Smallholders Livestock Producers’

in India :
Opportunities and Challenges

Editors
Dr A P Chaudhary
Professor and Head

Dr B N Suthar
Professor and Head

Dr A K Srivastava
Assistant Professor

Dr H D Chauhan
Assistant Professor

i
Citation:
Chaudhary A P; Suthar B N; Srivastava A K and Chauhan H D (2018) Smallholders Livestock
Producers in India: Opportunities and Challenges. Invited papers presented during National
Conference-ISAPM-2018 held at SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar during 11 to 13th April, 2018.

Designed and Edited:

Dr A P Chaudhary
Dr B N Suthar
Dr A K Srivastava
Dr H D Chauhan

First Impression: 2018

© Indian Society of Animal Production and Management (West Zone), Dantiwada,

Gujarat

ISBN: 978-93-85277-50-4

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any

means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
copyright owners / editors.

DISCLAIMER
The authors are solely responsible for the contents of the papers compiled in this volume. The
publishers or Editors do not take any responsibility for the same in any manner. Errors, if any, are
purely unintentional and readers are requested to communicate such errors to the Editors or
Publishers to avoid discrepancies in future.

Published by:
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ii
 Foreword

I am extremely happy to learn that Indian Society of Animal

Production and Management is organizing National Conference
on “Smallholders Livestock Producers in India : Opportunities
and Challenges” during April 11 to 13, 2018 at
Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat.

The theme of conference truly reflects the concern of small,

marginal and medium livestock keepers in the country, who are
contributing significantly to make India, highest milk producer
in the world since last decade. The issues relevant to poor
productivity of our livestock population, export of livestock
products, conservation and improvement of different breeds
and production of quality products are some niche areas to be
discussed in the conference and will suggest some policy with
their solutions.

I am sure that publication brought out from these deliberations

in a well designed manner on the occasion of 25th Annual
Vice Chancellor Convention of ISAPM-2018 might prove beneficial for policy
S D Agricultural University
Sardarkrushinagar-385506
planners in the country.
District- Banaskantha, Gujarat
Ph 02748-278222, 444 (O)
Email -vc@sdau,edu.in

I wish the Conference a grand success.

31/03/ 2018 Prof. (Dr.) Ashok A. Patel

Sardarkrushinagar

iii
 Preface

The steady increase in human population as well as in animal

production potentiality, raise the eyebrow of policy planners in the
country. The sparsely of resources during the era of climate change
and globally competitiveness among producers, and preferences of
consumers, force the intellectuals to change the strategies for
qualitative products rather than quantitative. Livestock sector in
India is also facing these challenges, where Indian animal products
are gaining momentum in the international trade, resulted into
increase in demands leads to better opportunities for export of
animal and agriculture produce.

To encase such opportunity, our focus must be small / marginal

livestock keepers, as they are contributing 69% in the milk basket of
the country and getting almost 36% income from livestock sector.
These small /marginal land holders having less than 2.0 hectare of
land and rearing 3 to 5 animals and supporting livelihoods of millions
of rural poor, must be given priority.

Another challenges for us is to double the farmer’s income by 2022-

23, needs a meticulous planning, where dairy sector have growth rate
of 13.78% per annum since last three years, assure us to achieve the
target, where we are making all possible efforts. In this direction,
deliberations of experts during National Conference ISAPM-2018 and
compilation of these lead papers to bring in the form of publication is
a right step.

The concern related to IPR issues, organic farming, export / import

of animals and animal products, animal welfare and ethical issues along
with entrepreneurship development are also being covered in this
publication.

We hope that this publication will prove beneficial to all concern and
financial support received from different organizations to bring this
publication is fully acknowledge.

31/03/ 2018 Editors

Sardarkrushinagar

iv
 Subject Index
Section Title / Author Page
Number
I Conservation and Improvement of Livestock 01 -29

Breeding Strategies for Enhancing Productivity of Indigenous Cattle R S Gandhi

Strategies for Conservation of Small Ruminants Genetic Resources of India
Subhransu Pan
Breeding Programs and Strategies for Genetic Improvement of Buffaloe K P Singh
Sheep Genetic Resources in India: A Sustainable Livelihood Option
A. Kumar, G. R. Gowane, S. S. Misra and R. C. Sharma
II Doubling Farmers’ Income for Rural Livelihood Security 30-52

Strategies to Double the Income of Dairy Farmers in India A J Kachhiapatel

Conservation and Improvement Strategies for Kankrej Cow to Double the Income
of Pastoralist / Maldharies H HPanchasara; B S Rathod; M P Patel and Y M Gami
Strategies for Enhancing Income of Smallholder Livestock Farmers in Western India
S. S. Lathwal, Indu Devi and Kuldeep Dudi
III Animal Welfare Issues and Strategies 53-80

Impact of Animal Welfare Issues on Smallholders Animal Producers for Production

of Quality Animal Products A L. Saini; M. Singla and S. Kaswan
Pastoral Livestock Production System: Conflicts and Opportunities in India
G K Gaur, S A Kochewad, P K Bharti, H O Pandey and Mukesh Singh
Purgi Sheep-An Unexplored Sheep Breed of Kargil
F.A. Baba, H.M. Khan, M. T. Banday, N.A. Bumla and S. Adil
Kashmir Anz : The First Registered Geese Breed of India
Henna Hamadani, Azmat Alam Khan and M. T. Banday
IV Economics and Marketing of Animal Products 81-131

Opportunities to Export of Livestock Products from India

Vinodkumar Vidhyarthi
Scope and Strategies for Augmentation of Meat Production, Processing and Marketing
Avenues to Enhance the Income of Animal Keepers
K Sarjan Reddy, Vijayabhaskar Reddy and C G Varma
Marketing of Livestock and Their Products: Opportunities and Challenges for Marginal
Farmers Harish K. Gulati and Vishal Sharma
Pharmaco-Economics: An Integral Part of Animal Health Economics in
India H. B.Patel , R.D.Singh, V.N. Sarvaiya, S.K.Modi and B.R. Patel
Securing the Dairy Value Chain: Challenges and Option
Smita Sirohi and Bishwa Bhaskar Choudhary
V Feeding and Nutritional Strategies 132-155

Technological Intervention in Ruminant Feeding to Utilize the Poor Quality Feed Resources
in the North-Western Region of India Anil Kumar
Nutritional Strategies for Management of Goats under Arid and
Semi Arid Region of India J L Chaudhary

v
 Nutraceutical Approach to Improve the Reproductive Efficiency in Livestock
R.K. Chaudhari, T.V. Sutaria and P.M. chauhan
Small Ruminant Organic Farming: Prospective and Promising Enterprise
Sanjita Sharma and Vishnu Sharma
VI Climate Change and Mitigation Strategies 156-191

Climate Smart Livestock Production Systems to Improve the Economy of Small Holders’ in
India S.V. Singh and S. Kumar
Photoperiod Management in Dairy Animals
K.N. Wadhwani, R.J. Modi, and M.M. Islam
Impact of Environmental Stress on Livestock Reproduction and Ameliorative Measures
A.Sarat Chandra ;M. Mahender and J. Razia Sultana
Nutritional Intervention to Reduce the Enteric Methane Emission from Dairy Animals in
India Asraf H. Sheikh; Pankaj L.Sherasia; Bhupendra T. Phondba
VII Smallholders /Integrated Farming System 192-222

Prospectus of Dairy Farming in India : Present Status and Future Strategies

K.K.Datta and Shiv Raj Singh
Where is Small Farmer Dairy Farming in India? N S R Shastry
Appraisal, Challenges And Opportunities for Strategic Management of Small Holder
Nomadic Gaddi Sheep and Goats In Western Himalayas
P. K. Dogra; V. Sankhyan; N. Kumar, A. Kumari and A. Thakur
Integrated Livestock Farming : A Sustainable Approach for Rural Development
H.D.Chauhan; A.K. Srivastava, K J Ankuya and A.P.Chaudhary
Small Ruminants: A Source of Livelihood Security to Small Land Holders
S. Kaswan, M. Singla, A. Sharma and D. S. Malik
VIII Animal Health Management and Behaviour 223-234

Impact of Animal Health on Livelihoods Security of Livestock Owners in Gujarat State

K. M. Jadhav, A.N. Suthar and A. S. Prajapati
Economic Impact of Emerging and Re-emerging Zoonotic and Transboundary Diseases of
Animal Origin on Smallholders in India H. C. Chauahn, A. P. Chaudhary and B. S. Chandel
IX Livestock Products Technology, Value Addition, and Employment Opportunity 235-260

Camel milk- A Promising Super Food for Human

Nilufar Haque and AP Choudhary and M C Desai
Pig Farming: An Emerging Opportunity for Livestock Diversification and Employment
Generation in India Amit Sharma and Sandeep Kaswan
Present Status and Future Prospects of Fisheries in Telangana
M.Kishan Kumar; Ravi Gugulothu, Srinu and Rathlavath Suresh Kummari
ICTs in Livestock and Dairy Sectors : An Indian Scenario
H. B. Patel, R. D. Singh, V. N. Sarvaiya and S. K. Modi
Rabbit Farming for Employment and Nutritional Security for Disadvantage Regions of India
A.K. Srivastava, A.P. Chaudhary, H.D. Chauhan and D.V. Joshi

Author Index 261

vi
Section-I 01-29

Conservation and Improvement of Livestock

Breeding Strategies for Enhancing Productivity of Indigenous Cattle
R S Gandhi

Strategies for Conservation of Small Ruminants Genetic Resources of India

Subhransu Pan

Breeding Strategies for Improving the Productivity of Buffalo

Under Arid and Semi Arid Region of India
K P Singh

Sheep Genetic Resources in India: A Sustainable Livelihood Option

A. Kumar, G. R. Gowane, S. S. Misra and R. C. Sharma

Editors: Dr H D Chauhan and Dr J P Gupta

1
 Breeding Strategies for Enhancing Productivity of Indigenous Cattle
R S Gandhi
Assistant Director General (AP&B)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi

Introduction:
India is a rural country having about two-third its population in villages and about one-third
rural population is living below poverty line. Cattle rearing being supplementary to
agriculture has been a part of social and cultural heritage of Indian civilization. Cattle have
been the source of livelihood for landless and resource deficit farmers, majority of them
having 1-2 cattle. Indigenous cattle have been instrumental in providing milk, milk products,
draft power, bio-fertilizer and bio-fuel besides producing bio-molecules and other products
beneficial for human health. The distribution of cattle amongst various categories of animal
keepers revealed that marginal, small and semi-medium farmers on an average have about
89% of cattle. Majority of these smallholder farmers are below poverty line and livestock
rearing including cattle has been the only source of their livelihood, social and nutritional
security. However,the innate production potential of indigenous cattle is not exploited to the
fullest extent by these farmers due to lack of resources and awareness about the improved
technologies and other inputs attributed to lower literacy of this stratum of the rural people.

Cattle genetic resources–population scenario and dynamics :

There are 190.9 million cattle in India, out of which 151.17 million are indigenous and 39.73
million crossbred/exotic cattle. Among the indigenous cattle, only 22.21 million heads
(11.64%) have been described and categorized into 41 distinct/registered breeds.Majority of
the Indian cattle breeds were initially developed for draft animal power. Indigenous cattle
breeds are generally classified on the basis of their utility like milch breeds (Sahiwal, Red
Sindhi, Gir and Rathi), draft breeds (Hallikar, Khillar, Nagauri, Kangayam, Red Kandhari
etc.) and dual purpose breeds (Tharparkar, Hariana, Kankrej, Deoni, Ongole, Dangi,
Kenkatha etc.). These unique breeds have been developed over a period of centuries through
dedicated efforts of livestock keepers/pastoralists and other stake holders in different regions
of the country. Indian cattle appear to have many unique genes for higher thermo-tolerance,
higher resistance to tropical diseases and better feed conversion efficiency under low or zero
input system.However, majority of indigenous cattle are non-descript and low producers
mainly attributed to the poor genetic make-up for milk production and inadequate availability
of feed and fodder.

The population of indigenous cattle over the years has declined, while the population of
crossbred cattle has increased. The share of indigenous cattle to total cattle population has
declined from 93% during 1992 to 79% during 2012. On the contrary the share of crossbred
cattle has increased from meager 7% to 21% during the corresponding periods. The
comparison of cattle population as per 19th Livestock Census (2012) with 18th Census (2007)
revealed a decline of 4.1% in total cattle population. The decline in indigenous cattle
population was -8.94%, while the exotic/crossbred cattle population increased by 20.2%. This
is a matter of satisfaction that there was only slight decline (-0.01%) in indigenous female
cattle population. The decline in indigenous males was -19.32% as compared to -12.75%
decline in crossbred males (2007 versus 2012). As per 2012 census, out of 61.95 million
males of indigenous cattle, 39.85 millions are used for draft work, 2.98 million used for both
draft & breeding purpose and 2.08 million use for breeding only. This indicates that 44.91
million males (79.25%) have been used every year and about 17 indigenous males are still
surplus in our country. Hence, the declining trend in male population of indigenous cattle

2
should not be the matter of concern. Rather, efforts should be made to increase the population
of female cattle by using sexed semen of indigenous bulls after perfecting the technique of
semen sexing.

The distribution of indigenous female cattle under various categories of age revealed an
increase of 7.83% in under one year of age category during 2012 versus 2007.However, the
decline in number of in milk indigenous cattle by 3.51% during the corresponding periods is
a matter of concern and needs immediate necessary corrections. The number of dry cows
during the corresponding periods has increased by 6.39%. Further, the significantly higher
number of not calved once cows (6.03 million)constituting 10.88% of breedable population
and 6.76% of total female population is a matter of concern, needs to be resolved to enhance
the milk production from indigenous cattle.

The distribution of indigenous cattle population over different states in India varies from
13948 heads in Sikkim to 18.76 million in Madhya Pradesh. The second state having highest
number of indigenous cattle (15.98 million) is UP followed by West Bengal, Maharashtra,
Rajasthan, Odisha, Assam, Chattisgarh, Bihar and Jharkhand. Top 10 states having highest
number of indigenous cattle possess 78.7% of total population of indigenous cattle (Table 1).
Table 1: Top ten states having higher cattle population (million)
Exotic/ Crossbred Indigenous Total cattle
Sr
State Numbe % State Numb % State Number % age
N r age er age
o
1 Tamil 6.35 15.98 Madhya 18.76 12.41 Madhya 19.60 10.27
Nadu Pradesh Pradesh
2 Maharashtr 3.65 9.19 Uttar 15.98 10.57 Uttar 19.56 10.25
a Pradesh Pradesh
3 Uttar 3.58 9.01 West Bengal 13.72 9.08 16.51 8.65
Pradesh
4 Bihar 3.48 8.76 Maharashtra 11.83 7.83 Maharashtr 15.48 8.11
a
5 Karnataka 2.91 7.32 Rajasthan 11.59 7.67 Rajasthan 13.32 6.98
6 West 2.80 7.05 Odisha 10.31 6.82 Bihar 12.23 6.41
Bengal
7 Andhra 2.40 6.04 Assam 9.91 6.56 Odisha 11.62 6.09
Pradesh
8 Punjab 2.06 5.18 Chhattisgarh 9.64 6.38 Assam 10.31 5.40
9 Gujarat 1.93 4.86 Bihar 8.76 5.79 Gujarat 9.98 5.23
10 Rajasthan 1.74 4.37 Jharkhand 8.47 5.60 Chhattisgarh 9.81 5.14
Total 30.90 77.77 Total 118.9 78.70 Total 138.42 72.51
7

As per 18th Livestock Census, there are about 22.2 million population of recognized
indigenous breeds. Rajasthan tops all the states with a population of 5.29 million indigenous
cattle, followed by Gujarat (4.29 million) and other states. First 10 states contribute 95.77%
of total indigenous cattle population (Table 2). First three states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Karnataka possess 13.48 million cattle, which constitutes 60.72% of total indigenous cattle
population. The UP and MP has highest number of breeds (8 each), followed by Rajasthan
and Bihar (7 each), Karnataka and TN (6 each), Odisha (5), Maharashtra (4), Gujarat and
Haryana (3 each).

3
Table 2: Top 10 States having highest number of recognized indigenous cattle breeds
Sr State Population Ranking Breeds
No (million)
1 Rajasthan 5.29 1 Gir, Hariana, Kankrej, Malvi, Nagori, Rathi, Tharparkar
2 Gujarat 4.29 2 Dangi, Gir, Kankrej
3 Karnataka 3.90 3 Amritmahal, Deoni, Hallikar, Khilari, Krishna Valley,
Malnad Gidda
4 Uttar Pradesh 1.62 4 Gangahri, Hariana, Kenkatha, Kherigarh, Mewati,
Ponwar, Sahiwal, Tharparkar
5 Odisha 1.34 5 Binjharpuri, Ghumusari, Hariana, Mottu, Red Sindhi
6 Madhya 1.24 6 Gaolao, Gir, Hariana, Kenkatha, Malvi, Nimari, Sahiwal,
Pradesh Tarai
7 Maharashtra 1.23 7 Dangi, Gir, Khillari, Red Kandhari
8 Bihar 0.96 8 Bachaur, Gaolao, Hariana, Purnea, Red Sindhi, Sahiwal,
Tharparkar
9 Tamil Nadu 0.72 9 Alambadi, Bargur, Jellicut, Kangayam, Manapari,
Umblacherry
10 Haryana 0.67 10 Hariana, Sahiwal, Tharparkar
Total 21.26

The comparison of breed-wise population in India reveals that Kankrej has highest population
(38.8 lac) followed by Hariana (26.0 lac), Gir (21.3 lac), Rathi (9.2 lac), Tharparkar (5.6 lac),
Red Sindhi (5.5 lac) and Sahiwal (4.6 lac). These 7 breeds constitute 50% of total recognized
37 indigenous breeds. Hariana breed has its spread in 11 states and 1 UT, followed by
Sahiwal (8 states, 2 UT), Gir (6 states, 2 UT), Tharparkar and Red Sindhi (6 states each). On
the contrary, Rathi was prominent only in Rajasthan.

Cattle genetic resources – potential for productivity:

The distinct biodiversity of our cattle breeds have been diluted during last few decades due to
use of only few improver breeds and neglect of the low producers. Besides this,
crossbreeding of local cattle with exotic breeds has also contributed to the dilution of well-
defined indigenous cattle breeds resulting in reduced herd sizes of these breeds at organized
farms. Further, adoption of crossbreeding of native cattle with exotic breeds by farmers have
also reduced the number of indigenous cattle under field conditions. It is obvious from the
declining trend of indigenous cattle and ascending trend of crossbred cattle over the last two
decades. This has attributed to lower milk production of only 2.37 kg/day of Indian cattle at
the national level with a range of 0.76 kg/day (Meghalaya) to 6.52 kg/day (Panjab). Panjab is
followed by Haryana (4.91 kg/day). This is due to availability of good breeds like Sahiwal
and Hariana in these states and better management of indigenous cows.
Table 3: Top 10 states having highest milk yield/day from Indigenous cattle (2011-12)
State Milk Yield Rank Indigenous cattle % of State cattle
/cow/day (kg) population (million) population
Punjab 6.52 1 0.363 0.24
Haryana 4.91 2 0.812 0.54
Gujarat 3.85 3 8.06 5.33
Rajasthan 3.54 4 11.59 7.67
Bihar 2.86 5 8.76 5.79
Jammu & Kashmir 2.60 6 1.33 0.88
Tamil Nadu 2.58 7 2.46 1.63
Uttar Pradesh 2.57 8 15.98 10.57
Karnataka 2.30 9 6.60 4.37
Madhya Pradesh 2.15 10 18.76 12.41
The indigenous cattle of Rajasthan and Gujarat are also having better milk production (3.54
and 3.85 kg/day) due to availability of good breeds like Gir, Kankrej, Rathi, Sahiwal and

4
Tharparkar in these states. Other 4 states namely Bihar, J&K, TN and UP has per cow per day
productivity higher than the national average (Table 3). Panjab and Haryana has only 0.24
and 0.54% of total cattle population as indigenous breeds.
The milk production scenario of the country from indigenous cattle indicates that UP was top
producer followed by Rajasthan, MP, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
AP and Jharkhand (Table 4). Top 10 states contributed 22.49 million tones of milk from
indigenous cattle, which is 84.24% of total milk from indigenous cattle. First top 3 states
contribution to indigenous cow milk pool was 41.82%. However, the ranking of top 10 milk
producing states on the basis of milk yield/cow/day ranged from 3rd (Gujarat) to 18th
(Maharashtra).
Table 4: Top 10 milk producing states from Indigenous cattle during 2011-12
State Rank Milk Production In milk population Milk Yield /cow/
(mt) (million) day (kg)
Uttar Pradesh 1 4.104 4.369 2.57
Rajasthan 2 3.983 3.070 3.54
Madhya Pradesh 3 3.077 3.920 2.15
West Bengal 4 2.282 3.300 1.89
Bihar 5 2.246 2.143 2.86
Gujarat 6 2.059 1.463 3.85
Karnataka 7 1.369 1.625 2.30
Maharashtra 8 1.277 1.980 1.76
Andhra Pradesh 9 1.196 1.690 1.93
Jharkhand 10 0.894 1.376 1.77
Total 22.487 24.936

Though in majority of the states, Indian cattle breeds are draft in nature, yet a slight
improvement in their productivity will considerably increase the total milk production of the
country. Considering the importance of indigenous cattle, some of the breed improvement
programs have been initiated to conserve and multiply these breeds. The associated herd
progeny testing program has been going on at NDRI Karnal for the genetic improvement of
Sahiwal cattle. All India Coordinated Research Project on Hariana and Ongole cattle has been
undertaken at different centres by Project Directorate on Cattle, Meerut. Lately, three more
breeds namely Sahiwal, Gir and Kankarej have been included in the indigenous breed
improvement program (IBP) and different centres have been identified as germplasm units
and data recording units for different breeds under the program.
The conservation and genetic improvement of indigenous cattle has been undertaken partially
under the National Project on Cattle and Buffalo Breeding by Ministry of Agriculture, Govt.
of India. The National Project on Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development has been
formulated with an integrated, holistic and scientific approach to improve and upgrade
bovines for enhancing their production and productivity. A total of 31 cattle breeds and 7
buffalo breeds will be conserved and developed under this program. National Dairy Plan I
(NDP-I) has been launched focusing on production of high genetic merit cattle through
progeny testing and pedigree selection. Preservation and conservation of 6 indigenous breeds
namely Gir, Sahiwal, Kankrej, Rathi, Tharparkar and Hariana is being undertaken under
NDP-I. Recently, Govt. has taken initiative for the conservation and genetic improvement of
the indigenous cattle under ‘National Gokul Mission’. Under this Mission provision of rupees
500 crores has been made for improvement of indigenous cattle and dairy development. It is
proposed to establish Gokul Grams in the outskirts of metropolitan cities under the program.
National Mission on Bovine Productivity has been launched in November 2016 with the aim
of enhancing milk production and productivity and thereby making dairying more

5
remunerative to the farmers. The scheme is being implemented with following components a)
Pashu Sanjivni- this component includes identification of animals in milk using UID, issuing
health cards to all animals in milk and uploading data on INAPH data base; b) Advance
reproductive Technique- under the component sex sorted semen production facility is being
created at 10 A graded semen stations and 50 Embryo Transfer Technology Labs with IVF
facilities are being created in the country; c) Creation of E Pashuhaat Portal- The e-pashuhaat
portal has been launched in November 2016 for linking farmers and breeders of indigenous
breeds and d) Establishment of National Bovine Genomic Centre for Indigenous
Breeds(NBGC-IB): The NBGC-IB is being established for enhancing milk production and
productivity through genomic selection among indigenous breeds.
Indigenous cattle –production performance :
The breeding policy for improving the indigenous cattle is selective breeding in well-defined
breeds and grading up of non-descript cattle with the indigenous breeds prevalent in the area
or adjoining area. The performance of some important indigenous cattle breeds is given
(Table-5).The perusal of the table indicated that the milk production of Indian cattle breeds
ranged from low to medium and there is an ample scope to improve upon these breeds
through selective breeding. However, some of the indigenous breeds like Sahiwal, Red
Sindhi and Tharparkar in organized herds were almost as good as crossbred cattle under field
conditions. Further, indigenous cattle are more economical in terms of cost of maintenance.
This was attributed to lower feeding, management and veterinary costs in local breeds.
Table-5: Average performance of Indigenous cattle under organized herds
Breeds\ Age at First 1st Lactation 1st Lactation 1st Calving References
Traits Calving Total Milk Yield Length (days) Interval (days)
(months) (kg)
Sahiwal 36.6 1942 295 430 Raja (2010)
Red Sindhi 44.1 1864 306 422 Gupta (1992)
Gir 51.0 1414 336 506 Joshi et al (2005)
Kankrej 53.2 1731 301 488 Shamlal (1989)
Rathi 47.0 1494 388 567 Joshi et al (2005)
Tharparkar 38.8 1823 321 437 Pirzada (2012)
Hariana 52.2 839 277 528 Joshi et al (2005)
Ongole 50.2 584 220 543 Joshi et al (2005)
Deoni 46.4 940 299 466 Joshi et al (2005)
Malvi 49.2 910 270 465 Joshi et al (2005)

Fitness of Indigenous cattle : An edge over crossbred cattle:

Indigenous cows have an edge over the crossbreds in terms of comparatively higher milk
constituents, disease resistance and overall fitness. The incidences of reproductive disorders
are generally higher in crossbred cows (Gandhi, 2014). Similarly, comparatively more young
crossbred bulls are culled due to poor semen quality than Sahiwal young males (Gandhi,
2014). Rearing and maintaining crossbred cattle has been a costlier affair and needs lots of
rich input resources. Further, there are many constraints of adopting crossbreeding under field
conditions. The major constraints reported were repeat breeding, higher mortality in young
calves, lower milk fat content, lower price of milk, higher cost of critical inputs and higher
cost of veterinary services. Sustaining higher milk production due to non-availability of

6
 superior semen and higher incidence of health disorders in general and reproductive disorders
in particular in crossbred cattle are other constraints for famers.
Assets for cattle production:
 Vast indigenous cattle population with higher biodiversity (39 breeds) having innate potential
to adapt to diverse changing climatic conditions of hot arid, humid tropical and temperate
climates and better resistance to internal and external parasites and diseases.
 Diversified draft, milch and dual purpose cattle breeds contributing to milk and draft power
besides providing bio-fuel and bio-fertilizer
 Massive rural population rearing cattle for livelihood security
 Higher demand and consumption of milk, milk products and other cattle by-products
 Higher innate potential to survive and produce on coarse, poor quality feed and fodder
resources under zero input system (Acharya, 2011).
 Gigantic network of Research Institutes, State Agricultural/Animal Science/Veterinary
Universities, State Animal Husbandry Departments, Livestock Development Boards and
NGOs engaged in cattle development.
 Vast infrastructure in terms of 161 cattle farms, 4355 gaushalas, 59 semen production centres,
191 frozen semen banks, 77765 AI centres, 11962 veterinary hospitals/polyclinics, 25921
veterinary dispensaries and24738 veterinary aid centres
 Availability of large amount of ITKs with cattle keepers/pastoralists for rearing and
management of different species of livestock
 Seasonal migration of nomadic pastoralists to overcome adverse climatic conditions during
summer, winter and rainy seasons to sustain and multiply the breed population of their
choice.
Strategic approach:
 Focus more on genetic up-gradation of indigenous/native cattle using superior semen from
progeny tested/pedigree selected bulls and by expanding AI and natural service network to
provide services at the farmers’ doorstep. If 10% of non-descript indigenous cattle are graded
up with milch breeds in a period of 5 years and assuming 4kg/cow/day milk production in
next generation, additional 27.2 million kg milk/day would be produced adding about 10
million tons milk/annum to national average.
 National priority should be given to conservation of cattle to maintain genetic diversity of
breeds and preserve those showing decline in number or facing extinction. Breeding policy
for different breeds should be revised looking to their importance in present context of
economic important traits. Breed associations should be developed and strengthened for
conservation of breeds.
 Creation/provision of national fund for conservation of cattle genetic resources.
 Allocate more funds for infrastructure development for performance recording under field
conditions, cattle policy reforms and IPR issues.
 Provide economic advantage to cattle keepers for conservation and multiplication of
endangered cattle breeds.
 Conduct breed-wise livestock census.
 Establish and/or strengthen nucleus farms in the breeding tract for each breed to produce
genetically superior germplasm for genetic improvement and conservation. Declare all the
cattle breeding farms as in-situ conservation and breeding centres. It is recommended that
each of SVU/Veterinary College should maintain and conserve at least one breed of
indigenous cattle of that region.
 Effective use of more than 20 lakh cows maintained in 4355 gaushalas.

