A Mini Project report on

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

B. Tech
In

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted By

L. Kavya Sri, 1913120

Jyotiska Das, 1913089

M Vishnu vardhana reddy, 1913147

P.Reshma, 1913152

A.Sreeja, 1913153

S Karthik raj, 1913156

N Samba siva rao, 1913157

Group No. 9

Under the guidance of

Dr.Tanmoy Malakar

Assistant Professor
 NIT Silchar

CONTENTS

1. Applications of DC motors and generators (6-13)

1.1 DC motors (6-10)

2.1 Types of DC motors (6-10)

2.1.1 Permanent magnet DC motors (6)

2.1.1.1 Application of PMDC motors (7)

2.1.2 Series DC motors (7)

2.1.2.1 Application of Series DC motors (7-8)

2.1.3 Shunt DC motors (8)

2.1.3.1 Application of Shunt DC motors (8-9)

2.1.4 Compound DC motors (9)

2.1.4.1 Applications of Compound DC motors (9-10)

3.1 DC generators (10-18)

4.1 Types of DC generators (12-18)

4.1.1 Permanent magnet DC generator (13)

4.1.1.1 Applications of Permanent magnet DC generator (13)

4.1.2 Separately Excited DC generators (13-14)

4.1.2.1 Applications of Separately Excited DC generators (14)

4.1.3 Self Excited DC generators (14-18)

4.1.3.1 Series wound DC generators (14)

4.1.3.2 Applications of Series wound DC generator (15)

 4.1.3.3 Shunt wound DC generators (15)

4.1.3.4 Applications of Shunt wound DC generators (16)

4.1.3.5 Compound wound DC generators (16)

4.1.3.6 Applications of Compound wound DC generators (17)

2. Series resonant circuit (19-24)

2.1 Resonant frequency (19-20)

2.2 Derivation of Series Resonant frequency (20-21)

2.3 Cut off frequency (21)

2.4 Derivation of the formula for cut off frequency (21-23)

2.5 Relation between the frequency and different parameters (XC, XL,Z,R,I) (24)

3.Earthing and Grounding (25-30)

3.1 Earthing (25-30)

3.1.1 Objectives of Earthing (25)

3.2 Types of Earthing (25-30)

3.2.1 TN-S System earthing (26)

3.2.2 TN-C-S System earthing (27)

3.2.3 TT System earthing (28-29)

3.2.4 TN-C System earthing (29-30)

3.2.5 IT System earthing (30)

3.3 Grounding (31)

3.4 Difference between Earthing and Grounding (31-33)

List of figures
Fig No. Title Page

1. Circuit diagram of a PMDC motor 7

2. Circuit diagram of a series DC motor 8

3. Circuit diagram for shunt DC motors 9

4. Circuit diagram of a compound DC motor 10

5. Image of winding armature in dc generators 11

6. Image of coil in DC generator 11

7. DC generator labeled diagram 12

8. Permanent Magnet DC Generator 13

9. Separately Excited DC Generator 14

10. Series Wound DC Generator 15

11. Shunt Wound DC Generator 16

12. Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator 17

13. Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator 17

14. RLC series resonant circuit 19

15. Phasor diagram 21

16. Graph plotted against frequency and other parameters 24

17. Graph plotted against frequency and current 24

18. TN-S system 26

 19. Schematic of earthing and main equipotential arrangements. 26

20. TN-C-S System earthing 27

21. PME supply (TN-C-S system) 28

22. TT System earthing 28

23. Schematic of TT system 29

24. TN-C System 29

25. I T System 30

26. Difference between earthing and grounding 33

List of Tables

Table1. Difference between earthing and grounding (31-32)

 Applications of DC motors and
Generators
DC motors:

First a small introduction to DC motors. A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical

motors that converts direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most

common types rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC

motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to

periodically change the direction of current in part of the motor.

Types of DC motors
There are 4 main types of DC motors:-

 Permanent magnet DC motors

 Series DC motors

 Shunt DC motors

 Compound DC motors

Permanent magnet DC(PMDC) motors:

The permanent magnet dc motor can be defined as a motor which includes a permanent
magnet pole is called Permanent Magnet DC Motor. In this motor, the magnet can be used
to make the flux working within the air gap in its place of the field winding.The rotor
structure is similar to the straight DC Motor. PMDC Motor’s rotor includes armature core,
commutator, & armature winding. Normally, in a conventional DC motor, there are two kinds
of winding such as armature as well as Filed.

