The Human Tendencies

The Human Tendencies

“When confronted by situations which concern the child and seem difficult to solve,
do not seek outside remedies but concentrate upon the nature of the child
and the essential needs of his development”
“The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education” Mario Montessori (1956), p. 2

“Human Tendencies” is a term used by Mario Montessori, perhaps borrowing from contemporary
psychologists. He addresses this topic in the pamphlet “The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education”,
which is based upon his 1956 lecture entitled “The Tendencies of Man”.1 Aspects of this topic may be found
both explicitly and implicitly throughout Maria Montessori’s writings; however, she herself does not seem
to have addressed the topic in a systematic or comprehensive manner. The main sources for Human
Tendencies within the Montessori literature are Mario Montessori’s pamphlet and numerous articles – of
various titles – by Margaret Stephenson and other Montessorians.
These Human Tendencies can be listed as follows:
• Activity (also referenced as Movement or Work)
• Self-preservation and Self-Development
• Orientation
• Exploration
• Order
• Communication
• Abstraction and Imagination
• Concentration – Repetition – Self Perfection
• Exactness and Precision
In the perspective of this Teacher Training Course, the cumulative result of all of these Human Tendencies
‘at work’ can be summarized as:
• The formation and continual development of the individual personality
• The individual’s continual adaptation as a person of their time, place and culture

Formation or construction of the personality and cultural adaptation, then, are not in themselves Human
Tendencies. They are instead the outcomes of growth as motivated internally by universal laws of human
development. In the First Plane of Development (birth to age 6), Montessori described two specific aspects
of those universal laws – the Absorbent Mind and the Sensitive Periods: these will be of special, unique, and
irreplaceable significance along with the Human Tendencies in the formation of the individual personality
and individual cultural adaptation. After age 6, these specific motivating powers fade, while the Human
Tendencies continue to motivate human development and behavior for the remainder of that individual’s
life.

1 nd
Mario Montessori, “The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education”, 2 Edition, Association Montessori
Internationale

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 The Human Tendencies

What are Human Tendencies?

A dictionary definition of “tendency” is: A natural or prevailing disposition to move, proceed, or act in some
direction or toward some point, end, or result.
As we use the term here, these Human Tendencies are innate, universal human traits. They are considered
to be present in every human being, of any time and place; they are present and operative at birth; present
and operative throughout life. These traits are intrinsic – belonging to human beings by their very nature.
They serve as intrinsic powers which guide individual human development and motivate individual human
behavior – in a particular direction; to particular ends; and to fulfill particular, universal needs.
We share some of these traits – some would argue, many of these traits – with other species of life. That is
not at issue here. The point we want to consider is how humans experience these traits uniquely and
specifically as humans; and what this experience tells us about the natural human condition.
We say that these Human Tendencies are universal and constant; yet the observable behaviors manifested
as a result of these powers can seem very diverse. An example of this would be the diversity of human
languages – each of which represents an important aspect of the Human Tendency for Communication. As
we examine these Human Tendencies, we are challenged to differentiate between what is essential and
what is superficial or ‘accidental’ in human behavior.
The concept of Human Tendencies can itself seem elusive: we name them, but could easily debate the
names we give them; looking at our list, we might argue that one trait presumes or includes or implies
another; or we might even argue how many to name. Even within the AMI tradition, different Teacher
Trainers have slightly different lists. In this, the topic is like the colors seen and named in a rainbow: where
one person sees ten colors another might see seven; the important fact to remember is that each person is
in fact observing the same rainbow! We list the Human Tendencies, yet by listing them we risk limiting our
understanding of them. Lists can imply orders of priority, lines of causality, of accumulation, of Tendencies
building one upon another – an order of linear relationship; but in fact the relationships among these
Tendencies are dynamic, synergistic, holistic, and interdependent.
Dynamic: vigorously active, energetic, effective
Synergistic: elements interact such that when combined they produce a total effect greater
than the
sum of individual elements, contributions, etc.
Holistic: whole entities have an existence greater than as the mere sum of their parts
Interdependent: mutually dependent, depending upon each other

Finally, when we consider the existence of these traits as universal Human Tendencies – and very positive
traits at that – we often defy our everyday experience: for some of these universal characteristics of being
human can seem remarkably absent in the day to day behaviors of human beings.
1

Nevertheless, and despite all these debatable points, we do consider them. We name them and list them.
We will explore them and strive to understand them; and to clarify our image of them. We will endeavor to
communicate their significance with increasing precision; and we will strive to apply our understanding of
them to our work. And all the while, (turning the mirror of being human back upon ourselves), we will be
motivated by them in doing so.
So, let us look more closely at each tendency on our list.

