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 x(t) FIGURE 11–9 Sinusoidal nature of SHM,
A position as a function of time. In this case,
x = A sin(2pt兾T) because at t = 0 the
0 t mass is at the equilibrium position x = 0
1 1 3 3
4 T 2T 4T T 2T
and has (or is given) an initial speed at
−A t = 0 that carries it to x = A at t = 14 T.

For example, if at t = 0 the object is at the equilibrium position and the oscilla-
tions are begun by giving the object a push to the right (±x), the equation would be
x = A sin vt = A sin(2pt兾T).

Displacement x
A
This curve, shown in Fig. 11–9, has the same shape as the cosine curve shown in
Fig. 11–8, except it is shifted to the right by a quarter cycle. Hence at t = 0 it 0 t
starts out at x = 0 instead of at x = A.
1 1 3 3
4T 2T 4T
T 2T
Both sine and cosine curves are referred to as being sinusoidal (having the −A
shape of a sine function). Thus simple harmonic motion† is said to be sinusoidal (a)
because the position varies as a sinusoidal function of time.
vmax
* Velocity and Acceleration as Functions of Time

Velocity v
Figure 11–10a, like Fig. 11–8, shows a graph of displacement x vs. time t, as 0 t
1 1 3 3
given by Eqs. 11–8. We can also find the velocity v as a function of time from 4T 2T 4T T 2T
Fig. 11–7a. For the position shown (red dot in Fig. 11–7a), the magnitude of v −vmax
is vmax sin u, but v points to the left, so v = –vmax sin u. Again setting
B
(b)
u = vt = 2pft = 2pt兾T, we have

Acceleration a
v = –vmax sin vt = –vmax sin(2pft) = –vmax sin(2pt兾T). (11;9) amax
3
4T
Just after t = 0, the velocity is negative (points to the left) and remains so until 0 t
1 1 3
t = 12 T (corresponding to u = 180° = p radians). After t = 12 T until t = T the 4T 2T
T 2T
− amax
velocity is positive. The velocity as a function of time (Eq. 11–9) is plotted in
Fig. 11–10b. From Eqs. 11–6b and 11–7, (c)
k. FIGURE 11–10 Graphs showing
vmax = 2pAf = A (a) displacement x as a function of
Bm time t: x = A cos(2pt兾T);
For a given spring–mass system, the maximum speed vmax is higher if the ampli- (b) velocity as a function of time:
tude is larger, and always occurs as the mass passes the equilibrium point. v = –vmax sin(2pt兾T), where
Newton’s second law and Eqs. 11–8 give us the acceleration as a function of time: vmax = A1k兾m; (c) acceleration
as a function of time:
F –kx kA a = –amax cos(2pt兾T), where
a = = = –a b cos vt = –amax cos(2pt兾T) (11;10)
m m m amax = Ak兾m.
where the maximum acceleration is
amax = kA兾m.
FIGURE 11–11 Strobe-light photo
Equation 11–10 is plotted in Fig. 11–10c. Because the acceleration of a SHO is not of an oscillating pendulum, at
constant, the equations for uniformly accelerated motion do not apply to SHM. equal time intervals.

11–4 The Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a small object (the pendulum bob) suspended
from the end of a lightweight cord, Fig. 11–11. We assume that the cord does not
stretch and that its mass can be ignored relative to that of the bob. The motion of
a simple pendulum moving back and forth with negligible friction resembles sim-
ple harmonic motion: the pendulum bob oscillates along the arc of a circle with
equal amplitude on either side of its equilibrium point, and as it passes through
the equilibrium point (where it would hang vertically) it has its maximum speed.
But is it really undergoing SHM? That is, is the restoring force proportional to its
displacement? Let us find out.
†
Simple harmonic motion can be defined as motion that is sinusoidal. This definition is fully consistent
with our earlier definition in Section 11–1.

