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Procedia CIRP 00 (2019) 000–000
Procedia CIRP 00 (2019) 000–000
ScienceDirect
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Procedia CIRP 00 (2017)

Procedia 000–000
CIRP 84 (2019) 442–446
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29th CIRP Design 2019 (CIRP Design 2019)

29th CIRP Design 2019 (CIRP Design 2019)
An
An Asymmetry
Asymmetry Analysis
Analysis
28th CIRP
Method
Method May
Design Conference,
to
to Support
Support Value
Value
2018, Nantes,
Co-creation
Co-creation
France
in Product/Service
in Product/Service
A new methodology to analyze the functional Design
and physical architecture of
Design
existing products for anShunichiro
assembly Abeoriented
a*, Yusuke product
Tsutsuia, family identification
Shunichiro Abea*, Yusuke Tsutsuia,
Yuya Mitakeaa, Mar’atus Sholihahaa, Noriyoshi Harabb, Yoshiki Shimomuraaa
Yuya Mitake , Mar’atus
Paul Stief Sholihah
*, Jean-Yves , Noriyoshi
Dantan, Alain Hara , Yoshiki
Etienne, Shimomura
Ali Siadat
a
Department of System Design, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 6-6, Asahigaoka, Hino-shi, Tokyo 191-0065, Japan
a
bDepartment of System Design, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 6-6, Asahigaoka, Hino-shi, Tokyo 191-0065, Japan
Engineering
École Nationale
b
& Design
Supérieure Division,
d’Arts et Métiers,Toshiba Tec Corporation,
Arts et Métiers ParisTech,570,
LCFCOhito,
EA Izunokuni-shi, Shizuoka
4495, 4 Rue Augustin 410-2392,
Fresnel, MetzJapan
57078, France
Engineering & Design Division, Toshiba Tec Corporation, 570, Ohito, Izunokuni-shi, Shizuoka 410-2392, Japan

**Corresponding
Correspondingauthor.
author.Tel.:
Tel.:+33
+81-042-585-8600. E-mailaddress:
3 87 37 54 30; E-mail address:paul.stief@ensam.eu
abe-shunichiro@ed.tmu.ac.jp
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +81-042-585-8600. E-mail address: abe-shunichiro@ed.tmu.ac.jp

Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
InProduct
today’scommoditisation
Product
and price
business environment,
commoditisation and thecompetition
trend towards have increased
more productthe necessity
variety for value co-creation,
and customization whichDue
is unbroken. is when
to thisstakeholders
development, whose valueof
the need is
unclear
agile and clarify their value
reconfigurable of aprice
production
competition
product/service
systems
have
though
emerged
increased
to cope
the
interaction.
with
necessity
various
for value co-creation,
In valueproducts
co-creation,
and stakeholders
product
which is when
perceive
families. To
stakeholders
value
design through
and
whose
finding
optimize
valuethe
both
production
is
unclear clarify
purpose and thetheir
usage value
of a of a product/service
product/service based though interaction.
on recognition of In
thatvalue co-creation, Therefore,
product/service. stakeholders to perceive valueco-creation,
realise value through finding both the
it is important
systems
purpose as
andwell
theasusage
to choose the optimal product matches, product that
analysis methods are needed. Indeed, most of the known methods aim to
that a stakeholder graspsofother
a product/service
stakeholders’based on recognition
cognitive informationofabout aproduct/service.
product/serviceTherefore,
and clarifiesto the
realise
value value co-creation,
of the it is important
product/service based on
analyze
that a a product or
stakeholder one product
grasps other family on thecognitive
stakeholders’ physicalinformation
level. Differentaboutproduct
a families, however,
product/service and may differ
clarifies the largely
value of in product/service
the terms of the number based and
on
that information. However, latent and diverse cognitive information can create information asymmetry between stakeholders, which hinders the
nature
that of components.
information. This
However, fact
latent impedes
and an
diverse efficient
cognitive comparison
information and
can choice
create of appropriate
information product
asymmetry family
between combinations
success of value co-creation. Against this background, this study aims to support value co-creation in product/service design. This paper proposesstakeholders, for the
which production
hinders the
system.
asuccess
methodAofnew
value
for methodology
co-creation.
grasping isAgainst
proposed
the asymmetry ofto
this theanalyze
background, existing
cognitive this products
study
information aims in view
to support
about of value
their functional
co-creation
a product/service and
between physical architecture.