Applications of PMDC motors:

  PMDC motors are mainly used in automobiles to operate windshield wipers and
washers, to raise the lower windows, to drive blowers for heaters and air
conditioners etc.
 They are also used in computer drives.
 These types of motors are also used in toy industries.
 PMDC motors are used in electric toothbrushes, portable vacuum cleaners, food
mixers.
 Used in a portable electric tool such as drilling machines, hedge trimmers etc.

Fig.1 Circuit diagram of a PMDC motor:

Series Dc motors:
The DC Series Motor is similar to any other motor because the main function of this motor
is to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. The operation of this motor mainly
depends on the electromagnetic principle. Whenever the magnetic field is formed
approximately, a current carrying conductor cooperates with an exterior magnetic field,
and then a rotating motion can be generated.

In a series DC motor, the field is wound with a few turns of a large wire carrying the full
armature current. Typically, series DC motors create a large amount of starting torque,
but cannot regulate speed and can even be damaged by running with no load. These
limitations mean that they are not a good option for variable speed drive applications.

Some applications of series DC motors are:

1) DC motors are suitable for many applications – including conveyors, turntables and
others for which adjustable speed and constant or low-speed torque are required. They
also work well in dynamic braking and reversing applications, which are common in many
industrial machines.

2) A series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used for starting high
inertia loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists. This speed/torque characteristic is useful
in applications such as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when
unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy load.

3) DC series motor is also used in a vacuum cleaner, traction systems, sewing machines,
cranes, air compressors etc.

Fig2. Circuit diagram of a series DC motor:

Shunt DC motors:
A DC shunt motor is a type of self-excited DC motor, and it is also known as a shunt
wound DC motor. The field windings in this motor can be connected in parallel to the
armature winding. So both windings of this motor will expose to the equal voltage power
supply, and this motor maintains an invariable speed with any kind of load. This motor has a
low starting torque and also runs at a constant speed.

In shunt DC motors the field is connected in parallel (shunt) with the armature windings.
These motors offer great speed regulation due to the fact that the shunt field can be
excited separately from the armature windings, which also offers simplified reversing
controls.

Some applications of shunt DC motors:

Because of their self-regulating speed capabilities, DC shunt motors are ideal for
applications where precise speed control is required. Keep in mind, however, that they
cannot produce high starting torque, so the load at startup must be small.

These motors are used in lathe machines, centrifugal pumps, fans , lifts ,blowers,
conveyors etc.

Fig3.Circuit diagram for shunt DC motors

Compound DC motors:
Dc compound motor or Compound wound Dc motor is also a self-excited motor, but it is a
compound of both series and shunt field coils connected to the armature winding, a series
field winding connected in series with the armature and a shunt field winding connected in
parallel to the armature.A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings
in a shunt and a series combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series
DC motor. This motor is used when both a high starting torque and good speed regulation
is needed. The motor can be connected in two arrangements: cumulatively or differentially.
Cumulative compound motors connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides
higher starting torque but less speed regulation. Differential compound DC motors have
good speed regulation and are typically operated at constant speed.

Some applications of compound DC motors:

Cumulative compound wound motors are virtually suitable for almost all applications like
business machines, machine tools, agitators and mixers etc. Compound motors are used to
drive loads such as shears, presses and reciprocating machines.

The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is
required. The examples of usage of compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors,
Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy Planners, etc.

Fig4.Circuit diagram of a compound DC motor

DC Generator
A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert mechanical
energy into electricity. When conductor slashes magnetic flux, an emf will be generated
based on the electromagnetic induction principle of Faraday’s Laws. This electromotive
force can cause a flow of current when the conductor circuit is closed. DC generator is
working based upon the faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. It states that,
whenever the flux linking with a conductor changes, an electromotive force (emf) is set up
in that conductor that emf is called dynamically induced emf.

Dynamically induced emf, e= .

Magnitude of induced emf:

e = Blv =

where,

B= flux density ( )

L=active length of conductor

V=relative velocity of conductor w.r.t to magnetic flux

( )

= sine of angle between plane of rotation and plane of magnetic flux measured from
axis of plane.

Fig5.Image of winding armature in dc generators

Fig6.Image of coil in DC generator

 This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

Fig7. DC generator labeled diagram

Types of DC Generators:
DC generators are classified based on how their fields are excited (i.e. produced). There
are three methods of excitation, and thus three main types of DC generators:

 Permanent Magnet DC Generators – Field coils excited by permanent magnets.

