«a3 Ways of Knowinging o ‘CONVENTIONAL WAYS OF KNOWING ‘We have far amped together leaning ae knowing asf hey were roaches conser sensory experiences to be the wot of the learning and ering proce "hs pends on cory reins he sn ta op to have an orpuiation independent of ox consiouses of ten Ing tthe raking in ofthe event apd has thee organization. This ‘Saws nce cry hres “Ths approach to knowing har rather long history One can see empit- cisethemen afc back at he Greek pilsoer Aristotle Aristo eld ‘were the Brissh empiri, because dhe Beith inellecialclsure she piif ing co ‘the eaviroament. Without those smal the beavis ae noe exhibited ‘or aired. The environment beh ess cons the beavis earned hd the behavion etibited, withou ny reference to he mind at all, ‘Sometimes operant bchsviors ae refered to 8 rue, Bur his tem pethaps the best known. In ‘Scaively Conditioning theory thu cary empiri in isepsemalogy. enderood ar table ra, "Among te behavioral scnees, ii not uncommon to think about cognitive moves of enemory as qualittively dient fom behavioral ancpls of fearing Thi doe, pt to the histories of ther human ‘When cognitie approaches to ‘an approach to knowledge rather than the ony Way r0understand i Idee, dependence on setryexpercnc ts common thar any st dene ofthe behavioral sens would be had preset conceive of alternative approach to Koowing. Where ce, they might ak could Knowle ‘ge ac earsing cone fo expt fo ou sensory expeioce?Likevie, {many fed f the bchavios scenes, knowlege hax become almost syonoymons with formation fom the external worl! (empiri), “These mais appearto pmo emphasis on whats ‘the mind than what i happening outside” the mind. In ict, some‘memory a kina driven by senwory eperene, expt an emnpis ‘on ner proces ‘Consider, for exemple, the istinton often made berween datadven and concep ven mode of cognition (eg, Asher, 1989, pp. 71-78). Seeuineomnnetyerenegcnananmnatny dics appa des ot en oreo cas ew even model, once that ar already frmedin the mind athe diving, for controling, fess of memory These concepts ac thought to flee ‘onsruc, ad interpre the das of rely and tus contol bow they are ‘ikimately responded to, Here, conepes in the mind are at lear at Jmportant ar dat ftom the senses. The dominant role wal assigaed ‘ertemorycrperiemce in empircam i reasignd to cognitive procrses. “This conclusion, however, is premature. Before we can know whether «conceprdeven nodes incompatible with empiican, we mast OW ‘the rian ofthe conepts, How dd the concep hat oppose die the racer of knowing come tobe concept inthe it pace? Mos cogni- ‘omparion, We most hive some contrast wih the impli eas 0 they ‘will not look like dest. They wil look le common sense orth ot Toms rather than the pointy of view that they realy are. Some of ws, for expe, leatn about the stucrare the English language only when wwe ty eo leu a new language. A sla proces occurs with theories {id unfair arumprons Ln this ee, a aeratve epistemology — ‘timation ie ncesry 0 lara the aren and weaknesses of the more famine epiemology empircin. Sometimes one is tempred 10 fect alteraties, such toa out of and, They ar so fe ily hci familiar concept, such as emp, willbe ost. OF ‘oune, once we understand empiric at poe of view We may OF may noe consider it the corece point of view In other words alternatives ‘ert to pretet ut with options for ot considersion {AN ALTERNATIVE EPISTEMOLOGY “The epistemological roo of reionaism i run. Unlike epics, which rowed in sensory expeiensr,eona ir bsed om the asamp ‘Sieve cafe cperice Tecey re te core noes erothrough reasoning witout experiencing the koowiedgein an empiise ‘ease: Let us bly oak at Pat's proof, bce i ilrates many of| ‘he chime ofthe ronal ‘As in all of Pla’ dislogues, the main characte i Soeeates, who «ssentilly peaks oe Plato Socrates contends atone pointin the loge ‘har Meno’ lave boy can ove cific problem inhigh Level geometry Without any forma! education or taining in