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 The Human Tendencies

Activity / Work / Movement

I have said that all of these Human Tendencies serve to motivate and guide human behaviors. Implicit in all
human behavior is one fact: human beings act. They are universally motivated to be active, to move in
response to their motivations and in response to whatever they perceive to be their own interest; they act,
inter-act, manipulate objects, and through their activity transform the natural world into a human-made
world built onto nature 2; and humans act – they are active – in the interests of all of the rest of the Human
Tendencies we are going to describe. Humans share this motivation to activity of some kind with all other
life forms.
As a Human Tendency, however, Activity takes on another, very special, dimension, which we can also label
“Work” (although this might require that we change our cultural perception of work). Activity or Work is
the motivation to do something that is purposeful and meaningful; to act in a way that engages the whole
self – body, mind, and spirit. This is work which both stimulates and requires self-mastery and self-control.
We will explore this kind of work intensely throughout this course and it is at the foundation of every aspect
of Montessori education. We will explore its anatomy and the very significant feelings which result from this
kind of purposeful, engaged activity – feelings such as satisfaction and fulfillment.
In terms of education, there is another important dimension to this Human Tendency for Activity: activity
as Movement is highly significant for successful learning. Montessori observed that movement has a “close
connection with the developing mind”; she wrote that
… movement has great importance in mental development itself, provided that the action which
occurs is connected with the mental activity going on
and she describes that the true purpose of movement in education is
… a question of the child coordinating those movements which play a necessary part in his mental
life, so as to enrich the practical and executive sides of it. 3
This connection between movement and learning or mental development anticipates contemporary non-
Montessori research which draws the same positive conclusion that “movement and cognition are closely
entwined, and that movement can enhance thinking and learning”. 4

Self-Preservation / Self-Development
The word preservation contains a root which means “to watch over”. We usually use the term in the sense
of keeping alive or safe from harm; to protect or maintain. We commonly think of this in terms of physical
life, of assuring and maintaining the body’s life and survival. And it would be difficult to argue against the
presence of a tendency which motivates behaviors directed towards physical Self-preservation. But to
understand the meaning of such a motivation in the human context we have to look closer at this “self”
which is being preserved.
In his lecture, Mr. Montessori reminds us (p.26) that we are body, mind, and spirit. The human self, then, in
“self-preservation”, is all of these. So the tendency for Self-preservation becomes a huge category for

2
In the Montessori vocabulary, the human transformation of nature is known as the ‘supra-nature’; in more
contemporary terms, this supra-nature is described as ‘the built environment’
3
Maria Montessori. The Absorbent Mind Dell: 1967 pp. 136; 145
4
For a review of contemporary research on this connection see Angeline Lillard. Montessori: The Science Behind the
Genius Oxford University Press: 2005, Chapter 2 “The Impact of Movement on Learning and Cognition”.

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 The Human Tendencies

humans. In addition to behaviors which guarantee physical life, there are motivations equally powerful to
protect and maintain, to keep safe and alive, the life of the intellect and the life of the spirit as well. When
we think of self-preservation for the human being, we must remember this holistic self which is maintained,
safe-guarded and preserved – including the human phenomena of sacrificing physical existence for the sake
of an ideal, an idea, a belief, or a beloved.
I have already indicated that the relationship among the Human Tendencies is not linear. There is,
however, what might be termed a hierarchical relationship among them – and certainly the needs met
through the tendency of Self-preservation are supreme in this hierarchy. There is also a hierarchy within
the category of Self-preservation. First and foremost, are basic physiological needs – food, water,
movement, protection from the elements, sleep, etc. Then come needs for physical safety; and needs for
psychological safety. As these basic physiological and security needs are met, other needs come into play –
needs to belong to a group, to be in some way cherished and loved by others; needs which could be
termed “self-esteem” or “self-concept” needs; and needs to continually strive and grow as an individual.
When any of these needs are in jeopardy, the entire being of an individual will focus on securing them and
all other motivations further along in the hierarchy are sublimated.5
Keeping in mind the whole self of body-mind-spirit, one might say that all of the other tendencies in some
way or other serve to fulfill this tendency of Self-preservation. Let’s look at the rest of our list, and then we
can return to this point.