 Separately Excited DC Generators – Field coils excited by some external source.
 Self Excited DC Generators – Field coils excited by the generator itself.
Permanent Magnet DC Generator:nu

Fig8. Permanent Magnet DC Generator

When the flux in the magnetic circuit is created through the use of permanent magnets,
then it is known as a Permanent magnet DC generator.
It consists of an armature and one or several permanent magnets situated around the
armature. This type of DC generator generates does not generate much power.

Applications of Permanent magnet DC generator:

As such they are rarely found in industrial applications. They are normally used in small
applications – like dynamos in motorcycles.

Separately Excited DC Generator:

These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by some external DC source,
such as a battery.
A circuit diagram of separately excited DC generator is shown in the figure below. The
symbols below are:

 Ia = Armature current
 IL = Load current
 V = Terminal voltage
 Eg = Generated EMF (Electromagnetic Force)
 Fig9.Separately Excited DC Generator

 Voltage drop in the armature = Ia × Ra (R/sub>a is the armature resistance)

Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators:
 Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are generally used for
testing purpose in the laboratories.
 Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in
field excitation.

Self Excited DC Generators:

Self-excited DC generators are generators whose field magnets are energized by the
current supplied by themselves. In these type of machines, field coils are internally
connected with the armature.

According to the position of the field coils,self-excited DC generators may be classified

as:
1. Series Wound Generators
2. Shunt Wound Generators
3. Compound Wound Generators
Series Wound DC Generator:
In these type of generators, the field windings are connected in series with armature
conductors, as shown in the figure below.
 Fig10.Series Wound DC Generator

Applications of series DC wound generators:

They have less applications

*Series ARC lighting.

*Series incandescent lighting.

*Series booster for increasing the voltage.

Shunt Wound DC Generators:

In these type of DC generators, the field windings are connected in parallel with armature
conductors, as shown in the figure below. In shunt wound generators the voltage in the
field winding is same as the voltage across the terminal.
 Fig11.Shunt Wound DC Generator

Applications of shunt wound DC generators:

*Shunt Generators with field regulators are used for Ordinary lighting and power supply
purposes.

*Shunt generators are used to charge batteries.

Compound Wound DC Generator:

Compound wound generators have both series field winding and shunt field winding. One
winding is placed in series with the armature, and the other is placed in parallel with the
armature. This type of DC generators may be of two types- short shunt compound-wound
generator and long shunt compound-wound generator.

Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator:

Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generators are generators where only the shunt field
winding is in parallel with the armature winding, as shown in the figure below.
 Fig12.Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator:

Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator are generators where the shunt field winding
is in parallel with both series field and armature winding, as shown in the figure below.

Fig13.Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

Applications of shunt wound DC generators:

*Shunt Generators with field regulators are used for Ordinary lighting and power supply
purposes.

*Shunt generators are used to charge batteries.

*They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.

*They are also used for small power supply (such as a portable generator).
 Series Resonance Circuit

Resonant frequency:

Resonance occurs in a series circuit when the supply frequency causes the voltages across

L and C to be equal and opposite in phase. Thus far we have analyzed the behaviour of a

series RLC circuit whose source voltage is a fixed frequency steady state sinusoidal supply.

We have also seen in our tutorial about series RLC circuits that two or more sinusoidal

signals can be combined using phasors providing that they have the same frequency supply.

In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the inductive reactance of

the inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. In other

words, XL = XC. The point at which this occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, (ƒr)

of the circuit, and as we are analyzing a series RLC circuit this resonance frequency

produces a Series Resonance.

Firstly, let us define what we already know about series RLC circuit
Derivation of series resonant frequency:
Let us consider a series connection of R, L and C. This series connection is
excited by an AC source.

Fig14.RLC series resonant circuit

Let us first calculate the impedance Z of the circuit.

Z = R + jωL – j/ωC

= R + j(ωL – 1/ ωC)

Under the condition of resonance, the circuit is purely resistive. This means, the
imaginary part of the impedance Z will be zero during resonance condition or at
resonant frequency. You should always keep this in your mind while calculating
resonant frequency for a given circuit.
This means,
(ωL – 1/ ωC) = 0
ωL = 1/ωC

ω2 = 1/(LC)

ω = 1/(LC)

As, we know that

ω = 1/2πf
Therefore, f = 1/2πω
Resonant Frequency (f0) for Series Resonance Circuit,

Cut off frequency:

The cutoff frequency is defined as the frequency at which the ratio of the input
output has a magnitude of 0.707. This magnitude, when converted to decibels using
Eq. 1 is equal to –3dB, often referred to as the 3dB down point.