SECTION 11–4 The Simple Pendulum 301

 The displacement s of the pendulum along the arc is given by s = lu, l where
u is the angle (in radians) that the cord makes with the vertical and l is the length
of the cord (Fig. 11–12). If the restoring force is proportional to s or to u, the
θ motion will be simple harmonic. The restoring force is the net force on the bob,
l
which equals the component of the weight (mg) tangent to the arc:
B
F = – mg sin u,
–mg
FT
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. The minus sign here, as in Eq. 11–1,
l sin θ m means the force is in the direction opposite to the angular displacement u. Since
s F is proportional to the sine of u and not to u itself, the motion is not SHM.
mg sin θ mg cos θ However, if u is small, then sin u is very nearly equal to u when the angle is speci-
B
fied in radians. This can be seen by noting in Fig. 11–12 that the arc length s (= lu)
mg
is nearly the same length as the chord (= l sin u) indicated by the horizontal
FIGURE 11–12 Simple pendulum, straight dashed line, if u is small. For angles less than 15°, the difference between
and a free-body diagram. u (in radians) and sin u is less than 1%—see Table 11–1. Thus, to a very good
approximation for small angles,
TABLE 11–1 F = – mg sin u L –mgu.
–mg – mgu.
Sin U at Small Angles
Substituting s = lu, or u = s兾
兾l, we have
s兾l,
U U %
(degrees) (radians) sin U Difference mg
F L – s.
l
0 0 0 0
1° 0.01745 0.01745 0.005% Thus, for small displacements, the motion can be modeled as being approximately
5° 0.08727 0.08716 0.1% simple harmonic, because this approximate equation fits Hooke’s law, F = –kx, where
10° 0.17453 0.17365 0.5% in place of x we have arc length s. The effective force constant is k = mg兾l. If we
15° 0.26180 0.25882 1.1%
substitute k = mg兾l into Eq. 11–6a, we obtain the period of a simple pendulum:
20° 0.34907 0.34202 2.0% m m
T = 2p = 2p
30° 0.52360 0.50000 4.5% Ak A mg兾l
or
l.
FIGURE 11–13 The swinging motion T = 2p [u small] (11;11a)
Bg
of this elaborate lamp, hanging by a
very long cord from the ceiling of the The frequency is f = 1兾T, so
cathedral at Pisa, is said to have
1 g.
been observed by Galileo and to f = [u small] (11;11b)
have inspired him to the conclusion 2p A l
that the period of a pendulum does The mass m of the pendulum bob does not appear in these formulas for T and f.
not depend on amplitude.
Thus we have the surprising result that the period and frequency of a simple pen-
dulum do not depend on the mass of the pendulum bob. You may have noticed
this if you pushed a small child and then a large one on the same swing.
We also see from Eq. 11–11a that the period of a pendulum does not depend
on the amplitude (like any SHM, Section 11–3), as long as the amplitude u is small.
Galileo is said to have first noted this fact while watching a swinging lamp in the
cathedral at Pisa (Fig. 11–13). This discovery led to the invention of the pendulum
clock, the first really precise timepiece, which became the standard for centuries.
EXERCISE E Return to Chapter-Opening Question 1, page 292, and answer it again
now. Try to explain why you may have answered differently the first time.
EXERCISE F If a simple pendulum is taken from sea level to the top of a high moun-
tain and started at the same angle of 5°, it would oscillate at the top of the mountain
(a) slightly slower; (b) slightly faster; (c) at exactly the same frequency; (d) not at all—it
would stop; (e) none of these.
Because a pendulum does not undergo precisely SHM, the period does depend
slightly on the amplitude—the more so for large amplitudes. The accuracy of a
pendulum clock would be affected, after many swings, by the decrease in amplitude
due to friction. But the mainspring in a pendulum clock (or the falling weight in a
PHYSICS APPLIED
grandfather clock) supplies energy to compensate for the friction and to maintain
Pendulum clock
the amplitude constant, so that the timing remains precise.

302 CHAPTER 11 Oscillations and Waves

 PA R T 2

16-4 WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY 415

soidal shape like the wave in Fig. 16-1b can be described with h being either a sine Amplitude
Oscillating
or cosine function; both give the same general shape for the wave. In this chapter Displacement term
we use the sine function.
Phase
Imagine a sinusoidal wave like that of Fig. 16-1b traveling in the positive
y(x,t) = ym sin (kx – ω t)
direction of an x axis. As the wave sweeps through succeeding elements (that is,
Angular
very short sections) of the string, the elements oscillate parallel to the y axis. At wave number Time
time t, the displacement y of the element located at position x is given by Position Angular
frequency
y(x, t) ⫽ ym sin(kx ⫺ vt). (16-2) Fig. 16-3 The names of the quantities in
Eq. 16-2, for a transverse sinusoidal wave.
Because this equation is written in terms of position x, it can be used to find the
displacements of all the elements of the string as a function of time. Thus, it can
tell us the shape of the wave at any given time and how that shape changes as the
wave moves along the string.
The names of the quantities in Eq. 16-2 are displayed in Fig. 16-3 and de-
fined next. Before we discuss them, however, let us examine Fig. 16-4, which
shows five “snapshots” of a sinusoidal wave traveling in the positive direction
of an x axis. The movement of the wave is indicated by the rightward progress
of the short arrow pointing to a high point of the wave. From snapshot to snap-
shot, the short arrow moves to the right with the wave shape, but the string Watch this spot in this
moves only parallel to the y axis. To see that, let us follow the motion of the red- series of snapshots.
dyed string element at x ⫽ 0. In the first snapshot (Fig. 16-4a), this element is at
y
displacement y ⫽ 0. In the next snapshot, it is at its extreme downward dis-
placement because a valley (or extreme low point) of the wave is passing ym x1
through it. It then moves back up through y ⫽ 0. In the fourth snapshot, it is at x

