between the means of sample groups as well as population mean is
called sampling error. It can be understood through the following example. A researcher
planned to conduct a study on Emotional Intelligence of secondary school 3 students in
Telungana state. Definitely the researcher has to selects accurate representation or
optimum sample from the large population of his study. Suppose the researcher has
selected ten groups or samples each consisting of 200 students from same population. He
administered his research tool in each sample, collected the data, organized, scored and
found the mean scores of each group. Finally he can see that each group shows
differences in their mean scores with another group or sample as well as with the
population mean. This is because of; a random sample will not be identical representation
of a population. A few would be relatively high, a few relatively low, but most could tend to
cluster around the population means. This variation of sample means is due to sampling
error. The term does not suggest any mistake in the sampling process, but merely describe
the chance variations that are inevitable when a number of randomly selected sample
means are computed. Hence the variation between the sample mean and the population
mean are called sampling error.

8. Representative and Biased sample 

Representative samples are the samples which are closely match the actual
characteristics of the population from where the samples have been drawn. When a

researcher select the sample through systematic and scientific way and ensure the
optimum sample size, he/she can ensure the representative sample for his/her study.
Biased sample can be defined as the sample which is not representative of the
actual/common characteristic of the population from which it was drawn. A researcher may
select biased sample intentionally or unintentionally. For example when a researcher
intents to establish a favourable outcome over others, he may adopt biased sampling
technique to ensure the indented results. Suppose if a researcher want to prove
relationship between the Intelligence and school discipline, he may select the students as a
sample for the study from the class who maintain high discipline as well as high
intelligence, where as there might have several classes in that particular school where
people are with high IQ but low discipline. In unintentional cases the same thing might be
happen through the random selection of the particular class from a several classes of the
school. Even though it is an unintentional selection of the sample, it should have affected
the result of the study as it was not the real representation of the actual characteristics of
the population.

9. Sampling Techniques

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  Sample can be selected through different methods. Blalock (1960) classified the
sampling methods in to two categories on the basis of the nature of selection of the sample
units. They are given below. 

 I) Non-Random sampling techniques (Non- Probability Sampling) 

 II) Random sampling techniques (Probability Sampling) 

A. Non-Random sampling techniques (Non- Probability Sampling) 

Non random sampling techniques are the techniques in which the researchers
select the samples from the population without randomization. Here the samples might
have selected at the discretion of the researcher. In this sampling there is no means of
judging the probability of the element or group of elements, of population being included in
the sample. Important non random sampling techniques are given below.

I) Convenience 

Sampling When the researcher selects sample for the study at his own convenience
is called as convenience sampling. For example an investigator who is doing research on
the topic of social skills of adolescence and he may take students of X class as sample for
his study, because he has been the class teacher of the same class and happens to be
friendly with the class. This is what is called as convenience sampling. Such samples are
easily available and economical but it makes systematic errors and may leads to false
generalizations. Convenience sampling is also called as haphazard as well as accidental
sampling.

 II) Quota Sampling

 In this sampling the investigator initially sets some relevant categories of people
and decides the number of units should be selected for the study as a sample. Such as
male= 10, female=10; or science students=20and humanities students=20 and so forth.
Quota sampling has some benefit over the convenience sampling because it ensures some

differences or inclusion of variety of elements in the sample. But the problem is that here
the researcher select the categorized people at his/her convenience. There for select those
who are easiest to interview or administer questionnaire, so sampling bias can be take
place. Although it has some limitation it enables the investigator to introduce a little control
over the sample.

III) Purposive Sampling 

It is also known as judgment sampling. It is valuable in special circumstances.

Judgment sampling is used in exploratory research or in field research. The researcher
may exercise his own judgment or uses the judgment of an expert in selecting cases. In
purposive sampling the researcher never knows whether the cases, selected represent the
population. Purposive sampling is suitable to select unique cases when the researcher

46
knew that they might be providing relevant and valuable information that he or she
requires.

 For example a researcher wants to study the aggressive attitude of children with
anti social behavior. It is very difficult to list all children with anti social behavior from the
list. Here the researcher may use different methods to identify the cases and approach
them to get relevant data. The prime concern of judgment sampling is that to understand or
judge the researcher that who can pour the accurate information regarding the topic of the
study to the researcher. 

Judgment sampling is economical, more convenient, easily accessible and select

only those persons who can give relevant information to the research area. The main
limitation of the purposive sampling is that it does not ensure the actual representation of
the selected sample of the population instead it concentrate only the ability of the sample to
pour relevant information regarding the topic of the study.

IV) Snowball Sampling 

It is a sociometric sampling method and also known as network, chain referral or

reputation sampling method. In this method the researcher starts collection of data from the
person who known to the researcher. At the end of the data collection the respondent will
be asked to provide the contact information of another respondent who can give relevant
information regarding this area of the study. These processes are repeated and get more
respondents and relevant information to the researcher. Snow ball sampling is more useful
when there are small possibilities to get the information regarding the population or the
population is unknown.

B. Random sampling techniques (Probability Sampling) 

Random sampling methods are the methods which ensure the probability of each
element in the population for being selected as sample unit for the study. Here the sample
units are not selected at the discretion of the researcher instead it follows certain
procedures which ensure the probability of each unit in the population of 6 being included
in the sample. Hence these methods are also called as Probability sampling methods.
Random sampling is free of bias in selecting sampling unit. Major random sampling
methods are following.

I) Simple random sampling

  It is the simplest form of random sampling. In this sampling technique each elements
of population might have given equal chance to be selected for the study. Randomness
completely depends on the procedure of selection of sampling units from the population.

Basic requirements of simple random sampling

47
1. Prepare a comprehensive list of all the units in a population of interest
2. Design a method where all the units get equal chances to be selected as a
sample
3. Ensure a systematic process of selection where one unit of selection has no
impact on the chances of selecting another unit.

The best method that can be used for simple random sampling is lottery method.
For example if a researcher want to select 20 students from a class which consists of 100
students. He/she can write the names or roll numbers of the whole students on separate
slips of paper in equal size and colour- and fold them in similar way. After that the whole
slips should be placed in a box and shuffle thoroughly. An out person may be invited to pick
twenty slips from the box as he wish. The selected students (slips) are considered as the
sample for the study. Here all the 100 students have got equal chances to be selected. 

Advantages of simple random sampling

i. Every person has an equal chance of being selected

ii. It follows a systematic procedure for sample selection

iii. It serves as a foundation of all other random sampling techniques

iv. It is suitable when the population is relatively small; sampling frame is

comprehensive and up to date

v. As the sample size increases, it becomes more representative of universe.

vi. It is economical as well as yield accurate result for the study

Limitation of simple random sampling

 i. Practical difficulties to prepare a comprehensive list of population

 ii. Updating population is big task
 iii. Large sample size is required to establish the reliability.
 iv. As the population widely scattered, it becomes costly as well as time
 consuming
 v. If there are more heterogeneity among the unit of population, a simple random
 sample may not necessarily represent the true characteristics of population

.
 Unskilled and untrained researcher may cause for making wrong
 generalization.

II) Stratified random sampling technique 

48
When the researcher needs stratification of population based on single characteristics or
attributes such as male and female, urban and rural, married and unmarried and so forth
he/ she warranted the stratified random sampling technique. Here the population is divided
in to two or more strata. For example, if researcher want to study the emotional intelligence
of graduate students. He can stratify the population in to three such as science graduate,
social science graduate, commerce graduate. These categorized populations are called
subpopulations. The usual stratification factors are age, sex, socio economic status,
educational qualifications, locale, occupation, religion, cast, intelligence and so forth.