in product/service
stakeholders bydesign. The
Thisaim
describing iscomparing
paper
and to cluster
proposes
these
that products
a method
information.in new
for grasping assembly
In addition, byoriented
the asymmetry applyingofproduct
the familiesinformation
the cognitive
proposed for the optimization
method to a about of existing
service,assembly
a product/service
point-of-sale it betweenlines
confirms andthetheproposed
stakeholders
that creation of futurecan
by describing
method reconfigurable
and comparing
describe the
that information.
assembly
cognitive systems. In
information addition,
Based by applying
on Datum
of stakeholders Flow the proposed
Chain,
to allow method
the physical
a better to a point-of-sale
structure
understanding ofofthe service,
theasymmetry
products it is
isthat confirms
analyzed. that the proposed
Functional
present in value method
subassemblies
co-creation. arecan describeand
identified, the
acognitive
functional information
analysis isofperformed.
stakeholders to allow a better
Moreover, hybridunderstanding
functional andofphysical
the asymmetry that isgraph
architecture present in value co-creation.
(HyFPAG) is the output which depicts the
similarity
© between product families by providing design support to both, production system planners and product designers. An illustrative
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proposed methodology. An industrial case study on two product families of steering columns of
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Keywords: Assembly; Design method; Family identification

1. Introduction process has also been changing from the ‘value chain’, which
1. Introduction process has also
sequentially valuechanging
addsbeen from the
at each stage until‘value chain’,
reaching endwhich
users
Manufacturing industries have recently struggled with both sequentially
[3], to the ‘value constellation’ [4] and the ‘value network’users
adds value at each stage until reaching end [5],
1. Introduction
Manufacturing industries of the
to product
the ‘value range and characteristics
constellation’ themanufactured
[4] and contribute
‘value network’ and/or
[5],
product commoditisation andhave recently
strained pricestruggled
competition.with both
The [3],
where different actors simultaneously to the value-
product include
commoditisation assembled in this system. In this context, the main to challenge in
triggers excessive and strained which
production, price competition.
is led by the The rise where
creationdifferent
process.actors simultaneously
To capture this change contribute the value-
in the value-creation
Due include
triggers to the excessive
fast development
production, in the
which is leddomain
by the of
rise modelling
creation and analysis
process. To is now
capture this not only in
change to the
cope with single
value-creation
of emerging economies, and production efficiency, which has process, Li and Pound advocated the perspective of value co-
communication
of emerging and an and ongoing trend efficiency,
of digitization and
has products, a limited product range or theexisting product value
families,
resulted fromeconomies,
digitalisation andproduction
modularisation. As one which
solution process, Li
creation among and providers,
Pound advocated
customers, perspective
end users andofsociety co-．
[2]
digitalization,
resulted from manufacturing
digitalisation andenterprises
modularisation.are facing
As oneimportant
solution but also toamong
creation be able to analyze
providers, and to compare
customers, end products
users and to define
society [2]
to this problem, servitisation has attracted much attention. The Ueda et al. stated that value co-creation clarifies value．
challenges
to this problem,in today’s market
servitisation has environments:
attracted much aattention.
continuing
The newUeda
product et families.
al. statedaIt provider
can be
that observed
value that classical existing
servitisation approach enables manufacturing companies to interactively between andco-creation
a customer clarifies
whose valuevalue is
tendency towards
servitisation reduction
approach of product
enables development
manufacturing times and
companies to product families
interactively are regrouped
between a provider in and
function
a of clients
customer or features.
whose value is
create high added-value by either providing a bundle of unclear [6]. A customer perceives value through finding both
shortened
create product lifecycles.byIn either
addition, there is an increasing of However, assembly oriented productvalue
families are hardly to find.
productshigh and added-value
services or replacing a product providingwith aa service
bundle[1]. unclear
the purpose[6]. Aandcustomer
the usage perceives through
of a product/service finding
basedboth on
demand
products of customization,
and services or being
replacing at a the same
product
The shift from a product to an integrated offering has
time
with a in a global
service [1]. recognition of the product/service. Therefore, to realiseinvalue
theOn the
purpose product
and family
the level,
usage ofproducts
a differ
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The shift
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andover the world. offering
antheintegrated
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Published by Elsevier
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10.1016/j.procir.2019.04.193
 Shunichiro Abe et al. / Procedia CIRP 84 (2019) 442–446
2 Author name / Procedia CIRP 00 (2019) 000–000
However, latent and diverse cognitive information can cause
asymmetry of the information between the provider and the
customer, which then hinders value co-creation.This study
proposes a method to understand the asymmetry of the
cognitive information about a product/service between
stakeholders by describing and comparing that information. By
identifying and understanding the asymmetry of cognitive
information among stakeholders, designer is able to improve
the mechanism of value co-creation.