its extreme upward displacement because a peak (or extreme high point) of the
wave is passing through it. In the fifth snapshot, it is again at y ⫽ 0, having com- λ
(a)
pleted one full oscillation.
y

Amplitude and Phase x

The amplitude ym of a wave, such as that in Fig. 16-4 , is the magnitude of the
maximum displacement of the elements from their equilibrium positions as the (b)
wave passes through them. (The subscript m stands for maximum.) Because ym is y
a magnitude, it is always a positive quantity, even if it is measured downward
instead of upward as drawn in Fig. 16-4a.
x
The phase of the wave is the argument kx ⫺ vt of the sine in Eq. 16-2. As the
wave sweeps through a string element at a particular position x, the phase
changes linearly with time t. This means that the sine also changes, oscillating (c)
between ⫹1 and ⫺1. Its extreme positive value (⫹1) corresponds to a peak of the y
wave moving through the element; at that instant the value of y at position x is ym.
Its extreme negative value (⫺1) corresponds to a valley of the wave moving x
through the element; at that instant the value of y at position x is ⫺ym. Thus, the
sine function and the time-dependent phase of a wave correspond to the oscilla- (d)
tion of a string element, and the amplitude of the wave determines the extremes
y
of the element’s displacement.

x
Wavelength and Angular Wave Number
(e)
The wavelength l of a wave is the distance (parallel to the direction of the wave’s
travel) between repetitions of the shape of the wave (or wave shape). A typical Fig. 16-4 Five “snapshots” of a string
wavelength is marked in Fig. 16-4a, which is a snapshot of the wave at time t ⫽ 0. wave traveling in the positive direction of
At that time, Eq. 16-2 gives, for the description of the wave shape, an x axis. The amplitude ym is indicated. A
typical wavelength l, measured from an ar-
y(x, 0) ⫽ ym sin kx. (16-3) bitrary position x1, is also indicated.
416 CHAPTER 16 WAVES —I

By definition, the displacement y is the same at both ends of this wave-

This is a graph,
length — that is, at x ⫽ x1 and x ⫽ x1 ⫹ l. Thus, by Eq. 16-3,
not a snapshot.
y
ym sin kx1 ⫽ ym sin k(x
k((x1 ⫹ l)
ym
t1
t ⫽ ym sin(
(kx1 ⫹ kl).
sin(kx (16-4)
A sine function begins to repeat itself when its angle (or argument) is increased
T by 2p rad, so in Eq. 16-4 we must have kl ⫽ 2p, or
Fig. 16-5 A graph of the displacement
of the string element at x ⫽ 0 as a function
2␲
k⫽ (angular wave number). (16-5)
of time, as the sinusoidal wave of Fig. 16-4 ␭
passes through the element. The amplitude
ym is indicated. A typical period T, mea- We call k the angular wave number of the wave; its SI unit is the radian per meter,
sured from an arbitrary time t1, is also or the inverse meter. (Note that the symbol k here does not represent a spring
indicated. constant as previously.)
Notice that the wave in Fig. 16-4 moves to the right by 14 l from one snapshot
to the next. Thus, by the fifth snapshot, it has moved to the right by 1l.

Period, Angular Frequency, and Frequency

Figure 16-5 shows a graph of the displacement y of Eq. 16-2 versus time t at a
certain position along the string, taken to be x ⫽ 0. If you were to monitor the
string, you would see that the single element of the string at that position moves
up and down in simple harmonic motion given by Eq. 16-2 with x ⫽ 0:
y(0, t) ⫽ ym sin(⫺vt)
⫽ ⫺ym sin vt (x ⫽ 0). (16-6)
Here we have made use of the fact that sin(⫺a) ⫽ ⫺sin a, where a is any angle.
Figure 16-5 is a graph of this equation, with displacement plotted versus time; it
does not show the shape of the wave.
We define the period of oscillation T of a wave to be the time any string
element takes to move through one full oscillation. A typical period is marked on
the graph of Fig. 16-5. Applying Eq. 16-6 to both ends of this time interval and
equating the results yield
⫺ym sin vt1 ⫽ ⫺ym sin v(t1 ⫹ T )
⫽ ⫺ym sin(vt1 ⫹ vT ). (16-7)
This can be true only if vT ⫽ 2p, or if