Advantages of stratified random sampling

 i. It increase the precision in estimating the attributes of the whole population

 ii. It provide more convenience in sampling
 iii. Ensure the accommodation of the whole relevant strata of the population
 iv. More representative of the population as it includes the each subgroup of
 population
 v. Free from bias to a great extend
 vi. Through proper planning it can be economical as well as make timely

Limitations of stratified random sampling

 i. Improper stratification may cause wrong results

 ii. More strata requires large sample size
 iii. Lack of proper planning may lead to too costly and more time
 iv. Trained investigators are required for stratification

III) Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling 

A variation of simple random sampling. It is used when the population of the study is
infinite and the population units are scattered across the wide geographical area. For
example government of India wants to conduct a survey on the people attitude towards the
Swatch Bharath programme. It is neither feasible to conduct a survey on all citizens
throughout India nor justifiable to administer a questionnaire or conduct interview among
any particular part of India. Instead in this type of study the researcher can use cluster
sampling. In above stated problem the 8 government can select the sample randomly in
multi-stage. Initially, government can select any 10 states from different parts of the
country. Then from each selected state 4 districts may be selected and from each district
100 citizens may be approached for data collection. This sampling technique can be also
called as area or multi stage sampling.

IV) Systematic Sampling 

Systematic sampling can be defined as selecting or drawing of every nth item or

person from a pre determined list. Such as selection of every 10th person from a telephone

directory or every 6th person from a college admission register. For example if a sample of
250 were to be selected from a telephone directory with 2, 00,000 listings, one would select
the first name by randomly from a randomly selected page. Then every 987th name would
49
be selected until the sample of 250 being selected. If the last page were reached before
completing the proposed sample size, the count would continue from the first page of the
directory until it complete its intended sample size.

Research Instrument Examples Teachers College, Columbia University What is a

Research Instrument? A Research Instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and
analyze data related to your research interests. These tools are most commonly used in
health sciences, social sciences, and education to assess patients, clients, students,
teachers, staff, etc.
A research instrument can include interviews, tests, surveys, or checklists. The
Research Instrument is usually determined by researcher and is tied to the study
methodology. This document offers some examples of research instruments and study
methods. In choosing a Research Instrument it includes: 1. Select a topic; 2. Formulate a
thesis statement; 3. Choose the types of analyses; 4. Research and write a literature
review; and 5. Formulate the research questions.

IV. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE

Academic work is not easy. The quality of the content is determined by the
credibility of the content. Therefore, you need many data to justify your viewpoint.
Although the internet has made things easy for those who need information, it is important
to verify the reliability of the data you collect before using it.
The data gathering procedure you employ in your paper determines if you receive a
piece that is trustworthy or not. Therefore, it is crucial to employ the best procedure to get
the perfect results. It improves the quality of the paper and makes you sound scholarly.
Most people struggle when need to gather data. While some do not know the data
collection methodologies to follow, the majority do not have the experience in data
handling. Eventually,

they prepare papers that only earn them low grades. What is the remedy in such cases?
Have a look at a perfect data gathering procedure example to be well-versed with the
procedure that can work for your situation. In the process, you can make your work easier
and improve the general quality of the papers you can prepare.
The best remedy for those without the sills in data gathering is to hire experts who
are proficient in this field. Fortunately, we stand out as the company that can assist you
with such issues. We have worked on a variety of papers that require verifiable data and
understand what can work perfectly for you. With our assistance, you do not strain with
data collection and handling. You follow every stage to ensure what you receive is perfect.

What Is the Definition of Data Gathering Procedure?

Dissertation writing involves the handling of statistical data. Therefore, you need to
know the best data to use in your paper. The definition of data gathering procedure is that
it is the technique used to obtain the information used in a dissertation to substantiate the
claims made by a writer. To get the perfect outcome, you should use the best procedure. If

you are unsure of how to obtain your data, it is advisable to hire experts in this field to offer
assistance. We have data experts who can help with these tasks.
What are the data collection methods that you can use? They are explained below:
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 Use of surveys
The method is mainly effective for those who need qualitative data to use in their
academic documents. In surveys, open-ended questions are used. What kind of
information can be collected using this method? They include the perception people have
on a product, attitudes towards government policy, the beliefs people hold, or the
knowledge people have on a given issue, among other information types. For the exact
information needed, the questions should not be leading and should cover the exact areas
needed by the researchers. The data is later analyzed to obtain the conclusions needed.

 Conducting interviews
This quantitative research data gathering procedure is used to obtain from people
on a one-on-one basis. In this case, the researcher should have several predetermined
questions. The interview questions can be close-ended, like in the case where the
interviewees are expected to provide the ‘YES’ or ‘NO’ type of responses. It can also have
open-ended questions in which the respondent has the freedom to provide a response
they are comfortable with. To

ensure the data collected is rich in the content required, the interviewer should ensure
there are follow-up questions for areas where the respondent may provide ambiguous
information.
There are different ways the interviews can be conducted. The first way is to do it face-to-
face. As the respondent provides the answers, the interviewee can record them by writing
or tape-recording. The data collected is later sorted and written in the paper. The other
method is through phone conversations. Your respondent should provide the answers
required as you keep a clean record that you can use later to write the paper needed.

 Taking a focus group

In this case, the interviewee can take a group and get the information from them.
There is a set of predetermined questions that are inquired from the respondents in turns.
The method is effective when different people hold varied opinions on the same issue.
Focus groups differ depending on the type of responses required in the probe. To get the
most reliable results from this method, the number of people in the group should be
between 5 and 10 people.

 Direct observation
The data gathering procedure for qualitative research applies the sensory organs
such as the eyes to see what is going on, ears to hear the things going on, and the ears to
smell. The method helps the researcher to avoid bias in what people say.

 Content Analysis
The researcher uses data that is already available and supports their point of view.
Different documents can be used in this case, including newspapers with reputation,

research articles from known experts, approved government reports, and other online data
sources that can be of help in this case. For the reliability of the data, different sources
should be used for research.

51
It is you to determine the methodology that can work for your case when it comes to data
collection. Choosing a wrong procedure may mean that you obtain unreliable or irrelevant
data. You do not want to face the frustrations of presenting data that is unrelated to your
topic. Therefore, it is advisable to hire an expert who understands how things work as far
as data is concerned. We come in handy in such situations. Do not use faulty data
gathering procedures when we can assist you in collecting the best data using our proven
collection techniques.

What Determines the Sample of Data Gathering Procedure

Not all the procedures are effective for your paper. What applies to one paper may
not be recommended for another. What are the factors in assessing to settle on the best
procedure? Get answers:

The Course and Topic of Study Handled

Different courses require varying procedures when it comes to the collection and
handling of data. While there are those courses where secondary information sources can
work, others need data that one obtains first first-hand. For example, the type of data that
is acceptable for those handling engineering courses is not the same as what works for
those pursuing psychology. The same applies to the topic. The data needs for different
subjects vary. Therefore, you must analyze the needs of your course and topic before
selecting a procedure for data gathering.

The Specific Faculty Guidelines on Data Gathering

Your department has its instructions when it comes to the sample of data gathering
procedure. Failure to adhere to what is specified may mean you miss important marks
because your paper may not be as good as what is expected from you. Therefore, it is
crucial to be well-versed with your faculty guidelines. Where the rules seem too strict for
you, it is advisable to get experts who are comfortable with the specifications. We are the
best company when it comes to adherence to the rules. The professionals assess all the
guidelines you submit to ensure the data obtained meet the specifications you submit.

Personal Preferences in Data Gathering

The convenience encountered in data gathering varies from one person to the next.
What one person considers to be hard may be easy for another. On a personal level, you
should opt for a procedure that you are comfortable with. It is you who decide on the topic,
settle on the data, analyze and come up with the conclusion. Therefore, selecting a
procedure you are sure can work for you is fundamental. A convenient information
gathering procedure saves you from stress.

What Should You Do Before Data Gathering?

You should not embark on the data gathering if you are unsure of what is required.
The first step is to analyze and understand the topic you have. The keywords encountered
determine whether you need a quantitative or qualitative type of data. Where you are

expected to settle on your own topic, take something you are sure you can easily obtain
data to defend.The next procedure is to study the guidelines that are provided for doing
the paper and collection of the data. For example, some professors insist that a student

52
should use a given method of data collection. Your grade depends on whether you adhere
to that specification or not.

Prepare adequately before you begin the gathering. For instance, you have to settle on a
given method and determine the tools you need for data gathering. You can read an
approved data gathering procedure pdf to understand what to do.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They indicate
how well a method, technique or test measures something. Reliability is about
the consistency of a measure, and validity is about the accuracy of a measure.

It’s important to consider reliability and validity when you are creating your research
design, planning your methods, and writing up your results, especially in quantitative
research.