Orientation
This is the tendency to familiarize myself with my surroundings, my situation, my environment; to place
myself in relationship with that environment, gaining secure, usable knowledge and experience within that
environment, so that I can determine my place in it, and determine how to preserve my self in it. We
humans seem to be naturally curious about our surroundings – physically and psychologically. This tendency
is much greater than mere curiosity, however. Whenever we find ourselves in strange or altered
circumstances, everything else is temporarily suspended until this powerful motivation of Orientation is
satisfied. Once a certain amount of orientation has been achieved, however, our curiosity can have fuller
play – perhaps leading us to the next tendency.

Exploration
This is the tendency to examine, to investigate, to scrutinize – for the purpose of discovery. Exploration is
partly how I orient to the given environment, how I become familiar with it and discover my relationship to
that environment; but exploration partly depends upon orientation as well. (Already we see the
interconnectedness of particular tendencies in operation.) As I become oriented enough to find my way and

5
For a non-Montessori discussion of the hierarchy of basic needs, see Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality,
nd
2 Edition: 1970, particularly Ch. 4 “A Theory of Human Motivation”. Maslow’s delineation of Basic Needs is: 1)
Physiological Needs; 2) Safety Needs; 3) Belongingness and Love Needs; 4) Esteem Needs; 5) Need for Self-
actualization; 5) Aesthetic Needs. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi gives another perspective on what we call Human
Tendencies, in The Evolving Self, New York: Harper Collins, 1993, pp. 219-220: “The means by which attention
becomes prioritized we call goals. A goal is a channel into which psychic energy flows. Therefore, the self can be
considered a hierarchy of goals, because the goals define what we pay attention to, and how.” Also reference:
Robert Wright, Non-Zero:The Logic of Hunan Destiny, New York: Vintage Books, 2000, for an examination of cultural
evolution – how humans behave purposefully according to universal motivations leading to increasing social
complexity and the maximizing of non-zero-sum activity.

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 The Human Tendencies

meet my needs in the immediate, familiar environment, there is a new motivation to move out beyond the
familiar; to explore, to examine and investigate the unknown, to find out more, seeking new knowledge and
new experience.
It is easy to understand this tendency when it is directly linked to meeting basic physical needs which the
familiar environment might lack. But there is something that seems illogical about exploration which leaves
security and comfort behind, which might in fact risk physical survival in the pursuit of the unknown. The
tendency to find out more, to find out what else there is, to find out “what happens if …” is beyond logic –
except the logic which informs a full human existence. Exploration is an innate, unquestioned power.
We explore physically with our bodies, with our senses, with our hands. We also explore with our minds and
with our spirits – capacities which anticipate the activity of the next few tendencies on our list. What I
discover through exploration, I orient myself to as well – placing these new discoveries among what was
previously known and adjusting my previous knowledge according to new information discovered in the
process of exploration. This brings us to the next Human Tendency on our list –

Order
All of these experiences, all of the information and knowledge gained through orientation and exploration
are put in order. Everything is classified, categorized: for example, consider discoveries that are significant
or essential to physical survival. Humans organize these discoveries about the world: what is seasonal, what
is perennial; what is comfortable; pleasant; unpleasant; dangerous? What is novel or interesting or
delightful or intriguing? What things are alike and in what ways are they alike? What things are not alike?
What are all of these questions except the beginnings of the categories of Order?
Order is a function of all life in general. Life itself is ultimately, if precariously, anti-entropic. Life creates and
preserves an order, an organization which makes existence possible within a narrow range of survivability.
And certainly this tendency to create and maintain order – what has been termed “negentropy” – is a
profound and fundamental power of the human being. 6
So far, a case can be made that many life forms share the motivations and the capacities to orient, to
explore, and to in some way organize the experiences and information encountered in their environment so
as to preserve that existence. But human beings seem to take this capacity for order to unique heights. All
essentially human activity is based upon this tendency to create orderly, meaningful patterns out of our
experience. We take all of the information acquired through orientation and exploration, and make order
out of it. We interact with this information; place different pieces of information in relation to each other;
find patterns, some would say we create patterns for this information. In doing this, we exercise our
intelligence, which is first and foremost an intelligence of order – the power to make connections and form
associations among separate pieces of acquired information. 7
In doing this we also put into play another Human Tendency: Communication.