2. Literature review
2.1. Value creation models
Ueda et al. constructed three types of generic models of
value creation (Fig. 1) [6]. These models, which consist of a
product or service, a producer, a customer, the environment and
the realm of value creation, are classified into three types based
on the form of value creation as follows:
1. Class I: Providing value model–The value for the
customer is clear, and the environment can be determined
in advance. Therefore, the producer provides the value of
the product or service to the customer one-sidedly, such
as with mass production.
2. Class II: Adaptive value model–The value for the
customer is clear, and the environment is indeterminate.
Therefore, the producer provides the customer with the
value of the product or service as it has been adapted to
the environment, such as with mass customisation.
3. Class III: Co-creative value model–The value for the
customer is unclear, and the environment is indeterminate.
Therefore, the producer provides the customer with the
value of the product or service based on cognitive
information, which is obtained through interaction with
the customer, such as with personalisation.
Information Information
P C P C P C
PS PS
Providing
value Adaptation
E E
Providing value
Class Ⅰ model: Class Ⅱ model: Class Ⅲ model:
Providing Adaptive
value model value model
P Producer E Environment
C Customer PS Product or service
Fig 1 Value creation models [6]
In the Class Ⅲ model, the value is unclear, and the
stakeholders’ environment is indeterminate. Therefore, to
create value, producers need to grasp information that
customers recognise (i.e. producers interact with customers and
co-create the value). For example, open source software, such
as Linux, and doctor-patient medical services correspond to the
Class Ⅲ model.
443
2.2. Value co-creation support method
Suginouchi et al. proposed the optimisation method for
production scheduling by using interactions between providers
and customers, and they applied the method to a smart factory
that produces custom-made shoe soles on an optimum schedule
[7]. The method enables efficient production of detailed orders
for multiple customers．
Kaihara et al. proposed the scheme of value co-creation by
using IoT log data [8]. Fig 2 shows that IoT log data about
customers’ actions and use of products can support the
manufacturer in creating new personalised services by
considering customer lifestyles as well as in managing
maintenance and product lifecycles.
・Maintenance
・Mass customisation ・Product variety
management ・Lifecycle Mgt.
・Personalised service
・Product design
Inverse estimation Categorisation of Prediction of
of user categories product functions malfunction
・User/function table ・Error report
・User preference ・Operation rate
・Lifestyle ・Frequency
Behaviour
analysis as life log as device log
Lifestyle surve
of user IoT data
Fig 2 Scheme using IoT log data for various purposes [8]
2.3. The scope of this paper
Participation
As mentioned above, problems surrounding the
manufacturing industry, such as product commoditisation and
PS price competition, have increased the necessity for value co-
creation. Per the value creation models that were proposed by
E Ueda et al [6], to realise value co-creation, it is necessary to
grasp customers’ cognitive information that is related to a
Co-creative value
product/service and their environment. Section 2.2 explained
Co-creative
value model different ways in which value co-creation will soon be realised.
However, the methods described in section 2.2 are confined to
Realm of
value creation introducing customer actions, the use of products and the
environmental information of customers regarding design.
Therefore, a comprehensive analysis method that grasps the
asymmetry of the cognitive information of a product/service
between the provider and the customer to support value co-
creation has not been established.
Based on the above, this research introduces ‘Ba’, which is
the realm of value creation, including providers, customers, the
environment and a product/service. The environment is a
certain space or time (e.g. its location and destination) in which
a product/service is provided. The purpose of this research is to
introduce this concept and assist in understanding the
asymmetry of the cognitive information in value co-creation.
To achieve its aim, this paper firstly proposes a model to
444 Shunichiro Abe et al. / Procedia CIRP 84 (2019) 442–446
Author name / Procedia CIRP 00 (2019) 000–000
describe the information that refers to perspectives of context-
awareness, including Attributes, Derived association and
Dependency, which were proposed by Henricksen [9], and
constructs a method for understanding asymmetry, which
includes a process for comparing the information that is
described in the model.
3. Proposal
3.1. A cognitive information model
In this paper, the mechanism of value co-creation is defined
as the process of clarifying the value interactively by the
provider and the customer, whose value is unclear in Ba [6].
Moreover, applying context-awareness in the informatics
domain to the value co-creation model enables the description
of the information regarding a product/service that the
customer recognizes in value co-creation. We constructed the
cognitive information model shown in Fig 3 by applying
Attributes, Derived association, and Dependency, which were
proposed by Henricksen [9] to value co-creation models
provided by Ueda [6]. Attributes are the provider-or-
customer’s cognitive information for the constituent of Ba;
Derived association is the agent’s cognitive information for the
relationship between the constituents; and Dependency is the
relationship between the Attributes and the Derived association
(Fig 3).