Reliability vs validity

Reliability Validity

What does it tell The extent to which the results can be The extent to which the results really
you? reproduced when the research is measure what they are supposed to
repeated under the same conditions. measure.

How is it By checking the consistency of results By checking how well the results
assessed? across time, across different observers, correspond to established theories an
and across parts of the test itself. other measures of the same concept

How do they A reliable measurement is not always A valid measurement is generally

relate? valid: the results might be reproducible, reliable: if a test produces accurate
but they’re not necessarily correct. results, they should be reproducible.

Understanding reliability vs validity

Reliability and validity are closely related, but they mean different things. A measurement
can be reliable without being valid. However, if a measurement is valid, it is usually also
reliable.

What is reliability?
53
Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures something. If the same result can
be consistently achieved by using the same methods under the same circumstances, the
measurement is considered reliable.

You measure the temperature of a liquid sample several times under identical conditions.
The thermometer displays the same temperature every time, so the results are reliable.
A doctor uses a symptom questionnaire to diagnose a patient with a long-term medical
condition. Several different doctors use the same questionnaire with the same patient but
give different diagnoses. This indicates that the questionnaire has low reliability as a
measure of the condition.

What is validity?
Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure. If
research has high validity, that means it produces results that correspond to real
properties, characteristics, and variations in the physical or social world.

High reliability is one indicator that a measurement is valid. If a method is not reliable, it
probably isn’t valid.

If the thermometer shows different temperatures each time, even though you have
carefully controlled conditions to ensure the sample’s temperature stays the same, the
thermometer is probably malfunctioning, and therefore its measurements are not valid.

If a symptom questionnaire results in a reliable diagnosis when answered at different

times and with different doctors, this indicates that it has high validity as a measurement of
the medical condition.
However, reliability on its own is not enough to ensure validity. Even if a test is reliable, it
may not accurately reflect the real situation.

The thermometer that you used to test the sample gives reliable results. However, the
thermometer has not been calibrated properly, so the result is 2 degrees lower than the
true value. Therefore, the measurement is not valid.
A group of participants take a test designed to measure working memory. The results are
reliable, but participants’ scores correlate strongly with their level of reading
comprehension. This indicates that the method might have low validity: the test may be
measuring participants’ reading comprehension instead of their working memory.
Validity is harder to assess than reliability, but it is even more important. To obtain useful
results, the methods you use to collect your data must be valid: the research must be
measuring what it claims to measure. This ensures that your discussion of the data and
the conclusions you draw are also valid.

54
How are reliability and validity assessed?
Reliability can be estimated by comparing different versions of the same measurement.
Validity is harder to assess, but it can be estimated by comparing the results to other
relevant data or theory. Methods of estimating reliability and validity are usually split up
into different types.

Types of reliability
Different types of reliability can be estimated through various statistical methods.

Types of reliability

Type of reliability What does it assess? Example

Test-retest The consistency of a measure across A group of participants complete

time: do you get the same results when a questionnaire designed to
you repeat the measurement? measure personality traits. If
they repeat the questionnaire
days, weeks or months apart
and give the same answers, this
indicates high test-retest
reliability.

Interrater The consistency of a measure across Based on an assessment

raters or observers: do you get the
same results when different people
conduct the same measurement?
criteria checklist, five examiners
submit substantially different
results for the same student
project. This indicates that the
assessment checklist has low
inter-rater reliability (for
example, because the criteria
are too subjective).

Internal The consistency of the measurement You design a questionnaire to

consistency itself: do you get the same results from
different parts of a test that are designed
to measure the same thing?
measure self-esteem. If you
randomly split the results into
two halves, there should be
a strong correlation between the
two sets of results. If the two
results are very different, this
indicates low internal
consistency.

55
Types of validity
The validity of a measurement can be estimated based on three main types of evidence.
Each type can be evaluated through expert judgement or statistical methods.

Types of validity

Type of validity What does it assess? Example

Construct The adherence of a measure to existing A self-esteem questionnaire

theory and knowledge of the concept could be assessed by
being measured. measuring other traits known or
assumed to be related to the
concept of self-esteem (such as
social skills and optimism).
Strong correlation between the
scores for self-esteem and
associated traits would indicate
high construct validity.

Content The extent to which the A test that aims to measure a

measurement covers all aspects of the class of students’ level of
concept being measured.
Spanish contains reading,
writing and speaking
components, but no listening
component.  Experts agree that
listening comprehension is an
essential aspect of language
ability, so the test lacks content
validity for measuring the overall
level of ability in Spanish.

Criterion The extent to which the result of a A survey is conducted to

measure corresponds to other valid
measures of the same concept.
measure the political opinions of
voters in a region. If the results
accurately predict the later
outcome of an election in that
region, this indicates that the
survey has high criterion
validity.

Ensuring validity
If you use scores or ratings to measure variations in something (such as psychological
traits, levels of ability or physical properties), it’s important that your results reflect the real
variations as accurately as possible. Validity should be considered in the very earliest
stages of your research, when you decide how you will collect your data.

56
  Choose appropriate methods of measurement

Ensure that your method and measurement technique are high quality and targeted to
measure exactly what you want to know. They should be thoroughly researched and
based on existing knowledge.

For example, to collect data on a personality trait, you could use a standardized
questionnaire that is considered reliable and valid. If you develop your own questionnaire,
it should be based on established theory or findings of previous studies, and the questions
should be carefully and precisely worded.

 Use appropriate sampling methods to select your subjects

To produce valid generalizable results, clearly define the population you are researching
(e.g. people from a specific age range, geographical location, or profession). Ensure that
you have enough participants and that they are representative of the population.

Ensuring reliability
Reliability should be considered throughout the data collection process. When you use a
tool or technique to collect data, it’s important that the results are precise, stable and
reproducible.

 Apply your methods consistently

Plan your method carefully to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for
each measurement. This is especially important if multiple researchers are involved.

For example, if you are conducting interviews or observations, clearly define how specific
behaviours or responses will be counted, and make sure questions are phrased the same
way each time.

 Standardize the conditions of your research

When you collect your data, keep the circumstances as consistent as possible to
reduce the influence of external factors that might create variation in the results.

For example, in an experimental setup, make sure all participants are given the same
information and tested under the same conditions.

Where to write about reliability and validity in a thesis

It’s appropriate to discuss reliability and validity in various sections of your thesis or
dissertation. Showing that you have taken them into account in planning your research
and interpreting the results makes your work more credible and trustworthy.

57
Reliability and validity in a thesis

Section Discuss

Literature review What have other researchers done to devise and improve methods that are
reliable and valid?

Methodology How did you plan your research to ensure reliability and validity of the measure
used? This includes the chosen sample set and size, sample preparation, exte
conditions and measuring techniques.

Results If you calculate reliability and validity, state these values alongside your main
results.

Discussion This is the moment to talk about how reliable and valid your results actually we
Were they consistent, and did they reflect true values? If not, why not?

Conclusion If reliability and validity were a big problem for your findings, it might be helpful
mention this here.

SYNTHESIS

Research Method includes the research methodology of the study from the
research strategy to the result dissemination. The author outlines the research strategy,
research design, research methodology, the study area, data sources such as: primary
data sources and secondary data, population consideration and sample size
determination. This also includes questionnaires sample size determination and workplace
site exposure measurement sample determination, data collection methods like primary
data collection methods including workplace site observation data collection and data
collection through desk review, data collection through questionnaires, data obtained from
experts opinion,

workplace site exposure measurement, data collection tools pretest, secondary data
collection methods, methods of data analysis used such as quantitative data analysis and
qualitative data analysis, data analysis software, the reliability and validity analysis of the
quantitative data, reliability of data, reliability analysis, validity, data quality management,
inclusion criteria, ethical consideration and dissemination of result and its utilization
approaches.

In order to satisfy the objectives of the study, a qualitative and quantitative research
method is apprehended in general. The study used these mixed strategies because the

58
data were obtained from all aspects of the data source during the study time. Therefore,
the purpose of this methodology is to satisfy the research plan and target devised by the
researcher.