6
Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950, pp. 20 -
26. Wiener refers to “… islands of locally decreasing entropy …” and states that “… we ourselves constitute such an
island of decreasing entropy and … live among other such islands …” (p. 25) For “negentropy”, see Csikszentmihalyi,
The Evolving Self, pp. 20-21, including: “Whenever order in a system increases instead of breaking down we may say
that negentropy is at work.”
7
Derek Bickerton, Language and Species, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990, p. 101: “On a conservative
reckoning, intelligence is no more than the power to form associations, whether between stimulus and response or
between two stimuli.”

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 The Human Tendencies

Communication
First, I want to make a distinction between this tendency called Communication and Language.
Communication is more than language; and language, conversely, is more than communication8: two
statements which we will investigate more thoroughly during the course. As a Human Tendency,
Communication is closely related to the tendency for activity. It is the motivation to behave inter-actively
with our environment and with the elements in the environment, including other human beings. An image
which might help here is to remember that one definition of the verb “communicate” is “to be joined or
connected (as in rooms)”. Communication is a passage which connects: the root is “commun”, for
common.
This tendency includes the motivation to be connected, to be vitally linked with our physical surroundings
and with the other beings in our surroundings; it also refers to our social nature, our interest in others and
profound need to connect with others in an inter-active relationship – a two-way relationship, with each
side equally capable of initiative and response.
To communicate is to be open to receive the vital information available in our environment and in turn to
convey our own messages out into the environment. 9 Information passes back and forth along this
common passage: between
1) Humans and physical realities such as terrain, weather, and resources
2) Humans and other life forms – plant and animal
3) Humans and their tools and machines
4) Humans themselves
The passage which is communication occurs through our bodies: through our senses, and through
movements and actions which include, but are not limited to the movements which are spoken or signed
language – communicated through the body but – among humans – connecting minds and spirits as well.
We gain information through the inter-action which is Communication, and make Order out of it. And we do
something else with this ordered information: we form Abstractions in our minds and through these
Abstractions, we create our Imaginations.

Abstraction / Imagination
The etymological root of “abstraction” is to separate or draw off. It is a term which in the past has been
associated with theft, with secret removals – a hint, perhaps an unconscious insight, into the nature of this
human audacity: that we take the reality of the world as we find it and steal some essence out of it, an
essence of qualities, of characteristics, an essence which will exist apart from those realities and distill this
essence into a representation of that reality in our human mind – an abstracted representation which is a
purely mental image, existing without the presence of a concrete object and apart from any immediate,
lived experience.
There, in the mind, we form an image derived from our concrete sensorial experience, from our categorized
sensory information – an image of a texture felt or a color seen, of a dimension or a form perceived, of a
scent, a taste, a sound experienced. But we don’t stop there. We also abstract images based in our

8
Bickerton, Language and Human Behavior, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995; and Language and Species,
p. 21: “Communication is … not what language is, but (a part of) what language does.”
9
See Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings, pp.3 - 16, for Communication in this sense

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 The Human Tendencies

emotional experience – the entire range of feelings and responses which comprise our internal reality, such
as love, hate, joy, grief, anger, etc. And we form images even of ideas – ideas which have little or no basis
in concrete objects but which are a part of our lived experience of the world, ideas such as past or future,
evil, goodness, loyalty, compassion, five-ness, etc.
Just as we order and organize the information we experience in the world, we also order and organize these
abstractions in our minds. We place them in relation to eachother; weave new patterns out of them,
combining and summarizing them, creating an entire representational system encoded in the brain.10 This is
the creation we call Imagination.
Through Imagination we combine, take apart and re-combine these purely mental images in ways that
often defy concrete, lived experience in a present moment, leading us off on intriguing tangents while some
other part of us is washing the dishes, driving the car, or (perhaps!) reading this paper.11 And our
Imagination can go even further. Associating abstractions, interacting with discovered information,
recombining lived or vicarious experiences, and in the pursuit of some goal or satisfaction – our human
imagination can
Seek and construct new knowledge without concrete, hands-on experience
Conceive something which has never before existed
Devise a task or method which has never before been employed
Explore and organize a possibility which has never yet been ordained
Conjure an event which has never been and never will be experienced in reality
While contained in a body which is restricted by the limitations of physical circumstance, the human
imagination seems limitless – nurtured on the distilled essences of abstraction and containing an expanding
representational universe experienced as truthfully and as realistically as the contours of a chair or the scent
of a meal.12
In English there is an expression: Out of Sight, Out of Mind. And we might wish it were so, in the middle of
the night, when we awaken to spend the dark hours brooding and anxious, worrying sleepless over
something which has no present reality at all – some event which lies irretrievably in the past, or some
condition which might or might not ever materialize in the future. On the other hand, we are pleased when
–apart – we can summon the image of a beloved face, conjure the colors of a sunset, or reconstruct a
delightful melody. And it is, to say the least, convenient that we can hold in our minds the image of a
container prior to fetching water, or of a protective hat when away from the sun, or of a meal to plan when
we are not yet hungry.