7
 Registration of cattle keepers and identification of farmers having elite cattle of indigenous
breeds
 Recognition of role model breeders for their contribution.
 Unravel the unique genes and bio-prospecting the special utility traits, biomolecules, products
etc. of indigenous cattle for enhanced productivity using emerging biotechnological tools.
 Emphasis may be given to production of organic milk and milk products from indigenous
cattle.
 Develop branded products from indigenous cattle and creation of niche markets for these
products.
 Selection and use of bulls with A2A2 type beta-casein genes in cattle breeding programs.
 Producing more number of semen doses from bulls of indigenous breeds. According to an
estimate to cover 40% population of 57 million breedable indigenous cows through AI, about
41 million semen doses per annum are required from indigenous bulls. For production of
these semen doses about 6000 indigenous bulls of well-recognized breeds would be required.
To cover remaining 60% population by natural service about 30000 superior bulls would be
required.
 Enhance coverage of cattle population of the country through AI to 40% by 2030.
 Effective use of reproductive biotechnologies like ET, ONBS, Ovum Pick-up, IVF and
cloning under farm and field conditions for multiplication of superior germplasm.
 Develop infrastructure for semen sexing of indigenous cattle breeds to save male wastage
amounting to about rupees10000 crores annually.
 Import elite semen of indigenous breeds from other countries having superior germplasm of
indigenous breeds.
 Explore inter-country collaboration for breed improvement programs for indigenous cattle
with neighboring countries.

Conclusion:
India is endowed with large cattle population and cattle rearing has been source of livelihood
security to farmers in the face of natural calamities. Smallholders have played a vital role in
contribution to national economy as majority of cattle population is reared by them. The milk
productivity of indigenous cattle needs to be enhanced using breeding, feeding and health
management interventions. Further, mining of unique genes and bio-prospecting of special
utility traits, biomolecules, products etc. of indigenous cattle would enhance the net economic
worth of Indian cattle. Improving indigenous cattle and developing branded cow milk and
other products using ITKs available with pastoralists & smallholders and creation of niche
markets for these products would empower these stakeholders in general and rural women in
particular to ensure livelihood security. Conducting breed-wise livestock census, developing
a roadmap for breeding & conservation of indigenous cattle and allocation of more funds for
conservation of cattle genetic resources should be given priority.

References :
References are available on request from editor.

8
Strategies for Conservation of Small Ruminants Genetic Resources of India
Subhransu Pan
W. B. University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata
Email : span28@rediffmail.com
Introduction:
Agrobiodiversity is composed of crop and livestock diversity at the levels of genes, species,
and habitats. In general parlance, however, livestock diversity refers to the approximately
3,000 – 5,000 livestock breeds that have been developed by humans out of 40 domesticated
animal species. However major contribution in livestock production is only from 14 species.
This “domestic animal diversity” is now at risk. According to the Food and Agricultural
Organization about 30 percent of the world’s recognized 3882 livestock breeds are in danger
of extinction, with breeds disappearing at the rate of one per week. This alarming situation
poses a grave threat to the long-term sustainability of livestock production and thus global
food security.

In developed countries, livestock are raised under intensive or even industrialized production
systems that make for impressive outputs of meat, milk, and eggs. These outputs have been
achieved using such "high-tech" operations as artificial insemination and embryo
transplantation to breed solely for productivity, without regard to other traits such as fitness.
In the process, the genetic base of the livestock species in question is greatly narrowed. The
resulting "food-producing machines" are thus less hardy and far more vulnerable to disease.
Consequently, they require high veterinary and other inputs such as special feeds, expensive
housing, and sophisticated management. Further, these industrial breeds' fertility and
reproductive performance have been compromised to such an extent that they often have
difficulty in mating, giving birth, and mothering their young. It is questionable whether they
could even survive outside the managed environments and factory-like farms where they are
raised.
Variously terms viz: ‘local’, ‘deshi’ ‘indigenous’ or ‘unimproved’ breeds, these ‘land races’
still harbour such invaluable characteristics as disease resistance, strength, hardiness, good
libido and fertility, and other survival-oriented traits. Indeed, in the absence of animals with
these traits, the majority of the world's people could not survive. Most of the world
population is still rural, and all rural groups rely on animals for a key part of their livelihood.
Few, however, can afford or access the high-tech inputs and breeds typical of the
1
industrialized production systems. And fortunately for people everywhere, land races may
present special traits that are of potential economic interest. Their meat, milk, and eggs may
offer possibilities for tastier, healthier, or more specialized foods than the bland, generic
products from factory animals.
Article 8 of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity states that genetic resources should
be conserved in the ‘surroundings’ where they have developed their distinct properties. For
livestock, surroundings means the pastoral and farming communities that nurture most of the
world's existing animal diversity. The diversification of a livestock species into many
different ‘breeds’ is the outcome of different ethnic and social groups managing that species
in a wide variety of habitats and manipulating its genetic composition according to habitat
conditions (climate, disease and predator threats, availability of forage, water, minerals, etc.)
and available human resources (e.g., knowledge, labour, social organization) in the context of
a given group's needs and preferences for livestock goods and services.

9
Traditionally, India has been a mega bio-diversity center and rearing of animals was practiced
since time immemorial. Almost all the major livestock species including cattle, buffaloes,
sheep, goat. pig, camel, horse, donkey, yak and mithun are found in India. Apart from
poultry, domestic species of avian such as ducks, geese, quails, turkey, pheasants and
partridges also exist in India. India is the seventh largest country of the world and nearly 75
percent people are engaged in vocations related to agriculture and animal husbandry.

Conservation :
Conservation has been variously conceptualized. Aldo Leopold defined conservation as ‘man
living in harmony with the land’ while other find it as ‘wise use of resources’. In another
sense ‘conservation is a social process encompassing both lay and professional activities that
define and seek to attain wise use of resources and maintain the productivities of land.
2
Conservation could also be the management of human use of the biosphere, so that it may
yield the greatest sustainable benefits to present generation, while maintaining its potential to
meet the need and aspiration of future generations. Thus, conservation is positive, embracing
preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, management and enhancement of the
natural resources of the environment. The best way to conserve the resources is within their
native environment (in situ), however, it may be huge task unless the stack holder and
farmers are not involved themselves. The indigenous animal genetic resources especially
those are less productive can only be maintained as long as their minimum feed/ fodder
requirement are met under zero or low input system.

Factors affecting domestic animal bio-diversity:

Quite a good number of biogenic causes lead to loss of domestic animal biodiversity
particularly in India.

Introduction of exotic germplasm: Since early sixties mass efforts were made to improve
the productivity of indigenous breeds by introducing exotic germplasm through crossbreeding
with local breeds. The animal genetic resources in India have been undergoing changes due
to indiscriminate crossbreeding being practiced in some regions.

Non-implementation of animal breeding policies: All the breeds of indigenous livestock

and poultry have long evolutionary history and natural selection, which essentially lead to
their establishment in different agro-climatic conditions. The production levels of these
indigenous breeds is definitely lower than the exotic breeds found in temperate region which
is largely due to the availability of poor feed/fodder resources and very harsh environmental
conditions. The native breeds, which traditionally formed an integral part of agriculture, are
getting progressively diluted and facing 5degeneration. There is almost unrestricted inter-
breeding among different breeds. The adoption of breeding plans or strategies recommended
by various states are neither mandatory nor these are adequately backed by the support
service. It has been admitted on all hands, that our well-known and recognized livestock
breeds have suffered from neglect for the past century and even today. Some of the
indigenous breeds have already been lost and others with unique characteristics are declining
numerically and are at risk.

Restriction of use to a few breeds: The greatest single cause for genetic erosion is the
growing trend of global reliance on a limited number of selected breeds known for high
productivity under intensive management requiring high inputs. This shifting trend towards
few breeds is of paramount importance of genetic diversity.

10
Fluctuating market demands: Market forces acting against particular species, breed or
breed type and their products and services are also responsible for extinction of breed.

Degradation of ecosystems: Indigenous breeds have been evolved to sustain under a given
agro-ecosystem. The degradation of the ecosystems has caused decline in the population of
the adapted livestock breed or genotype.

Diseases and natural disasters: Outbreak of dreaded diseases have some led to the loss of
particular germplasm as in case of Bengal goat by PPR. However, this phenomenon has been
controlled to a greater extent in recent years due to mass vaccination and disease eradication
programmes. Natural disasters, like flood, avalanches or snowstorms have caused
endangerment of certain breeds.

Political unrest and instability: The long war and political instability has caused serious
decline and endangerment of some breeds and species. The Ratha pastoral community has
been keeping large herds of Sahiwal cattle on Indo-Pak border. Due to border disputes, the
community has been displaced and ultimately the breed. Partition of Sundarban area due to
partition of India has reduced the population size of the Garole sheep and thus the variability.

Small ruminant genetic resources of India:

Any of various hoofed, even-toed, usually horned mammals of the sub-order Ruminantia,
such as cattle, sheep, goats, deer and giraffes, characteristically having a stomach divided into
four compartments and chewing a cud consisting of regurgitated, partially digested food are
the ruminants. Among smaller version of the domesticated group, popularly called small
ruminant, India possesses 26 breeds of goat under species Capra hircus and 42 breeds of
sheep under species Ovis aris. Over the years population of both the groups have shown
considerable fluctuations as in Table 1.
Table 1: Trend in Small Ruminant Population in India
Small Ruminant Population (millions) Annual Trend (%)
Species (Breeds)
1997 2003 2007 2012 1997-2003 2003-2007 2007-2012
Total 57.49 61.47 71.56 65.1 1.15 3.09 -9.07
Shee
p Crossbred 3.78 1.37
3.11 5.73 3.73 10.72 -8.23
(42) Indigenous 61.29 -9.64
54.38 55.74 67.83 0.41 4.00
Goat (26) 122.72 124.36 140.54 135.17 0.23 2.48 -3.82

The sizeable decline have been observed among several breeds of sheep and goat given here
as under:

Species Breeds showing declining trends Proportion of

total breeds (%)
Sheep Ganjam, Bhakarwal, Gurez, Karnah, Niligiri, Poonchi, 21
Pugal, Magra, Bonpala and Garole.
Goat Attapady Black, Chegu, Jamunapari, Beetal, Surti, 26
Changthangi

The breeds with less than 10,000 population are considered ‘threatened’ in India.
Conservation of threatened breeds of small ruminants (also of other livestock) and
improvement of breeds is one of the major goals since the Tenth Plan. It is a national priority

11
 to maintain diversity of breeds and preserve those showing decline in number or facing
extinction. Many existing breeds are facing varying degrees of threat, endangerment and
are heading towards eventual decimation. The tenth plan document of Planning
Commission, Government of India mentioned the following indigenous breeds, which are at
risk:
Sheep : Nilgiri, Muzaffarnagri, Malpura, Chokla, Jaisalmeri, Munjal, Changthangi,
Tibetan, Bonpala and Garrole.
Goat :Beetal, Jamunapari, Chegu, Changthangi, Surti and Jakhrana.
ICAR Network and AICRP Programmes for genetic improvement of native farm animal
breeds are in operation both under organized farms and field conditions. Breeds covered
under these projects are:
Sheep-Gaddi, Nali, Chokla, Patanwadi, Nilgiri, Bonpala, Muzzafarnagri, Malpura, Sonadi,
Deccani, Mandya and Nellore.
Goat- Marwari, Sirohi, Surti, Jamunapari, Barbari, Ganjam, Black Bengal,
Osmanabadi, Malabari Chegu and Changthangi.
A centrally sponsored scheme on Conservation of Threatened Breeds of Small Ruminants
and other species has been started by Govt. of India since 10th plan. The scheme has been
initiated in the States of Arunanchal Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Predesh, Karnataka, Kerala,
Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal for
conservation of breeds of Goat (Long Haired Goat, Black Bengal and Malabari) and Sheep
(Bandur and Bonpala) and other species.
National Animal Gene Bank has been established at NBAGR with the objective of
maintaining the indigenous livestock biodiversity of the country. A total of 97,835 frozen
semen doses belonging to 257 breeding males (Bulls/Rams/Bucks/Stallions) from 31 breeds
representing cattle, buffalo, sheep (Garole), goat (Chegu and Black Bengal), camel, yak and
equine have been successfully collected and preserved at National Gene Bank for posterity.
The structure of the National plan of action:
The main objectives of the National Plan of Action is to ensure a strategic and comprehensive
approach in achieving the sustainable use, development and conservation of animal genetic
resources, to increase and improve food production and food security, alleviate poverty and
contribute to rural development. Preparation of National Plan of Action will assist in deciding
how to move forward to more effective utilization of the animal genetic resources, taking
fully into account our circumstances, priorities and available resources including human and
financial resources. It will enhance the understanding among the stake holders, policy-makers
and the general masses of the importance of animal genetic resources, the multiple roles and
values of livestock diversity and the need to maintain the genetic variability that will enable
adaptation to changing conditions. It will also help our country to get benefit from the
international momentum that has resulted for conservation and sustainable development of
native animal genetic resources from the recent adoption of the Global Plan of Action by 109
countries.
The salient objectives of National Plan of Action are:

 Describes the status of AnGR of India

 Identifies gaps in current strategies and suggest future course of action for conservation and
sustainable utilization of AnGR.

12
 Describes actions to promote activities aimed at raising public awareness and bringing the
needs of sustainable use and conservation of AnGR to the attention of concerned stake
holders, governments and international organizations
 Identifies agencies and delineate their roles and contribution in conservation and management
of AnGR.
The National Plan of Action for conservation and management of farm AnGR has been
prepared under four main strategic priority areas:
 Characterization and inventory of farm AnGR
 Sustainable use and development of farm AnGR
 Conservation of farm AnGR
 Policies,legislation, institutions and capacity building
Responsibility for implementation :
Management of AnGR and welfare of their custodians i.e. livestock keeping communities,
pastoral tribes and other stakeholders has overlapping domains involving plethora of
departments and institutions across the ministries. The organizations like ICAR, SAUs, SVUs
etc are involved in conducting research and human resource development on various aspects
of animal feeding, breeding, health care and management , improvement, conservation of
AnGR and policy formulation. DARE and ICAR look after the needs of the entire country
whereas SAUs and SVUs are more concerned about the problems and needs of the specific
regions besides Human Resource Development in the field of agriculture and animal
husbandry. Departments of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries; Environment and
Forests; and Tribes and women welfare is related with policy formulation and its execution in
these and other aspects of animal husbandry in the country. The State Animal Husbandry.
The onus for achieving goals of the national programme on conservation, sustainable
management and use of animal genetic resources therefore lies with many players, such as
farmers and livestock owners, ministries, govt. departments, institutes, non-profit-making
social and charitable NGOs, breeding organisations, researchers, etc. That is why proper
harmony and increased coordination between different actors over the measures that are to be
carried out for effective management of AnGR is envisaged in the action plan as detailed
below:
National Level Authority:Achieving networking of collaboration between different agencies
and coordinating the responsibilities of each one is crucial for achieving the goal of
protecting the animal genetic resources for the future. Therefore, a National Level Authority
on animal genetic resources needs to be established which has overall responsibility for
monitoring and implementation of strategies and action plans.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR): Animal Science Division of ICAR in

collaboration with National Level Authority on AnGR, has the function of coordinating the
implementation and follow-up of the action plan, and establishment of National Focal Point.

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR): ICAR has established NBAGR
with the mandate for identification, evaluation, characterization, conservation & utilization of
livestock and poultry genetic resources. NBAGR should be recognized as a nodal institute
and should act as a National Focal Point for all activities relating to conservation and
management of AnGR in India. The Bureau should work within a large network,
coordinating everyone from institutions to individual livestock owners. The constellation of

13
 different stakeholders of farm AnGR under technical and administrative purview of national
focal point should work on :

 characterization and evaluation of AnGR

 developing molecular signatures of each breed
 value addition through identification and validation of bio molecules
 developing technical guidelines and models for conservation and sustainable utilization of
AnGR
 registration of germplasm
 developing criteria for assessing endangerment status of breeds
 strengthening of national gene bank and establish regional gene banks for in-situ and ex-situ
conservation of genetic resources of endangered breeds
 planning and implementation of programmes for improvement, conservation and sustainable
use
 strengthening information system on AnGR and reporting on animal genetic resources
including watch lists
 bringing awareness generation programmes/seminars/meetings/trainings with a view to
educate people, updating information, and developing manpower
 impart training to field functionaries and enumerators involved in breed-wise census for
identification of breeds

Animal Science Institutes of ICAR/SAUs/SVUs and KVKs:There is a vast network of

species-specific institutes, National Dairy Research Institute, Indian Veterinary Research
Institute, National Institute of Animal Nutrition & Physiology, National Research Centers,
Project Directorates, AICRPs, Agricultural Universities, Veterinary Universities for carrying
out research for the improvement and management of various livestock genetic resources,
processing of products, health care and to develop trained manpower. There is an extension
network in the country in the form of Krishi Vigyan Kendras for dissemination of
information generated in different research organizations. All these organizations shall have
the responsibility for :
 production, maintenance and dissemination of superior and purebred livestock germplasm for
conservation and genetic improvement on institutional farms and farmer’s herds/flocks
 valuation and value addition to AnGR
 providing improved package of practices for management of AnGR
 development of vaccines and disease control measures
 ensuring the availability of quality feed, fodder and pasture lands
 extension activities for bringing awareness among farmers and field functionaries

Department of Animal Husbandry (both centre and states) :The Department of Animal
Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries (DAHD&F) under the Ministry of Agriculture., Govt. of
India is responsible for matters relating to production, preservation, protection and
improvement of livestock germplasm. The Department guides and supports the state
governments/ union territories in the formulation of policies and programmes in the field of
animal husbandry, dairy development and fisheries. The main focus of the activities is on: (a)
development of requisite infrastructure in States/UTs for improving animal productivity; (b)
promoting infrastructure for handling, processing and marketing of milk and milk products;
(c) preservation and protection of livestock through provision of health care; and (d)
strengthening of central livestock and poultry farms for development of superior germplasm
and its dissemination/distribution. There exists a large network of central and state animal

14
 husbandry departments (SAHD) looking after the development of animal husbandry at the
grass root level.
Ministry of Environment and Forests :The Ministry of Environment and Forest looks into
the aspect related with relationship between the animals and the forests and protection of
forests to avoid degradation of environment. This ministry should consider for
 developing a policy for grazing in forests lands taking in to account the interests of livestock
keepers and the forest degradation
 developing grasslands / pastures/fodder trees

Livestock development boards :Livestock Development Boards have been set up in most of
the states to boost the activities in relation to understanding of AnGR and enhance their
utilization. The mission of these LDBs is to adopt, introduce, integrate, promote, manage,
organize and undertake all activities viably for the genetic improvement and subsequent
increase in productivity of livestock in the country. In collaboration with NBAGR and
SAHD, these boards shall undertake the work on Inventorization of native AnGR, production
of superior germplasm, and implementation of conservation and improvement plans.

Breed societies/ communities/ NGOs :Livestock Keepers, practically being the excusive
custodians of farm AnGR, are the real and most important stakeholders at the grass-root
level. Livestock owners are responsible for the practical breeding work and the day-to-day
management of each and every animal. Much of the practical work to be performed within
the different measures is performed by the individual livestock owners.Breed associations can
be responsible for the breeding targets of the breeds, breeding plans and advice on breeding,
and can guard the interest of the breeds/breeders. Conservation and utilization of AnGR can
be best achieved through a joint approach by involving livestock keepers, farmers, NGOs,
Gaushalas, Breed Societies and all the other stakeholders. These should understand and
participate in all activities relating to management of AnGR like implementation of
improvement and conservation programmes, animal identification, performance recording,
marketing and branding of animal products, development of pasture lands, fodder production,
etc.
Recommendations for conservation of small ruminants :
1. Small ruminant census should be conducted breed wise, so that the correct picture on pure
breeding populations can be generated and effective breeding programmes can be framed.
2. Complete characterization (Phenotypic and genetic) of all the breeds of small ruminants
should be done for proper identification of the breeds.
3. Systemic surveys for all the breeds should be undertaken for preparing the comprehensive
inventory with proper identification and cataloguing.
4. Sound data bank on each breed with a network facility to hook-up with national data bank on
animal genetic resources should be developed. Linkage with National Gene Bank should be
established for ex-situ conservation of the breeds.
5. Government would explore the legal aspect of stock raiser/ farmers’ right of genetic
resources.
Relevant ecological and socio-economic issues should be identified which affect conservation
and utilization of the small ruminant.
6. “Selective breeding” programme with “Open Nucleus Breeding System” should be practiced
for improvement of the breeds. Government would open ‘Buck/ Ram Mother Farms’ in

15
 different regions of the state where improved buck/ ram would be produced primarily for
distribution in the field.
7. The live animal gene-bank (in-situ conservation) should be established in native ecology of
the breed. It can also be utilized for demonstration and distribution among farmers.
8. Government would undertake programme for promotion of production of each breed in the
breeding tract with particular emphasis to ameliorate the problem faced by the farmers.
9. Research on the breed should be strengthened on developing new technology for developing
sustainable production system and its conservation for posterity.
10. Government would promote organizations like breed survival trusts, breeding societies,
animal welfare bodies and similar other endeavors, involving public participation and to be
supported both technically and financially.
11. All facilities and infrastructure available for ex-situ conservation programmes should be
coordinated on mission mode basis for genetic security and revival of lost breeds.
12. Training and human resource development programmes should be undertaken in a big way to
support the livestock breed conservation programmes. Publication of literature avnd
monographs on the breed as tools of awareness generation and extension service should be
undertaken.
FAO and other publicly funded international institutions concerned with DAD (e.g., ILRI, the
International Livestock Research Centre) are pursuing their agendas entirely from the so-
called ‘genetic resource angle’. They want to save or rescue breeds only in their role as
carriers of genetic material that might have some economic potential in the future and could
be valuable for humanity at large. Although FAO explicitly recognizes breed as a cultural
rather than a technical concept.
References :
References are available on request from editor.

16
 Breeding Programs and Strategies for Genetic Improvement of Buffaloes
K P Singh
ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hisar (Haryana)
Email : rishikps@yahoo.com
Introduction:
Buffalo breeding programs and improvement strategies are the tools available for improving the
productivity of buffalo genetic resources depend upon many factors. Among these factors are the
agro-climatic conditions of the area, agricultural and livestock production systems, availability of
feeds and fodder resources, marketing infrastructure, locally available buffalo genetic
resources,socio-economic condition of the farmers and breeding policy of the state. In addition,
breeding objectives must not only consider the present status of these factors, but also take into
consideration the future needs of animal products. As the generation intervals of livestock,
particularly in buffaloes is quite long, the impact of breeding plans are not expected to be realized
for several years. But in recent years, buffalo production has undergone a major transformation
resulting into a substantial increase in milk production thus helping our country to achieve top
position in milk and buffalo meat production in the world. Even though various breeding and
management programmes have contributed to this improvement, there are constraints hampering
the growth which require proper attention by initiating realistic breeding programs for genetic
improvement of buffaloes. In view of this, buffalo breeding programs and improvement strategy
are presented and discussed in brief.