mathematics, Tough tale the mow loge seeAlle Binstin cn inthis manner, be considered a theo pys- ‘Physic factors would be clave to tha pesd, andthe he aived st bis amon theory of clave “Another form of ationalsm i repesated by the 1kh-entary phi- seeps Lemar Kant, Kent held oe teat same bmn know rere from mene activity tha isa pion, The erm rid has come ‘ohave many connections ia theory tad pllowopy We focus primarily ‘on the erm’ weit Kane’ ronal, where a prior factors ae meatal ‘cos prior expence. Contrary othe empiricist, Kat arged that i orig % Spor te wea he” appr of he wrt hey xt ‘apeiene, are ar confurion withow some wry to organize them (Set “Dbl 1 in Chapter) The atonal reminds us thatexperimental data ‘Data, hea can never provide the primary soure oral eoafiemation| ‘of kaowige,Aktough dats are empartan to experimental ndings, the {prior abilities of cenit ae aloo important. In fit, one cul argo thera prior tre are mr impor Like Desates, one cd urn ‘whether data by themes can be the frm foundetion rquzed by ‘ince, Dats in themscves cannot el” at anything, because they ae ‘peclc to the patil consion cdr hich they ave collected and76 WHAT'S BEHIND THE RESEARCH?nm WHAT'S BEHIND THE RESEARCH? in oing » ‘ype of soca myth has perpetuated by the behavioral sciences (Coulis, to paula “lars” (Kan, 1970), nd many piv ei concepts 1979; Gergeo, 1888). ch a asian tne, and ypace fave been shown fo be social a scucted (Sie, 1993). Traditional; many bebavorl sents have Social Construconism ‘ismised these differences by climng thst Wester clare is more Tncenaingly however, cromrcnltunl seeaches are challenging this ‘ype of thinking (For & Sie, 1995). More than ever before laims of| _Mrancement and correctness ar bing viewed a canes of tinct, “The term ethecontinn esis to te tegen. JO B= ‘uc persons anue incorrectly that thy—the ego or "Pare the enter (ofthe world 0 too ethnocentric penonsasume incoreey that die river Thi ype of compaion abo allows us to postulate which ‘ren comsc In ny ct the meet that many Behavioral scene idasanigs a cote by the cle and which understanding ‘onception ae not found to be unberal leaves us with the Gace perhape more neenary and ral (Fox Sife 1995) Powibliey tat they ae cra comroctions instead of logically or “Theres of th comparos ar often quite surpesing,epeily Empirically derived tah, (We donot rl or the pssibiliyofeoirc, ‘when ou own sey anders te compared wither ois ar es that empiticm and logic ae themes curl constructions see Foc cxmple, Weer cocepons of personaly vary great fron Easter ‘Ghuprer6) conceptions. Weert tendo endow people with tit and atribucs "Hacc comparisons of sca corstracions ein much the ae that remain the same, even when the penon isin dling simaons. Most Asians, however end to ently people with their sitvatons and mology? A lesdng soil conseructionst, Kenneth Gergen (1985), notes‘thatneithe ofthe tdivonslepistemologeasuel for explaining these cla diferencs. Gergen ( social constructionist, that the experiences themselves are not socially constvcted "Here, the sci constructionist draws heavily on theater work ofthe ‘informal (sd perhaps unconscoaly) empiric, this often the ‘scm of why Witgeein crcl ce ths prin Treoncr ‘he spatial location ofthis ter objet of pin. All objets or referents for words whether they atc inner or ous honk be snc being Prosar bu ofuepoaed ineliioy”(Gepen 1985p. 272) The2 WHAT'S BEHIND THE RESEARCH? ‘exm means that what makessens or sem restonable within acalare— ‘what is ineligible" “negotiated,” or agreed on, by people within the culture Ofte, calturalandentandingycem tomakz nologialscsc, parclarly ro pple outside the cute, but make all sor of ene © irrelevant for ow understanding ofthe sara word ad ur place ia if Sing 8 te There tr mponse tothe sin the oc coneestonet rare, bt what they ane ad wheter they ae acces arenes beyond the scope of ont scussion hee ‘Hermeneutic Modes of Bagagement We cannot leave the topic of