10
For Secondary Representational Systems, see Bickerton Language and Human Behavior and Language and Species.
11
see Bickerton, Language and Human Behavior, for thinking in images, on-line thinking and off-line thinking. [also
Julian Jaynes: The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind]
12
Csikszentmihalyi offers some help in distinguishing between the tendency of Abstraction – which is always linked in
some way to lived experience – and the more elusive tendency of Imagination: “Extrasomatic coding and storage of
information allowed an accumulation of knowledge many orders of magnitude beyond what could be previously
stored in the brain. Perhaps as a result of this advance, humankind became able to give imagination a new meaning.
… Imagination emancipated itself from its former task as faithful recorder of reality, and was on its way as reality sui
generis, now leading humans to unexpected triumphs, now luring them into illusion. The Evolving Self, p. 220

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 The Human Tendencies

We could say that all of the tendencies so far on our list have been creative tendencies: they motivate
behaviors and activity which construct the human body-mind-spirit self.
The next tendencies could be described more as process-oriented tendencies – they are motivations which
guide how that self functions: how we do, accomplish, and act in the world.

Concentration-Repetition-Perfection
This tendency describes the inherent powers which guide us towards an accomplishment. We are born
with very few behaviors or capacities already in place beyond some limited vocalizations and a few motor
reflexes, such as sucking. How do we become the mature individuals joining together in this course? Each
of us has constructed every action, every capacity, every characteristic which distinguish that individuality –
from the most mundane to the most profound, from the uniquely personal to universal characteristics of
our species. How do we do this?
Well, first there has to be something we are interested in achieving. Interest has many sources – early in life
it is largely unconscious; in time it becomes conscious as well. This means that at some level the individual
has a reason, a desire, to achieve a particular goal or accomplish a particular task. Once interest is assured,
this tendency (Concentration-Repetition-Perfection) comes into play.
Concentration is exclusive attention focused on one thing or activity. The word is formed from the prefix
“con”, meaning with, together, completely; and the root for “center”. To concentrate is to draw to a
common center, to converge, to collect – in this case to collect attention, energies, faculties, and activities;
collected, focused, and centered exclusively on a selected objective. But to accomplish something new, a
single act of concentration is rarely sufficient: the goal is elusive, incomplete, approximate, imperfectly
realized. So there is the motivation to do the activity over and over again, however many times is necessary
until we “get it right”. Repetition means to reach towards or seek again, and this is what we do: we repeat
……
…… until Perfection is achieved. Now the verb “perfect” simply means to finish, to bring to completion. But
the word carries connotations having to do with a certain standard of completion. We are not content until
a sufficient degree of competence, excellence, or quality is achieved. Hence, we repeat in order to perfect.
Improvement is sought, but improvement that is measured according to previous performance and
improvement in comparison to a realistic model of what is possible, necessary, sufficient, or desired. We
can acknowledge and embrace each level of improvement along the way – each stage of perfection, of
completion – in the process of achievement.
Some of us tend to expand this concept of perfection to incorporate something else, called perfectionism;
but we must recognize that this perfectionism negates a realistic comparison. Perfectionism is a personal
standard or attitude which demands an absolute, unattainable completion and rejects anything less. It also
denies the process which this tendency defines. Perfectionism, then, is not a motivation to completion; it is
an obstacle to completion. As humans, we are not motivated to perfectionism – which is a static,
subjective, and absolute standard. We are motivated to Perfection - a dynamic process gauged according to
an achievable, expanding, relative, and objective standard of increasingly improved accomplishment.
In following this progression from Concentration through Repetition to Perfection, we are guided by yet
another Human Tendency, which both inspires the activity and provides objective criteria for judging
accomplishment. This is the Human Tendency towards ……