The many methods available to researchers—including experiments, surveys, field

studies, and secondary data analysis—all come with advantages and disadvantages. The
strength of a study can depend on the choice and implementation of the appropriate
method of gathering research. Depending on the topic, a study might use a single method
or a combination of methods. It is important to plan a research design before undertaking
a study. The information gathered may in itself be surprising, and the study design should
provide a solid framework in which to analyze predicted and unpredicted data.

The better is the data collected during this process the better quality of the research
will be. There are multiple ways to collect data and we have discussed four different ways
of doing so. Individual interviews, focus groups, Observations Self study. These data
collection method can be freely used at once, or we can be selective and choose the
method that will guarantee us success in the research paper. Also, we might have some
sort of limitations that forces us to use one method over the other, as there is always a
downside for each method. One of the reasons that may impose and restrict our options is
the lack of resource, time, money, or even personnel.

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

STAGES OF ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS

There are four main stages in the analysis and interpretation of qualitative
information. These are discussed in more detail in several text books including Patton
(1986, 1990), Miles and Huberman (1994), and Silverman (1994). Here, we shall
concentrate more on the practical tasks, rather than on theoretical issues.
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Descriptive Analysis

Description and analysis of qualitative information are closely linked, hence the
phrase descriptive analysis. This includes some description of the purpose of the study,
the study site, and people involved which is normally presented in the introductory
sections of a report. However, descriptive analysis focuses on the information gathered in
relation to how it was gathered, where, and by whom. This involves reviewing the
information, identifying links, patterns, and common themes, arranging the facts in order,
and presenting them as they are, without adding any comments on their significance. This
is usually presented in the Results section of a study report. The order in which the results
are presented may be chronological, following the order in which the facts were obtained;
or hierarchical, in order of their relative importance to the heart of the investigation. The
introductory description and the descriptive analysis (results) sections of a study report
should enable you to answer basic questions. For example:

Introductory Sections

• Where was the study conducted? What are the physical and climatic conditions in which
people live?

• When was the study conducted? Why?

• What were the study aims, objectives, and intended outputs?

• Who conducted the study? Which methods/tools were used? Why?

• How did people participate in the study? Which ethnic, language or other groups were
involved? How does the level of participation achieved in your study compare with your
project's general ethos concerning (community) participation?

Results Section

What does the information gathered consist of:

• by method/tool of investigation used;

• by cluster of hygiene practices;
• by any other relevant order?

Answers to these questions require rigorous analysis and description, but not
interpretation (see Box 24 for an example of how results are distinguished from discussion
of findings or interpretation).

Sufficient detail should be included in the descriptive analysis to enable the reader to see
the investigative steps you have followed, how you made methodological decisions, or
changes of direction. and why. Remember that the facts have to be presented clearly,
coherently, and fully before they can be interpreted. A very important feature of the
descriptive analysis is the checking and crosschecking of information in order to establish
the quality or trustworthiness of the findings. We shall deal with this separately in detail in
"Establishing the Trustworthiness of Information.''

60
Interpretation

The second stage is to determine what the results mean and how significant they are in
the specific context to which they belong. The reasons behind certain hygiene practices
and to what extent they are influenced by sociocultural factors can be teased out when the
study team's multiple perspectives are brought to bear on the results. Wider issues
concerning our understanding of the links between hygiene practices and health can also
be explored in the light of the findings.

The following are some of the questions for the study team to answer when interpreting
the study results:

• What do the results mean?

• Why did the results turn out the way they did?
• What are possible explanations of the results?
• Have all the why questions been answered? Do some of them require further
investigation?

The interpretation of findings should ideally reflect the comments and suggestions made
by members of the study population(s) during the feedback sessions that are built into the
use of investigative and analytical methods/tools, such as those described in Chapters 5
and G. This will help minimize the biases that can creep into the interpretation of results,
making sure that they are not separated from the context in which information was
gathered (see Box 24).

Judgement

Descriptive analysis and interpretation of results ultimately lead to judging the findings as
positive or negative or both, and stating the reasons why. The values of the study team
and other stakeholders are brought to bear on the study findings. For example, the
findings may show what is good, bad, desirable, or undesirable in the way the project has
promoted improved water supply, sanitation, and hygiene/health, in the way people have
responded to external interventions. and why. The question to be answered here is:

• What is the significance of the findings to the various stakeholders in this particular
setting?

• to your project?
• to the study population?
• to applied researchers interested in the links between particular hygiene practices and
health?

The interpretation and judgment of results are usually presented in the Discussion section

of a report. It is important to strike a fair balance between the positive and negative
aspects of the findings. For example, positive findings should be emphasized without
brushing over negative ones. Similarly, negative findings should not only be listed, but
discussed in a way that explores possible practical solutions or feasible remedies. The
discussion section should be followed by the conclusions which may be presented in the
same section or separately under Conclusions.

61
Presentation of findings

The results of your hygiene evaluation study may be reported in different ways depending
on the target audience or readership. To begin with, you will have a written report which
will contain a complete record of the study processes and findings. Once you have
completed the

report, you may decide to extract parts of it, and prepare short summaries for
dissemination among the various stakeholders who will expect to learn about your results.
In this section, we will deal with the complete report first and then suggest additional ways
in which it may be disseminated among specific audiences or readerships.

Writing a Complete Study Report

At the end of the investigation and analysis processes, you will find yourself with
considerable amounts of fieldnotes, charts, and other written records of what you have
done. These will all need to be systematically organized, kept in notebooks, and files
compiled by hand or on a computer, if available. You can then start putting them together
following a report outline, as shown in "Stages of Analysis and Interpretation of Findings"
in this chapter. Box 25 provides an example of a report outline.

Writing Separate Summaries for Specific Readers or Interest Groups

You may need to send short summaries such as an executive summary to your project
funders, the study population, local community groups, governmental, and/or non-
governmental counterparts. It is important to balance well the positive and negative
findings when reporting in short, executive summary format. By definition, an executive
summary does not allow the reader the benefit of seeing the findings in the context.
Evaluation study results are seldom entirely positive or entirely negative, but a
combination of the two. Whether they are interpreted as positive or negative depends on
who is interpreting and using them.

You may also want to prepare short articles summarizing your findings for dissemination in
local and/or regional networks of practitioners working in the fields of health/hygiene
education, water supply, and sanitation; research network such as the global applied
research net work (GARNET) ) which has a topic network on Hygiene Behaviour, the
working group on Promotion of Sanitation, and so on. You will need to bear in mind the
interests of each of these groups when deciding what to include, and what language and
style to use.

Making Verbal Presentations to Selected Groups and Inviting Their Comments and
Suggestions

You may find it beneficial to present partial or full results of your investigation to some of
the most important stakeholders in the study in order to elicit their responses to the
analysis and interpretation of your findings. For example, in Chapters 5 and 6, we looked
at a number of participatory tools for information gathering (mapping, historyline, seasonal
62
calendars, pocket chart) which included the presentation of information gathered to the
study participants there and then. Charts, graphs, and other visual displays can be used to
present the findings in ways that will interest and stimulate participants. However, only
overall results should be given and not details of individual interviews or households.

BOX 25. Outline of a Report

• Title page: Authors' Names Institutions, and Date

• Executive Summary (this is written last-after the report has been completed)
• Acknowledgments
• Table of Contents
• Lists of Tables and Figures
• List of People consulted/List of Abbreviations/Glossary (as appropriate)
• Introduction (Including background to study and organization of the report)
• Study Design and Organization

• Study aims, objectives, and intended outputs

• Description of study team
• Study schedule
• Training

• Study Site(s) and Population(s)

• Background (including maps of study sites)

• Sampling strategies

• Methods and Tools Used for Investigation and Analysis

• Results (Including descriptive analysis but no interpretation)
• Discussion (including 'Interpretation and judgement of findings)
• Appraisal of Methods/Tools Used
• Conclusions and Recommendations
• References (a list of any documentary materials used and referred to in the report)

• Appendices/Annexes (these may include details of the study schedule; complete diary of
activities; observation and interview schedules used; fieldnotes such as transcriptions of
interviews, and anything else judged to be relevant to the contents of the report but 'is too
bulky to be included in the main body of the report.)