Buffalo genetic resources and breeding policy:

Buffalo breeding policy is a programme documented for genetic improvement of buffalo genetic
resources of India. The determinants of breeding policy are description of production system,
definition of breeding objectives (traits or combination of traits) and knowledge of buffalo
population and diversity (breeds and genetic variation in production traits). The buffalo genetic
resources with vast population (108.70 million) are widely distributed in diverse agro-ecological
regions of the country. These diverse population groups reared in small herd size of 2-3 animals
mainly by small, marginal and landless farmers of different socio-economic status under different
ecologies. The genetic improvement programme should be based on perception, wishes and needs
of farmers, which would enhance acceptability and facilitate easy implementation of program.
Breeding strategies for improving buffalo productivity of a particular breed / genetic group of
animal population in a given agro-climatic region, it is necessary to have comprehensive details
of population size of breed and buffalo production systems, available feed and fodder resources,
buffalo production potential, utilization pattern, breeding organizations and
infrastructurefacilities. In the back ground of information on all above aspects, region specific
buffalo breeding strategies can be planned for genetic improvement of buffalo genetic resources
under different buffalo production systems.Buffalo population status of various breeds is most
important and table 1revealed the distribution of buffaloes under three major categories i.e. pure,
graded and non-descript. Out of total buffalo population, 17.05 % are pure breeds, 39.58 % are
graded and remaining 43.37 % are in non-descript category (Breed-wise LivestockSurvey 2013).

The broad framework of Breeding Policy of cattle and buffalo was postulated as early as in 1962,
on the basis of which states have to evolve their own breeding policy; of course in tune with the
overall guidelines prescribed by Govt. of India and was reviewed and revised in accordance with
the changing needs and availability of newer technologies. The national breeding policy for

17
 buffalo is selective breeding of the major buffalo breeds for milk, grading-up of the non-descript
and low producing buffalo population with Murrah.
Table-1: Buffalo population status (Livestock Survey 2013)
Sr Name of the Pure Graded Total Percent of Total
No Breed Population Population Population Population
1 Murrah 1,16,86,198 3,65,68,676 4,82,54,874 44.39
2 Surti 18,86,280 20,06,614 38,92,894 3.58
3 Mehsana 26,76,699 9,48,426 36,25,125 3.33
4 Jaffarabadi 5,71,077 12,00,421 17,71,498 1.63
5 Bhadawari 5,83,599 11,70,188 17,53,787 1.61
6 Nili Ravi 1,29,411 5,47,834 6,77,245 0.62
7 Pandharpuri 2,87,751 1,95,987 4,83,738 0.45
8 Banni 2,39,572 1,42,550 3,82,122 0.35
9 Marathwadi 2,78,502 98,093 3,76,595 0.35
10 Nagpuri 73,584 1,17,410 1,90,994 0.18
11 Kalahandi 1,15,213 26,802 1,42,015 0.13
12 Toda 3,003 2,533 5,536 0.01
13 Chilika 2,599 787 3,386 0.00
Total Indigenous 1,85,33,488 4,30,26,321 6,15,59,809 56.63
Breed
Non-descript ---- ----- 4,71,42,313 43.37
Total Buffaloes 1,85,33,185 4,30,23,385 10,87,02,122 ---

Most of the states have well defined breeding policy, with the main features being in consonance
with the national breeding policy. The defined / lesser known buffalo population found in
different states selective breeding is the appropriate system looking to the feed and fodder
resources availability in various agro-climatic zones.
1. Arid and semi-arid area of the country where limited feed and fodder resources are available
Banni and Mehsana breeds are more suitable for grading up.
2. In hilly area, tarai region and north east area, Murrah and Nili-Ravi used for local population
grading up
3. In North region where feed and fodder resources are available local population grading up with
Murrah and Nili-Ravi.
4. All recognized breeds and defined population of the country improved through selective
breeding.
Breeding programs for improvement of buffaloes:
The major factors that determine the success or failure of the breeding programme are the
relevance of breeding programme for genetic improvement in the prevailing scenario, objectives /
goals of the programme and breeding strategies (Barker, 1992). Breeding programme bringing
about genetic improvement beyond the nutritional or disease-limited environment in which the
population lives can be of disadvantage and often counterproductive. Another important factor is
the availability ofsufficient infrastructure to support the programme like A I and veterinary
services, procurement of milk and supply of other inputs at the doorsteps of the buffalo keepers.

18
 Government schemes implemented for genetic improvement of buffaloes in the country:
1. Buffalo improvement had been carried out at military dairy farms followed the policy of culling
and selection since beginning and still going on.
2. Central Herd Registration Scheme (CHRS), implemented in 1941, ICAR established a nucleus
organization for the registration of important breeds with the following objectives:
a. To locate superior germplasm of buffalo breeds in breeding tracts.
b. To introduce milk recording for further propagation.
c. To regulate sale and purchase within the country and abroad.
d. To propagate and promoteawareness among the farmers / breeders for scientific breeding,
development and conservation of cattle and buffaloes, which would improve their (breeders’)
socio-economic conditions.
Central Cattle Breeding Farms:
For rearing bull mothers of different breeds of cattle and buffalo, Central Cattle Breeding Farms
(CCBF) were established from 1967 to 1975 at Dhamrod (Surti) and Alamadhi (Murrah). The
primary objective of the farms was to produce at least 10 progeny-tested bulls in each farm by
maintaining about 300 bredable females. This objective was never achieved and the programme
to produce progeny tested bull was abandoned in 1988. The other objectives like genetic
improvement of bull mothers of important cattle and buffalo breed and supply of high pedigree
bulls also failed to achieve the target. The Working Group on Animal Husbandry for the Tenth
Plan has suggested that the goals of these farms should be changed and they should be used either
for conservation of indigenous breeds or NDDB could take over these farms for implementing
progeny testing programme using recent technologies like ETT /OPU-IVF.
3. Intensive Cattle Development Project was started in 1966-67 to cover one lakh buffaloes and to
take care of all aspects related to breeding, feeding and health control supported with extension
activities.
4. In third five year plan “Progeny Testing Scheme” was started for the production and
identification of superior breeding bulls, tested on the basis of performance of their daughters
rather than dam’s milk yield. The tested bulls were used extensively through AI for achieving
higher genetic gain. This programme was started with Murrah breed at Hisar (Haryana).
5. In 1970, ICAR started “All India Coordinated Project on Buffaloes at four centers viz.: NDRI-
Karnal, PAU Ludhiana for Murrah breed; University of Agriculture Science- Dharwar and
University of Udaipur-Vallabhnagar for Surti and Mehsana breeds. The main objective was to
identify the bulls of high genetic merits through progeny testing. The young bulls produced
through mating of proven bulls with elite buffaloes were distributed to various animal breeding
centers in the country.
6. Buffalo improvement programme through bull selection on the basis of progeny performance and
distribution in the field also taken up at state and central government farms e. g. AlmadiFram,
Chennai, Livestock Farm Banawasi, Govt. Breeding Farm Anjora, Govt. Livestock Farm Hisar
for Murrah breed, Govt. Livestock Farm Dhamrod for Surti breed, Livestock Research Station
(Sardarkrushinagar for Mehsana, Junagadh for Jaffrabadi and Navsari for Surti, Gujarat).
7. Mehsana District Cooperative Milk Producer Union initiated field progeny testing programme for
genetic improvement of Mehsana buffalo during 1985 in association with NDDB, Anand. Patel et
al. (2010) reported that 196 Mehsana buffalo bulls from 15 sets competed their test mating and
test mating of 20 bulls belong to 16th was under progress. 133 bulls were evaluated on the basis of
305 first days lactation milk yield of 5791 daughters using BLUP method. Breeding value of top

19
 ten bulls ranged from +412.3 to 159.5 kg above the herd average of 1941 kg. Reduction in age at
first calving from 52 to 45.6 months and increase in 305 days first lactation milk yield from 1550
to 1941 kg revealed significant improvement in performance traits of Mehsana buffaloes.

National Project on Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB):

Government of India has initiated the programme in October 2000 by merging two Centrally-
sponsored Plan Schemes: (a) Extension of Frozen Semen Technology and Progeny Testing
Programme and (b) National Bull Production Programme.
Genetic improvement is a long term activity and Government of India has initiated under
“NPCBB” for ten years, in two phases each of five years duration and envisages genetic up
gradation and development of indigenous breeds on priority basis.
Objectives of the scheme:
(a) To arrange delivery of vastly improved artificial insemination service at the farmers doorstep.
(b) To progressively bring under organized breeding through artificial insemination or natural
service by high quality bulls, all breedable females among cattle and buffalo withina period of 10
years.
(c) To undertake breed improvement programme for indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds soas to
improve their genetic qualities as well as their availability.
Components of the scheme:
(a): streamlining storage and supply of Liquid Nitrogen by sourcing supply from industrialgas
manufacturers and setting up bulk transport and storage systems for the same,
(b): introduction of quality bulls with high genetic merit,
(c): promotion of private mobile A.I. service for doorstep delivery of A.I.,
(d): conversion of existing stationery government centers into mobiles centers,
(e): quality control and certification of bulls and services at sperm stations, semen banksand
training institutions,
(f): study of breeding systems in areas out of reach of A.I. and
(g): Refresher training to existing AI workers, basic training to rural unemployed youth,training
to professionals and organization of farmers’ orientation programs
(h): institutional restructuring by way of entrusting the job of managing production and supply of
genetic inputs as well as Liquid Nitrogen to a specialized autonomous and professional State
Implementing Agency.
To arrange delivery artificial insemination services at the farmers doorsteps; bring all bredable
females under organized breeding through A I or natural service by high quality bulls within a
period of ten years and undertake breed improvement programme for indigenous cattle and
buffaloes so as to improve the genetic make-up as well as their availability. At present twenty
eight States and one Union Territory are participating under the project.
Important achievements of NPCBB:
a. Semen production in the country has increased from 22 million to 63 million doses.
b. No. of inseminations has increased from 21.8 million to 52 million.
c. Semen production has increased from 50.5 million to 62 million doses and A I number increased
from 50 million to 52 million between 2009-10 and 2010-11.
d. The impact analysis by NABARD, revealed that the overall conception rate increased from 20%
to 35 %.
e. 150 semen banks are made operational in the country.

20
f. 41 frozen semen bull stations have been strengthen to improve quality of semen production.
g. Progeny testing programme has been extended from 40 bulls to 100 bulls per set. It is envisage
that all the bulls available at the semen stations will be replaced by the bulls produced through the
organized breeding programme.
h. Minimum standard protocol for progeny testing programme has been formulated.
The above programmes were initiated with objective to the overall improvement of buffaloes in
all the states. The minimum standard for each breed have been laid down for selection of superior
bulls and norms for germplasm production (Table 3).

In order to complete spillover activities of the NPCBB, it was allowed to continue activities under
a new scheme called “National Project on Bovine Breeding and Dairy”. This new scheme
implemented up to 2014, and would supplement National Dairy Plan activities. The goals
include:
a. Improve cattle and buffalo by serving 80 percent of adult females through an organized genetics
management programme (artificial insemination or natural insemination).
b. Replace 20 million low producing non-descript cattle and buffalo with genetically superior
animals.
c. Develop a modern A I network and A I delivery services that are easily accessible by farmers.
d. Establish an authority that can authenticity of semen, semen stations and A I bulls.
e. Conservation and genetic development of several indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds.
f. Increase rural self-employment opportunities and farm income.
Table 3: Minimum pedigree standards to be used for breeding (DADF, GoI)
Sire’s Dam Lactation Daughter’s Averages (of the sire used)
Breed Yield (kg)
First Best Fat % Min. Daughters 1st Lactation Reliability
records Yield (kg) (%)
Murrah 2400 3000 7 30 1800 85
Mehsana 2400 3000 7 30 1800 85
Nili-Ravi 2400 3000 7 30 1800 85
Jaffrabadi 2800 3500 8 30 2000 85
Surti 1600 2000 7 30 1600 85
Banni 2400 3000 7 30 1800 85
Pandharpuri 1300 1800 7 30 -- 85
Bhadawari 1300 1800 8 30 -- 85

Table- 4: Improvement in grading of semen stations

Grades 2004-05 2008-09 2010-11 2012-13 2015-16
A 2 12 20 30 35
B 12 15 17 15 14
C 12 7 3 -- --
NG 33 13 7 5 2
NE -- 2 2 2 6
Total 59 49 49 52 57

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 National Dairy Plan (NDP):
The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), in partnership with the Government of India
and World Bank, has developed a National Dairy Plan (NDP) to increase dairy productivity (such
as access to high quality semen) and create linkage between rural milk producers and the
commercial milk processing sector. The first phase of the plan will spend around Rs. 20 billion
and focus on 14 major milk producing states which are: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,
Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan,Tamil
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. These states account for over 90 percent of total milk
production, 87 percent of the total buffalo population and 98 percent of total fodder production.
Three different entities implement the NDP:
a. The National Steering Committee provide policy and strategic support
b. The Project Steering Committee approves plans and monitors progress and
c. The Project Management Unit manages project implementation
In 2012, the first phase of the NDP began with a set of initiatives that would be implemented over
the next six years. These initiatives include:
a. Increasing productivity through scientific breeding and nutrition
b. Strengthening village based milk procurement systems
c. Project management and learning
In addition to NDP, the Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of
Agriculture (MoA), promoting milk production through the launch of intensive dairy
development programs and strengthening of infrastructure for quality and clean milk production.
It has devised a plethora of schemes for assistance to cooperatives and has also instituted a dairy
entrepreneurship development scheme among the other targeted programs for sustained progress
of the dairy sector. MoA approved for the continuation of the following four schemes in financial
year 2013-14 (April-March) during the 12th Five Year Plan:
I. Intensive Dairy Development Program (IDDP)
II. Strengthening infrastructure for quality and clean milk production
III. Assistance to Cooperatives and
IV. Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme

Network Project on Buffalo Improvement / Associated Progeny Testing Program:

The institutional programme of progeny testing did not yield expected improvement mainly
because of small herd size and less number of progenies for evaluation of sires. The associated
progeny testing through Network project on Buffalo Improvement was initiated in 1993 with the
objective to increase the intensity of selection of bulls from large population and increased
number of progeny per bull for testing in Murrah buffaloes. 12-15 bulls are tested on about 800
bredable buffaloes located at six institutional herds participating in this project namely PAU
Ludhiana, LUVAS Hisar, NDUAT Faizabad, CIRB Hisar, NDRI Karnal and IVRI Izatnagar.
From each bull 60-70 pregnancies are obtained over 18 months test cycle so as to make 15-30
recorded daughters spread over all the centers. Test mating from 16 sets of bulls have been
completed. Seventeenth set of 16 bulls started from July 2017 6 (Table 5) and shall continue up to
December 2018. Progeny test evaluation of 12thset has been completed and total top ranking 31
bulls (20-25%) declared as progeny tested bulls of Murrah breed(Table 5) under Network Project.
Till 31st March, 2017 about 3,72,872frozen semen doses of progeny tested and test mating bulls
are available at semen freezing laboratory at CIRB-Hisar.Progeny test evaluation of 12 sets of
Murrah bulls has been completed

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 Table 5: Sixteen sets of bulls used under Network Project on Buffalo since July 1993
Set Duration Bulls Av. 305 day or less Highest dam 305 305 day or less
No No dams’ best yield days yield (kg) herd average
(kg) (kg)
1 July, 1993 to Dec.1994 11 3050 4114 1820/501
2 Jan. 1995 to June 1996 15 3002 3898 1920/487
3 July, 1996 to Dec. 1997 15 2876 3275 2053/476
4 Jan. 1998 to June 1999 14 2999 3401 1973/457
5 July, 1999 to Dec. 2000 15 3120 3898 1943/551
6 Jan. 2001 to June 2002 16 3055 3898 1972/562
7 July, 2002 to Dec. 2003 12 2928 3544 2017/505
8 Jan., 2004 to June 2005 16 2928 3690 2056/511
9 July, 2005 to Dec. 2006 15 2923 3336 2008/458
10 Jan. 2007 to June 2008 14 2829 3369 2130/509
11 July, 2008 to Dec. 2009 14 2792 3051 2046/483
12 Jan., 2010 to June 2011 11 3362 5192 2115/384
13 July, 2011 to Dec., 2012 8 3205 3805 2199/380
14 Jan. 2013 to June 2014 12 3451 4636 2356/288
15 July, 2014 to Dec., 2015 15 3350 4636 2361/335
16 Jan. 2016 to June 2017 15 3762 4636 2349/280
17 July 2017 to Dec. 2018 16 3225 4668 ----
PT Bulls of Nili-Ravi buffalo:
The Nili-Ravi population status revealed that the large proportion of gradedNili-Ravi animals is
the results of lackof planning for improvement and non-availability of superior quality Nili Ravi
breeding bulls. ICAR-CIRB sub campus, Nabha has been playing a pivotal role through
evaluating three sets under progeny testing program and six top ranking progeny tested bulls’
semen available at Institute. The states having sizable population of Nili-Ravi buffalo (Pure and
Graded) should redefine the state breeding policy and include Nili-Ravi breed in the state
breeding policy. Similarly, other states with no defined buffalo breed and large non-descript
buffalo population can also include Nili-Ravi as another improver breed of buffalo.
Table -6: List of Progeny Tested Nili-Ravi Bulls
Sets Bull Daughters Daughters’ 305 days Sire Superiority over Semen
No. / bull or less FLMY (kg) Index contemporary (%) doses
I 411 19 1995.37 2315.49 25.07 693
473 10 1959.60 1961.74 10.01 760
II 523 23 1981.48 2058.79 11.24 800
535 10 2063.40 2061.91 10.85 897
III 674 09 2378.22 2388.91 9.39 1390
702 09 2366.78 2376.83 8.88 1240

The above progeny tested bulls were evaluated under progeny testing program initiated in 2001-
02 and these bulls ranked from total 25 bulls put under three sets for evaluation.

Performance evaluation and improvement of other breeds of buffaloes under Network Project on
Buffalo Improvement involves Nili-Ravi at CIRB sub campus Nabha, Jaffarabadi breed at JAU
Junagadh, Gujarat, Bhadawari breed at IGFRI Jhansi UP, Surti breed at MPUAT Vallabhnagar

23
Rajasthan and Pandharpuri breed at MPKY Kohlapur, Maharashtra. At each of these centers an
elite herd of 50-60 buffaloes maintained for young bull production, bull rearing and semen
freezing laboratory has been established. From each bull about 3 to 4 thousand doses of semen
are frozen. For test mating 8-10 bulls in each set are used for 18 months duration on farmers’
buffaloes covering a bredable population of about 3000 buffaloes in field with the target to bred
at least 150 animals from each bull and to obtained at least 20 recordable daughters from each
bull for progeny test evaluation. 25 percent top ranking bulls are selected for nominated mating of
elite buffaloes at the farm as well as on identified buffaloes in field. From selective breeding
through progeny testing in Murrah buffaloes, wet average increased from 5.29 kg (1992-93) to
7.78 kg (2016-17), similarly 305 days or less milk yield (1602 to 2448 kg), AFC (50.7 to 42.68
months), service period (249 to 149 days) and calving (495 to 466 days) improved significantly
over the last 23 years (Table 7). The significant increased reported in Nili-Ravi and Jaffrabadi
buffaloes for performance traits since inception of the project (Table 8). The production and
reproduction performance of various breeds under network project are depicted in Table-7 and 8.
Table-7: Performance of Murrah buffalo improved under Network Project
Sr Traits Years
No 1992-93 2016-17
1 Wet Average (kg) 5.29 (403) 7.78 (448)
2 305 days or less milk yield (kg) 1602 (309) 2448 (446)
3 AFC (months) 50.7 (123) 42.68(150)
4 S P (days) 249 (204) 149.18 (304)
5 C I (days) 495 (250) 466.65 (265)

Table-8: Performance of various breeds under network Project (2016-17)

Breeds AFC S P (days) D P (days) 305 days or less C I (days)
(months) milk yield (kg)
Nili-Ravi 41.45(28) 140.40 (118) 146.60(118) 2377 (136) 447.50(118)
Jaffrabadi 49.80(12) 180.00 (33) 184.7 (33) 1985.40(45) 492.70(33)
Pandharpuri 42.00 147.97(13) 172.52 (13) 1412.16(14) 457.32(13)
Swamp 61.00 199.00 231.00 312.16 506.00
Surti 46.21 141.07 172.75 1582.82 (23) 482.63
Bhadawari 50.06(4) 176.2 (18) 163.6 (18) 1368.20(26) 478.30(18)

References:
References are available on request from editor.

24
 Sheep Genetic Resources in India: A Sustainable Livelihood Option
Arun Kumar, G. R. Gowane, S. S. Misra and R. C. Sharma
ICAR- Central Sheep & Wool Research Institute
Avikanagar 304501 Rajasthan, India
Introduction:
Rural human population in India constitute 72.22 %, from which majority are dependent directly or
indirectly on the agriculture and livestock related occupations. The total sheep in the country is 65.06
million that accounts for nearly 12.7% of total livestock population in India.Being the world’s second
most populous country, India has huge pressure on its food resources. There are social stigmas
associated with beef and pork among the majority hindu community and the second-most populous
muslim community, respectively. The contribution of sheep in total meat consumption in India is only
7% (DAHD&F AR 2016-17). Sheep breeding programs of the past have the major objectives of fine
wool production, followed by carpet wool and meat. A number of crossbred strains were developed
by crossbreeding of Indigenous stock with exotics. Since 1990, the Network Project on Sheep
Improvement (NWPSI) focussed on improvement of indigenous breeds by intensive selection. Since
2009 Mega Sheep Seed Project (MSSP) also works for genetic improvement of the sheep in field,
using elite germplasm at the farm units. These projects are still running in the right direction.
However, a major challenge towards profitable and sustainable sheep rearing today is their market
connectivity.
Importance of sheep:
The analytics on sheep population and drought prone zones in India conveys the picture that sheep
population is more in the drought prone areas, thus acting as the buffering zone for human sustainable
livelihood. It has been observed recently that the sheep population has increased in the areas of
Andhra Pradesh/ Telangana where farmer’s suicides due to crop failure were more. Sheep is the
lifeline in areas where crop failure is a commonplace. According to the Livestock Census 2012,
Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana) ranks first in sheep population with nearly 40.57% sheep
population followed by Karnataka (14.73%) and Rajasthan (13.95%).
Table-1: Leading states in sheep population (Livestock Census, 2012)
Sr No State Population (’000) % share
1 Andhra Pradesh/Telangana 26060 40.57
2 Karnataka 9339 14.73
3 Rajasthan 9007 13.95
4 Tamil nadu 4470 7.36
5 J&K 3284 5.21
6 Maharashtra 2533 3.97
7 Gujarat 1641 2.62
INDIA 65060 100

Agriculture and allied sector contributes for 48.9% employment according to Economic survey (2013-
14). Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small farm households that indicates importance of
livestock sector as a whole. Agriculture sector contributed 15.6% to National GDP (BAH&FS 2015).
The livestock sector contributed over 4.1 per cent of the total GDP in 2012-13, that nearly accounts
for 29.5% of the agricultural GDP (BAH&FS 2015) indicating a significant contribution of the
livestock. Presently, sheep is mainly reared for mutton purpose due to the constraints of appropriate
market for the wool and higher shearing cost. As far as meat production from sheep is concerned,
Andhra Pradesh ranks first with 28.68% contribution followed Telangana by (27.88%) and Rajasthan

25
(9.48%) and slaughter rate in sheep has been on rise consistently. During 2015-16 a total of
3,82,17,670 sheep were slaughtered that lead to per animal productivity estimates to be 12.70 kg
during 2015-16.
Table-2: Leading states in mutton and wool production (BAH&FS 2016)
Sr Mutton Production Wool (’000 kg)
States States
No (million kg)2015-16 2015-16
1 Andhra Pradesh 139.26 (28.68%) Rajasthan 13414.61 (30.8%)

2 Telangana 135.36 (27.88%) Karnataka 8191.42 (18.8%)

3 Rajasthan 46.03 (9.48%) J&K 6865.65 (15.8%)

4 Tamil Nadu 36.48 (7.51%) Telangana 4562.41 (10.5%)

5 Karnataka 28.55 (5.88%) Gujarat 2282.65 (5.2%)

6 West Bengal 17.59 (3.62%) Himachal Pradesh 1408.87 (3.2%)

7 Uttar Pradesh 15.77 (3.24%) Maharashtra 1389.89 (3.2%)

INDIA 485.53 (100%) INDIA 43581.34 (100%)