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 The Human Tendencies

Exactness and Precision

Now this would seem to be an intimidating word after such a friendly presentation of Perfection. Exactness
(and its synonym, precision) is very specific in meaning:
Strict accuracy and correctness; admitting no deviation; rigorous; meticulous
To be exact is to be precise, as opposed to approximate or vague
So how does this tendency help and guide us? … by naturally motivating behaviors to exceed a current level
of achievement, understanding, or accomplishment. It keeps us from falling into complacency and lethargy;
it spurs us on to do better, to strive, to excel, to know more, to find a better way. It takes us all the way
back to Exploration, and weaves its way through all of the constructions motivated by our Human
Tendencies. And it works through that passage which we call Communication. At every moment of activity
that passage is open. As we act, there is feedback 13 - information, a message, by which we can assess our
effectiveness. The standard which is Exactness lures us on as we respond to this feedback, focusing our
attention onto aspects which are secure and other aspects which can still be improved.
This is essentially what Learning is all about: to align actions closer and closer to the standard which defines
a goal; to be more efficient, to conserve energy in accomplishing the action; to do it faster, better than
before, better than anyone else; to develop a capacity, clarify a thought, or illuminate a vision beyond its
present state. It is, as well, this tendency towards Exactness and Precision which stimulates the refinement
of a perception in order to construct an Abstraction that we can trust; and it is this Exactness and Precision
which makes it possible for the mind to work mathematically.

I would like to return now briefly to the Human Tendency for Self-preservation. In the light of all of these
other Tendencies which motivate and guide human behavior, and remembering the hierarchy within this
Tendency, we can see that the concept of “preservation” takes on a special meaning for human life. It is not
simply preservation in the sense of keeping what one has stable – the way, for example, that the process of
making jam preserves fruit from decomposition. The Montessori perspective is that human beings have
innate, natural, and life-long tendencies to orient, explore, create order, to communicate, abstract, imagine,
to strive for perfection according to expanding standards of exactness, and to act /work purposefully to
accomplish all of this. If this is so – then it follows that to preserve a human life must include the continual,
life long development of that human life. Self-development: the motivation – some would say the right – to
Self-development is integral to human Self-preservation.

13
Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings, 1950, p. 69: “In its simplest form, the feedback principle means the
behavior is scanned for its result, and that the success or failure of this result modifies future behavior.” (Norbert
Wiener originated the terms “cybernetics” and “feedback”.)

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 The Human Tendencies

Conclusion
There are a few more points that I just want to make without elaboration right now. Just so that you can
hear them and begin to process them:
The first is a point made by Mario Montessori (p. 18): these Tendencies can either be assisted or thwarted
as they motivate an individual’s behavior. This carries important implications for child rearing, education
at every stage of development, and for the organization of social life.
The second point flows from the first (p. 20): knowledge and understanding of these Human Tendencies
forms part of the basis for an education which is designed to assist the optimum development
(preservation) of each individual.
The third point is that the theory of the Human Tendencies is an excellent example of how discoveries made
in Montessori educational environments since the first decade of the twentieth century, continue to be
validated by and do themselves validate, independent lines of scientific inquiry. For example, two years
prior to Mario Montessori’s 1956 lecture, Abraham Maslow published the first edition of Motivation And
Personality, followed more than a decade later by the second edition of Toward A Psychology Of Being. In
Maslow, for example, we Montessorians find support, elaboration, and independent verification of the
presence and functioning of these intrinsic human motivations. And in turn, through Montessori practice
the student of Maslow can find experiential verification of Maslow’s psychological intuitions.14
In an address entitled “Dr. Maria Montessori - A Contemporary Educator?” Margaret Stephenson cites the
Human Tendencies as “One of Dr. Montessori’s great contributions to the subject of child study ……”. She
summarizes them in this way:
They are the characteristics, the propensities, which allowed the human being, from his first
inception on earth, to become aware of his environment, to learn and understand it. 15
So far all I have done is to introduce you to the Montessori vocabulary of the Human Tendencies. We will
return to each item on this list again and again throughout the course: relating these life-long tendencies to
child development; to our work as Montessori educators; and to a vision of optimal human social
organization. Throughout the rest of this course, you will become very familiar with them, have many
opportunities to ponder them. If you are feeling somewhat incredulous – then remember you are in good
company; remember Montessori herself waiting “…… for the next time” to believe. Remember also that
this “theory” of the Human Tendencies represents ideas based in observation – evolving out of the
observed phenomena , out of the great experiment of Montessori education. For further proof, I refer you
to your own future participation in recreating that experiment.16
I also urge you to look within yourselves. As human beings, these are the motivations which have inspired
your own choices. Whether you have known these Tendencies as a theory or not, you nevertheless
experience the power of their motivation all the time. These are also the motivations which have at times