Recognition
Attribute Provider
Attribute
Recognition
Recognition
Product
Service
Constituent of Ba
Recognition
Recognition
Attributes
Including Attribute
Environment
Derived association
Dependency Attribute
Fig 3 Cognitive information model
The construction of this model is shown below.
Constituents of Ba
The constituents of Ba (i.e. the product/service, the provider,
the customers and the environment) are described in double-
squared boxes, which are shown in Fig 3．
Attributes
Grey boxes in Fig 3, which represent Attributes, include the
cognitive information about the constituents of Ba. This
information includes the nature and characteristics of the
constituents, such as height, function, etc. The box of each
Attribute is connected to the constituent with a solid line.
Derived association
Derived association is shown via solid double-headed
arrows that are linked among the constituents of Ba in Fig 3.
The text next to the arrow indicates the cognitive information
of the relationship between them.
Dependency
3
Dependency is represented by the dotted, double-headed
arrow that is drawn from the Attributes to the derived associate
in Fig 3. This arrow indicates cognition of the relationship
between them.
3.2. An asymmetry analysis method
The proposed asymmetry analysis method ensures
understanding of the asymmetry of cognitive information about
a product/service between stakeholders by comparing that
information in Ba, and it grasps the asymmetry among
stakeholders’ regarding the information that is described by
this model. The analysis procedure of this method is shown
below．
STEP 1 Describing a cognitive information model
This step clarifies the constituents of Ba and applies the
result to the model. Thereafter, interviews and questionnaires
under any conditions to the stakeholders collect their cognitive
information and describe the information in the model.
STEP 2 Analyzing information asymmetry
This step grasps the asymmetry of the cognitive information
between stakeholders that was revealed in STEP 1 by
comparing the described cognitive information models of each
stakeholder.
4. Case study
Customer Attribute
4.1. Self-checkout machines (SCM)
Attribute This stage of the study applied a case to verify the
effectiveness of the proposed method. This paper applied the
Recognition proposed method to SCM that were equipped with a point-of-
sale system. SCM were expected to increase the enjoyment of
shopping by offering a novel payment option to the end-user
and solving the problem of a lack of cashiers by automating the
payment. However, the providers failed to obtain accurate
reasons for why customers either did or did not choose to use
the machine. As a result, the machine had attracted few
customers, and many specifically avoided it. Therefore, this
product/service had not realised value co-creation because of
an asymmetry in cognitive information about the machine
between the provider and the customer.
Accordingly, through this case study, the proposed method
was applied for the purpose of grasping the recognised
asymmetry to support the realisation of value co-creation.
4.2. Application result
STEP 1 Describing the cognitive information model centered
in SCM
To better grasp the asymmetry of the cognitive information
in value co-creation of this case study, an interview and a
questionnaire got cognitive information of stakeholders. In this
case, the interview targeted providers and the questionnaire
targeted twenty-two males and females using various checkout
machines in a ‘checkout scene’. The results of the interview
 Shunichiro Abe et al. / Procedia CIRP 84 (2019) 442–446 445
4 Author name / Procedia CIRP 00 (2019) 000–000

and the questionnaire constructed Fig 4 and 5 based on a knowledge to use’. By contrast, the model of the provider had
cognitive information model construction concept. For the attribute of SCM as ‘Mounted LED’ and had the derived
example, since customers recognize that using SCM causes association between customers and SCM as ‘SCM guides
troubles to others over time, this result was described as the customer with mounted LED’. Therefore, the provider
derived association between the customer and SCM (Fig 4). designed SCM that can be used by customers ‘We lack of
knowledge to use’ SCM.
Provider All operations
by a customer ⑴
Customer From the above, it was found that the provider designed
We don’t want to mishandle SCM considering the known behaviours and factors of the
The small number of
⑵
We lack of We make it habit to customer. However, the customer still had the derived
installed SCM knowledge to use line in a short queue
association between the customer and SCM as ‘We don’t want
SCM makes us waste time to mishandle ’ and ‘We lack of knowledge to use’ in Fig 4.
Self-checkout We want an exact checkout Therefore, it was possible to grasp the asymmetry of the
machine (SCM)
Constituent of Ba
We want a short checkout
information and determine that the provider did not offer
Attributes enough information about the function of SCM to the customer,
We want a quick
Including Attributes checkout which created a barrier to value co-creation.