The meat production from sheep and goat in India as estimated (BAH&FS 2016) is 485.53and 942.91
million kg, respectively, that constitutes 7% and 13% contribution to 7000 million kg of total meat
produced in country. Share of sheep meat towards total meat production of the country has been quite
stagnant since last few years with 7.33% in 2007-08 to 7% in 2015-16.
Wool as a commodity from sheep is losing its value due to many reasons. First is its utility as an
important by-product due to easy and cheap availability of the synthetic fibres. Secondly, the income
generated from wool is non-significant as far as the primary producer is concerned. However, still the
wool fetches a great value at market. During 2015-16 estimates of wool production was43.6 million
kg that reduced from last year production of 48.1 million kg. It has remained almost stagnant from
43.9 million kg in 11th plan to 43.6 million kg in 2015-16 (BAH&FS, 2016). During last decade, more
than 42 million kg of raw wool was produced annually in the country of which about 2.5 million kg
was of fine quality. India’s per capita/year consumption of meat is 5.11 kg (FAO, 2009), and it will
increase in the coming future. As far as wool production is concerned, Rajasthan ranks first with
30.8% contribution followed by Karnataka (18.32%) and Jammu & Kashmir (15.8%). Sheep
husbandry is popular among many nomadic tribes In India, although it has been a key source in their
sustainable livelihood but could not reach its true potential. This sector has been infected with the
pests of poverty, illiteracy, absence of market, middlemen and absence of proper scientific
management of the sheep flocks. In the near future, with advent of new technologies, streamlining of
the market, access of market for sheep owners, formation of co-operatives by farmers, micro-credits,
boom in the information technology, the future of sheep husbandry seems to be bright.
Sheep genetic resources :
There are 42 breeds of sheep and are found across the country and are well adapted to specific agro-
climatic region. Details of the sheep breeds classified on the basis of agro-ecological regions viz. a)
North temperate region; b) North Western arid and semi-arid region; c) Southern peninsular region; and
d) Eastern region are depicted below. In our country a sizable population of sheep are non-descript due
to indiscriminate breeding and intermixing of breeds.
Necessity to increase per animal productivity :
The average carcass yield from sheep is relatively low in India with national average of 12.7 kg,
whereas the world average is 16 kg for carcass yield. In India, Assam has lowest average of 7 kg, and

26
 Table-3: Breeds of sheep in different agro-ecological regions in India and their utility
North Temperate North-Western Arid and Semi-Arid Southern Peninsular Eastern
Bhakarwal (CW) Chokla (CW) Bellary (MCW) Balangir (MCW)
Changthangi (CW) Jaisalmeri (MCW) Coimbatore (MCW) Bonpala (MCW)
Gaddi (CW) Jalauni (MCW) Daccani (M) Chottanagpuri
Gurez (CW) Kheri (MCW) Hassan (M) (MCW)
Karnah (AW) Magra (CW) Kachakatti (M) Ganjam (MCW)
Kashmir Merino(AW) Malpura (MCW) Kanguri (M) Garole (MP)
Poonchi (CW) Marwari (MCW) Kilakarsal (M) Tibetan (CW)
Rampur Bushair(CW) Muzaffarnagari (MCW) Madras Red (M) Kendrapara (MP)
Nali (CW) Mandya (M)
Patanwadi (CW) Mecheri (M)
Pugal (MCW) Nellore (M)
Sonadi (MCW) Nilgiri (AW)
Munjal(M) Rammand White (M)
Tiruchy Black (M)
Vembur (M)
Note :*Within parenthesis is the major utility of the breed: (AW) Apparel wool; (CW) Carpet wool;
(MCW) Mutton and Carpet wool; (M) Mutton; (P) Prolificacy

Himachal has highest average of 20 kg. Apart from this the increased slaughter rate is also a thing of
concern, if population shows a declining trend. In the past, efforts towards enhancing body weight
through selection within indigenous and crossbred population has been attempted. The results of cross
breeding on the whole, revealed that percent improvement in body weight up to 6 months of age is
conspicuous in different crossbreds over contemporary natives but only marginal improvement was
observed at 12 months of age. This is indicative of the fact that crossbreds/new synthetics require high
plane of nutrition and if they are managed on the same feeding regimen as for natives, the differences
which were conspicuous up to 6 month age became marginal at the age of one year. Due to non-
availability of required plane of nutrition, mutton type strains developed by crossing Suffolk and
Dorset with the indigenous breeds could not outdo the natives under village management conditions
despite the improvement in body size as well as in wool quality and quantity. Results on growth
performance of native breeds reveals that Malpura and Muzaffarnagri of North Western breeds and
Nellore and Mandya of Southern breeds have great potential for their use as improver breeds for
mutton production. Improvement of sheep through breeding strategy will also depend upon socio-
economic and ecological considerations, existing genetic resources, their productivity, possibility of
their improvement through selection within a breed, upgrading with indigenous improver breeds, or
replacing an indigenous breed with an existing breed if it is arising from similar ecological region and
thus will be adaptable, or cross-breeding for evolving new breed combining the adaptation and
hardiness of local breed and higher productivity of the exotic breed.
Per sheep more sheep:
Considering the importance of multiple births in sheep breeding in special reference to mutton
production, Garole, an indigenous prolific breed of sheep, was introduced at CSWRI, Avikanagar
during 1997 for improving reproductive efficiency of native sheep (Sharma et al. 2004). The results
indicated that twining percent in Garole X Malpura (GM) half-breed ewes were 52.24 % and lamb
born, as triplets were 7.46%. The average number of lambs born per ewe lambed was 1.64 in GM and
1.08 in Malpura sheep (Kumar et al. 2006, Mishra et al. 2007). It was observed that the body weight
at different ages of GM half-bred was on lower side compared to contemporary Malpura lambs. This
was however the first report that also signified the importance of enhancing Malpura inheritance to
75% for better live weight gain and mothering ability in prolific crosses. The overall percent gain in
prolificacy in GM was 52.38, which increased to 75.73 in third parity (Mishra et al. 2007). The FecB

27
 gene carrier GM were backcrossed with Malpura ewes to produce the GM x Malpura (GMM). The
GMM crossbreds ewes were able to produce >50% twin lambings and higher body weight as
compared to half-breds but problem of low milk yield of dam for feeding twins/triplets and to enhance
the live weight gain during pre-weaning stage persisted. To address this issue, Patanwadi sheep of
Gujarat (a heavy sheep breed of Saurashtra, famous for higher body weight and milk) was introduced.
By implementation of structured breeding plan, a high performing triple breed cross in terms of
increased prolificacy, more litter weight, more milk per dam and adaptable to sub-tropical climate has
been developed at CSWRI Avikanagar, which was named “Avishaan” on 04th January 2016. This
newly developed prolific sheep is a composite cross possessing 12.5% Garole, 37.5% Malpura, 50%
Patanwadi inheritance in which FecB gene has been introgressed successfully. The average body
weight of the lambs is 3.3 kg at birth, 16.8 kg at weaning and 25.9 kg at six month age(Sharma et al.
2016). More than 54% Avishaan females produced 2 lambs and 2% produced 3 lambs in a lambing
leading to 57% prolificacy with litter size at birth 1.61. Avishaan ewe excelled the local Malpura
sheep in terms of ewe productivity efficiency at 3 month age by 32.5%. They also produced 50% twin
lambings at farmer’s door. Results obtained so far in case of newly developed prolific sheep are
encouraging and igniting a new way ahead for profitable sheep husbandry. In times to come, prolific
sheep may prove a boon towards enhancing the economic returns per sheep for livelihood security of
Indian sheep keepers.
Current challenges with the Indian sheep husbandry sector:
Bottom-up approach in sheep breeding policies: With so much of cultural, linguistic and biological
diversity, India cannot afford to have one policy for all the sheep husbandry sector. In India, each
state government has its own policy for livestock breeding as agriculture is a state subject. Usually
each state government has a well-crafted breeding policy considering locally available needs and
germplasm. However, the execution of the policy fails due to the policy not being given priority,
inadequacy of funds and infrastructure and no direct control over the wish and will of farmers to adopt
the government policy. A bottom-up approach is an essential requirement, whereby there is a need for
the breeding programs to be chalked out at grass root level that will include Panchayati Raj structure.
1. Linkages between livestock producers and market: The genetic improvement programs for
sheep have primarily been aimed at improvement of the live body weight and wool yield.
However, in general farmers are not much benefitted from having higher or lower weight animals,
as their animals are seldom sold on a live weight basis. Thus having no incentive for producing
animals of higher body weight, livestock keepers do not show much interest in adoption of the
superior sheep germplasm. To address this problem, linkage with the market is essentially
required. Study at ICAR-CSWRI Avikanagar on Malpura sheep breeders indicated that farmers
sell their lambs at 3 to 4 months of age for the price ranging between Rs. 1200/- to 2500/-
(Malpura Project AR 2012-13), and the average weight of lambs is more than 15 kg. The average
price for live weight at the Delhi abattoirs is Rs. 240/- per kg live weight. Market to producer
linkages needs to be set up from government organization and or NGOs.
2. Coverage under genetic improvement program: The number of breeds covered in the program
and coverage of the population is not realistic looking in to the actual breeding population. Today
MSSP and NWPSI covers only 10 breeds out of 42 enlisted. This is less than 25% coverage. Not
only this, but the population covered under each program is very small, due to unavailability of the
budget. Thus a strong support from government side in terms of with huge funding is essential for
increasing the coverage of the sheep population so that gains can be predicted and realized in true
sense.
3. Revival and conservation of grazing resources: Sheep being the animals of poor farmers are
reared on zero input systems in India. The country’s pastures have reduced from about 70 million

28
 ha in 1947 to about 38 million ha in 1997 (PCI 2011). The remaining grazing lands have either
already degraded or are in the process of degradation. With shrinking grazing resources and
extensive agriculture production, there is severe pressure on common grazing land. State policies
in restricting the encroachment of the common property resources (CPRs) for grazing land needs
to be strengthened. The grazing land should not be allotted at all for human settlement or industrial
purpose. The challenge is to revitalize the degrading common fodder and pasture resources in the
country and improve their productivity. Stall feeding (with fodder and concentrate) to sheep is one
option; however, this is unrealistic looking in to the poor economic condition of the shepherds.
These days, entrepreneurs are entering in the sheep rearing business, where stall feeding is the only
option left due to non-availability of the grazing land. Many entrepreneurs share their good
experience with semi-intensive system of rearing.
4. Minimum support price for sheep produce: The sheep mainly produce the wool and meat as
primary products, however the prices are not fixed. Although meat receives better prices in market,
but the wool from majority of the breeds is sold at very low cost. Many a times it was observed
that the cost of shearing is also hardly recovered from the sale of wool. Again the problem is with
linkage, where wool is not sold at the right platform. However, being a natural fibre, wool is a
prime product should receive a fixed minimum support price (MSP). This will help sheep farmers
to think over their produce and opportunities for marketing will increase.
5. Diversified sheep produce and marketing: Sheep has been traditionally reared as a family
business, without actually thinking about its economics in India. The pastoralist system was the
only stakeholder of sheep in India. However, with shrinking grazing land, losing interest of new
generation in sheep raising and low returns as compared to the hard work requirement, now the
time has come, when the sheep husbandry needs a boost. Sheep provides a multitude of produce
about which farmers hardly think. Apart from meat and wool, the sheep manure can be a major
source of income, if it is properly marketed. One such example is “AVIKHAD” prepared at ICAR-
CSWRI Avikanagar, where sheep manure with wool waste is processed and packed for sell to the
kitchen gardens, etc. Apart from this, the coarse wool that is not used for any production, can be
best utilized for making toys, mats, etc., targeting the right customers.
6. Need of abattoirs: Sheep skin/hide can be utilized for making purse, and other leather products.
Bone, blood obtained from the sheep also fetches good market value for making meals for poultry
and fish, given right processing. However, all these things to happen require right processing of the
sheep in the slaughter house, linked with marketing. Therefore, scientific abattoirs with facility for
processing of each produce of sheep needs to be constructed at every important city with sufficient
two way linkages to farmers and market.
Conclusion:
Sheep husbandry is the backbone of India’s rural economy. A few steps in the right direction with
considerable economic investment are essentially required to rejuvenate this lifeline. There is a need to
focus on sheep productivity in a sustainable manner with emphasis on profitability and institutional
support.
References:
References are available on request from editor.

29
Section-II 30-52

Doubling Farmers’ Income for Rural Livelihood

Security
Strategies to Double the Income of Dairy Farmers in India
A J Kachhiapatel

“Conservation and Improvement Strategies for Kankrej Cow to

Double the Income of Pastoralist / Maldharies
H H Panchasara

Strategies for Enhancing Income of Smallholder Livestock

Farmers in Western India
S. S. Lathwal, Indu Devi and Kuldeep Dudi

Editors: Dr A K Srivastava and Dr B S Rathod

30
 Strategies to Double the Income of Dairy Farmers in India
A J Kachhiapatel
Director, Animal Husbandry
Gujarat State, Gandhinagar
Introduction:
Livestock keepers in the country are facing many challenges, where, we all are working in
order to double farmers’ income (DFI) by 2022, and it is difficult to achieve by crops
husbandry alone, but possible only through encouraging farmers to go for other sources of
income like livestock farming, fruits / vegetables / flower farming etc; and processing and
marketing of agricultural produce, which has immense potential in the country. Also, we
must remember that to achieve the target of DFI 2022, agricultural sector require an annual
growth rate of 14.86 per cent per year for the next five years, but at the same time this growth
level hasn’t been achieved even for a single year in Indian agriculture till so far, while in
animal husbandry sector annual growth rate in 2013-14 was 23.77% and 2014 15 was 24.0%,
shows that the targeted growth rate could be achieved, if efforts are being made to have
animal husbandry as component of crops husbandry. However, Nirmal (2017) suggested that
annual agriculture growth rate is possible only 4.5%, which will take 16 years to DFI.
Also, it is a matter of consideration for all of us that as per National Sample Survey Report
(2003) 40% of Indian farmers disliked farming as a profession due to its low profits, high
risk, and the lack of social status and, therefore, would like to leave it at the first opportunity
(Agarwal and Agrawal 2017). At the same time about 23 percent households in rural India
still below poverty line.
Our resources: Livestock population:
The growth rate of poultry and goat is highest (14.59% and 3.01%, respectively) among all
domestic animals and poultry since 1951 shows the prolificacy of goat and preference of
people for their rearing. The growth rate of buffalo, cattle, sheep, goat and poultry is clearly
visible, but decline in the population of camel, horse and ponies shows the preference of
people and its utility under present scenario (Table-1).
Table -1: Population of different species of livestock in India
Population (million)
Sr Total
Year
No Cattle Buffalo Goat Sheep Camel Horse+ Poultry livestock
Ponies
1 1951 155.3 43.4 47.2 39.1 0.60 1.5 73.5 292.9
2 1972 178.3 57.4 67.5 40.0 1.1 0.9 138.5 353.2
3 1992 204.58 84.21 115.28 50.78 1.0 0.8 307.07 470.9
4 2012 190.90 108.70 135.17 65.07 0.40 0.63 729.2 512.1
5 2016* 191.6 111.34 139.24 67.86 0.39 0.61 1148.8 536.83
Overall growth 0.37 2.43 3.01 1.07 -0.54 -0.94 14.59 1.21
rate / annum (%)
Note : mule+donkey+pig are included in total population; * Projected value; Source : Anonymous (2017,a);
http://dairyknowledge.in/article/5-livestock-population-india-species-time-series

Production of milk and major food crops :

The overall growth in milk yield and food crops production over a period of 66 years after

31
1951 is depicted in Table-2, which shows that maximum growth was achieved in wheat
(22.72%) followed by milk (13.82%), total food grains (7.06%) and rice (6.94%).
Table-2: Milk yield and major food crops in India 1951 to 2016-17)
Milk yield and major food crops (million tonnes) Food
Sr Milk Rice Wheat Coarse Total Total Grain Yield
Year
No Cereals Pulse Food /(Kg / hect.)
Grains
1 1951 17.1 20.58 6.46 15.38 8.41 50.82 522
2 1982 35.8 47.12 40.00 12.9 129.52 1035
3 2002 86.2 71.82 65.76 26.07 11.13 174.78 1535
4 2016-17 163.6 109.15 97.44 44.39 22.40 273.38 2056*
Growth rate 13.82 6.94 22.72 3.04 2.68 7.06 4.74
(%)
Source : http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/wrkpapers/wp_hwpaper.pdf * 2015-16
Joy deb (2015) ; Ray (2017); Anonymous (2010); Anonymous (2015)

It is realized from these figure presented in Table-2 that by these products alone, to achieve
the target of double the income of a farmer is difficult. However, looking towards the growth
in milk production during last few years make us hopeful that it could be possible to achieve
the target, where 14.86% growth rate is required. The situation is difficult, but hopeful that
milk yield of local cows increased from 2.36 (kg/day) in the country during 2012 to 6.82
(kg/day) in Punjab during 2014, raised the hope of achieving the target. Looking beyond this,
growth in milk production in UK, USA and Israel is 25.6 kg, 32.8 kg and 38.6 kg per cow per
day, respectively, raise our eyebrow that we have scope of development, but comparatively
we are far behind these countries (Anonymous, 2012).

The growth in milk production as well as in food grains is well recognized by all of us, but
availability of feed resources is again a question on our self sufficiency? According to FAO,
challenges ahead with us during the era of climate change are that by the year 2030,
possibility of dependency of developing countries for import of food requirements will be on
developed countries, where position of India itself is not known?

Table-3: Availability of milk (kg) and food grains (kg) per capita per annum.
Net per capita availability of milk and food grains (kg) per annum
Sr Year
No Milk Rice Wheat Other Cereals Gram Pulses Total food
cereals grains
1 1951 48.18 58.0 24.0 40.0 122.0 8.2 22.1 144.1
2 1981 49.64 72.2 47.3 32.8 152.3 4.9 13.7 166.0
3 2002 83.95 83.5 60.5 23.1 167.4 3.9 12.9 180.4
4 2013 112.06 84.8 66.9 19.4 171.2 5.6 15.3 186.4
5 2015 123.01 67.89 61.32 24.60 153.81 4.53 15.99 169.76
*
Source : Anonymous (2015)Anonymous (2016,a) * Projected
The availability of food grains and milk per capita per day is depicted in Table-3, which
shows that in some of these products, we have surplus production, whereas in some crops

32
like gram, pulses we have shortfalls. Therefore, our strategy must take these issues into
consideration to avoid the imports of these food grains.

Feed resources :
The rearing practices of livestock in India is either by grazing or stall feeding or partially
grazing and partially stall feeding, where feed supply to livestock from grazing / pasture land
is 12%; from crop residues (straws of wheat, rice, pulses, sugarcane tops, etc.) is 64% ;
cultivated green fodder (clover, sorghum, alfalfa, corn, millet, etc.) is 18% and concentrates
(coarse grains, oil cakes & meals) is 6% on dry matter basis (Maurice, 2017). Contrary to
this requirement, availability and deficiency of feed resources in India is depicted in Table-4,
realized that 63.5% deficiency of green and 23.5% deficiency of dry feeds shows that we
must formulate our strategy to fill this gap, as situation in future will be more complex due to
growth in population and availability of cultivable lands.
Table-4: Requirement, availability and deficiency of feed resources (MT) in India
Requirement (MT) Availability (MT) Deficiency (%)
Sr Year Green Dry CP TDN Green Dry CP TDN Green Dry CP TDN
No
1 2015 1097 609 49.39 356.7 401 466 35.9 273.2 63.5 23.5 27.1 23.4
2 2020 1134 630 54.04 368.8 406 473 37.5 281.2 64.2 24.8 26.5 23.7
3 2025 1170 650 52.68 380.4 411 488 39.3 292.4 64.8 24.9 25.4 23.1
Source : GoI (2003) ; IGFRI (2006)
Another, important factor is cost of production of fodder crops, where expenditure on
fertilizer, labour and diesel was 22%, 21% and 11% respectively, which is almost more than
50% of total cost (Chadha et al, 2017). As, it is clearly visualize that proper management of
these components of cost will help to bring down the cost of fodder production, which
ultimately will help to increase the income of livestock keepers.

Figure-1: Proportion of input expenditure (%) by farmers (2012-13)

Steps to increase the farmers’ income :

The real challenge for all of us is to double the farmers’ income till 2022-23. It implies that
growth rate in farm income is to be accelerated, where following activities shall be given
priority in animal husbandry sector :

33
 (i) Increase productivity of milch animals :
The productivity of individual animal in India is very low as compare to other countries of
the world. The figures depicted in Table-5, for Indigenous and non descript population shows
that productivity of cattle, buffalo and goats is increased continuously since 1992, which is
about 1.21% and 2.52% per annum in Indigenous cattle and buffalo respectively. Further, it
Table-5: Average milk production (kg) per animal per day in India
Average milk yield(kg) per animal per day
Year Gujarat / Cattle Buffalo
India Indigenous CBC Non descript Indigenous Non descript Goat

1992 Gujarat 2.75 7.47 -- 3.70 -- 0.32

2012 Gujarat 3.95 8.81 -- 4.78 -- 0.43
2016 Gujarat 4.51 8.96 3.56 5.18 4.24 0.45
India 3.55 7.42 2.28 5.94 4.04 0.46
Source : Anonymous,2017,a)

is suggested that productivity of these population will further accelerated in future and in the
mid of this century, we would be able to achieve the glory of the country, which we lost
earlier.

(ii) Improve availability of feed resources :

It is well known that we have shortage of feed resources in the country, where efforts should
be made to increase productivity of the crops as well as digestibility of available feed stuffs is
to be improved : (i) by dietry manipulation, (ii) microbial manipulation and (iii) increasing
the production of fodder crops). Further, efforts should be made to utilize the by-products of
different industry i.e. pulses, wastage in India is assumed about 15% , wastage of food
grains during storage and transportation due to poor infrastructure as well as by utilizing
waste or surplus land for the purpose.
Table-6 : Area under major fodder crops (000, hectare) in selected states of India
Selected Rajasthan Maharashtra Gujarat Madhya Punjab Uttar Haryana Karnataka Andhra
states Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh

Area under 2841 1887 1107 1086 907 805 545 491 209
fodder (61%) (0.4%) (20%) (6.2%) (5.0%) (6.7%) (4.0%) (14.6%) (7.0%)
crops
Source : GoI, 2010; Shankar et al (1988)
Looking towards the availability of land for fodder production under different states (Table-
6) shows that earlier about 15% land was under fodder crops, while at present except
Rajasthan and Gujarat situation is not favorable as far as fodder crops are concerned.
Therefore, we must change our strategy to increase the availability of feed resources in the
country.
(iii) Breeding policy :
Recent reports of the GoI on breed status of domestic species in the country shows that pure
breed of cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats are only 11.87%, 17.05%, 38.86% and 26.97%,
respectively (Table-7), while corresponding values of pure and graded population are
25.10%, 56.63%, 58.92% and 38.74% and rest of the population is non descript. It shows that

34
breed improvement programme to increase the productivity of different breeds of these
species across the country, these population shall be taken into consideration, before
finalizing the breeding programme of any state / region.

Table-7: Pure breed and non descript population of different species in India (2012)
Sr Species Pure breed Pure and Non % population No of
No population Graded descript of total breeds
population population livestock included
in survey
1 Cattle 11.87 25.10 74.9 37.28 37
2 Buffalo 17.05 56.63 43.37 21.23 13
3 Sheep 38.86 58.92 41.08 12.71 38
4 Goat 26.97 38.74 61.26 26.40 23 (28**)
5 Camel 71.78 28.22 0.08 09
6 Horses &Ponies 19.58 80.42 0.12 6
7 Mules ---- ----
0.10 2
8 Donkeys 91.35 8.65*
9 Pig 3.97 26.89 73.11 2.01 6
Source : Anonymous (2013) *Exotic breed ** Actual No of Breed
(iv) Contract farming :
According to Agriculture Census 2010-11 there are 67.10% marginal farmers (below 1.0 hect
of land) in the country followed by small farmers i.e. 17.91%, having 1-2 hect of land. It
shows that presently, Indian agriculture is dominated by marginal farmers, who have small
holdings, rearing 1 to 3/4 cow or buffaloes and contributing more than 75% in total milk
production in the country along with landless and small farmers.
Further, looking towards the fragmentation of land in the country, it is declining since 1971
(1.43 hectare) to 2014 (1.15 hectare) and these farmers could not adopt mechanization, where
cost could be reduced. More over there are 20.5 million households in the country doing
dairy farming and majority of them are landless, small and marginal farmers, having limited
resources and to doubled their income is possible only to increase the productivity of
individual animals Therefore, contract farming may prove a boon for such farmers, where we
must formulate a policy for contract farming in the country.

