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Lecture 4 - Topics
• Gravitational potentials
• Compactification
• Large extra dimensions
Gravitation
Newtonian Gravity
Fm = −(GM m/r2 ) · r̂
When working in regime with high velocities or strong gravity fields, instead
work with:
Einstein’s Gravity
When working in a regime with small distances or extremely strong gravity
fields, instead work with:
String Theory
GR
−ds2 = ηµν dxµ dxν ⇒ −ds2
= gµν (x)dxµ dxν
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Lecture 4 8.251 Spring 2007
Planckian Units
3 Fundamental Constants:
m3
G = 6.67 × 10−11
kg · s2
m
c = 3 × 108
s
kg · m2
¯ = 1.06 × 10−34
h
s
Suppose want fundamental length, mass, and time: lp , mp , and tp
lp3
G=1·
mp t2p
lp
c=1·
tp
mp lp2
¯ =1·
h
tp
�
Gh̄
lp = ≈ 1.6 × 10−33 cm
c3
�
h̄c
mp = ≈ 2.17 × 10−5 g
G
�
lp
tp = ≈ 5.4 × 10−44 s
c
Note: lp small, tp extremely small, mp fairly large.
2
Lecture 4 8.251 Spring 2007
Cosmological Constant
g
Energy density (mass density) ≈ 0.7 × 10−29 cm 3
Note critical mass density of universe (to make it flat) is ≈ 10−29 g/cm3
g
In Planckian units, mp /lp3 = 5.3 × 1093 cm 3
E & M:
F = qE�
�·E � =ρ
E = −�Φ
�2 Φ = −ρ
Gravity:
F� = m�g
�g = −�Vg
�g : gravitational field
� = (energy/charge)
In 4D:
Q
Φ=
4πr
Vg(4) = −GM/r
�2 Vg(4) = 4πGρm
(D)
In D-dim: �2 Vg = 4πG(D) ρm (Note: D = number of space-time dimensions,
3
Lecture 4 8.251 Spring 2007
� · �g = −4πGρm
M M
[G(5) ] 4
= [G] 3 ⇒ [G(5) ] = L · [G]
L L
�
Gh̄ lp2 c3 2c
3
(5)
3
3 [c ]
lp = ⇒ G = ⇒ [G] = L ⇒ [G ] = L
c3 h̄ h̄ [h̄]
G(5) = (lp(5) )3 c3 /h̄
(5)
G(5) (lp )3
=
G (lp )2
In general:
(D)
G(D) (lp )D−2
=
G (lp )2
�2 Vg(5) = 4πG(5) ρm
(5)
ρ(5) 1 2 3
m = m · δ(x )δ(x )δ(x )
(5)
ρm above has correct units, but correct value? Check by integrating over
volume:
� � 2πR
dx1 dxx dx3 dx4 ρm = M
0
For a 4D observer:
ρ(4) 1 2 3 (5)
m = M δ(x )δ(x )δ(x ) = 2πρm
4
Lecture 4 8.251 Spring 2007
G(5) (4)
� �
�2x1 ,x2 ,x3 Vg (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 4π ρ
2πR m
G = G(5) /2πR
So the extra length is 2πR =length of compact dimension lc
G(D)
= (lc )D−4 = volume of compact space
G
Experimental Implications
With current particle accelerators, have explored l ≈ 10−16 cm.
Since E = h̄c/l, an l of ≈ 10−18 cm correlates to E = 20TeV.
(D)
Say lp = 10−18 cm (lp = 10−33 cm) for an acc. that could detect
Find lc :
(D)
G(D) (lp )D−2
= = (lc )D−4
G lp2
Take D = 5:
Take D = 6:
But people don’t talk in 10−3 cm. They talk in microns. 1 µm = 10−6 cm =
10−3 mm
5
Lecture 4 8.251 Spring 2007
String theory says we live in a D-brane. We and photons and electrons and all
particles are open string attached to the D-brane. Can’t see out.
5 years ago, asked experimenters how far had tested gravity. Answer: ≈ cm.