14
For an example of this convergence, see “Some Basic Propositions of a Growth and Self-Actualization Psychology”,
nd
in Abraham Maslow, Toward A Psychology Of Being, 2 Edition, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, p. 189, which
opens with: “When the philosophy of man (his nature, his goals, his potentialities, his fulfillment) changes, then
everything changes, not only the philosophy of politics, of economics, of ethics and values, of interpersonal relations
and of history itself, but also the philosophy of education, of psychotherapy and of personal growth, the theory of
how to help men become what they can and deeply need to become.”
15
Margaret Stephenson’s Little Sage Green Book, AMI/USA, 1996, p. 10
16
For the term, “Re-creating the Experiment”, see Eduardo Cuevas, “A Montessori Journey of Self”, NAMTA JOURNAL
Vol. 22 #2, Spring 1997, p. 98

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 The Human Tendencies

been supported in your own life or thwarted: you will recognize them in both of these ways. And whether
or not – right now – you ‘believe’ in the existence of innate, universal, life-long Human Tendencies, you will
continue to act according to their motivations – during this course, for example:

Right now, you have each chosen – out of some interest of your own – to accomplish a great and
challenging task over the next months: a great Activity, a great Work. What is motivating you in this? What
will guide your behaviors in accomplishing this task? Well, some of your motivations come from your own
goals of Self-preservation and Self-development: the need to have meaningful work which engages your
whole self and which will support your physical existence in a way that is compatible with your intellectual
and spiritual values.
To accomplish this task requires some basic Orientation – an introduction to the logistics and expectations
of the course, for example; to the history of Montessori education; and to some of the theoretical
constructs and vocabulary of this education. As you become sufficiently oriented, Exploration will become
possible: you will begin to explore, to investigate and examine, to question and probe; to explore not only
ideas, but also the practical application of these ideas – the materials, the techniques, the properties and
activities specific to this work. In all of this you will accumulate knowledge and experience – and you will
naturally want to make sense of all of it, to put it into Order: topics, materials, the Prepared Environment,
your future role, your present assignments … each of you will have your own way of organizing your work
both to fulfill the course expectations and to bring greater understanding out of your explorations. And as
this unfolds, you will be driven to Communicate: to participate in this great, exciting, interactive passage of
information, interacting with the tradition of Montessori teacher education and interacting with the
materials, resources, and people around you here.
Out of all this interaction, new concepts will form as Abstractions in your minds – you will distill essences
out of these experiences, create images held solely in your mind: images related to human development,
related to why and how we can assist that development as Montessori Teachers in a Montessori Prepared
Environment. And out of all this Activity, your present and future work, you will build upon these
abstractions in your Imagination: to imagine some specific application, some new insight, some new
adaptation for an individual child, for a group of children in your care, or perhaps, for the human condition
itself.
You have chosen a challenging task. It will challenge you physically, mentally, and spiritually. Each of you
will find some aspects which are difficult for you, that will not come easily. You must work at it. There is so
much to learn – all of the materials and how to use them; the techniques of offering them to a child; writing
and illustrating your own reference books. You will need to and want to focus all of your attention to master
all of this; it will require Concentration, and Repetition: practicing over and over a movement, or a
pedagogical technique, re-writing a text, reviewing information – drawn always to a greater Exactness and
Precision of control, of accomplishment, and of understanding; until you reach a level of Perfection
sufficient for you to begin to apply all of this new knowledge with children. And throughout you will need
to be the active agent. You will not achieve this work passively, no one can ‘teach’ it to you or put it into
your mind. But what you will have is the opportunity to learn, to grow and develop through your own
purposeful, self-directed, and self-motivated Activity.