(v) Health and housing management :

This is also another area , where farmers should concentrate for the welfare and comfort of
the animals and we all should think about the issues relevant to management of these animals,
where management protocol is to be develop for different class and level of productivity of
individual animals rather than general management of a particular class of animals. The best
example is that management protocol for animals producing 5.0 lit / 10.0 lit / 15.0 lit / 20.0 lit
milk per day should be separate rather than same management practices for all.
Farmers’ income:
The annual growth rate in agriculture and allied activities in India was 3.2% (from 1991-92
to 2013-14); 3.94% (2004-05 to 2011-12) and 4.1% (2016-17), while growth in dairy sector
during last three years is almost 14.89%. Similarly, overall contribution in the income of
household from agriculture and allied sector was 11.75% and from livestock alone to landless

35
and marginal farmers was 36% (during the period from 2002-03 to 2012-13), while income
of dairy farmers increased 23.77% in 2013-14 (Sodhi, 2017). This shows that we have scope
of improvement in animal husbandry sector. At the same time, it is also important that
number of farmers in the country were declined significantly from14.39 crores in 1993-94 to
13.60 crores in 2015-16 (Chand, 2017), but their income increased above national average
(Table-8), is a matter of consideration, where majority of farmers in the country are under
debt. This situation is not comfort, must be given priority and alternate farming system like
IFS model on regional basis must be developed for different class of farmers.
Table-8: States having overall income of farmers (RS) above the national
average and doubling time in years
Sr State Total Annual Income (Rs) Doubling time in years
No 2002-03 2012-13 @ given CAGR
1 Punjab 59520 216708 5.36
2 Kerala 48048 142668 6.37
3 Assam 37932 80340 9.24
4 Gujarat 32208 95112 6.4
6 Maharashtra 29556 88620 6.31
7 Karnataka 31392 105984 5.7
8 Haryana 34584 173208 4.3
9 Jammu & Kashmir 65856 152196 8.27
All India 25380 77124 6.24
Source : Satyasai and Mehrotra (2016)
Further, looking towards the average productivity of high value crops (fruits, vegetables,
fiber, condiments & spices and sugarcane) as reported by Chand (2017) was Rs 1,41,777.00
per hectare per annum, which is quite higher than staple crops ( cereals, pulses, oilseeds) i.e.
Rs 41,169.00 per hectare per annum.The fact is that staple crops occupy 77% of the total
cropped area and contribute only 41% of total output of the crops sector, while same value of
output is contributed from the high value crops and occupy only 19% gross cropped area
during 2013-14 (Chand, 2017). Similarly, farm income from different crops per cultivator
increased from Rs 21,110.00 in 1993-94 to Rs. 44,027.00 in 2015-16 Chand (2017) is
more than double and it took about 23 years (Table-9).
Table-9: Trends in farmers’ income in India (1993-94 to 2015-16)
Sr No Year Cultivators Farm Income
(No in crores) (Rs, per year per cultivator )
1 1993-94 14.39 21110
2 1999.00 13.88 26875
3 2004-05 16.61 26146
4 2011-12 14.62 43258
5 2015-16 13.60 44027

Therefore, under present circumstances, we must change our strategy to achieve the growth
rate 10.5 to 14.69% to double the farmers income till 2022 -23 is a difficult task, but possible

36
only to have diversified agriculture to have a proper combination of livestock, staple crops
and high value crops on regional basis in the country.
Similarly, the average annual income of a farmer in Gujarat and India depicted in Table-10,
shows that income from farming, livestock and wages was higher in Gujarat than India.

Table-10: Average farmers’ income (Rs) per annum in Gujarat and India (2016-17)
Sr Particulars Net receipt from different source / annum / farmer (Rs) Total
No Farming Livestock Business Wages income
(Rs)
1 Gujarat 45,403 29,876 5,882 41,533 1,22,694
2 India 47,694 11,811 7,926 32,059 99,474
Source ; Anonymous (2017,b)

It is also interested to know that overallnet income per farmer per annum (2016-17) under
different regions of the Gujarat state is summarized here as below, which shows that it was
highest in the Kachchh and north Gujarat, but these values were lower than Punjab,while
(i) Kachchh : Rs 1,92,560.00
(ii) North Gujarat : Rs 1,43,200.00
(iii) South Gujarat : Rs 93,403.00
(iv) Central Gujarat : Rs 85,076.00
(v) Saurashtra : Rs 99,104.00
other values are either higher or lower than other states (Table-8 for 2012-13). Here we can
conclude that annual income of a farmer per hectare of land or per household from different
combinations of resources or crops is variable, where to get higher income from animal
husbandry, agriculture, horticulture etc diversified farming shall be given priority depending
upon the availability of resources and climatic conditions of the region.

Conclusion :
The strategies to double farmers’ income in India till 2022-23 is a real challenge for farmers,
scientists and planners. In fact we shall formulate our strategy that proper quality of seed
material / breeding bulls, efficient utilization of resources, diversified crop husbandry,
proper marketing, remunerative price of products and efficient utilization of water shall be
given priority by each farmers in the country.

References :
References are available on request from editor.

37
 Conservation and Improvement Strategies for Kankrej Cow (Bos indicus) to
Double the Income of Pastoralist / Maldharies
H. H Panchasara; B. S.Rathod; M. P.Patel and Y. M.Gami
S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat
Introduction :
Cattle are considered to have been one of the foremost animals domesticated by man for agricultural
purposes. They were tamed to provide milk, hides and for draft purposes. Where and when exactly
this domestication started is not clearly documented historically, but it is thought that cattle were
probably first domesticated in India about 8500 years ago. Among all cattle breeds, Kankrej breed is
considered to be a one of the oldest breed of cattle as evident from wall pictures, statues and images
from Sindhu culture,Haddappa and Mohenjo-daro cultures (white humped cattle with large half-
moon shaped horn and a well-developed dewlap).

India has a very rich reservoir of genetic diversity and possesses some of the best breeds of cattle and
buffaloes in the world. The country’s population of 191.00 million cattle accounts for 17 per cent of
the total world population of cattle (Livestock Census, 2012). The best indigenous germ plasm of
milch, draught and dual-purpose animals account for 22-25 per cent of the Indian cattle population,
while 7-10per cent of the cattle population is cross-bred. Among indigenous cattle breeds 75-79 per
cent population is non-descript. Most of the indigenous breeds of cattle excel in draught capacity. The
native livestock breeds exhibit a distinct superiority in utilizing poor quality feed and are adapted to
withstand heat and show better resistance to tropical diseases.

India is a leading country in milk production (163.5 million tonnes during 2016-17) is concerned but
productivity per animal is poor. Total cattle population in the country is 191.00 million as per 19th
livestock census 2012, of which 79 percent is indigenous and out of this only 26 per cent animals are
under AI coverage. As per the data of year 2015-16, the artificial insemination worker merely
performs 1.91 AI per day as against the required average of four AI per day. Further three semen
doses are used for achieving one successful conception, thus there is a wastage of high quality semen.
This poor situation is further aggravated by usage of indigenous bull semen being merely 11 per cent
of the total AI coverage (Anonymous, 2017). Kankrej is an important dual-purpose cattle breed of
India. The population of Kankrej breed is 30.28 lakh, of which 19.45 lakh cattle are pure and 10.83
lakh are graded. It is well adopted in North Gujarat as compared to other cattle breeds. The breed has
been named after a Kankrej tehsil in North Gujarat of India. Though the Kankrej breed was named
after Kankrej tehsil of Banaskantha district, Gujarat but it is found in Banni area of Kachchh, north
Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan adjoining to Gujarat. The average milk yield is 1200-1600 kg per
lactation and bullocks are strong and hard-working.

The trend of milk production in the country indicates that, about 39.71 per centand 54.47 per cent
milk are produced by cows (191.00 million) and buffaloes (108.5 million) and the rest of the milk
produced by goats. With the increase in domestic and international market, the demand of milk is
expected to grow as the dynamics of population growth, urbanization and income levels are
continuously changing in our country particularly preference towards indigenous cattle milk. As the
milk productivity of our animals is low and high variability in the economic traits of cows, there is a
vast scope for improvement of the milk production and consequently marketable surplus of milk for
processing by systematic implementation of genetic improvement of indigenous cattle through
progeny testing and building the capacity of different states, union territories, government institutes,
dairy development agencies and public-private partnership for overall improvement of dairy animals
in the country.
Livestock production system is dynamic and continues process evolved over time in responses to
market and environmental changes. In tropical areas land and climate are some of the major
determinant of the production system as potentially high productive region is used mainly for crop
production, leaving the less productive and marginal land for livestock production, make it difficult to
keep animal breeding more efficient and economic by utilizing these areas. Cattle breeds found in
these regions have therefore evolved over a millennium, where nature has produced genetic

38
constitution with behaviour, physiological and immunological mechanisms up to the capacity to
survive and reproduce despite the various harsh environmental challenges they have to face. The
breeds are therefore less prone to physiological breakdown because of environmental stress. Although
their potential for production is lower than that of temperate breeds when compared in more
favourable production environments but under stressful tropical arid to semi-arid condition, the
reverse has been observed. These indigenous breeds have exhibited higher levels of longevity, fitness
and overall lifetime productivity then the temperate breeds (foreign/crossbred). Indigenous breeds are
heat tolerant, tolerant to some disease and are adapted to some poor feed recourses. (Swanepoel and
Setswaelo, 1992).
Status of Kankrej breed under field condition:
In 2009, in the beginning of the progeny testing project, Livestock Research Station (LRS),
Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University (SDAU) detail survey was carried out to know
the status of Kankrej breed in the villages of the home tract of Kankrej cattle, which is summarised as
under. The performance of migratory herd with the Maldharies was still at poor side.
Table-1: Performance of Kankrej cow in the field(2009)
Sr No Trait Performance in the Field (2009)
1 Lactation Yield (lit.) 1669.96±12.24 (1523)
2 Standard Lactation Milk Yield (lit.) 1751.23±12.94(617)
3 Fat % 4.13±0.03(617)
4 Age at First Calving (days) 1464.08±18.41(260)
5 Calving Interval (days) 549.93±8.61(387)

Genetic improvement :
Kankrej cattle maintained at LRS, SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat, proved to be superior to
crossbreed / other indigenous cattle in terms of reproduction, disease resistance and at par in terms of
milk production. It is well known for milk yield, disease resistance and production of bullocks for
agricultural works. Average lactation yield of Kankrej herd at LRS, SDAU was recorded as 3250
liters, and few animals have yielded even more than 5000 liters per lactation (Annual Progress
Report-2017, SDAU). The use of superior bulls with high genetic meritwill further improve the
productivity of the breed, whereas improvement in Kankrej breed during last four decades at SDAU is
summarised here and depicted in Table-2.
Table-2: Productive and reproductive performance of Kankrej cattle (1978 to 2016)
Sr
Performance of Kankrej Cow During Different Periods
No Traits
1978- 1986- 1991- 1996- 2001- 2006- 2011- 2016-
85 90 95 00 05 10 15 17
1 First lactation yield (lit) 918 1356 1586 1760 1857 1969 2219 2205
2 Lactation yield (lit) 977 1378 1709 1855 2045 2199 2315 2118
3 Lactation length (days) 225 265 284 271 282 283 296 293
4 Dry days 198 186 196 156 142 128 127 123
5 Calving interval (days) 433 455 472 443 443 411 422 432
6 Age at first calving
1522 1394 1464 1412 1393 1224 1292 1212
(days)
7 Service period (days) 155 134 159 123 143 112 134 151
8 Wet average (lit) 3.71 5.02 5.91 6.82 7.62 7.84 8.7 8.31
9 Herd average (lit) 1.57 2.82 3.71 4.21 4.64 4.99 5.58 5.18
10 No of bulls sold to the
4 15 26 31 29 61 49 37
farmers

39
Improvement in productive traits under field:
The genetic improvement achieved in Kankrej breed was not kept limited to station but it has been
also extended to the farmer’s door. In the year 2009-10 the field progeny testing program was started
with the aim to improve the farmers herd utilising the upgraded genetic material and facilities
available with the station. Semen station was also established in the year 2010-2011 for semen
production from high genetic Kankrej males born to elite cows. First set of bulls had completed its
progenies records the performance of first set daughters is shown in Table-3.The average of daughters
is 2284 litres which is higher than the average of their dams. The breeding value ranging from 46
litres to 346 litres and the use of these proven/ranked bull will further enhances the genetic gain in
future.
Table-3: Least squares means of milk yield and expected breeding values of set-I
Sr Factor No. of Milk Yield and Expected Breeding Values
No daughters Milk Yield (lit) Expected breeding Ranking
values
Overall 103* 2284.042 ± 86.282 --- ---
1 K006 10 2140.624 ± 183.258 -143.418 6
2 K007 20 2330.278 ± 133.383 46.236 5
3 K010 08 1892.707± 191.271 -391.335 8
4 K012 08 2491.674 ±205.319 207.632 2
5 K014 19 1985.465 ± 129.052 -298.576 7
6 K016 18 2390.862 ± 149.042 106.821 4
7 K017 10 2414.219 ± 185.115 130.178 3
8 K020 10 2626.504 ± 198.294 342.462 1
Note : * Daughters/bull will increase
Scope of improvement:
The performance gap between herd maintained at SDAU and animals maintained in the field is
almost double, indicates scope for improvement in Kankrej breed. It has very good potential in terms
of milk production and reproduction, which is at par with the performance of milch breed and
crossbreds. The highest records of milk yield 6198 litres/lactation (5798 SMY) adds further
possibility/scope for the improvement (Anonymous, 2014).
Brief success story of progeny testing programme:
The progeny testing program was started by SDAU in 2009 with the objective to improve the
performance of Kankrej cows maintained by farmers in their home tract, whereunder 48 villages 5200
farmers rearing 6200 Kankrej cows were covered in the program. A total of 13,374 inseminations
were carried out from which 6423 cows conceived and almost 1957 female progenies born since
inception. Total three sets of 8-9 bulls were introduce in the field. The first set was proven and
daughters were producing almost 200 litres more yield than that of their dams. The breeding value of
bulls ranging from 50 litres to 245 litres. The use of proven bulls of first set will further improve the
yield on the farm and field and will fasten the genetic gain, while someof the farmers started shifting
from rearing of crossbred / buffalo to Kankrej breed Patel et al., 2016).

Improvement strategies for farmers:

The major factors determine the success or failure of breeding program are the relevance of the
breeding program in prevailing scenario, objectives/goals of the program and breeding strategies
(Barker, 1992). The breeding objectives must be relevant to the prevailing production system of an
area.
The farmers rearing one to two Kankrej cow along with crossbred cattle and buffaloes. These animals
can be covered under the AI network and progeny testing program so that the faster genetic gain is
expected. At present only 10 per cent Kankrej population is covered under AI network in

40
Banaskantha, whereas Kankrej population in other parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan is almost under
natural breeding. Artificial insemination network needs to be extended in these areas. Parallel, small
scale progeny testing may be continued for the production of future test bulls using semen of proven
bulls on the farm and field to increase genetic variation. Intensive selective breeding and small-scale
progeny testing with precise data recording is the only way to achieve faster genetic gain at farmers
door. Extension services to strengthen the knowledge of farmers regarding scientific rearing of
animals and importance of indigenous cattle is also required.
Improvement strategies for Maldharis :
There are almost 30 professional breeders maintain 493 Kankrej cattle per village in Banaskantha
district (Patel, 2014). The herd size is 34 (22 breedable) animals per professional breeders. Almost 97
per cent of professional breeders bred their cows with bulls selected either from same or other herds
without history, of which only 45 per cent bulls meet the true breed characteristics. This leads to
indiscriminate/ inbreeding. The adoption of artificial insemination is only 3.3 per cent among
professional breeders. The production potential is also very poor (wet average = 2.64 litre). Almost 80
per cent Kankrej population is migratory type either Gujarat or adjoining part of Rajasthan. The
improvement of these animals is a big task and needs special attention / policy.
Adoption of intensive selective breeding, artificial insemination and progeny testing for the nomadic
Maldharis is difficult rather impossible task. Lack of pure breed characteristics and breeding
knowledge in addition to fodder scarcity further worsens the condition. Migration from one place to
another place in search of feed and fodder, lack of market (poor marketing or less milk price by
middle men), lack of health facilities and many more problems are also amalgamated with Maldharis.
In these circumstances provision of high genetic merit male calf of one to one and half year age and
castration of male in herd is the only imaginable way for the improvement. To the smaller extent the
use of proven bull’s son born under progeny testing program in the areas of lesser migration with poor
availability of resources will be the hope in addition to extension education regarding genetic purity of
breeding bulls. Provision of young calf instead of adult male is recommended, because it can adopt
with migratory herds otherwise for adult it is difficult.
Conclusions:
To sum up, it is beyond doubt that Kankrej has potential for the production and reproduction in
extreme environmental or in tropical condition where the crossbreeding has not proven better as far as
reproduction, disease resistance and sustainability of production in hot summer season. Therefore,the
time has come to give more emphasis on genetic improvement of our indigenous stock as well as to
value addition of the innate attributes indigenous cattle possessing in terms of milk and its
constituents, higher disease resistance and endurance to heat. The above performance of Kankrej
clearly suggests that it can equally produce and reproduce to crossbred. It has been well established in
current research that the A2 allele responsible for milk quality as far human health is concern is 94-
100 % in indigenous cattle. Therefore, due attention needs to be given to improve the productive and
reproductive performance of cattle at farmers door. The improvement of AI net-work under field
conditions is the need of hour to disseminate superior germplasm from Kankrej bulls at the door steps
of the farmer as it is available with station and use of pedigreed/proven bull’s son.

A reliable data base should be developed with regard to all the details of population, including their
breeding tracts, numbers, characteristics, genetic make-up, germplasm, the institutions /potential
farmers where they are being preserved and / or conserved and so on.Data bases should also be
developed with regard to Kankrej graded population so that necessary strategies can be further
implemented. Intensive selective breeding with the use of artificial insemination technology at large
scale and progeny testing with precise recording at small scale will solve the purpose in the non-
migratory population while, supply of high genetic merit male calf or proven bulls male calf to the
Maldharis having migratory population.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

41
 Strategies for Enhancing Income of Smallholder Livestock
Farmers in Western India
S. S. Lathwal, Indu Devi and Kuldeep Dudi
ICAR-NDRI, Karnal – 132001, Haryana
Introduction :
India has a total geographical area of 328.2 mha, out of which western India, mainly
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra comprising 84.62 mha (25.74% of total land). Drylands
of India are covering 228.3 mha (70%) of total land area. Within this part, arid land is 50.8
mha, semi arid is 123.4 mha and dry sub-humid is 54 mha (DSM Atlas, 2007). They are
characterized by low rainfall and high evaporation, resulting in lack of water, limited soil
fertility and ecologically unsustainable production strategies. These factors constrain the crop
production and other activities related to livestock production which emerges as the main
activity that sustains livelihoods in these low productivity and unstable environment. The
changes in the quantity of rainfall received and its distribution pattern lead to intermittent
droughts once in 3 to 5 years leading to crop failure. Hence livestock production has become
an important component in western states of India, as it is considered an important instrument
to socio-economic change for improving income and quality of life. The percentage of the
population represented by underprivileged family’s ranges from 8 to 49% in Gujarat and 14
to 65% in Rajasthan.
Livestock is an economic enterprise and can also be considered as a “survival enterprise” for
millions of people in India, especially in the arid and semi-arid regions. It is the major
component of agriculture in arid region while in other agro-climatic zones it is next to
agriculture. In India, 85% livestock keepers are small and marginal farmers having less than 2
hectares of land, operating 44% of land for crop cultivation and contributing more than 69%
in country’s total milk production. The contribution of livestock in household income in arid
and semi-arid region of Rajasthan some time goes up to 60-65 percent in situation of drought
and famine (GoI, 2007). The livelihood contribution of livestock has been well
acknowledged. Some tribals like “Nes-rabaris” of Gir forest in Gujarat, who specialize in
breeding of sheep, goats and buffaloes. Their way of life is like that of nomadic pastoralists
for whom livestock is the main source of livelihood. Indian agriculture is the home of small
and marginal farmers (80%). Therefore, the future of sustainable agriculture growth and food
security in India depends on the performance of small and marginal farmers. Small holdings
also face new challenges on integration of value chains, liberalization and globalization
effects, market volatility and other risks and vulnerability, adaptation of climate change etc.
(Thapa and Gaiha, 2011).
Characteristics of livestock production:
Livestock sector, a great motivator of rural life and livelihood, not only provides essential
proteins and nutritious diet through milk, egg, meat etc. but livestock provides raw materials
and by-products such as hides, skins, blood, bone, fat etc. with huge economic, social and
cultural importance (Ibrahim et al., 2013). Livestock rearing is done mostly by small and
marginal farmers and landless labourers with holding size of 1-3 cattle/buffalo and 20-50 sheep
per household (Misra and Mahipal, 2000). Milk production contributes about 53% income of
landless households (Shukla and Brahmankar, 1999). Small ruminants are a major source of

42
income for the underprivileged families and their contribution ranges between 17 to 24 % of
family income (Rangnekar, 2006). In arid areas, the contribution of livestock is up to 50% and
goes up to two third of total earning to the farmer’s income during drought years. The average
milk yield per milch cattle has been reported around 987 Kg per lactation in India
ascompared to 7038 Kg per lactation in USA and more than 9291 Kg per lactation in Israel
(Hegde, 2006). Main reasons for this low productivity are crop-residue based dairy
production systems, low genetic potential, limited extension and management on dairy
enterprise development; restricted availability and low quality of feed and land pressure
favoring cash crops over fodder cultivation (Basunathe et al., 2010). Though modern
livestock production technologies do exist, but the awareness and rate of adoption of modern
technologies in small holder mixed farming system is consistently low, because of extension
set up and other related constraints. Therefore, any programe aimed at increasing income
through livestock will have to be based on sound knowledge of situation in smallholder
farming systems, including gender issues, in the context of the prevailing socio-economic
conditions (Misra, 2005). Sheep and goat husbandry, piggery and fishery also have good
potential to generate gainful employment in selected areas, provided, the farmers engaged in
these activities are supported for backward and forward integration.
Breed Breeding Tract Utility Distribution
Distribution of Cattle Breeds in Rajasthan
Rathi Bikaner, Ganganagar and Jaisalmer Milch Mainly distributed in Bikaner,
districts of Rajasthan Ganganagar and
Hanumangarh districts
Tharparkar Jodhpur, Barmer, Jaisalmer districts of Milk Distributed in Jaisalmer,
Rajasthan and Kutch district of Gujarat and Jodhpur and Barmer districts
Draught
Nagori Nagaur, Bikaner and Jodhpur districts of Draught Mainly distributed across
Rajasthan Nagaur, Jodhpur, Bikaner
districts
Distribution of Gujarat’s Cattle Breeds
Gir Junagadh, Bhavnagar, Amreli, Porbandar Milch Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
and Rajkot districts. and Maharashtra. Exported to
Brazil, Mexico, USA and
Venezuela.
Kankrej South-west Rann of Kachchh comprising Dual Western Rajasthan. Nomadic
Mehsana, Kachchh, Ahmedabad, Kheda, herds of this breed are also
Sabarkantha and Banaskantha districts. found in Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh
and Haryana.
Dangi Dangs, Valsad, Panchmahals and Dahod Draught Parts of northern Maharashtra
districts. Sizeable numbers of this breed are
also found in Nashik and Ahmednagar
districts of Maharashtra.

Distribution of Gujarat’s Buffalo Breeds

Jaffarabadi Found in Junagadh, Amreli, Bhavnagar, Milch Bulls and herds of this breed

43
 Porbandar and Rajkot districts. have been introduced for
breed improvement
programmes in Maharashtra.
Mehsana Found in Mehsana, Patan, Banaskantha and Milch Northern Gujarat
Sabarkantha districts.
Surti Found in Kheda, Anand, Vadodara, Milch In the border districts of
Bharuch and Surat districts. Rajasthan.
Banni Found in Kachchh and Patan districts. Milch Kachchh

Livestock production systems:

Traditionally, the farmers of the region have integrated their livestock with crop production.
The livestock production systems are complex and generally based on socio-economic
considerations and available feed resources. The prevalent livestock production systems can be
classified in to three categories.
1) Small holder mixed crop-livestock production system (Mixed farming): The traditional,
resource driven and labour intensive ruminant production system which produces a multitude
of services to subsistence farm. This kind of production system is very common in rural areas.
Low technology uptake, insufficient market facilities and infrastructure and small economies of
scale are common. In mixed crop–livestock systems, dairy production contributes 20 to 50% of
family income; the extent of the contribution is roles, functions and contributions of livestock
influenced by factors like type of animal, market condition, economic status of the family and
crop condition. The share of income from milk in the total income of underprivileged family is
as high as 75 to 80% during drought (ILRI , 2006)
2) Nomadism/Pastoralism: Pastoralists derive most of their livelihood from raising livestock on
natural forages rather than on specifically cultivated and stored fodder resources. They have
developed traditional migration routes and a partition of responsibilities, with some castes
specializing in animal herding and others in cropping. Over the centuries, herders also
developed traditional knowledge of animal husbandry and natural resource management. This
knowledge has allowed them to endure periodic
3) Commercial livestock production system: The modern, demand driven and capital intensive
system of livestock management is more relevant to poultry and to some extent dairy cattle and
buffalo in urban and peri-urban areas. This system is very efficient and has good market access.
Increasing intensification and concentration of animal increases pollution and diseases risk to
humans.

Problems ofsmall livestock farmers:

There are a number of sustainability issues in livestock production. The traditional package
of practices for breeding, feeding, housing, management and health usually followed by
farmers for rearing animals, particularly of high production potentials do not result in further
enhancing and sustaining the productivity of animals.
For involvement of poor dairy farmers in successful animal husbandry programme, it is
necessary to address their problems, which are presented below:
 Poor quality animals requiring genetic up gradation.
 Productivity of livestock is quite low in country, average milk is 4.90 kg per buffalo,
3.1 kg per cow.

44
  Poor access to breeding and health care services.
 Ignorance about zoonotic diseases such as Brucellosis, TB, etc.
 Lack of technical guidance to adopt good husbandry practices.
 Inefficient milk collection and marketing.
 Poor linkage with research institutions.
 Unavailability of credit facilities and low adoption of available technologies.
 Nutritional deficiency due to shortage of feed and fodder.
 Lack of policies to check supply of substandard animal feed and AI facilities.
Availability of fodder and feed can play a very important role as about 70% of the cost of
dairy husbandry is on feed. In Rajasthan, the requirement of dry matter is 84,808 MT, but the
availability is 40,809 MT, so there is deficit of 43,999 MT and in Gujarat, the requirement of
dry matter is 56,478 MT, but the availability is 33,970 MT, so there is deficit of 22,507 MT
(NIANP Report, 2012).
Strategies for development of animal husbandry to increase income:
In the contemporary policy framework, to fulfill the resolution of the Indian Government
regarding doubling the income of farmers by 2022, a focus on income from cultivation alone
will be inadequate. The road map and action plan prepared by the NITI Ayog to double the
income of farmers (Chand, 2017) emphasizes on the productivity enhancement of livestock
through development initiatives focused on widening the coverage of artificial insemination,
improving the reproductive efficiency of dairy animals, technology generation and
dissemination. In terms of development initiatives following targets are suggested by 2022-23
(NITI Ayog, 2017):
1) In India coverage under A.I in cattle and buffalo is hardly 35%. The main reason for low A.I.
is semen straws. We require 160 million doses of semen straw against the availability 81
million to reach the reasonable A.I number.
2) Presently about 4 million breedable buffalo, 1.3 million breedable cross bred cows and 6
million breedable Indigenous cattle has never calved. Out of above population, at least 2
million buffaloes, 0.8 million cross bred cows and 3 million Indigenous cattle should have
additional number for calving by 2020.
3) Age of puberty in buffaloes has to be reduced by 3-4 months by 2020. At present, puberty
age in buffaloes is 33 months. Considering the requirements of small dairy farmers, the
following activities need to be initiated to boost livestock production.