Your project may already have trained personnel (e.g., trainer or project spokesperson)
who can present the study findings at workshops, meetings and conferences where
various audiences may be interested in hearing about your findings.

63
The type of visual and other materials you can use to present your results will depend on
the resources available. Often, summaries of findings written on flip-charts using thick
marker pens and big letters (including diagrams, charts, and graphs where appropriate)
are the most effective ways to present findings to large groups in both rural and urban
areas. These require less financial resources to prepare and can be more creative and fun
to do.

Organizing a Discussion or Debate the Findings in Which Opposing Points of View

Can Be Aired

This is a particularly good idea if the level of participation of the different stakeholders is
high and if your findings are likely to be interpreted significantly different by groups
according to their opposing interests. In the final analysis, comparisons must be made
carefully and appropriately to avoid the drawing of wrong conclusions.

Implementation of findings

Many of the methods and tools described in this handbook lead naturally from collecting
and analysing data (i.e., establishing what the problem is) to planning what needs to be
done to address the issues raised. For example, a healthwalk may reveal that part of a
community is using a water source particularly vulnerable to pollution for its drinking water.
Indeed, we have seen in Chapter 5 the impact of information gathered during a healthwalk
on project design and implementation. Similarly, information from focus group discussions
and semi-structured interviews may reveal a higher incidence of diarrhoea among this
group. Presentation of these findings to the community will almost inevitably lead to a
discussion of what needs to be done to remedy the situation, moving the emphasis from
data collection to implementation. Thus a hygiene evaluation study does not end with the
presentation of findings. It should lead to follow-up action on the basis of the findings.

Whether or not participatory approaches are given importance in the evaluation, the end
result of the study will be the identification of high risk hygiene practices which currently
exist, embedded in a context of local physical conditions, beliefs, and ideas. You will
almost inevitably advocate that follow up action should include hygiene promotion
activities. The goal of any hygiene promotion project must be to influence people to
abandon the high risk practices identified in favour of low risk, safe practices. But, what
influences people's decisions to change their normal practice? Many studies have shown
that the answer to this question is "not received knowledge alone." Commonly, four factors
influencing behavioural change are identified:

• Facilitation. The new practice makes life easier for the person adopting it.
• Understanding. The new practice makes sense in the context of existing local
knowledge/ideas.

• Approval. Important and respected people in the community approve of and have

adopted the practice.

64
• Ability to make change. It is physically possible for the person concerned to make the
necessary changes.

Below are some examples of how information gathered using this handbook may be fed
into an implementation process that takes these four factors into account:

Facilitation. In order to get people to use safe water for drinking purposes, it may be
necessary to ensure that there are sufficient protected water sources throughout the
community to make it easier and more convenient to use as opposed to traditional,
unprotected ones. In planning terms, this may mean continuing a mapping exercise that
identified existing sources instead of using the map, with the community, to plan the
location of new water points.

Understanding. Hygiene promotion messages and activities are not received by people in
a vacuum. Rather they are assessed, accepted, modified, or rejected by people within the
context of their existing health concerns and beliefs about illness. A number of similar
evaluations have, for example, elicited the local concepts of hot and cold illnesses that
need to be treated by controlling diet and reducing intake of some foods. In a number of
cases, the promotion of ORS has run into difficulties because diarrhoea is classified as
a hot illness requiring treatment with cooling substances, while sugar, a major constituent
of ORS, is categorized as hot, therefore rendering ORS an unsuitable treatment. Project
implementers have found various ways to overcome such problems including substituting
honey (considered a cooling substance) for sugar in one case, and in another,
encouraging people to use ORS in conjunction with herbal teas made from guava leaves -
a traditional remedy considered cooling and seen to overcome the
perceived heating effect of the sugar in ORS.

Approval. In order to enhance the desirability of change, it may be necessary to target

hygiene promotion at certain groups of trend setters, such as traditional healers, local
leaders, or young mothers who are likely to be copied by their peers. Often this would best
be done through a continued use of the group discussion techniques used earlier in the
evaluation.

Ability. If behavioural change requires resources, it may be beyond some people's abilities
to make the change. Promotion of latrines, for example, may need careful planning with
communities, using many of the techniques discussed earlier to enable targeted
assistance/subsidies to be allocated to those who would otherwise be unable to make the
change.

In projects where the promotion of low risk hygiene practices has been achieved, the
follow-up action to evaluations may involve tackling other issues that are next in the list of
priorities. Whatever the outcomes of your study are, we shall be interested to learn about
your experiences of using this handbook (see Evaluation Sheet at the back of the book).

SYNTHESIS

65
 The purpose of analysing data is to obtain usable and useful information. The
analysis, irrespective of whether the data is qualitative or quantitative, may: • describe and
summarise the data • identify relationships between variables • compare variables •
identify the difference between variables • forecast outcomes

According to Hitchcock and Hughes quantitative data analysis is the process of

bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of collected data. It is a messy,
ambiguous, timeconsuming, creative, and fascinating process. It does not proceed in a
linear fashion; it is not neat. Qualitative data analysis is a search for general statements
about relationships among categories of data." (Marshall and Rossman, 1990). Hitchcock
and Hughes take this one step further: " the ways in which the researcher moves from a
description of what is the case to an explanation of why what is the case is the case”
(Hitchcock and Hughes).

Simple qualitative analysis includes: 1. unstructured - are not directed by a script.

Rich but not replicable; 2. structured - are tightly scripted, often like a questionnaire; 3.
replicable but may lack richness, 4. semi-structured - guided by a script but interesting
issues can be explored in more depth.

Simple qualitative analysis includes: 1. recurring patterns or themes – emergent

from data, dependent on observation framework if used; 2. categorizing data –
categorization scheme may be emergent or pre-specified; 3.looking for critical incidents –
helps to focus in on key events.

The data analysis that can be done and it depends on the data gathering that was
done Qualitative and quantitative data may be gathered from any of the three main data
gathering approaches. Percentages and averages are commonly used in Interaction
Design. Mean, median and mode are different kinds of ‘average’ and can have very
different answers for the same set of data. Grounded Theory, Distributed Cognition and
Activity Theory are theoretical frameworks to support data analysis and Presentation of
the findings should not overstate the evidence.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Conclusions and Recommendations may be combined or, in long reports,

presented in separate sections. If there are no recommendations to be made as a result of
the project, just call this section Conclusions.

The Conclusions section sums up the key points of your discussion, the essential features
of your design, or the significant outcomes of your investigation. As its function is to round
off the story of your project, it should:

 be written to relate directly to the aims of the project as stated in the Introduction
 indicate the extent to which the aims have been achieved

66
  summarise the key findings, outcomes or information in your report
 acknowledge limitations and make recommendations for future work (where
applicable)
 highlight the significance or usefulness of your work.

The conclusions should relate to the aims of the work:

Example 1:

Aim

The aim of this project is to design a mobile phone tower for a suburban location..

Conclusions

The mobile phone tower presented here can be erected safely in a suburban street.

It requires a total  area of no more than 2m2 l, and has the following safety features:...

Example 2:

Aim

This investigation will review the volume of passengers using the Monash University
Clayton-Caulfield inter-campus bus in order to recommend adjustments to the service if
needed.

Recommendations

Always address limitations and suggest how they might be overcome in future work. The
excerpt below is from the Conclusions of a report on a project investigating the effect of
pulsation on heat transfer in horizontal pipe flow.

Experimental results showed that pulsed flow without flow reversal had no significant
effect compared with steady flow. Preliminary experiments with reversed flow, however,
clearly indicated increased heat transfer. This is likely due to the large disturbances in the
hydrodynamic boundary layer when the flow changes direction. Further research is
recommended to determine the maximum achievable enhancement.

It should be noted that the experimental results do not agree with the theoretical
equations. This may be due to the deposits which developed inside the pipe, or to
inconsistent thermocouple temperature. Therefore, regular inspection of the test rig is
recommended.

For a very long report, it is acceptable to present the conclusions and recommendations in
point form:

The prototype robot courier presented here has been shown to be capable of delivering
documents autonomously in an office environment. It has demonstrated the following
components of mobile robotics:

67
 1. Localisation: The Kalman filter-based localisation algorithm achieved sub-
centimeter accuracy under normal operating conditions.
2. Environment modelling: The occupancy map was updated dynamically to include
obstacles not included in the original map.
3. Path planning: A distance transform-based path planner using obstacle transforms
produced a globally optimal local entrapment-free path to the goal.