Derivation of the formula for cut off frequency:

The formula; Fc = 1 / (2 * pi * R *C)

At the cutoff frequency Fc (-3dB), the output voltage is defined as;

Vout = Vin / sqrt (2)

If we rearrange, the voltage gain -3dB = 20 x log (1/sqrt(2)) is;

Gain = Vout/Vin = 1 / sqrt(2)

Now, consider based on the phasor diagram below of voltages for the low pass filter
using Pythagoras theorem; Vin is the input voltage of our filter Vout = Vc is the output
voltage

let's derive the equation for gain;

Fig15.Phasor diagram

Vin^2 = Vc^2 + Vr^2 … based on Pythagoras triangle

Vin = sqrt(Vc^2 + Vr^2)

And;

Vout = Vc

So;

Gain = Vout / Vin = Vc / sqrt (Vc^2 + Vr^2)

We are working in voltages, however to get in terms of R and C we need to be in

resistance and reactance.

Since;

Vin = I * Z

and;

Vc = I * Xc (Xc is capacitive reactance Xc = 1 / 2 * pi * F * C)

and;

Vr = I * R
we can eliminate I since it is constant for all lengths, so our equation can be rewritten
as;

Gain = Xc / sqrt (Xc^2 + R^2)

So, let's combine the gain at Fc previously and this gain equation;

Gain = 1 / sqrt(2) = Xc / sqrt(Xc^2 + R^2)

If you re-arrange and substitute you will find that to satisfy this equation, the
following MUST be true;

R = Xc

How? let Xc = 1 in previous equation, then;

1 / sqrt(2) = 1 / sqrt (1^2 + ?^2)

Sqrt(2) = sqrt(1^2 + ?^2)

2 = 1^2 + ?^2

So ? = 1

Therefore in the denominator in the Gain equation R must equal Xc.

At Fc, the phasor diagram is a triangle where opposite and adjacent sides are equal.
That is, when R and Xc (or Vr and Vc) are equal, in fact that is the definition of the
point that is the ‘cutoff frequency' point.

So going back, given Capacitive reactance;

Xc = 1 / (2 * pi * F * C)

and;

R = Xc

Therefore, when R and Xc are equal - at the cutoff frequency point;

R = 1 / (2 * pi * Fc * C)

So rearrange this for Fc;

Fc = 1 / (2 * pi * R * C)
Relation between the frequency and different
parameters (XC, XL,Z,R,I)

Fig16.Graph plotted against frequency and other parameters

Fig17.Graph plotted against frequency and current

 Earthing and Grounding
Earthing:

Earthing can be described as transmitting the immediate discharge of electricity with the

help of low resistive wires to the ground. It is a connection to the general mass of the

earth by the earth electrode. In this process the metallic bodies of all electrical

apparatus will be connected to the earth by a wire which has low resistivity, the neutral

point of the supply system or the non-current carrying part of the electrical apparatus will

be connected to earth and its advantage is that if an immediate discharge of electrical

energy takes place there won’t be any danger. A device is said to be earthed if it is

electrically connected to an earth electrode. The process of connecting metallic bodies of

all the electrical apparatus and equipments to earth by a wire having negligible resistance

is called Earthing.

Objectives of earthing:

 It can provide an alternative path for the fault current so the fault current can travel in
that path without damaging the equipment or endanger the user
 The conductive parts which are exposed won’t reach a dangerous potential
 Voltage can be maintained in an electrical system by preventing over current and excessive
voltages
 Low impedance path will be provided to the fault current and by this, it can ensure the
correct operation of protective devices

Types of Earthing:
BS 7671 lists five types of earthing system:

Where T = Earth (from the French word Terre) N = Neutral S = Separate C = Combined
I = Isolated

1. TN-S System earthing:

Fig18.TN-S system

A TN-S system, shown in figure has the neutral of the source of energy connected with

earth at one point only, at or as near as is reasonably practicable to the source, and the

consumer’s earthing terminal is typically connected to the metallic sheath or armour of the

distributor’s service cable.

Fig19.Schematic of earthing and main equipotential arrangements.