(1) Strategies for feeding management of livestock to improve productivity:

a) Ration balancing/balanced feeding: Animal feed is the most crucial input in livestock
production. Feed shortage, poor nutritional quality of feed and imbalanced feeding are the
key problems that impinge on productivity growth. Expenditure on feed and fodder accounts
for 60-70 per cent of the total cost of milk production. The productivity of feed input is
inversely related to the cost of milk production. Field study in the semi-arid region of
Rajasthan showed that an improvement in feed input productivity (defined as milk output per
kg dry matter intake) by 12 per cent decreased the cost of milk production by 18 per cent in
case of crossbred cows (Chand and Sirohi, 2012).

45
According to one study under NDP-1 in Gujarat and Punjab, feeding of balanced ration to
dairy animal’s increases the animal productivity, reduces the feed cost and thereby, enhances
the income of the dairy farmers. The intervention provided in this program was in the form of
advisory services to the dairy farmers about the optimal quantity of dry fodder, green fodder,
concentrate and supplements that should be fed to dairy animal, depending upon animal-
specific particulars of age, weight, lactation order and stage of lactation. In Gujarat, the
analysis has shown that the ration balancing intervention enhanced the productivity of cows
by around 13 per cent and of buffaloes by nearly 5.5 per cent. In Punjab, the estimates of
productivity gain for cows were close to 13 per cent based on either approach. The field level
data have also indicated a clear impact in reducing the feed cost per litre of milk by about 18-
19 per cent in case of cows in both the states and about 2.6 per cent in buffaloes in Gujarat.
The calculations have shown that for the crossbred animals that have milk productivity and
costs similar to respective national averages, ration balancing intervention can double the real
dairy income (at 2016-17 prices) even with only 5 per cent increase in milk yield and 5 per
cent decline in feed cost. In the case of buffaloes, where potential of yield increase is not as
profound as for crossbreds, the ration balancing can be an option for doubling dairy farm
income if at least 11 per cent feed cost reduction is achieved with 5% productivity gain in
average scenario and 40 per cent gain (4.5 kg/day from 3.1 kg/day) in least-productivity
scenario.
b) Increasing forage availability: The strategy to increase forage availability throughout the
year should be practiced. Intercropping or mixed cropping are widely used to minimize the
risk of failure. Low water requiring and short duration forages (cowpea, cluster bean etc) can
be intercropped with long duration crops such as sorghum, pearl millet. The small and
marginal farmers are not able to allocate any part of their land exclusively for forage
production. Fodder production can also be increased by raising fodder crops as catch crops
between the main cropping seasons. Agro-forestry and silvi-pastoral model can also be a
good option for increasing fodder production in dryland areas.
c) Efficient management of crop residues: Promote new food crop varieties having higher
grain yield with stalks of superior fodder quality. Plant breeders and agronomists should be
sensitized to breed and promote dual-purpose varieties of sorghum, maize, bajra, and a wide
range of legumes.
d) Improvement of nutritional values: Presently, the major quantity of dry matter is
contributed by paddy straws, wheat straw, maize stalk, sugarcane bagasse and trash, which
are of poor nutritional value, due to high fibre content. With new techniques, the quality of
such fodder should be improved. This will also help in augmenting the fodder shortage.
e) Development of community wastelands: Efforts should be made to develop pasture
lands involving local communities through soil and water conservation, introduction of
improved legumes and grasses, forage tree species and prevention of grazing.
f) Fodder banks: Establishment of fodder banks in fodder scarcity regions through Dairy
Federations and People’s Organizations can help small farmers to feed their livestock during
scarcity. In paddy and wheat growing areas where the straw is wasted, facilities for
compacting straw can be installed and arrangements can be made to collect and pack them.

46
Fodder banks can play a critical role in timely supply of feed to livestock owners during the
years of drought.
g) Introduction of by-pass protein feed: Techniques have been developed to avoid wastage
of nutrients by feeding by-pass protein and fat. Support should be provided to establish by-
pass protein/fat production units particularly in milk sheds where high quality milch animals
are maintained.
h) Feeding of mineral mixture and common salt: Animals should have free access to
mineral bricks and common salt so that deficiency of minerals like calcium, phosphorus,
copper, and magnesium don’t occur. Pica in cattle, buffaloes, camels, and goats in this area is
another problem related to mineral deficiencies. There is need of area specific mineral
mixture supplementation. Effect of supplementation of mineral mixture on milk yield of
Rathi cattle showed that milk yield, during lean period can be increased by feeding balanced
concentrate having 2% mineral mixture (Mathur et al., 2011).
i) Reduction of herd Size: It is necessary to create awareness among farmers to reduce herd
size and ensure optimum feeding instead of maintaining a large number of underfed animals.
For calf rearing, feed subsidy, insurance coverage, venture capital, etc. may be given to
ensure their active role in dairy development and in rearing of small ruminants.
2. Breeding services and general management:
(i) Production of superior quality bulls: For genetic improvement, the first step is to
produce superior quality bull mothers and bull calves. Farmers maintaining elite herds of
cattle and buffalo can also be involved in bull calf production through planned breeding and
buy-back guarantee. Application of super ovulation and embryo transfer technology for
production of superior bull mothers and bull calves. Progeny testing of sires should be
undertaken to select sires having ability to transmit superior genetic traits.
(ii) Training and regulation of AI technicians: Skill oriented training for paravets to
improve breeding efficiency. Regular monitoring of the services of Paravets and vets should
be done to maintain high technical standards, without exploiting farmers. Periodic training of
farmers on good animal husbandry practices should be provided.
(iii) Shelter management: The study conducted in arid regions of India revealed that 80%
farmers provide thatched shelter to large ruminants; only 10% do so for small ruminants.
Almost all animal houses were having earthen floor and pucca floor was found in commercial
dairy production system near peri-urban system. No proper attention for small small
ruminants housing was given. Only low cost or freely available local materials were used.
Farmers were found more concerned for animal housing during winter season only. Three
types of shelters for livestock were observed in rural areas of arid zone, viz; open housing
system (barbed enclosure without any roof), kutcha (thatched roof house) and pucca housing
system which is a closed type concrete house. Based on these observations an improved
animal shelter model with east west orientation was developed and promoted by CAZRI that
created comfortable micro-climate to the animals during extreme weather conditions and
consequently resulted in increased milk production (CAZRI, 2014).
(iv) Health care: High incidences of subclinical mastitis have also been reported from dry
lands (Mathur et al., 2012). Conventional vaccination programe is in vogue by various
service deparments of the state government. But it does not cover whole of the population of
animals, some of the important species like camel and goat are not usually covered under this

47
programe. There is a need to properly follow the schedule of FMD vaccination at least twice
in a year. Preventive measures are usually the only practicable approach in parasitic diseases.
At least biannual deworming with broad spectrum anthelmintic for all species of animals
need to be done (Gahlot, 2005). Promotional campaigns needs to be launched for conducting
animal health camps to encourage farmers to adopt a regular preventive measure.
Implementation of scheduled prophylactic health measures reduced mortality from 17 to 8
percent in small ruminants and from 12 to 7 percent in large ruminants. Most of the farmers
reported an increase in growth rate of 25 to 30 percent in young animals between 6 to 12
months. Privatization of health care services, through Farmers’ Federations; Establishment of
Disease Investigation laboratories by the Dairy Federation or private agencies for effective
treatment of animals; Strengthening of Research and Development facilities for disease
diagnosis, production of effective vaccines and control of critical diseases; Regulatory role of
State Animal Husbandry Departments in disease surveillance and promotion of clean milk
production.

3. Policy and support services: Considering the problems being faced by the farmers in
having access to credit, the Government of India introduced the Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
scheme in the year 1998-99 to provide timely and adequate credit support to the farmers from
formal banking system in a flexible, hassle-free and cost.No any institution exists in dry land
areas for giving them cash/micro credit. It was found that even KCC deny livestock farmer’s
access to cash credit, while as a mixed crop-livestock farmer has access to cash through KCC
for crop production (Garcia et al., 2006). In some regions of dry land, women’s Self Help
Groups (WSHGs) have emerged as effective institutions for providing instant cash credits for
small enterprises and that they have very good track record on credit supply and timely
recovery (CRIDA, 2005). Therefore, WSHGs should be enabled to handle the term loans for
livestock production. Extension approach should be need based with problem solving
dimensions and participatory inn nature. Massive campaigns are needed for capacity building
and empowerment of village communities that can acts as harbinger of change and
technology. Timely supply of inputs such as liquid nitrogen, frozen semen, vaccines, first aid
kit, feed concentrates, mineral mixture and forage seeds to the paravets for onward supply to
dairy farmers, through local Dairy Federation or NGO engaged in livestock husbandry should
be provided.

4. Women in livestock production:

The role of women in livestock production varies amongst underprivileged groups and
between regions. In tribal communities, women play a major role in livestock production as
well as in the sale of produce, while pastoral women are generally involved in looking after
the new born and sick animals. Amongst most of the other backward communities, women
have a greater role with small animals and backyard poultry, while men manage large
animals (Rangnekar, 1992). Studies also indicate that there is poor awareness regarding ways
of improving livestock productivity to improve livelihoods—a consequence of weak public
extension support for livestock (Rangnekar, 1998). Studies on gender roles in livestock
production, which are few and scattered, mostly cover work sharing. Such studies need to be
widely undertaken, should be comprehensive and be able to capture knowledge and

48
experience of women about feeding and management of animals and their perceptions about
choice of animals and adoption of technologies. Such studies would help identify appropriate
interventions for improving livestock productivity. There is need to strengthen extension and
it is crucial that women’s involvement in livestock research and development (R&D) is
promoted.

5. Processing and marketing of produce:

Mini dairies should be established in small towns where large dairies are not viable. This
will ensure transparency and efficiency. Milk processing units should assume a prominent
role in Dairy Value Chain management by promoting breeding services, input supply and
health care provision, apart from collection of milk. The farmers should be trained in clean
milk production.

6.Profit enhancing livestock waste management:

There is a wide range of value added products that can be produced from animal wastes.
Waste can be rendered green and environment friendly. It is a rich source of energy and
fertilizer elements which can be recovered for betterment of agriculture. Traditionally the
dung cakes are utilized for cooking the food in rural areas particularly in developing
countries. Proper utilization of cow dung and cow urine into manure, pesticides, medicines
and other daily products can generate millions of employment opportunities in rural areas as
well it can protect soil from chemicals and fertilizers and improve soil fertility (Vijay, 2011).
Following methods can be used.
(i) Composting: It is a well-known fact that fertilizers are necessary to be added in soil to
increase the yield of crops. Particularly, the chemical fertilizer (NPK) has increased the crop
production considerably. But long-time use of NPK is harmful for sustainability of crop
production. Long-time use of chemical and organic fertilizers significantly affects the quality
and productivity of soil mostly by improving availability of important elements to plants and
soil-microbes (Acton and Gregorich, 1995). Both can sustain or increase crop production and
their use causes changes in soil chemical, physical and biological properties (Belay et al.
2002). It is accelerated bio oxidation of organic matter passing through a thermophilic stage
(45-65oC) when microorganisms liberates heat, CO2, and water. Composting is relatively fast
bio degradation process, taking typically 4-6 weeks to reach a stabilized material. Moisture
(60%) and C/N (20:1) have a major influence on successful composting process. The pile
composting is most common in India. Another method of composting used in India is
NADEP method which is found to produce better nutrients than the conventional composting
(Yadav, 2012). Composting biological waste with poultry manure can be an effective means
of conserving nitrogen in the manure, which not only improves the fertilizer value, but also
reduces the potential for NH3 to contribute the environmental pollution.
(ii) Vermicomposting: It is also a bio oxidation and stabilization process of organic
material that, in contrast to composting, involves the joint action of earthworms and
microorganisms and does not involve a thermophilic stage. Earthworms are the agents of
turning, fragmentation and aeration. Earthworms casting in home garden often contain 5 to
11 times more N2, P, and K as the surrounding soil. Finished vermicompost should have a
rich earthy smell, if properly processed by worms. From the waste left by a bovine of 400 kg

49
body weight, about 800-1000 kg vermicompost can be produced annually. During
vermicomposting, the important plant nutrients, such as N, P, K, and Ca, present in the
organic waste are released and converted into forms that are more soluble and available to the
plants.
(iii) Biogas production technology: Gas production from anaerobic biomass digestion is a
famous technology. Biogas is a gaseous fuel generated from biological decomposition via
anaerobic digestion of organic waste such as cattle dung, also yields raw slurry as a valuable
by product. Biogas is a clean, efficient, and renewable source of energy, which can be used as
a substitute for other nonrenewable fuels in order to save energy in rural areas. India and
China are the two leading Asian countries using biogas technology. Its production typically
varies from 0.8 to 1.6 m3 per adult unit per day. From 1 ton of manure with 20 % solid
content, 20–25 cubic meter biogas can be produced with a total energy value of 100–125
kWh and the same can be utilized to generate 35–40 kWh of electricity and 55–75 kWh of
heat energy (Burton and Turner 2003).The distribution of biogas through pipeline to end
users is very costly. A novel system of biogas purification and bottling was recently
developed at IIT, New Delhi (Vijay, 2011). Pure biogas stored in cylinders is a marketable
product and hence, can be easily used any time anywhere as LPG cylinders. The gas can
replace cooking fuels such as wood, kerosene, and LPG. The calorific value of gas varies
from 4500- 5500 Kcal/m3. Biogas based power generation subsidies are also available for
factory scale plants above the capacity of 25 m3 under the MNRE scheme. The central
finance assistance for such projects will be limited to a maximum of Rs. 30000 – 40000 per
KW power for generating projects in the range of 3 KW to 250 KW of different rating and
the subsidy is limited to 40 % of plant cost. Biogas can be used to generate power through
biogas based power generator sets. About 0.75–0.8 m3 biogas can generate 1 unit (1 kWA) of
electricity and 10 kVA genset, if runs for 8 h can produces 80–90 units. The Biogas-based
Power Generation Programme (BPGP) is the main policy in India to promote biogas power in
which 73 projects were installed with a total capacity of 461 kW (Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE) 2010).
(iv) Profitable manure management by livestock fish integration: Integration of fish
with livestock farming is the best method for recycling of organic wastes. Cattle manure has
been used extensively in India as a source of manure in carp polyculture (Sinha et al., 2005).
Manure is normally applied at 5,000–10,000 kg ha-1 year-1, in low productive ponds but can
be used as high as 25 tons/ ha/year. Livestock Research Station, Navsari (Gujarat) had
reported to utilize the wallowing pond made for buffaloes for fresh water aquaculture with
fish yield of 5 t/ha without any supplementary feeding (Anonymous, 1998). The said pond
was manured by dung and urine of buffaloes excreted during wallowing and livestock shed
wash. The pond water is periodically pumped to irrigate the fodder farm with good result.
This is very useful recommendation made available to farmers. The yield up to 4–5 tonnes/ha
of 200–250 g fish yield in around 6 months is possible with stocking density of 1 fish /m2.

7. Livelihood improvement of landless and marginal farmers via small ruminant

rearing:
India holds world’s 2nd and 3rd highest goat and sheep population of 135.17 and 65.06 million
accounting 61.92% and 6.86% world’s share (19th Livestock Census) respectively. The dry

50
 areas of semi and arid region (69% of total geographical area) has highest numbers of goat
and sheep which are maintained by marginal, small and semi medium farmer having about
43.99, 22.84 and 17.25% total goats and 36.60, 23.08 and 18.83% total sheep population,
respectively. The dependency of these weaker sections on these small ruminants can be
judged by goat and sheep population. Indian goats and sheep provided 943 (13.43% of total)
and 485 thousand (6.11% of total) MT of meat, 4665 thousand MT milk (3% of total milk
production) and 43.6 million kg wool, respectively (Annual report DAHDF, 2016-17).
(i) Sheep are suited to the needs of small land holder due to initial investment, ease of
rearing and high feed conversion efficiency. Besides, they are very well adapted to harsh
climatic, long migration, resistance against tropical diseases, poor nutrition and shortage of
drinking water and water quality. They provide a dependable source of income to their
owners. The real stakeholders in sheep husbandry, rural poor farmers and graziers, should be
kept in picture while formulating breeding strategies and executing the research objectives,
including scientific data recording and management. Patanwadi should be used for improving
milk yield. Grading up with native breeds such as Muzaffarnagri, Malpura, Mandya etc. may
be tried for the non-descript poor performing breeds for higher growth rate. Co-operative
approach in sheep husbandry, at least at a village level, may be tried and adopted for better
breeding practices, fixation of the prices and net economic benefit to the end user.
a) Carpet wool production: Sheep breeds belonging to Rajasthan, Gujarat, produce good
quality carpet wool except Malpua and Sonadi breeds. There is every possibility of meeting
the requirement of carpet wool if suitable and effective development programs are
undertaken. India can make a thrust in export trade by making hand knotted carpets, druggets,
hosiery items etc. Therefore, improving quantity and quality traits such Nali, Chokla,
Patanwadi, Marwari, Magra, Jaisalmeri, Pugal, Bhakarwal, Gurez, Gaddi and Rampur
Bushair are being favoured for enhancing the carpet quality traits and production through
selection programmes.
b) Mutton production: Results on growth performance of native breeds reveal that Malpura
and Muzaffarnagri of north western breeds and Nellore and Mandya of Southern breeds have
great potential for their use as improver breeds for mutton production. Mutton and chevon are
the kinds of meats in Indian for which there is no prejudice and therefore breeding, nutrition
and management efforts need be cohesively used for production of meat animals that will
have great scope of developing economy of western India.
c) Prolificacy (key role of Indigenous breeds): Garole, a prolific indigenous breed of Bengal,
was used for improving reproductive efficiency of Malpura sheep. The results indicated that
twining percent in Garole and Malpura half bred ewes were 52.24% and triplets were 7.46%.
The FecB gene carrier GM was backcrossed with Malpura ewes to produce the GM ×
Malpura (GMM). The GMM lambs were superior over GM half breds at birth, weaning and 6
month of age. GMM sheep was a good alternative for Malpura.
(ii) Goat possesses an important mechanism for coping with arid and drought conditions due
to better adaptability and mobility as compared to large ruminants. The goat milk is generally
used as a family nutrition and very little is being marketed. The wool marketing suffers due
to quality and fluctuation in the rates. Beetal, Jamunapari, Barbari, Sirohi, Jakhrana, Surti,
Gohilwadi, Kutchi, Zalawadi and Mehsana etc beeds of goat are found in North western
region. Goats of this region are medium to large in size, dual purpose with special attributes

51
 of higher milk yield. Several lesser known breeds/strains are also found in this region such as
Bundelkhandi, Battisi, Totapari etc. Dilution of breeds has emerged a bigger threat pushing
many important goat breeds to the brink such as Barbari being replaced by Sirohi. So, besides
decline in population size purity level of many breeds has also been jeopardized.
Improvement strategy:
1) Establishment of open nucleus flock through selective breeding via objective assessment
from famer’s flock and utilized for producing breeding male. Some flocks may be registered
to form a goat breeder co-operative with an elite open nucleus flock. High performing
females (10% of strength) from cooperative/registered goat farmers should be purchased for
inclusion in the nucleus flock.
2) Capacity building of goat farmers to increase adoption of improved management practices.
3) Development of local institution such as goat cooperatives, societies, and self help
groups.80% nondescript but well adapted goat population should be improved through
grading up through breeding bucks of Jamunapari, Beetal, Jakhrana, Barbari, Surti etc.
4) Production of kids from good breeding bucks and strategic supplementary feeding of
concentrate and green fodder resulting in doubling of income per adult goat per year.
5) Development of common fodder resources and timely vaccination and deworming etc can
reduce mortality from 30 to <8% and increase productivity from 60 to 100%.

Conclusion:
Livestock production has become an important component in western India states, as it is
considered as important instrument for socio-economic change and quality of life with equity.
Sustainable development in dry lands can only be achieved through optimum utilization of
natural resources. There is tremendous scope of increasing livestock productivity of
indigenous breeds by improving nutrient availability from locally available feed and fodder
resources. Livestock waste can be recycled by many modern ways in order to combat rising
energy prices, sustainable agricultural and reduce the environmental threats from traditional
livestock waste management practices. Availability of key inputs and veterinary services
needs to be strengthened and improved to improve the health and productivity status of
livestock. Animal health camps and on farm trials need to be conducted to create awareness
among farmers regarding the adoptions of improved livestock production technologies. A
favorable policy environment in terms of access to micro-credit and assured market will have
to be provided. Technological packages should be developed and such that they target the
needs of farmers in particular farming system.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

52
Section-III 53-80

Animal Welfare Issues and Strategies

Impact of Animal Welfare Issues on Smallholders Animal Producers for

Production of Quality Animal Products
A L. Saini; M. Singla and S. Kaswan

Pastoral Livestock Production System: Conflicts and Opportunities in India

G K Gaur, S A Kochewad, P K Bharti, H O Pandey and Mukesh Singh

Purgi Sheep-An Unexplored Sheep Breed of Kargil

F.A. Baba, H.M. Khan, M. T. Banday, N.A. Bumla and S. Adil

Kashmir Anz: The First Registered Geese Breed of India

Henna Hamadani, Azmat Alam Khan and M. T. Banday

Editors: Dr K J Ankuya and Dr M P Patel

53
 Impact of Animal Welfare Issues on smallholders Animal Producers for
Production of Quality Animal Products
A. L. Saini, M. Singla and S. Kaswan
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Ludhiana-141 004, Punjab
Introduction :
India is bestowed with the largest heads of livestock i.e. 512.1 millions, comprising 190.9
million cattle, 108.7 million buffaloes, 135.2 million goats, 65.1 million sheep and 10.3
million pigs. Livestock being backbone of nation is a primary source of livelihood for 50%
(over 100 million) of total 72% rural folks of India. Livestock agriculture have not only
contributed to the food basket and employment generation but also helped in maintaining the
ecological balance. Hence has a great socio-economic role in societies of India. They further
also play a significant role in generating gainful employment in the rural sector, particularly
among the landless, small and marginal farmers and women, besides providing cheap and
nutritious food to millions of people. That’s why they are also called “Bank on Hooves” to
smallholders as it acts as a supplementary and complementary enterprise to them. India is
ranked foremost leader in milk production (163.7 MT in 2016-17), accounting for 18.5% of
the world production with a record growth of 6.26% as compared to 3.1% in world. The per
capita availability of milk is around 337 grams per day in 2015-16. Livestock production and
agriculture are intrinsically linked, each being dependent on the other, and both crucial for
overall food security. According to estimates of the Central Statistics Office (CSO), the value
of output from livestock sector at current prices was about 5,91,691 crore during 2015-16
which is about 28.5% of the value of output from agricultural and allied sector. At constant
prices the value of output from livestock is about 29% of the value of the output from total
agriculture and allied sector (GoI 2017) .
Animals are integral component of our social and cultural heritage and many species are still
worshipped in the country indicating the respect to animals in the society. However, with
changing commercialization scenario in our country, these cultural and traditional feelings
are being sidelined to get more and more profit from this livestock enterprise. Therefore, this
hasresulted in handling and management of various species of livestock in the way liked
byanimal keepers. This has increased the worry and sufferings of animals and kept
theirwelfare aside. Livestock welfare issues in our country merit more attention as compared
to developed countries in terms of management, housing, feeding, health care, behavior etc.
As per quote of our Nation’s Father ‘Mahatma Gandhi’, “The greatness of a nationcan be
judged by the way its animals are treated”, farmers should give utmost care totheir livestock.
This will help to improve welfare of animals by providing adequate food,water, a suitable
environment, companionship and health. However, due to incompletemanagement practices,
provision for animal welfare is not up to the mark in our country (Gaur et al 2017).As per the
need of hour, every stakeholder has to be sensitized for livestock welfareissues as a top
priority requirement of animal husbandry. This is because; it supports theoutput of the
animal. Moreover, in the changing climate scenario, animal is further suffering from various
climatic stress and their productivity is further challenged. In principle, the welfare needs of
livestock require prime focus of their stakeholders including farmers, stock keepers, farm
managers, veterinarians, teachers, scientists, academicians, students etc.

The welfare issues of farm animals are entrusted with Animal Welfare Division of the
Ministry of Environment and Forests with the mandate to infliction of unnecessary pain or
sufferings to the animals under the provisions of the Prevention of Cruelty to animals Acts-

54
1960 through two statutory bodies i.e. Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) and
Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals
(CPCSEA). Apart from this a subordinate body named National Institute of Animal Welfare
(NIAW), Ballabhgarh, Haryana also contributes on training and education on animal welfare
domain to improve the welfare status of our livestock in the country. Stepping ahead, the
Veterinary Council of India (Minimum Standards of Veterinary Education for Degree
Course; Regulations 2008) has introduced a course on ‘Animal Welfare’ in Unit 5 of
‘Livestock Production Management’ course during 1st year to expose and sensitize the
graduating students.