postmarer ways of knowing without &rt fiom the “conten ofthe world and considered method” for undecxanding. Examples icine the Inga or mabemavel proc of the rationale and the experimen method of theempirci, Whether rational or empiri sch meuods fe implementl by nsuming thit persons scking to kaow the wot fe separate fe and independent ofthe fll context of the woe they "This sti detached mode of engagement, Heidegger noted, lade to a mflective, detached undereanding of ealcy History care, and crore living are upposel independent ofthe detached and reflective ‘Sbetive—ie cms only narra to ak how the evo works relate rane in of ong 5 another Empircian and eaionalsm ie eset dhe two main Ways my the objective to on ad onan exptnee. As popular a hee way of Knog ar, hey ae ot the mos fonda mentale even the most base ways of mowing, scowling to Heidenger.‘engine and rackand-pinion sesing, She experiences the ca tring 3s 2 non meng, She exper oring important and, some sense the more basic mode of engagement. The hermeneutic disinction beeween the pysicl univer and the lved (or practical wotihould be lpi here (Drees, 1979; Puke, 1985) ‘The physical wives i the eal hat rational epistemology 2nd the iy ne ” present a-hand mode sek to understand, Aswe salle, the lived word [Fpactical understanding ithe relmehat hermeneutics and the rex forhand made ae inended primarily 0 understand, Lec ws begin with Analogies of thexe two words and thes atmpe to be more explicit abot Era work thee "The city ar lived worl, bower site diferent. An ess poral nope ad sd ar ses ian cut sid read-o-hand penpectve of someone the tninterpreted city is wating tobe interpreted. The “beyond!” i wetheenn ® svalable, ou ready to-hand engagement with delved world, To stay ine ion oman“ pepe aso tsen arin tion thar creates an objective map tha is populated only wit ils: ‘things such at bullings and ret Sal his ation woald be impossible to tundestand without first andertading the Lived work for which it ‘was ected. “We shoud noe before los that lived world of the ayo hand isnotarubective wold. Tohuvessubjecive worlds to imply tha there Tnnportane beciose the exitence of he two realms separates meaning (Gabjectivy) om objec in the wor (abject), andthe hermenes ‘cit views both 3 ted together in awhole—the lived world. ‘Soe ofthe restaurant. She salting about the estaueant the restaurant isl Tei tre tat he interpretation ofthe estaurast could lifer from fomeone ee's—i i nor unbiased. However, there isn interpretation thar unc ican he ierpresin ofthe estanrant tha considers, Fer part of objet ely The point hat scrpreation ae Shanye analy interpretation of ometiag ‘CONCLUSION We have dei in thi chapels was of knowing.encompass mos types of tehavio ad cognitive approaches to earning twig ing my mode of memory te apr concept den “Empiricem sno has implication for how scans lean and advance thr reso. Reshap the epitome ofthis spe of knowledge is mathe ‘mati. In authentic, knowledge can be advanced withooe reference earn erenieay eaaTAnttis ‘on the rational ian emphusis oa the theoretical, both a an end in elf Sida a mene of tng typos ape at, As an cd inl, Figorour thera thinking, sch a that peefomed by Elastin in his pons of tna peat may tc more enpsthy wid tonal, ortmodernts do hot consider our knowing tobe determined by her ‘nal pipes or mpi ws. Postmodernne look tothe relations| ‘Both of the pormadern approaches dexibed here view traditional rama dealing wit he phyial by comparing the cules and languages oF diferent societies, rth in the past and inthe present “The hermeneutic views the Lived wold as more meaningful than the physical univene. The hermeneutic acount for common eancepsons Of the physi universe by noting how 4 preenrathand mode of ngagement—with ite dtaches and reflective thinking lads 0a stele Sn sbntrct understanding ofthe weed and is objec. This word ix Note: 1, Some my quo er nin eyo me pl al oy ctl ees We eld ge tp of asa hr