SYNTHESIS

Summary gives you the opportunity to discuss the meaning of your results beyond what
they mean statistically; that is, you interpret the findings and indicate what can be
concluded from them. In your discussion, indicate whether the results confirm, totally or in
part, your original expectations or predictions. For each hypothesis, indicate whether it
was supported and why.

Discuss any limitations inherent in your research procedures. What implications do these
limitations have for the conclusions drawn from the results? You should also discuss the
relationship of your results to the original problem description: 1. Will any of the
alternatives make a difference, help solve the problem, or improve the situation?; 2. What
are the long-term as well as the short-term implications of your findings?; and 3. How do
your findings relate to those of other researchers cited in the Literature Review? In some
cases, the findings of several hypotheses may be interrelated. In that situation, you might
choose to discuss those findings together and explain the interrelationships.

In making your recommendations, you must show how your results support them. A
recommendation for a preferred alternative should include: 1. Specifically stating what
should be done, the steps required to implement the policy, and the resources needed; 2.
Discussion of the benefits to the organization and what problems would be corrected or
avoided; 3. Discussion of the feasibility of the proposed policy; and 4. General statement
about the nature and timing of an evaluation plan that would be used to determine the
effectiveness of the proposed policy.

IV. USING STATISTICS IN RESEARCH

Statistics is a branch of science that deals with the collection, organisation, analysis of
data and drawing of inferences from the samples to the whole population.[1] This requires
a proper design of the study, an appropriate selection of the study sample and choice of a
suitable statistical test. An adequate knowledge of statistics is necessary for proper
designing of an epidemiological study or a clinical trial. Improper statistical methods may
result in erroneous conclusions which may lead to unethical practice.[2]

STATISTICS: DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Descriptive statistics[4] try to describe the relationship between variables in a sample or
population. Descriptive statistics provide a summary of data in the form of mean, median

68
and mode. Inferential statistics[4] use a random sample of data taken from a population to
describe and make inferences about the whole population. It is valuable when it is not
possible to examine each member of an entire population.

Descriptive statistics
The extent to which the observations cluster around a central location is described by the
central tendency and the spread towards the extremes is described by the degree of
dispersion.
Measures of central tendency
The measures of central tendency are mean, median and mode.[6] Mean (or the
arithmetic average) is the sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores. Mean
may be influenced profoundly by the extreme variables. For example, the average stay of
organophosphorus poisoning patients in ICU may be influenced by a single patient who
stays

in ICU for around 5 months because of septicaemia. The extreme values are called
outliers. The formula for the mean is

Mean, 
where x = each observation and n = number of observations. Median[6] is defined as the
middle of a distribution in a ranked data (with half of the variables in the sample above and
half below the median value) while mode is the most frequently occurring variable in a
distribution. Range defines the spread, or variability, of a sample.[7] It is described by the

minimum and maximum values of the variables. If we rank the data and after ranking,
group the observations into percentiles, we can get better information of the pattern of
spread of the variables. In percentiles, we rank the observations into 100 equal parts. We
can then describe 25%, 50%, 75% or any other percentile amount. The median is the
50th percentile. The interquartile range will be the observations in the middle 50% of the
observations about the median (25th -75th percentile). Variance[7] is a measure of how
spread out is the distribution. It gives an indication of how close an individual observation
clusters about the mean value. The variance of a population is defined by the following
formula:

where σ2 is the population variance, X is the population mean, Xi is the ith element from the
population and N is the number of elements in the population. The variance of a sample is
defined by slightly different formula:

69
where s2 is the sample variance, x is the sample mean, xi is the ith element from the
sample and n is the number of elements in the sample. The formula for the variance of a
population has the value ‘n’ as the denominator. The expression ‘n−1’ is known as the
degrees of freedom and is one less than the number of parameters. Each observation is
free to vary, except the last one which must be a defined value. The variance is measured
in squared units. To make the interpretation of the data simple and to retain the basic unit
of observation, the square root of variance is used. The square root of the variance is the
standard deviation (SD).[8] The SD of a population is defined by the following formula:

where σ is the population SD, X is the population mean, Xi is the ith element from the
population and N is the number of elements in the population. The SD of a sample is
defined by slightly different formula:

where s is the sample SD, x is the sample mean, xi is the ith element from the sample
and n is the number of elements in the sample. An example for calculation of variation and
SD is illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2
Example of mean, variance, standard deviation

Normal distribution or Gaussian distribution

Most of the biological variables usually cluster around a central value, with symmetrical
positive and negative deviations about this point.[1] The standard normal distribution curve
is a symmetrical bell-shaped. In a normal distribution curve, about 68% of the scores are
within 1 SD of the mean. Around 95% of the scores are within 2 SDs of the mean and 99%
within 3 SDs of the mean [Figure 2].

Figure 2

Normal distribution curve

Skewed distribution
It is a distribution with an asymmetry of the variables about its mean. In a negatively
skewed distribution [Figure 3], the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the right
of Figure 1. In a positively skewed distribution [Figure 3], the mass of the distribution is
concentrated on the left of the figure leading to a longer right tail.

70
Figure 3
Curves showing negatively skewed and positively skewed distribution

Inferential statistics
In inferential statistics, data are analysed from a sample to make inferences in the larger
collection of the population. The purpose is to answer or test the hypotheses. A hypothesis
(plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. Hypothesis tests are
thus procedures for making rational decisions about the reality of observed effects.
Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event will occur. Probability is quantified
as a number between 0 and 1 (where 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty).
In inferential statistics, the term ‘null hypothesis’ (H0 ‘H-naught,’ ‘H-null’) denotes that there
is no relationship (difference) between the population variables in question.[9]
Alternative hypothesis (H1 and Ha) denotes that a statement between the variables is
expected to be true.[9]

The P value (or the calculated probability) is the probability of the event occurring by
chance if the null hypothesis is true. The P value is a numerical between 0 and 1 and is
interpreted by researchers in deciding whether to reject or retain the null hypothesis [Table
3].

Table 3
P values with interpretation

71
If P value is less than the arbitrarily chosen value (known as α or the significance level),
the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected [Table 4]. However, if null hypotheses (H0) is
incorrectly rejected, this is known as a Type I error.[11] Further details regarding alpha
error, beta error and sample size calculation and factors influencing them are dealt with in
another section of this issue by Das S et al.[12]

Table 4
Illustration for null hypothesis

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PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
Numerical data (quantitative variables) that are normally distributed are analysed with
parametric tests.[13]
Two most basic prerequisites for parametric statistical analysis are:
 The assumption of normality which specifies that the means of the sample group
are normally distributed
 The assumption of equal variance which specifies that the variances of the samples
and of their corresponding population are equal.
However, if the distribution of the sample is skewed towards one side or the distribution is
unknown due to the small sample size, non-parametric[14] statistical techniques are used.
Non-parametric tests are used to analyse ordinal and categorical data.
Parametric tests
The parametric tests assume that the data are on a quantitative (numerical) scale, with a
normal distribution of the underlying population. The samples have the same variance
(homogeneity of variances). The samples are randomly drawn from the population, and
the observations within a group are independent of each other. The commonly used
parametric tests are the Student's t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and repeated
measures ANOVA.
Student's t-test
Student's t-test is used to test the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the
means of the two groups. It is used in three circumstances:
1. To test if a sample mean (as an estimate of a population mean) differs significantly
from a given population mean (this is a one-sample t-test)

The formula for one sample t-test is 

where X = sample mean, u = population mean and SE = standard error of mean
2. To test if the population means estimated by two independent samples differ
significantly (the unpaired t-test). The formula for unpaired t-test is:

where X1 − X2 is the difference between the means of the two groups and SE
denotes the standard error of the difference.
3. To test if the population means estimated by two dependent samples differ
significantly (the paired t-test). A usual setting for paired t-test is when
measurements are made on the same subjects before and after a treatment.

73
The formula for paired t-test is:

where d is the mean difference and SE denotes the standard error of this difference.