Welfare issues concerning indigenous verses exotic and crossbred in India:

The crossbreeding programme was initiated in India for improving productivity of desi
animals and successfully implemented in different regions of the country. But as a
consequence of heterosis breakage and poor adaptability in field conditions, those animals
could not sustain their productivity in next generations and many crossbreds suffered with
poor reproductive efficiency. The indigenous cattle are well known for their disease
resistance status and sustainability. Sometimes, it is observed that even with equal exposure
level to pathogens (housed at similar situation), the indigenous cattle are less affected in some
of the outbreaks. Domestic livestock manifests tick-resistance by skin thickness, coat type,
coat color, hair density and skin secretions etc. Zebu cattle have, on average, greater tick
resistance than either European cattle or African cattle. However, systemic studies on disease
resistance in indigenous livestock are very scanty. Climate and location are undoubtedly the
most important factors influencing livestock production. Bos indicus rely on a combination of
strategies to cope with climatic fluctuations by increase in surface area per unit of body
weight; increasing temperature gradient between animal and air; increasing conduction of
heat from the body core to the skin; decreasing solar radiation reflection and increasing
metabolic rate and feed intake. This causes the indigenous cattle to perform better under
adverse climatic conditions. Although milk productivity of indigenous cattle is lower as
compared to crossbreds but a premium price of indigenous milk may compensate the overall
profit of farmers and ultimately farmer will feel encouraged for rearing indigenous cattle.

Definitions of animal welfare:

Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary defines animal welfare as “The avoidance of
abuse and exploitation of animals by humans through appropriate standards of
accommodation, feeding, general care, prevention, treatment of disease, assurance of freedom
from harassment, unnecessary discomfort and pain.” This definition highlights the fact that
animal welfare for long time was interpreted merely as satisfying essential physical needs of
an animal. This definition has completely ignored its psychological and emotional needs and
at the same time accepting that some degree of pain and discomfort may/will be inflicted on
animals as they thrive to serve humans as food, fur, entertainment, work and research tool.
Today these assumptions are challenged. Animal welfare as defined by Fraser and Broom
(1990) implies Animal welfare as the state of animal with regards to attempts to cope with its
environment. Coping indicates its ability to adjust the situation by physical and mental
means. Earlier animals were thought that they cannot enjoy their freedom and expressions but
now they are proved as sentient beings. They have ability to experience feelings and have
some degree of awareness. Welfare is measured by their behavior physiology, longevity and
reproduction. Collectively animal welfare is defined as “a state of body and mind as sentient
animals which attempts to cope with its environment”. According to Broom and Fraser
(2007), behavior is a significant indicator of health in animals and understanding behavior is
the key to good management. Until recently animals were not thought to enjoy their freedoms

55
and rights. Now they are thought as sentient beings meaning they have ability to have
feelings and to have some degree of awareness. Welfare is not just absence of cruelty or
‘unnecessary suffering’ as it is presumed. But, it is much more complex which can be
explained using different states. Rollin, 2006 stated that “Not only welfare will mean control
of pain and suffering, but it will also include nurturing and fulfillment of the animal’s nature,
which I call telos.” Rollin explained the “telos” of an animal as “its nature or ‘beingness’
such as ‘birdness’ and unique qualities of a canary or eagle, the ‘wolfness’ of a wolf and the
‘piggyness’ of a pig (Patel and Prasanna, 2017).

Animal welfare versus animal rights:

Here, it is very much essential to understand the difference between animalwelfare and
animal rights. Animal welfare denotes the desire to prevent unnecessaryanimal suffering
(that, whilst not categorically opposed to the use of animals,wanting to ensure a good quality
of life and humane death). Animal rights denotethe philosophical belief that animals should
have rights, including the right to livetheir lives free of human intervention (and ultimate
death at the hands of humans).Animal rightists are philosophically opposed to the use of
animals by humans(although some accept 'symbiotic' relationships, such as companion
animalownership).

Perspectives of animal welfare:

We should also understand the animal welfare in different perspective such as
 Welfare science: considers the effect on the animal from the animal’s point of view
 Welfare ethics: considers human actions towards animals
 Welfare legislation: considers how humans must treat animals.

Importance of animal welfare:

For the requirement of quality food in the present time and the time to come, human
perception triggers the strict implementation of animal welfare norms at farm level. Further,
after statutory implementation of “Food Safety and Consumer Protection Bill”, OIE standards
and Bio safety Norm Bill, animal welfare has become important issue of Green Box of WTO
agenda and will be more important in future.

In the past few decades, animal welfare has been increasingly recognized as prime concern
under livestock farming systems in many countries of the world. Most of the governments,
academic institutions and animal welfare professionals are addressing livestock welfare at
different points in the food supply chain, while consumers are demanding higher standards
for quality food and animal welfare at farm levels for mutual benefits. Meanwhile, regional
and global initiatives to provide guidance on acceptable livestock welfare practices have been
emerged (IFC, 2014). Livestock based enterprises that address or enhance livestock welfare
are likely to win or retain a competitive advantage in the global market place by reducing
costs through improved human-livestock relationships and other welfare benefits, and
realizing the growing market opportunities for quality livestock based products; consumers
are more concerned with livestock health and welfare, food safety, human health and the
environment.

Livestock welfare standards:

Livestock welfare means how a farm animal copes with the conditions under which it is
reared. A livestock is considered in a good state of welfare if it is healthy, comfortable, well
nourished, able to express innate behavior and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states
such as pain, fear, and distress. Good livestock welfare requires disease prevention and

56
veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter management, proper nutrition, humane handling and
humane slaughter. A number of international recommendations, principles, codes and laws
focus on livestock welfare and a growing number of countries have enacted livestock welfare
legislation outlawing specific animal husbandry practices. Animal welfare stakeholders agree
that animal welfare standards must be based on sound science, research and practical
experience. Measures of livestock welfare include behavior, physiology, productivity,
reproductive success, mortality rates and incidence of injury and disease. Attention to various
components of livestock management like housing, feeding and health can improve their
welfare, productivity and profitability at farms. Productivity should be assessed in
conjunction with other measures to ensure that livestock welfare is appropriately addressed
and managed. Focusing only on productivity, particularly in large-scale operations can lead to
poor animal welfare conditions.

Assessment of welfare measures in changing climate scenario (i.e the five freedoms of
livestock welfare):
The quality of products is outcome of management practices being followed at livestock farm
and welfare measures taken to meet the physical, physiological and psychological needs of
the farm animals. The provision of good husbandry practices and outcome of such good
husbandry are defined by the five freedoms in animals (Webester, 2001). These five
freedoms refer to idealized states of welfare rather than standards. They emphasize that the
welfare of livestock includes its physical and mental state that good livestock welfare implies
both fitness and a sense of well-being and that any livestock kept by humans must, at least be
protected from unnecessary suffering.

Freedom from hunger and thirst:

Freedom from hunger and thirst i.e. good nutrition can be achieved by providing adequate
feed and drinking water and the same can be assessed by body condition score, hair coat, skin
condition, piling around waterers and feeders. Animals exposed to heat stress reduce feed
intake and increase water intake, and there are changes in the endocrine status which in turn
increase the maintenance necessities leading to reduced performance. Environmental
stressors decrease body weight, average daily gain and body condition of livestock. Declines
in the milk yield are pronounced and milk quality is affected: reduced fat content, lower-
chain fatty acids, solid-not-fat, and lactose contents; and increased palmitic and stearic acid
contents are observed. Generally the higher production animals are the most affected.
Adaptation to prolonged stressors may be accompanied by production losses. Increasing or
maintaining current production levels in an increasingly hostile environment is not a
sustainable option. It may make better sense to look at using adapted animals, albeit with
lower production levels (and also lower input costs) rather than try to infuse ‘stress tolerance’
genes into non-adapted breeds (Gaughan, 2015).
Continuous exposure of animal to high temperature causes a rise in its rectal temperature, a
decline in feed intake, an increase in water intake, a decrease in production of milk, alter in
milk composition reduction in growth and even a loss in body weight. Therefore, above
reasons lead to deterioration in the performance of temperate dairy cattle when introduced
into tropical countries. Animals graze and eat less during daytime in summer and tend to eat
more during the night. Since high ambient temperature depresses appetite and reduces feed
intake and grazing time this affects growth of livestock. This may probably be a reason why
livestock in tropical countries are smaller at birth and grow slowly. Further, hot climate
causes higher mortality, especially in newborn. During summer, buffaloes come into heat
mostly during cooler night periods (silent heat) and the heat periods are shorter and feebler.

57
Sheep also show seasonality in the breeding process. If suitable steps are taken to diagnose
heat and breed during night, buffaloes breed well even in summer. They should either have
access to suitable water supply and be provided with an adequate supply of fresh drinking
water each day. Feeding and watering equipment should be designed, constructed, placed and
maintained so that contamination of food and water and the harmful effects of competition
between animals are minimized. Control injurious (harmful) weeds because they can harm
animals by poisoning them (for example, ragwort); injuring them (for example, thistle); and
reducing their grazing area by reducing the edible plants that are available. In addition to
direct effect on animals, climate has effect also on vegetation on which they live. The quality
and quantity of feed available to the animal are determined by climate. Many plants grow
within a narrow range of air temperature and humidity conditions. More important is the
effective precipitation, which limits plant growth drastically, more so in semi-arid and arid
regions.
Freedom from discomfort:
Freedom from discomfort is indicated by the housing management with welfare criteria as
resting comfort, thermal comfort and ease of movement. In order to maintain body
temperature within physiological limits, heat stressed animals initiate compensatory and
adaptive mechanisms to re-establish homeothermy and homeostasis, which are important for
survival, but may result reduction in productive potential. The relative changes in the various
physiological responses i.e. respiration rate, pulse rate and rectal temperature give an
indication of stress imposed on livestock. The thermal stress affects the hypothalamic–
pituitary– adrenal axis. Corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulates somatostatin, possibly a
key mechanism by which heat-stressed animals have reduced growth hormone and thyroxin
levels. The animals thriving in the hot climate have acquired some genes that protect cells
from the increased environmental temperatures. Using functional genomics to identify genes
that are up- or down-regulated during a stressful event can lead to the identification of
animals that are genetically superior for coping with stress and to the creation of therapeutic
drugs and treatments that target affected genes (Collier et al., 2012). Studies evaluating genes
identified as participating in the cellular acclimation response from microarray analyses or
genome-wide association studies have indicated that heat shock proteins are playing a major
role in adaptation to thermal stress.
Freedom from pain, injury and disease:
Absence of injuries, diseases, pain and pain induced by faulty managemental practices are
indicative of good health. Many of the traditional livestock farming are shifting to intensive
system of farming due to extreme climatic conditions. Under intensive system, numbers of
physical conditions are related with welfare of livestock. Lameness is one of the common
conditions which generally come across in the intensive farming. Clinical mastitis is the most
commonly reported health problem in the dairy industry. Docking in sheep/goat and pig is
inevitable to control the unhygienic conditions. It is generally done in long-thin tailed sheep
& is not common in India. Docking itself is a controversial as it has many functions for the
protection of the animal. Generally the tail is cut as sanitary measure to reduce the incidence
of blow fly strike & to facilitate shearing. Variations in temperature and rainfall are the most
significant climatic variables affecting livestock disease outbreaks. Warmer and wetter
weather (particularly warmer winters) will increase the risk and occurrence of animal
diseases, because certain species that serve as disease vectors, such as biting flies and ticks,
are more likely to survive year-round. The movement of disease vectors into new areas e.g.
malaria and livestock tick borne diseases (babesiosis, theileriosis, anaplasmosis), Rift Valley
fever and bluetongue disease in Europe has been documented. Certain existing parasitic
diseases may also become more prevalent, or their geographical range may spread, if rainfall

58
increases. This may contribute to an increase in disease spread for livestock such as ovine
chlamydiosis, caprine arthritis (CAE), equine infectious anemia (EIA), equine influenza,
Marek’s disease (MD), and bovine viral diarrhea. There are many rapidly emerging diseases
that continue to spread over large areas. Outbreaks of diseases such as foot and mouth disease
or avian influenza affect very large numbers of animals and contribute to further degradation
of the environment and surrounding communities’ health and livelihood.

Freedom to express normal behavior:

Animal’s response to external stimuli is a behavior. Animal is said to display its appropriate
behaviour if it is able to express social behavior, positive emotions and good human animal
relationship. Domestic animal behavior and performance are correlated. Man’s intervention
has led to huge modifications and modulations in animal behaviour patterns over ages but
certain characters and normal behaviours of animals are needed to be expressed, otherwise
may lead to abnormalities or performance loss. Animal freedoms also ensure certain basic
freedoms to domesticated animals including freedom to express normal behaviour.
With the developing concern over animal welfare among consumers, growers and animal
activists, the need to ensure animal freedoms is call of the hour. In the changing climatic
scenario, many of the adaptive behavior have taken place. Often our poor understanding of
animal behavioural needs and limitation to act as per animal needs may be the root cause
behind abrupt and undesirable behaviour of animals. Modern intensive farming with
constrains of space and burden of high production often invite anomalies in animal
behaviour.
Freedom from fear and distress:
Buffaloes due to black coloration are susceptible for heat stress. The absence of wallowing
pool facilities to bathe during hot summer season induces the suppression of natural
behaviors such as wallowing leading to reduced fertility in buffaloes. Since pigs are
comfortable at 200C not much changes are needed for housing in tropical Indian conditions.
However as discussed earlier piglets need much warmth and hence better comfortable
housing. Similarly, Piglet’s body temperature is 42oC whereas sows body temperature is 38oC
hence there is differences between thermal comfort zones of sows and the piglets. It is a
paradoxical situation of needing temperature below 20oC for the sow and above 34oC for the
piglets. Reproductive processes are affected by thermal stress. Conception rates of dairy cows
may drop 20–27% in summer, and heat stressed cows often have poor expression of oestrus
due to reduced oestradiol secretion from the dominant follicle developed in a low luteinizing
hormone environment. In males, heat stress adversely affects spermatogenesis perhaps by
inhibiting the proliferation of spermatocytes.
Sr No The five freedoms Provisions
1. Freedom from hunger Ready access to fresh water and diet to maintain full
and thirst health and vigour.
2. Freedom from Provision of suitable environment through good shelter
discomfort and comfortable resting area.
3. Freedom from fear and Prevention or rapid diagnosis of disease and immediate
distress treatment.
4. Freedom from pain, Provision of suitable space, proper facilities and
injury, and disease company of the animals own kind
5. Freedom to express Ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid
normalbehavior mental suffering

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However there is always some welfare risks associated with farm operations. Every country
has its standardized system which gives specifications related to animal spacing, feeding
system and others. But the farmers do not always follow these standards. The welfare risks
associated with limitation of spaces inside animal houses are increased stocking rate which
restricts the animal movement, increases chances of disease spread, injuries and behavioural
changes. When animal has limited space to display its behavior, it develops vices and these
vices are dangerous to both animal and its handler. So animal should be provided with
adequate space which can be achieved by decreasing the stocking rate and providing animals
opportunity to interact with other animals by group housing. The environmental enrichments
like providing nest boxes and perches to hens, sleeping benches to goats helps to stimulate
positive emotions in animals.
General principles for livestock welfare at farm:
The OIE is the international body that focuses on animal welfare with the aim of improving
animal health, animal welfare and veterinary public health. OIE gave 10 principles of animal
welfare which are:
 Genetic selection should always take into account the health and welfare of animals.
 Animals chosen for introduction into new environments should be suited to the local
climate and able to adapt to local diseases, parasites and nutrition.
 The physical environment, including the substrate (walking surface, resting surface,
etc.), should be suited to the species so as to minimize risk of injury and transmission
of diseases or parasites to animals.
 The physical environment should allow comfortable resting, safe and comfortable
movement, including normal postural changes, and the opportunity to perform types
of natural behavior that animals are motivated to perform.
 Social grouping of animals should be managed to allow positive social behavior and
minimize injury, distress and chronic fear.
 For housed animals, air quality, temperature and humidity should support good
animal health and not be aversive. Where extreme conditions occur, animals should
not be prevented from using their natural methods of thermo-regulation.
 Animals should have access to sufficient feed and water, suited to the animals’ age
and needs, to maintain normal health and productivity and to prevent prolonged
hunger, thirst, malnutrition or dehydration.
 Diseases and parasites should be prevented and controlled as much as possible
through good management practices. Animals with serious health problems should be
isolated and treated promptly or killed humanely if treatment is not feasible or
recovery is unlikely.
 Where painful procedures cannot be avoided, the resulting pain should be managed to
the extent that available methods allow.
 The handling of animals should foster a positive relationship between humans and
animals and should not cause injury, panic, lasting fear or avoidable stress.
 Owners and handlers should have sufficient skill and knowledge to ensure that
animals are treated in accordance with these principles.

Areas of research and development in livestock welfare:

Animal behaviour: Certain behaviors reflects animal welfare problems like feed intake,
altered locomotor behavior and posture, altered lying time, human-animal relationship,
altered respiratory rate and panting, coughing, shivering and huddling, grooming and the
demonstration of stereotypic, agonistic, aggressive, depressive or other abnormal behaviors.

60
Morbidity and mortality:The morbidity arising from infectious and metabolic diseases such
as mastitis and metritis, lameness, metabolic diseases, parasitic diseases, post-partum and
post-procedural complications and injury rates, above recognised thresholds, are direct or
indirect indicators of the animal welfare status of the whole herd. Understanding the etiology
of the disease or syndrome is important for detecting potential animal welfare problems.
Mastitis, lameness, reproductive and metabolic diseases are also particularly important health
problems. Scoring systems, such as body condition, lameness scoring and milk quality,
provide additional information for ensuring welfare measures of dairy animals. Physical
appearance of morbid animals may be an indicator of animal health and animal welfare, as
well as the conditions of management.
Management of heat and cold stress: The risk of heat stress is influenced by environmental
factors including air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed, animal density (area and
volume available per animal), lack of sufficient shade, and animal factors including breed,
age, body condition, metabolic rate, stage of lactation, coat colour and density. Heat stress is
mitigated by provision of shade, fans, easy access to additional drinking water, reduction of
animal density, and provision of cooling systems as appropriate for the local conditions. The
sprinkling of water is necessarily required in cattle and specially in buffalo sheds. The
wallowing of buffalo is supposed to be very important for expression of normal behaviour.
The impacts of climate and geographical factors on livestock should be evaluated when farms
are established. Efforts should be made to mitigate any negative impacts of those factors,
including matching dairy breed to location and consideration of alternate sites.
Reproductive efficiency: Reproductive efficiency can be an indicator of animal health and
animal welfare status. Poor reproductive performance, compared with the expected standard
for that particular breed, can indicate animal welfare problems. The indicator of welfare
issues related to reproductive efficiency are; anoestrus or extended post-partum interval
prolonged post-partum anoestrus, low conception rates, high abortion rates, high rates of
dystocia/placenta, retained placenta, metritis and loss of fertility in breeding bulls.

Animal identification and recording: It is important to measure and record the economic
traits along with the pedigree details of all animals for ensuring required welfare of animals.
Most of the Indian livestock population is not being identified using any of tools except at
some of the organized herds. In most of the developed nations, a 12 digit RFID unique
number is used, which codes for breed, country, sex, location, farm etc. Therefore, it is
essential to provide an unique number to each dairy animal for successful implementation of
genetic evaluation system. The DADF has recently launched a scheme of unique
identification number (similar to aadhar ID) for animals which will be implemented in
coming years. Recording of farmer’s animals under the central herd registration scheme
(CHRS) with the objective to locate superior germplasm and milk recording in cattle (Gir,
Kankrej, Hariana, Ongole) and buffalo (Murrah, Jaffrabadi, Surti, and Mehsana) breeds was
initiated long back with some success in identifying the superior animals and their listing.
Rashtriya Gokul Mission for indigenous cows has recently been started for Sahiwal in
Punjab; Rathi and Tharparkar in Rajasthan; and Gir and Kankrej in Gujarat with the objective
to improve the indigenous breed, enhance the production and productivity and to upgrade non
descript cattle using germplasm of these elite indigenous breeds to be implemented through
the “State Implementing Agency (SIA viz Livestock Development Boards) and Gauseva and
GaucharVikas Board. Field Performance Recording (FPR) in the breeding tract has also been
carried out under AICRPs on cattle and buffalo. Field progeny testing under Network Project
on Buffalo Improvement to strengthen the ongoing sire evaluation program of Murrah breed

61
at various centres was initiated by involving performance recording on farmers’ animals in
the field using the semen of bulls selected under the Network Project.
Strengthening dairy housing and dairy data network: In all production systems animals
need a well-drained and comfortable place to rest. All animals in a group should have
sufficient space to lie down and rest at the same time. Particular attention is required to be
given to the provisions for calving areas. The environment in such areas (e.g. floors, bedding,
temperature, calving pen and hygiene) should be appropriate to ensure the welfare of cows
and new born calves. In Buffalo sheds adjacent wallowing ponds must be constructed for
expressing natural behaviour of buffaloes especially in hot summer months. Floor
management in housed production systems can have a significant impact on livestock
welfare. Animals must be housed as per required minimum floor space requirement. Slopes
of the pens should be maintained to allow water to drain away from feed troughs and not pool
excessively in the pens. In pasture systems, stock should be rotated between paddocks to
ensure good hygiene and minimise disease risk.
The behavioural changes like aggression in sheep are due to alteration in space allowances.
The overall welfare status of individual animal, group of animals or whole flock is reduced
by diseases. Anything that brings about stress in animals results in poor animal welfare due to
hormonal changes. Space allowances and housing structures are described as the main
potential sources of discomfort for sheep and goat. The important animal welfare issues in
sheep and goat are castration, tail docking, mulesing, weaning, ear tagging, handling,
shearing, clipping, transport, slaughter and transgenesis. These operations compromise the
welfare of farm animals. However, these activities could not be avoided under intensive
production system. Moreover, proper care could reduce postoperative infections and improve
welfare status of dairy animals. Further, implementing these practices at an early age could
reduce post operative. It has been reported that the use of an epidural anesthesia did not
reduce the pain caused by rubber ring castration. The electro ejaculation method for semen
collection in sheep and goat elevates the levels of cortisol. Efforts should be continued for
maximum production but at the same time animal welfare should not be compromised.

Following animal welfare issues require attention from all the concerned organizations and
the beneficiaries:
 Management/ control of stray animals
 Prevention of overloading
 Check on stocking density
 Handling and transport of slaughter animals
 Creation of cooperative societies/ Self Help Groups
 Preparation of value added products
 Establishment of cold chains
 Bulk tank storage
 Establishment of vending machines
 Marketing tactics
 Acceptable protocol between animal welfare issues and economical viability

References :
References are available on request from editor.

62
 Pastoral Livestock Production System: Conflicts and Opportunities in India
G K Gaur, S A Kochewad, P K Bharti, H O Pandey and Mukesh Singh
Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar -243 122
Uttar Pradesh, India
Introduction:
Pastoral livestock production system contributes considerable worth to the economy of
developing countries, both in terms of supporting their households and in supplying
protein.Extensive pastoral production is followed on 25% of the world’s land, produces about
10% of the meat used for human consumption and supports 20 million pastoral households
(Blench 2000). These grasslands have long been utilised with transhumance grazing systems,
which is still practiced on large parts of Asia and Africa (Suttie and Reynolds, 2003). The
major factors responsible for adoption of these types of animal production systems are
climate and geographical conditions (Ocak et al., 2016). Pastoral livestock production
systemis evolved due to two factors; medium human population density and presence of
extensive rangeland.Pastoralists are engaged in livestock production and derive more than 50
per cent of their incomes from livestock and livestock products. Theyare found in areas,
where the potential for crop cultivation is limited due to low / high rainfall conditions and
steep terrain or extreme temperature. In this unpredictable region and vulnerable and
dynamic environment;pastoralist have developed successful mechanisms to maintain an
ecological balance between pasture and livestock.

Roy and Singh (2013) reported that about 30 pastoral communities in hilly and arid/semi-arid
regions of northern and western parts of India and 20 in temperate hilly regions depend on
grazing-based livestock production. The livelihoodof pastoralist depends on their sound
knowledge and information regarding their surrounding ecosystem. Depending upon the
climate, fodder resources, water and other natural resources; the different livestock species
are selected for rearing under pastoral system. The pastoral communities aregenerally not
given due consideration and their livelihoods are vulnerable to climate change, shifting
global markets, population growth and increased competition for land and other natural
resources.Pastoral farming can be categorized into four groups according to species,
management system, geography and ecology involved.