Derived association
Checkout A queue
scene
Dependency at a peak time
5. Discussion
Fig 4 Cognitive information model of the customer
This paper proposed a method for grasping the asymmetry
All operations
of the cognitive information between providers and customers
Provider
by a customer
⑴
Customer in value co-creation by describing the information of a
Customers result in
mishandlings by long
cognitive information model and comparing the described
We provide SCM
operation process information of each stakeholder. Via a case study, it was
⑵ SCM guides customer
with mounted LED
determined that the provider designed SCM by considering the
Mounted Self-checkout
possible behaviour of the customer, and they factored that
The checkout scene is
LED machine (SCM) indispensable to customer behaviour into the design stage. However, both the provider
We design the
checkout scene Clerks can and the customer had asymmetry in their cognitive information
Operation screen for store clerks
troubleshoot easily
about mishandling.
Constituent of Ba SCM status in
checkout scene is
Based on the above, to encourage customers to select the
Attributes checked by store
clerks remotely
SCM in this case, customers must recognize that the provider
Including Attributes
Screen interlocking
designed SCM by considering mishandling from customers.
However, Fig 4 shows that SCM included the attribute ‘The
Derived association
Checkout with attendant PC
Dependency
scene
small number of installed SCM’, and the customer has derived
Fig 5 Cognitive information model of the provider an association between the customer and SCM as ‘We lack of
knowledge to use’. To change the customer’s recognition,
STEP 2 Analysis the information asymmetry between specific efforts to support is effective, including advertising
customers and providers how to use the self-register through mobile applications,
commercials, etc. This effort can be expected to encourage
After comparing the results of the cognitive information selection of SCM by customers who had not previously had
about Attributes in SCM, both the cognitive information model SCM in their stores and who are hesitant to select them for the
of the provider and the customer had the attribute ‘All first time.
operations by a customer’. As a result of describing the derived To realise value co-creation, technology must understand
association between SCM and the customer, the provider’s customers; however, the provider merely introduced customer
recognition was ‘Customers result in mishandlings by long actions and environmental information into the design.
operation process’, and the customer’s recognition was ‘We Because the provider had insufficient information regarding
don’t want to mishandle’ (Fig 4 (1), Fig 5 (1)). Therefore, the their customers, value co-creation had not yet been realised.
provider should design SCM to cope with customers’ The proposed method can help effectively grasp the asymmetry
mishandlings of it. Specifically, in the derived association of the cognitive information in value co-creation between
between SCM and the checkout scene in Fig. 5, the provider stakeholders by comparing that information. By introducing
designed SCM to address problems quickly by monitoring the this method, which can describe the cognitive information of
operation status of its use by the customer. However, the the customer, the product/service can better realise value co-
customer required SCM that cause no errors rather than ones creation.
that are caused by mishandlings because the customer’s Notably, this method merely describes the cognitive
recognition was related to SCM as ‘We don’t want to information that is related to the product/service of the
mishandle’. This clarified the asymmetry of the cognitive stakeholder. In the future, to realise greater value co-creation,
information regarding the design. Similarly, by comparing the it will be necessary to describe the relationships between other
cognitive information about Attributes in SCM in Fig 4 (2) and information, such as any customer actions that are acquired by
Fig 5 (2), it is clear that the customer recognized SCM as ‘The the IoT, to develop and design an improved support method.
small number of installed SCM’ and recognized derived the
association between the customer and SCM as ‘We lack of
446 Shunichiro Abe et al. / Procedia CIRP 84 (2019) 442–446
Author name / Procedia CIRP 00 (2019) 000–000
6. Conclusion
Value co-creation is defined as clarifying value interactively
between a provider and a customer. Value is perceived through
finding both the purpose and the usage of a product/service
based on the recognition of the product/service. However,
information of perceiving value is latent and diverse which
likely to be asymmetry and hinder the value itself. Through this
study, the proposal of Asymmetry Analysis Method is able to
express the asymmetry of information. By identifying and
understanding the asymmetry of cognitive information among
stakeholders, designer is able to improve the mechanism of
value co-creation. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed
method, the proposed method was applied to SCM. The result
determined that the provider and the customer had asymmetry
in their cognitive information about mishandling and the
asymmetry created a barrier to value co-creation. This
application revealed that the proposed method can provide a
better understanding of information asymmetry by describing
the information of the stakeholders and comparing the results.
To realise greater value co-creation, a method that explains
how the described information affects the customer’s actions
will be constructed in future works.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant
Number 16K12667.
5
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