The group variances can be compared using the F-test. The F-test is the ratio of variances
(var l/var 2). If F differs significantly from 1.0, then it is concluded that the group variances
differ significantly.

Analysis of variance
The Student's t-test cannot be used for comparison of three or more groups. The purpose
of ANOVA is to test if there is any significant difference between the means of two or more
groups.
In ANOVA, we study two variances – (a) between-group variability and (b) within-group
variability. The within-group variability (error variance) is the variation that cannot be
accounted for in the study design. It is based on random differences present in our
samples.
However, the between-group (or effect variance) is the result of our treatment. These two
estimates of variances are compared using the F-test.
A simplified formula for the F statistic is:

where MSb is the mean squares between the groups and MSw is the mean squares within
groups.
Repeated measures analysis of variance
As with ANOVA, repeated measures ANOVA analyses the equality of means of three or
more groups. However, a repeated measure ANOVA is used when all variables of a
sample are measured under different conditions or at different points in time.
As the variables are measured from a sample at different points of time, the measurement
of the dependent variable is repeated. Using a standard ANOVA in this case is not
appropriate because it fails to model the correlation between the repeated measures: The
data violate the

ANOVA assumption of independence. Hence, in the measurement of repeated dependent

variables, repeated measures ANOVA should be used.

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Non-parametric tests
When the assumptions of normality are not met, and the sample means are not normally,
distributed parametric tests can lead to erroneous results. Non-parametric tests
(distribution-free test) are used in such situation as they do not require the normality
assumption.[15] Non-parametric tests may fail to detect a significant difference when
compared with a parametric test. That is, they usually have less power.
As is done for the parametric tests, the test statistic is compared with known values for the
sampling distribution of that statistic and the null hypothesis is accepted or rejected. The
types of non-parametric analysis techniques and the corresponding parametric analysis
techniques are delineated in Table 5.

Median test for one sample: The sign test and Wilcoxon's signed rank test
The sign test and Wilcoxon's signed rank test are used for median tests of one sample.
These tests examine whether one instance of sample data is greater or smaller than the
median reference value.
Sign test
This test examines the hypothesis about the median θ0 of a population. It tests the null
hypothesis H0 = θ0. When the observed value (Xi) is greater than the reference value
(θ0), it is marked as+. If the observed value is smaller than the reference value, it is
marked as − sign. If the observed value is equal to the reference value (θ0), it is
eliminated from the sample.

If the null hypothesis is true, there will be an equal number of + signs and − signs.
The sign test ignores the actual values of the data and only uses + or − signs. Therefore, it
is useful when it is difficult to measure the values.
Wilcoxon's signed rank test
There is a major limitation of sign test as we lose the quantitative information of the given
data and merely use the + or – signs. Wilcoxon's signed rank test not only examines the
observed values in comparison with θ0 but also takes into consideration the relative sizes,
adding more statistical power to the test. As in the sign test, if there is an observed value
that is equal to the reference value θ0, this observed value is eliminated from the sample.
Wilcoxon's rank sum test ranks all data points in order, calculates the rank sum of each
sample and compares the difference in the rank sums.
Mann-Whitney test
It is used to test the null hypothesis that two samples have the same median or,
alternatively, whether observations in one sample tend to be larger than observations in
the other.
Mann–Whitney test compares all data (xi) belonging to the X group and all data (yi)
belonging to the Y group and calculates the probability of xi being greater than yi: P (xi >

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yi). The null hypothesis states that P (xi > yi) = P (xi < yi) =1/2 while the alternative
hypothesis states that P (xi > yi) ≠1/2.
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
The two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test was designed as a generic method to test
whether two random samples are drawn from the same distribution. The null hypothesis of
the KS test is that both distributions are identical. The statistic of the KS test is a distance
between the two empirical distributions, computed as the maximum absolute difference
between their cumulative curves.
Kruskal-Wallis test
The Kruskal–Wallis test is a non-parametric test to analyse the variance.[14] It analyses if
there is any difference in the median values of three or more independent samples. The
data values are ranked in an increasing order, and the rank sums calculated followed by
calculation of the test statistic.
Jonckheere test
In contrast to Kruskal–Wallis test, in Jonckheere test, there is an a priori ordering that
gives it a more statistical power than the Kruskal–Wallis test.[14]
Friedman test
The Friedman test is a non-parametric test for testing the difference between several
related samples. The Friedman test is an alternative for repeated measures ANOVAs
which is used when the same parameter has been measured under different conditions on
the same subjects.[13]
Tests to analyse the categorical data
Chi-square test, Fischer's exact test and McNemar's test are used to analyse the
categorical or nominal variables. The Chi-square test compares the frequencies and tests
whether the observed data differ significantly from that of the expected data if there were
no differences between groups (i.e., the null hypothesis). It is calculated by the sum of the
squared

difference between observed (O) and the expected (E) data (or the deviation, d) divided by
the expected data by the following formula:

A Yates correction factor is used when the sample size is small. Fischer's exact test is
used to determine if there are non-random associations between two categorical
variables. It does not assume random sampling, and instead of referring a calculated
statistic to a sampling distribution, it calculates an exact probability. McNemar's test is
used for paired nominal data. It is applied to 2 × 2 table with paired-dependent samples. It
is used to determine whether the row and column frequencies are equal (that is, whether
there is ‘marginal homogeneity’). The null hypothesis is that the paired proportions are
equal. The Mantel-Haenszel Chi-square test is a multivariate test as it analyses multiple
76
grouping variables. It stratifies according to the nominated confounding variables and
identifies any that affects the primary outcome variable. If the outcome variable is
dichotomous, then logistic regression is used.
:
SOFTWARE ANALYSIS FOR STATISTICS, SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATION AND
POWER ANLAYSIS
Numerous statistical software systems are available currently. The commonly used
software systems are Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS – manufactured
by IBM corporation), Statistical Analysis System ((SAS – developed by SAS Institute North
Carolina, United States of America), R (designed by Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman
from R core team), Minitab (developed by Minitab Inc), Stata (developed by StataCorp)
and the MS Excel (developed by Microsoft).
There are a number of web resources which are related to statistical power analyses. A
few are:
 StatPages.net – provides links to a number of online power calculators
 G-Power – provides a downloadable power analysis program that runs under DOS

 Power analysis for ANOVA designs an interactive site that calculates power or
sample size needed to attain a given power for one effect in a factorial ANOVA
design
 SPSS makes a program called SamplePower. It gives an output of a complete
report on the computer screen which can be cut and paste into another document.

SYNTHESIS
It is important that a researcher knows the concepts of the basic statistical methods
used for conduct of a research study. This will help to conduct an appropriately well-
designed study leading to valid and reliable results. Inappropriate use of statistical
techniques may lead to faulty conclusions, inducing errors and undermining the
significance of the article. Bad statistics may lead to bad research, and bad research may
lead to unethical practice. Hence, an adequate knowledge of statistics and the appropriate
use of statistical tests are important. An appropriate knowledge about the basic statistical
methods will go a long way in improving the research designs and producing quality
medical research which can be utilised for formulating the evidence-based guidelines.
Statistics is basically a science that involves data collection, data interpretation and
finally, data validation. Statistical data analysis is a procedure of performing various
statistical operations. It is a kind of quantitative research, which seeks to quantify the data,
and typically, applies some form of statistical analysis. Quantitative data basically involves
descriptive data, such as survey data and observational data.

Statistical data analysis generally involves some form of statistical tools, which a
layman cannot perform without having any statistical knowledge. There are various
software packages

77
to perform statistical data analysis. This software includes Statistical Analysis System
(SAS), Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), Stat soft, etc.
Data in statistical data analysis consists of variable(s). Sometimes the data is univariate or
multivariate. Depending upon the number of variables, the researcher performs different
statistical techniques.

If the data in statistical data analysis is multiple in numbers, then several

multivariates can be performed. These are factor statistical data analysis, discriminant
statistical data analysis, etc. Similarly, if the data is singular in number, then the univariate
statistical data analysis is performed. This includes t test for significance, z test, f test,
ANOVA one way, etc.
The data in statistical data analysis is basically of 2 types, namely, continuous data and
discreet data. The continuous data is the one that cannot be counted. For example,
intensity of a light can be measured but cannot be counted. The discreet data is the one
that can be counted. For example, the number of bulbs can be counted.