Note: An isolator is not always installed by the electricity distributor.

2. TN-C-S System earthing:

Fig20.TN-C-S System earthing

A TN-C-S system, shown in fig , has the supply neutral conductor of a distribution main

connected with earth at source and at intervals along its run. This is usually referred to as

protective multiple earthing (PME). With this arrangement the distributor’s neutral

conductor is also used to return earth fault currents arising in the consumer’s installation

safely to the source. To achieve this, the distributor will provide a consumer’s earthing

terminal which is linked to the incoming neutral conductor.

 Fig21.PME supply (TN-C-S system)

3. TT System earthing:

Fig22.TT System earthing

A TT system, shown above, has the neutral of the source of energy connected as for TN-

S, but no facility is provided by the distributor for the consumer’s earthing. With TT, the

consumer must provide their own connection to earth, i.e. by installing a suitable earth

electrode local to the installation.

 Fig23.Schematic of TT system

No earth provided in TT System

4. TN-C System earthing:

Fig24. TN-C System

In the TN-C system, the neutral channel of the main distribution equipment (power source)

is connected directly to the consumer's neutral channel and the frame of installed
equipment. With this system, a neutral conductor is used as a protective conductor and a

combination of neutral and earthing side of the equipment is known as conductor of

PEN(Protective Earthing and Neutral). This system is not permitted for conductor less

than 10 mm2 or for portable equipment. This is because if a fault occurs, then at the same

time the PEN conductor carries the phase unbalance current and third level harmonic

current and its multiples. To reduce the impact on equipment and living things around the

equipment, then in the application of the TN-C system, the PEN conductor must be

connected to a number of electrode rods for earthing on the installation.

5. IT System earthing:

Fig25. IT System

From the first letter (I) it is clear that ,in this type of IT system, neutral is isolated (Not

connected )to the earth. The PE point is not connected to the neutral channel but directly

connected to the Earthing. In its application, the neutral point of the IT system is not

really isolated from the earth, but is still linked to the Zs impedance which has high value

of around 1000 ohms to 3000 ohms. This serves the purpose of limiting the level of voltage

overload when there is interference in the system.

Grounding:

Grounding is the process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of transfer

of electrons between it and another object substantial size. When a charged object is

grounded, the excess charge is balanced by the transfer of electrons between the

charged object and ground. In grounding, the current carrying parts are directly

connected to the ground. The grounding provides the return path for the leakage current

and hence protect the power system equipment from damage.

Difference between earthing and grounding:

One of the major difference between the grounding and the earthing is that in
grounding, the current carrying part is connected to the ground whereas in earthing
the non-current carrying parts is connected to ground. The other differences between
them are explained below in the form of the comparison chart. The key difference
between earthing and grounding is that the term “Earthing” means that the
circuit is physically connected to the ground which is Zero Volt Potential to
the Ground (Earth). Whereas in “Grounding” the circuit is not physically connected
to ground, but its potential is zero with respect to other points.

Table1. Difference between earthing and grounding

Basis For
Grounding Earthing
Comparison

Definition The current carrying part is The body of the equipment is

connected to ground. connected to ground.

Location Between the neutral of the Between the equipment body and
equipment and ground earth pit which is placed under the
earth surface.
Basis For
Grounding Earthing
Comparison

Symbol

Zero Potential Does not have Have

Protection Protect the power system Protect the human from electric
equipment. shock.

Application Provide the return path to It discharges the electrical energy

the current. to the earth.

Types Three (Solid, Resistance and Five (Pipe, Plate, Rod earthing,
Reactance grounding) earthing through tap and strip
earthing)

Color of wire Black Green

Use For balancing the unbalance For avoiding the electrical shock.
load.

Examples Neutral of generator and The enclosure of the transformer,

power transformer is generator, motor etc. are
connected to ground. connected to the earth.
 Fig26.Difference between earthing and grounding

CONTRIBUTION TO THIS PROJECT:

1. DC generators -S Karthik raj-1913156

2. DC Motors -Jyotiska Das-1913089

3. Resonant and Cut off frequency -L. Kavya Sri-1913120

4. Derivation of formulas for resonant and cut off frequency -A.Sreeja-

1913153

5. Graph between frequency and different parameters -P. Reshma-1913152

6. Earthing and types of earthing -M Vishnu vardhana reddy -1913147

7. Difference between earthing and grounding -N Samba siva rao-1913157