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 The Human Tendencies

Bibliography

Montessori Sources:
Baker, Kay. “The Mathematical Intelligence Seen through the Lens of the Montessori Theory of the Human
Tendencies” NAMTA Journal, Vol.21 #2, Spring 1996, pp.99-107
Cuevas, Eduardo. “A Montessori Journey of Self”, NAMTA Journal, Vol. 22, #2, Spring 1997, pp.98-102
Kripilani, L. “Human Tendencies”, AMI Communications 1988, #1, pp.8-16
Montessori, Maria. The Absorbent Mind Dell: 1967 pp. 136; 145
Montessori, Mario M. “The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education”, 2nd Edition, AMI (1956)
Montessori, Mario M. Jr. Education for Human Development: Understanding Montessori, NY: Schocken,
1976
Stephenson, Margaret. “Montessori: An Unfolding - The Child From 3-6” AMI 1971
……….. “Dr. Montessori - A Contemporary Educator”, Margaret Stephenson’s Little Sage Green Book, AMI
1996

For Definitions and Etymologies:

The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, 2nd Ed., Unabridged, 1987

Non-Montessori Sources:
Bickerton, Derek. Language and Species Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990
………………… Language and Human Behavior Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. NY: Harper Collins/ Harper
Perennial, 1991
………… The Evolving Self: A Psychology For The Third Millenium. New York: Harper Collins, 1993
Lillard, Angeline. Montessori: The Science Behind the Genius Oxford University Press: 2005
Kauffman, Stuart. At Home In The Universe: the Search for Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity. NY:
Oxford
University Press, 1995
Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and Personality, 2nd Edition. NY: Harper & Row, 1970
……………… Toward a Psychology of Being, 2nd Edition. NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1968
Wiener, Norbert. The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1950
Wright, Robert. Non-Zero: The Logic of Human Destiny. New York: Vintage Books, 2000

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 The Human Tendencies

Human Tendencies – Additional Quotations

One of Dr. Montessori’s great contributions to the subject of child study was that of the human tendencies.
… The human tendencies are innate in man. They are the characteristics, the propensities, which allowed
the human being, from his first inception on earth, to become aware of his environment, to learn and
understand it. … Each child, as he is born, enters, as did the very first human being, an environment created
for him but unknown to him. If he was to live his life securely within it, he had to have a way of making a
knowledge of it. This way was through the human tendencies.
Margaret Stephenson “Maria Montessori – A Contemporary Educator?” pp. 10-11

When confronted by situations which concern the child and seem difficult to solve, do not seek outside
remedies but concentrate upon the nature of the child and the essential needs of his development.
“The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education” Mario Montessori (1956), p. 2

Man depends upon man and dedicates himself completely to activities which are useful to others. …This
cooperation among men should represent the normal standard of life, the rule, not the exception, and
should make it possible to take part in the universality of good
Maria Montessori “Human Solidarity in Time and Space” (San Remo 1949) p. 24, 26

Interdependence expands and social complexity grows in scope and depth… Interdependence has a way of
breeding respect, or at least tolerance … Robert Wright Non-Zero: The Logic of Human Destiny p. 19; 207

Our very existence and well being are a result of the cooperation and contributions of countless others …
Today, in our modern global economy, national boundaries are irrelevant. Not only do countries depend
upon one another but so do continents. We are heavily interdependent. The Dalai Lama An Open Heart p. 9

Endless research speculates about the exercise of war, but little is concerned with the maintenance of
peace. We study different forms of greed … but rarely the harmonization of human needs”
Paul Hawken Blessed Unrest p. 18

Adaptation means the fulfillment of the conditions necessary for life and happiness.
Maria Montessori “The Meaning of Adaptation” Communications 1990 #4 p. 4

I believe that the very purpose of our life is to seek happiness… the very motions of our life is towards
happiness
The Dalai Lama The Art of Happiness p. 13

Some ‘Allies’ for the Topic of Human Tendencies

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience.

The Evolving Self: A Psychology For The Third Millennium
Paul Hawken Blessed Unrest: How the Largest Social Movement in History is Restoring Grace,
Justice, and Beauty to the World
Abraham Maslow Motivation and Personality;Toward a Psychology of Being,

Norbert Wiener The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society

©Ginni Sackett – Montessori Institute Northwest 13

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