V. STATISTICAL SOFTWARE PACKAGES

Introduction to Statistical Software

Background
For many students, the thought of having to undertake statistical analyses is
uncomfortable.  This is because mathematics and statistics are often poorly taught at
school, and barely covered during undergraduate training.  Further – let’s face it,
mathematics and statistics are conceptually difficult. However, there really is no need to
panic. There is lots of support available to make you more comfortable with undertaking
statistical analyses, including this online course, biostatistical consultants, websites,
Youtube tutorials, and even MOOC courses.

In addition, there are a multitude of statistical software packages available that can do a
lot of the work for you – and these are the focus of this current module. However, before
we start looking at these, a question that often arises is “How do I get my data into a
statistical package?”. The good news is that most statistical software can read data
directly from an Excel spreadsheet, so using Excel is often the easiest solution.  Secondly,
you can always enter data directly into a statistical package, since they nearly all have
some form of inbuilt spreadsheet.  Another solution is to use software like SurveyMonkey
(https://www.surveymonkey.com/) to collect the data. SurveyMonkey has the facility to
convert the data into an Excel spreadsheet or SPSS format.  A final solution is to use
specialised data entry software. This has the advantage of being able to put things like
range checks on data entry fields, so for example, if a data entry field should only have a 0
or 1 entered, if you try and put anything else, it won’t let you. A really good and free data
entry program is EpiData Entry provided by CDC Atlanta. It is available from
here:  http://www.epidata.dk/download.php
 

78
There are many commercial statistical packages available, some of which UniSA has
licenses for. In addition, there are several free statistical packages available from the
internet. For example, PSPP is a clone of SPSS, and can be downloaded here:
https://www.gnu.org/software/pspp/get.html.
There are also many websites where you can undertake online statistical analyses.  A
good starting place is:
 http://statpages.info/
There are also many specialised software programs for things like graphs, sample size
calculations, and genetic analyses.  Again, some are commercial, but others can be freely
downloaded. A good example is the sample size software G*Power, which can be
downloaded here: http://www.gpower.hhu.de/en.html
In fact the diversity and number of software packages and available websites is so large,
that reviewing all of them would be a full-time job! 
 However, there are some software packages that are readily available and often used at
UniSA, including Microsoft Excel, SPSS, SAS, Stata and R, which will briefly overviewed
here. Then further details are provided in subsequent modules about each of these
packages.

Microsoft Excel
History
This is part of the Microsoft Office suite of programs. Excel version 1.0 was first released
in 1985, with the latest version Excel 2016.
 Good points

 Extremely easy to use and interchanges nicely with other Microsoft products
 Excel spreadsheets can be read by many other statistical packages
 Add on module which is part of Excel for undertaking basic statistical analyses
 Can produce very nice graphs

 Bad points

 Excel is designed for financial calculations, although it is possible to use it for many
other things
 Cannot undertake more sophisticated statistical analyses without purchase of
expensive commercial add ons.

 Availability
Most computers come with Microsoft software already installed. For blue-plated (UniSA)
computers, contact the IT Help Desk to install the latest Microsoft office software. For your
own computer, you can always purchase Microsoft Office from a retail store.
 

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SPSS
SPSS stands for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. It was one of the earliest
statistical packages with Version 1 being released in 1968, well before the advent of
desktop computers.  It is now on Version 23.
 Good points

 Very easy to learn and use

 Can use either with menus or syntax files
 Quite good graphics
 Excels at descriptive statistics, basic regression analysis, analysis of variance, and
some newer techniques such as Classification and Regression Trees (CART)
 Has its own structural equation modelling software AMOS, that dovetails with SPSS

 Bad points

 Focus is on statistical methods mainly used in the social sciences, market research 
and psychology
 Has advanced regression modelling procedures such as LMM and GEE, but they
are awful to use with very obscure syntax
 Has few of the more powerful techniques required in epidemiological analysis, such
as competing risk analysis or standardised rates

 Availability
SPSS is available on blue-plated (UniSA) computers. If it is not on the one that you use,
then contact the IT Help Desk to install it. Staff are allowed to use SPSS at home for a
cost of $10. Unfortunately, students have no home use rights, but can purchase a pretty
much full version called a Premium Grad-pack with a 2-year license for approximately
$250 from Hearne software.
 
SAS
SAS stands for Statistical Analysis System. It was developed at the North Carolina State
University in 1966, so is contemporary with SPSS. 
 Good points

 Can use either with menus or syntax files


 Much more powerful than SPSS
 Commonly used for data management in clinical trials

Bad points

 Harder to learn and use than SPSS

 Availability

80
Health Sciences has a Division licence for SAS 9.4M3 which is available for the Division’s
staff and students. To organise installation contact the IT Help Desk. SAS also has a free

version SAS University, details are available here:

http://www.sas.com/en_us/software/university-edition.html
 
Stata
Stata is a more recent statistical package with Version 1 being released in 1985. Since
then, it has become increasingly popular in the areas of epidemiology and economics, and
probably now rivals SPSS and SAS in it user base. We are now on Version 14.
 Good points

 Can use either with menus or syntax files

 Much more powerful than SPSS – probably equivalent to SAS
 Excels at advanced regression modelling
 Has its own in-built structural equation modelling
 Has a good suite of epidemiological procedures
 Researchers around the world write their own procedures in Stata, which are then
available to all users

 Bad points

 Harder to learn and use than SPSS

 Does not yet have some specialised techniques such as CART or Partial Least
squares regression

 Availability
Stata can be downloaded onto blue-plated computers by contacting the IT Help Desk.
Students can purchase a full copy with a perpetual license from the Australian distributors
(Survey Design and Analysis) for about $200. The Division is currently examining licensing
arrangements. 
R
S-plus is a statistical programming language developed in Seattle in 1988. R is a free
version of S-plus developed in 1996. Since  then  the  original  team  has  expanded  to 
include  dozens  of individuals from all over the globe. Because it is a programming
language and environment, it is used by giving the software  a  series  of  commands,
often saved  in  text  documents  called  syntax  files  or scripts, rather  than having  a 
menu-based  system.  Because of this, it is probably best used by people already
reasonably expert at statistical analaysis, or who have an affinity for computers. 
  
Good points

81
 Very powerful – easily matches or even surpasses many of the models found in
SAS or Statas

 Researchers around the world write their own procedures in R, which are then
available to all users
 Free!

 Bad points

 Much harder to learn and use than SAS or Stata 

SYNTHESIS

Several widely available statistical software packages are summarized in this

appendix. These packages are included based on responses to the groundwater statistics
survey (Appendix E) and on the input of team members. The information provided here is
intended as a summary introduction for project managers and not to replace a thorough
review of the appropriateness of any software package. In addition, inclusion of software
in this appendix is not an endorsement. Many other available statistical packages may
also be useful for statistical analyses and evaluations. You must verify the applicability and
accuracy of any selected statistical software package prior to use. Also, make sure that
you understand the assumptions and input requirements for any statistical tests used in
making decisions.

Note that not all of the packages are specifically designed for statistical analyses of
environmental data, or specifically of groundwater data. Some are general statistical
packages intended for use in different business or scientific application areas. Each
package summary identifies the statistical functions that may be applied to groundwater
problems.

In addition, there are a multitude of statistical software packages available that can
do a lot of the work for you – and these are the focus of this current module. However,
before we start looking at these, a question that often arises is “How do I get my data into
a statistical package?”. The good news is that most statistical software can read data
directly from an Excel spreadsheet, so using Excel is often the easiest solution.  Secondly,
you can always enter data directly into a statistical package, since they nearly all have
some form of inbuilt spreadsheet.  Another solution is to use software like SurveyMonkey
(https://www.surveymonkey.com/) to collect the data. SurveyMonkey has the facility to
convert the data into an Excel spreadsheet or SPSS format.  A final solution is to use
specialised data entry software. This has the advantage of being able to put things like
range checks on data entry fields, so for example, if a data entry field should only have a 0
or 1 entered, if you try and put anything else, it won’t let you.

82
83