2␲
␻⫽ (angular frequency). (16-8)
T

We call v the angular frequency of the wave; its SI unit is the radian per second.
Look back at the five snapshots of a traveling wave in Fig. 16-4. The time
between snapshots is 14 T. Thus, by the fifth snapshot, every string element has
made one full oscillation.
The frequency f of a wave is defined as 1/T and is related to the angular
frequency v by

1 ␻
f⫽ ⫽ (frequency). (16-9)
T 2␲
Like the frequency of simple harmonic motion in Chapter 15, this frequency f is a
number of oscillations per unit time — here, the number made by a string element
as the wave moves through it. As in Chapter 15, f is usually measured in hertz or
its multiples, such as kilohertz.
 DIKTAT KULIAH
FISIKA DASAR 1

DISUSUN OLEH
RIANI LUBIS

JURUSAN TEKNIK INFORMATIKA

FAKULTAS TEKNIK & ILMU KOMPUTER
UNIKOM - 2008
4.2.1 Gaya Gravitasi

Benda-benda yang dijatuhkan di dekat permukaan bumi akan jatuh dengan percepatan
, m/s2 = 9,8
yang sama yaitu sebesar percepatan gravitasi (g = 9,8 , N/kgg dalam satuan SI),
),
jjika hambatan udara dapatp diabaikan. Gaya
y yyangg menyebabkan
y ppercepatan
p ini disebut
dengan
g ggaya
y ggravitasi ((FG)). Maka dapat
p dikatakan bahwa ggaya
y ggravitasi merupakan gaya
yang dilakukan oleh bumi terhadap setiap benda yang berada di dekatnya.

Hukum gravitasi menyatakan bahwa gaya antara dua partikel yang mempunyai massa m1
dan m2 dan terpisah oleh jarak r adalah suatu gaya tarik menarik sepanjang garis yang
menghubungkan kedua partikel tersebut dan mempunyai besar :

m1 m2
FG G (1)
r2

Dimana : FG = Gaya tarik-menarik antara kedua benda (N)

G = Tetapan gravitasi (6,673 x 10-11 Nm2/kg-2)
m1, m2 = Massa benda 1 (Kg)
r = jarak antara kedua benda (m)

Jika m1 diasumsikan sebagai massa bumi

(M) dan m2 sebagai massa benda m yang
berada disekitar bumi dan memiliki jarak r
dari titik pusat bumi, maka gaya tarik oleh
bumi pada benda tersebut adalah :
Mm
W F G 2
r
Gaya berat (W) tidak lain adalah gaya
gravitasi yang bekerja antara bumi dengan
benda.. Arah gaya berat selalu ke bawah Gambar 2. Gaya Gravitasi
menuju pusat bumi (Gambar 2). Gaya berat
pada sebuah benda besarnya :

W = mg (2)

Sehingga percepatan gravitasi g dapat dituliskan sebagai :

M
g G (3)
r2

Contoh 1 :

Berapakah gaya gravitasi antara dua benda bermassa 3 kg dan 4 kg yang terpisah sejauh 50
cm.

36





 


 

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 Periode adalah selang waktu yang diperlukan untuk menempuh satu gelombang.
Periode dinotasikan dengan huruf “T“ dan satuannya adalah detik. Yang disebut
dengan gelombang sempurna pada gelombang tranversal adalah gerakan gelombang
dari kedudukan seimbang ke puncak gelombang kemudian kembali ke kedudukan
seimbang lalu ke lembah gelombang sampai kembali ke kedudukan seimbang.
 Dalam ilmu Fisika, Pengertian Frekuensi adalah jumlah getaran yang dihasilkan
dalam setiap 1 detik. Sedangkan dalam ilmu elektronika, Frekuensi dapat diartikan
sebagai jumlah gelombang listrik yang dihasilkan tiap detik. Frekuensi biasanya
dilambangkan dengan huruf “f” dengan satuannya adalah Hertz atau disingkat
dengan Hz. Jadi pada dasarnya 1 Hertz adalah sama dengan satu getaran atau satu
gelombang listrik dalam satu detik (1 Hertz = 1 gelombang per detik). Istilah Hertz
ini diambil dari nama seorang fisikawan Jerman yaitu Heinrich Rudolf Hertz yang
memiliki kontribusi dalam bidang elektromagnetisme.
4
†
‡


 
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