Status of grassland in India:

Grasslands represent 40% of the world land area (Suttie et al., 2005) and 68% of the world’s
grassland are located in developing countries (Boval and Dixon, 2012). India has 328 M ha
geographical areas. The land use under different components include forest area, non-
agricultural uses, barren and uncultivable, cultivable waste, permanent pastures,
miscellaneous treecrops, fallowland, agricultural land and net sown area. The corresponding
value of area is 71.79, 26.88, 16.99, 12.86, 10.26, 3.35, 26.18, 181.18 and 140.02 M ha,
respectively. There is little scope for increasing area under cultivation from the present level
of 140.02 M ha. The total area of permanent pasture is about 10.26M ha or 3.12% of the
country‘s geographical area.This is spread across the Eastern and Western Himalayas regions
including the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal,
Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim (Roy and Singh, 2013). Maji et al. (2010) reported that out of
12.4 M ha of pastures and grass lands, 2.8 M ha is affected by land degradation.
The cause of degradation is over-grazing and over-cultivation and also the climate change is
exacerbating the problem (Han et al.,2008).Tewari and Arya (2005) reported grazing
pressures are crossing the recommended stocking rates; the pressure was 0.87 ACU ha−1 in
1981, which increased to 1.02 ACU ha−1 ha in 2001 against the optimum desirable density of
0.2 ACU ha−1. Dixit et al. (2015) reported thatarea under PP (permanent pasture) and GL

63
(grazing land) has declined from 120 to 102 lakh hectaresduring 1980–81 to 2007–08 in
India. High deceleration in area under PP and GL was observed in Karnataka (4.16 lakh
hectares) closely followed by Andhra Pradesh (4.15), Maharashtra (3.27) and Madhya
Pradesh (2.97). Grazing pressure in terms of livestock per unit of PP and GL at country level
increased from 35 to 52 animals during 1982 to 2007 whereas carrying capacity of per unit of
PP and GL was less than 1 adult cattle unit. Increasing trends in the grazing pressure were
noticed in Punjab (833 animals’ ha−2 of PP and GL) followed by Uttar Pradesh (142), Tamil
Nadu (126) and Andhra Pradesh (69) during 1980-81 to 2007–08.
Table 1: Land use pattern in India
Sr No Land use Area (M ha) Percent
1 Forest area 71.79 21.84
2 Non-agricultural uses 26.88 8.73
3 Barren & uncultivable 16.99 5.20
4 Cultivable waste 12.86 3.90
5 Permanent pastures 10.26 3.12
6 Miscellaneous tree crops 3.35 1.00
7 Fallow land 26.18 7.96
8 Agricultural land 181.18 55.33

9 Net sown area 140.02 42.63

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare,
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (2017)

Grasslandbased production systems:

Nomadic system: In this system, the pastoralist does not grow crops and simply depend on the
sale or exchange of animals and their products for livelihood. The movements of their livestock
are opportunistic and follow pasture resources in a pattern that varies from year to year.
Pastoralists have to make use of their intimate knowledge of pasture, rainfall, disease, political
insecurity and national boundaries with access to markets and infrastructure for survival. They
travel in established migratory routes and often develop long-standing exchange arrangements
with farmers in their migratory routes. Pastoralists change their existing migratory routes during
drought, a pasture failure or the spread of an epizootic.

Transhumance: In this system, there is regular movement of herds between fixed points to
exploit seasonality of pastures. Pastoralists have a permanent homestead, where the older
members of the community remain throughout the year. They prefer to build houses at high
rainfall areas, where the problem of fodder resource availability is less. Pastoralists produce
some crops for their own use. In many temperate regions, haymaking is an important component
of this system. ‘Make hay while the sun shines’ is very significant advice in such systems. Herd-
splitting is carried out wherein men take away the majority of the animals in search of grazing
but leave the resident community with a nucleus of lactating females. Transhumance has been
transformed by the introduction of modern transport in many regions.
Agro-pastoralism: Agro-pastoralists are settled well and engaged in cultivation of crop sufficient
to feed their families from their own crop production. They have own farming lands. They use
their own or hired labour to cultivate land and grow food. Livestock is very valuable property for
them. Their size of herd is smaller than other pastoral systems. They graze their livestock around
their village, which can be reached within a day. Agro-pastoralists build houses and invest

64
in other local infrastructure. They often send their livestock for long grazing if herds become
large. Agro-pastoralists have frequent interaction with sedentary and mobile pastoralist
communities. Under this system, productivity of animals in terms of milk production, growth
Table-2: Pastoralism in selected states of India
Sr No State Pastoral group
1 Andhra Pradesh Golla,Kuruma (Sheep)
2 Arunachal Pradesh Monpa (Yak)
3 Gujrat Rabari (Cattle, Sheep, Goat) Bharwad (Small ruminants)
4 Karnataka Kuruba (Sheep) Dhangar (Sheep)
5 Kerala Toda (Buffalo)
6 Madhya Pradesh Dhangar (Sheep)
7 Maharashtra Dhangar (Sheep)
8 Rajasthan Raika/Rabri (Camel,Sheep,Goat),Gujjar (Buffalo,Sheep)

65
rate and reproductive performance is generally low owing to primitive livestock breeding and
rearing practices, scarcity of feed and fodder, migration of labour and lack of extension support
services (Khan et al., 2013).
Table-3: Migration pattern of some selected pastoralist groups
Pastoralist Location Species Migration pattern
group
Bhakrwal Kashmir Mainly goats They move to Jammu and Punjab in
winter season and to Kashmir and other
alpine valley of Kashmir Himalaya in
summer season
Gujjars Jammu,Himachal Mainly buffaloes Winter period are spent in the regions
Pradesh and of Jammu,Punjab and lower districts of
Uttaranchal Himachal Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh.They migrate to higher(non-
alpine) regions of Himachal Pradesh
and Uttaranchalin summer period.
Changpas South-east ladakh Yak Their migration cycle is around the
various high-altitude pastures of
Rupshu plains in Changthang regions
of Ladakh.
Gaddi Kangara and Sheep and Goat Punjab plains and lower districts of
Dharamalasa Himanchal Pradesh during winter
regions of months and occupy Lahul and
Himachal Pradesh Dhauladhar pastures in summer period.
parts of Uttar
Pradesh and
Punjab
Bhotias Upper regions of Sheep,Goat,Cattle They occupy lower districts of
Garhwal and Uttaranchal like Dehradhun, Bhabar
Kumaon of valley in winter months and move to
Uttaranchal higher pastures of Garhwal and
Kumaon Himalayas towards Nanda
devi,Gwaldam, Mana pastures and
adjoining areas.
Bhutias North district of - Alpine regions of Lachung and Lachen
Sikkim valleys of north district of Sikkim and
move to lower forest below Mangams
in summer season.
Manpas Tawang and west - Higher parts of east Kameng and
Kameng district Tawang districts in summer season of
of Arunachal Arunachal Pradesh and migrate to low
Pradesh lands around Tawang in the winter
months
Kinnauras Kinnaur district Sheep and Goat In summer, sheep and goat flocks are
of Himachal driven to higher parts inside of
Pradesh Himachal Pradesh and in winter the
flocks are driven to foothills of
Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh.
Source: Sharma (2003)

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Strategies for pastoralist:
Pastoralists rear indigenous livestock and select them on the basis of survival and
productivity,which are well adapted to the prevailing climatic conditions. Mobility is the only
way to make sustainable use of pasture lands. The pastoral system is moved to fit the
environment in order to make the best use of the available resources economically.Rearing more
than one species of livestock can generate a wider variety of livestock products and make better
use of the available forage in different seasons. Larger herd size helps in their survival despite of
losses during drought or disease outbreak. Splitting herds reduces the competition for forage and
water resources during scarcity. The pastoralist communities have strong traditional institutions
that regulate natural resource use and conservation.
Opportunities for pastoral livestock production system:
Pastoralists produce food in the world’s harshest environments, converting scarce resources from
non-arable land into edible products. The focus for the growth of the traditional livestock
production system is sustainability, which is also the integral part of the management of natural
resources.Pastoral farming is one of the most important livestock production systems in many
developing countries with dry lands, where there is no way to grow crops. The animals are reared
in fewer resources. Grazing is the cheapest way of feeding livestock (Jodha 2008). The cost of
production is the important factor influencing the success of these systems (Ocaket al., 2016;
Kochewad et al., 2017). This is the most economic method of animal production. The labour
requirement per animal is very less as compared to other systems. Singh et al. (2006) reported
that migratory sheep and goat production system generated employment opportunity of 1151
mandays per flock per year. Migratory flock-owner’s perceptions revealed that on an average one
labour (365 mandays per year) was required to maintain 100 animals, whereas only 0.74 man
(269 mandays per year) was employed for this purpose. Flock analysis showed that large flocks
provided more employment opportunity than small flocks; per animal employment was worked
out to be higher on small (3.08 mandays per annum) than large (2.48 mandays per annum) flocks.

Pastoral production system is generating good employment opportunities for the weaker section
of the tribal areas. There is scope for increasing the size of herd without any additional
infrastructure. Pastoral farming helps in carbon sequestration in the soil. Zhang et al.(2015)
conducted a grazing experiment involving combinations of rest (R), moderate (M) and heavy (H)
grazing pressure inearly summer season and moderate or heavy grazing in the mid and late
season. They reported that heavily grazed treatments (HHH, HHM) had significantly higher
CH4 emissions from animals over the grazing seasons (23.3 and 21.4 kg ha−1 year−1) as compared
to MMM (16.8 kg ha−1 year−1) and early season rest treatments (RMH and RHM; 13.6 and
15.2 kg ha−1 year−1). CH4 emissions per head increased linearly with LWG of animals (R2 = 0.69).

Rangnekar (2008) reported that grazing saves the cost of harvesting pastures and crops, helps in
breaking the top crust of soil by hooves of livestock and ensures better percolation. Penning is
common practice in sheep that helps to improve the soil status of the agricultural fields. The
penning of the flock was also the main component of income in sheep production system (Singh
et al., 2006).Crop farmers often have deals with pastoral farmers and take the manure for their
fields. Zhanget al. (2015) reported that moderate grazing pressure (~550 sheep equivalent grazing
days ha−1 year−1) resulted to optimal balance between productive and diverse grassland, a
profitable livestock system and greenhouse gas mitigation.Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2012)
reported that animal products from grazing systems have less water requirement than industrial
systems and they are more water-efficient to obtain calories and protein.

Major constraints in pastoral livestock production systems:

Non-availability of feed and fodder particularly during winter months is the most important
constraint in pastoral livestock production system and main reason for decreasing livestock
numbers per house hold over the years (Khan et al., 2013).Ononoet al. (2013) observed that

67
production constraints in pastoral production systems with high scores were scarcity of water
(19 %), lack of extension services (15 %), presence of diseases (12 %), lack of market for cattle
and their products (10 %) and recurrent cycle of drought (9 %).Pastoralism is in crisis globally,
both as a result of man-made and natural events. Events of high grazing and unmanaged
conditions resulted in degradation of grasslands worldwide (Ghosh and Mahanta, 2014).
Uncontrolled, excessive and continuous grazing has led to a decline in biomass availability.
Suresh et al. (2010) reported that deterioration of the pastureland has resulted in reduction of 18%
wool yield and 20% body weight of sheep.The grazing pattern has created manifold problems in
the pastures. Obnoxious weeds have invaded the pastures. There is little progress in
empowerment of pastoralists and participation in their own development process.

The loss of accessibility to pastures because of security concerns has deprived the livestock and
livestock owners of the area from nutritive natural pastures. The use of common property
resources to non-agriculture purposes has also depleted the natural grazing areas.Grazing
resources on community grazing lands has less carrying capacity (Gulyani and Meena,2012). The
pressure on pastures, from migratory sheep populations from other parts of the state is constraint
for fodder resources. The migration of youth to cities in search of employment for livelihood is
leading to non-availability of work force to take care of livestock under pastoral production
system. Because of the harsh climatic conditions and getting less income in this profession, the
youth of these communities is not interested to continue this profession. Sankhyanet al. (2016)
reported that pastoralist do not have organized markets and they usually sell their animals and
young kids at their own level leading to sub-optimal prices from the buyers. Singh et al. (2006)
reported that veterinary facilities are very poorat higher altitudes. Chances of spread of infectious
diseases are more in pastoralist production systems. Predators are also constraint which causes
huge loss of livestock especially to young and growing animals during migration through dense
forests (Sankhyanet al., 2016).Turneret al. (2006) also reported that there has been conflict
among the farmers and pastoralists because of damage to growing crops and also unauthorized
grazing of crop residues after harvest.
Technological interventions for pastoral livestock production system:
The sustainable livestock systemsdepend on the communal pasturelands and require a balance
between stocking rate and the carrying capacity of the pasture. The development of watershed
management can be undertaken for assuring water resources for animals.The pressure on
communal pasturelands in the arid and semi-arid areas should be reduced in dry season. Animals
should be provided with supplementary feed i.e. leaves of fodder trees and shrubs, hay, treated
straw with urea, mineral blocks or crop residues.Technologies for pasture and fodder
development needs to be implemented emphasizing production of legume forage and cultivation
of short-duration fodder with pasture in crop rotation. Pasture and forage conservation
throughhay or silage, which is common for large commercial farms need to be practised by small
and marginal farmers.

Indigenous germplasm is the part of pastoral production system. Programs for the genetic
improvement of indigenous breeds therefore need to be taken up under pastoral production
system to increase their performance. Pastoral societiesmust focus on controlling grazing pressure
on pasturelands forreducing degradation. Drought risks can be reduced by improving marketing
facilities, early warning systems, stableprices of animal products and emergency stocks of
feed.Improved veterinary facilities should be provided for prevention and control of diseases with
active participation of pastoralist groups in planning and implementation of animal health
campaigns.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

68
 Purgi Sheep-An Unexplored Sheep Breed of Kargil
F.A. Baba, H.M. Khan, M. T. Banday, N.A. Bumla and S. Adil
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology
Shuhama, Alusteng, Srinagar- 190006, J&K
Abstract :
The study was carried out in Kargil region of Jammu and Kashmir to document the Purgi
sheep which is native to this region. Morphometric and performance traits were recorded
from 776 Purgi sheep whereas socio-economic status was also extracted from 126
respondents of the region on the basis of a pre-devised questionnaire. The study revealed that
the respondents of the region were illiterate (29.24%) or read up to middle level (50.02%),
lived in joint families (73.01%) with medium family size (57.14%). Maximum (59.52%)
respondents had livestock rearing as their main occupation; kutcha house was predominant
(82.53%) housing type, had 5-10 kanals of land (53.17%) most of which was non-irrigated
(85%). The annual household income was<25000 in 58.73% respondents and income from
sheep was <10000 rupees annually in 61.11% households. Average flock size of Purgi sheep
was 13.44 per family, contributing 47% to the average livestock population reared by the
family. Flock size of crossbred sheep, goats, cattle, donkey, yaks and chicken were 1.26,
5.66, 2.92, 1.09, 1.23 and 3.05, respectively. General description revealed multiple colour
patterns with predominant white colour (35%), long pointed flat head profile (50.51%), and
short and slightly tubular ears (62.75%), females were polled whereas males had curved
horns with downward orientation (35.19%). Morphometric measurements of the Purgi sheep
revealed significant difference (P<0.05) between males and females with respect to all the
parameters except head and ear length. The wool yield varied from 250 to 300 grams per clip.
Age and weight at slaughter in males was 2-3 years and 18-20 kg whereas in females was > 5
years and 30-32 kg, respectively. Age at first mating in males was 15-17 months (72.22%)
while in females it was 16-18 months (62.70%). Majority of the respondents revealed
oestrous duration, oestrous cycle length, twinning percentage and lambing season as 24-36
hours, 16-19 days, 11.11% and Feb-April, respectively.
Key words: Purgi, socio-economic, morphometric, performance, sheep

Introduction :
India is a rich source of ovine germplasm with 74 million sheep which is 6.8% of world
sheep population (FAOSTAT, 2010) Whereas the sheep population of J&K state is 39.04
lakh out of which Kashmir region shares 16.261 lakh (13.439 cross bred+2.882 locals),
Jammu 20.64 lakh and Ladakh shares 2.131 lakh (Directorate of economics and statistics
J&K, 2013-2014) and represents the source of income to a reasonable proportion of
population of Jammu and Kashmir. Sheep complement and supplement the income of 25 %
population of this region. The state is ideally suited for rearing of sheep and goats owing to
its favorable agro-climatic conditions and rich alpine pastures. Jammu and Kashmir has a
mountain agricultural system and sheep and goat rearing is the core activity of rural masses in
the state and plays a vital role in socio- economic upliftment of weaker sections of the society
viz; Gujjars, Bakarwals, Copan’s, Gaddies and Changpas. Sheep play an important role in the
hilly and other inaccessible areas where it is difficult for other livestock to thrive and
contribute to the income of poor communities. Keeping up with the constraints in the region,
sheep and goats sustain food and economic security (Khan et al., 2011). According to 19th
Livestock Census (2012) in spite of having vagaries of climate and other constraints faced by
farmers, sheep rearing in Jammu and Kashmir has shown a steady growth rate of 4.88 % per
annum compared to 3.87% of India (Anonymous, 2012). They are the only tangible assets at

69
times of scarcity, provide employment and help in upliftment of socio-economic status under
transhumance and semi-migratory production system of management.
Low performance of the small ruminants due to non-availability of elite germplasm/ breeding
males, shortage of feed and fodder and increased morbidity and mortalities has added to the
miseries of the breeders/farmers who are totally dependent on these resources for their
livelihood. The impending climate change and global warming is likely to further tax the
production performance of small ruminants thus worsening the socioeconomic status of
farming communities. The hostile climate, lack of infra-structure, huge credit requirement
and socio-economic conditions of the people involved with this trade is the major
impediment for taking up commercial sheep production. Successful interventions addressing
the stakeholders in light of the prevailing production systems (semi-migratory and
transhumance production system) are the dire need of the day keeping in view the available
resources and opportunities to tap them.
In spite of large population of sheep the state is not able to meet the demand for mutton in the
state. The state spends annually approximately Rs 1500 crores on the import of mutton and
poultry from other states which is a huge load on the state exchequer. Complexion of the state
can change if the whooping sum gets pumped back into the economy. So, there is urgent need
for improving the production and productivity from sheep to reduce the supply and demand
gap.
In the last 40 years, the state has lost at least a dozen rare indigenous species of sheep, goat,
horses and dogs and many species are on the verge of extinction. The distinctive breeds of
animals with the nomadic Gujjars, who have lived on rearing of cattle and sheep have
gradually got lost due to the introduction of and subsequent crossbreeding with certain
foreign breeds to get more yield in terms of mutton and wool. No study has been conducted
yet to preserve the distinct characteristics of the primitive traditional species of livestock and
the rare species got lost. It is a worldwide phenomenon that government institutions take all
steps to preserve the old species while introducing new ones and cross breeds. The diversity
of domesticated livestock and poultry breeds has emerged due to years of evolution within
specific ecological niche. Several complex and interactive factors like human needs,
adaptability of a species, agro-climatic conditions and selection of animal husbandry
practices ultimately culminate in the emergence of a breed. Each breed/type/strain should be
regarded as an aggregate of specific genes, to serve specific purpose(s) in particular agro-
ecological zones.
The name Kargil is said to be derived from the words Khar and rKil. Khar means castle and
rKil means centre thus a place between castles as the place lay between many kingdoms. The
competing theory is that Kargil has been derived from the words "Gar" and "Khil". Gar in
local language mean ‘Anywhere’ and Khil means a central place where people could stay.
Earlier it was called Purig. A major study of the history of Purig is included in the
book Qadeem Ladakh (Skinder, 1987) which includes genealogy of various dynasties that
ruled the region. Kargil, a cold arid district in Ladakh province (Jammu and Kashmir, India),
faces a long winter, covered with thick snow (4–6 months) and temperature varies from –38°
to +39°C (APR 2007). During winter (November to April) there is closing of road from
Kashmir valley to Kargil and Himachal Pradesh to Leh due to heavy snowfall and no
vegetable is available to the people of Ladakh, and they depend on meat of animal origin.
During this period, animals are raised on Lucerne hay, tree leaves and straws, though not
available in sufficient quantity to the animals. Mondal and Mir (2008) evaluated some
commonly used feeds which are used by the farmers and reported that these are nutritionally
rich but due to non-availability in sufficient quantities and long stall feeding period,

70
nutritional requirement is not fulfilled. A number of environmental factors especially the sub
zero temperature during the winter season affect the performance of animals with a
subsequent decline in the profitability.
There is one local sheep in this region called Purgi which is a small breed known for its
hardiness, carcass traits and adaptability under harsh climatic conditions of Kargil. It fetches
better market during severe winter when kargil remains cut off from valley. Till now there is
no organized study on the growth, morphometry in various stages of life cycle and
reproductive performance in Purgi sheep of Kargil region under field condition. The
documentation and characterization will be important for its utilization, improvement and
conservation
The sheep population of Kargil district was 1, 13,538 (Department of Sheep Husbandry,
Kargil, 2012). Majority of the Kargil sheep breeds are indigenous. These animals provide
income, employment and food security to the resource poor farmers and people of the area
i.e. fetches better market during severe winter when kargil remains cut off from valley.
Limited characterization of these breeds has been done resulting in poor efforts to fully
exploit their genetic potential and conserve them. Since these breeds are most suitable to the
local climatic stress and harsh environmental conditions prevailing in the area throughout the
year, so there is need to conserve these indigenous breeds so that their genetic potential can
be used for the benefit of the poor farmers.
The need for documentation of various breeds arises because documentation acts as a guide
to subsequent conservation .It is a prerequisite to conserve the gene pool and to prevent the
extinction of various unique breeds in future by adopting various conservation measures.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2000) and
Hall (2004), for many decades indigenous genetic resources have been perceived as
unproductive and inherently inferior to high performance or improved breeds. As a
consequence these were subjected to cross-breeding or even replacement with exotic breeds.
The number of indigenous breeds has thus declined rapidly during the twentieth century.
About one third of the more than 7000 livestock breeds (including poultry) registered in the
FAO global database are regarded as threatened by extinction. Of the 1409 sheep breeds
registered, 180 are extinct, 98 are endangered and 40 are critically endangered (FAO, 2007).
It has been reported by Kruger (2009) that Namaqua Afrikaners is already an endangered
sheep breed in South Africa. The impact of these losses on the global or local diversity is not
documented (Hanotte and Jianlin, 2005). There is therefore a need to document livestock
genetic and phenotypic resources and to design and implement strategies for their sustainable
conservation. Documentation records the potential of a particular breed and helps to know the
merit of different breeds of the country in terms of meat, milk and fibre. It helps to know and
subsequently utilize the unique traits of certain breeds like adaptability, disease resistance and
make an account of the habitat, ecology and geographical location of a particular breed .The
information regarding these unique breeds is vital not just from a conservation perspective,
but it is indispensible for carrying out various developmental programmes meant for the
betterment of these breeds. Livestock rearing constitutes a source of livelihood for various
landless and marginal farmers and socially and economically backward tribes.
Phenotypic comparison based on morphological characters can provide to an extent a
reasonable representation of genetic differences among populations. Body measurement can
also be used routinely in weight estimation and selection programmes based on its utility in
determining breed evolution trends (Sarti et al., 2003 and Riva et al., 2004).
Considering the importance of the above mentioned study for the development of Purgi sheep
on scientific lines and for ensuring its sustainability, the present study was undertaken.

71
The socio-economic profile of the
population revealed that majority of the
respondents (75.39%) belonged to > 60
years age group, joint families were more
prevalent (73.01%) and family size was
predominantly (57.14%) medium with 5-8
members per family. Maximum (59.52%)
people had livestock rearing as their main
occupation and were mostly illiterate
(29.24%) or read up to middle level
(50.02%) only. Kutcha house was the
predominant (82.53%) housing type with 5-10 kanals land (53.17%) and of which most was
non irrigated (85%). The annual household income was <25000 in 58.73% respondents and
the income from sheep in majority (61.11%) households was <10000 rupees annually.
Average flock size of Purgi sheep was 13.44 per family, contributing 47% to the average livestock
population reared by the family. The characteristic features of the Purgi sheep are multiple colour
patterns with predominant white colour (35%), long pointed flat head profile (50.51%), short and
slightly tubular ears (62.75%) and curved downward horns (35.19%) in males only. The households
did not milk the Purgi sheep as it was enough to meet the requirement of lambs up to 3-4 months only.
Age at slaughter in males was 2-3 years with an average slaughter weight of 18-20 kg while as
females were slaughtered after cessation of production at an average weight of 30-32 kg. The
maximum weights recorded in males and females were 32 and 34 kg, respectively. Sheep were shorn
twice a year in the month of May and September producing an average yield of 250-300 grams per
clip. Age at first mating in males (15-17 months) was reported by 72.22% respondents while in
females it was reported as 16-18 months by majority (62.70%) of the population. Oestrus duration
was reported to be 24-36 hours by 81.75% of the respondents and oestrus cycle length was reported as
16-19 days by majority of them (75.39%). Only 34.13% respondents reported twice lambing in a year
and 11.11% twinning in the present survey. Lambing season was reported to be Feb-April by most of
the respondents (69.84%).
People of the region allowed the animals to graze together. The duration of grazing reported was 9-10
hours in majority of cases (63.49%) and grazing distance reported (62.69%) was 4-5 km. Only
37.30% of the respondents followed migration of their sheep flock during summer months to far off
areas. Less number (19.84%) of households offered concentrates to pregnant and lactating stock. Feed
supplements and mineral mixtures were not being offered by most of the households (93.65%). Every
household provided housing to the animals to prevent them from both harsh winters and predators.
Managemental practices such as exchange of breeding rams, castration, dosing and vaccination, hoof
trimming,
dipping and
salt feeding
were
followed by
91.27%,
52.38%,
52.38%,
31.75%,
26.98% and
39.68% of
the
respondents,
respectively. The prevalence of major health concerns for the Purgi sheep as agreed by the
respondents were infestation by ectoparasites (96.82%), pneumonia (67.46%), hypothermia
(94.44%), diarrhoea (73.81%), bloat (59.52%), predation by leopards and wild dogs (79.37%) and

72
mastitis (29.36%). Majority of the respondents (73.80%) reported the lamb mortality to be 5-10%
whereas mortality in adult sheep was reported to be 1-2% by most of them (69.05%).
Head length (cm) in males and females at temporary-tooth, 2-tooth, 4-tooth, 6-tooth, 8-tooth and
animals with broken mouth were recorded as 16.50±0.16 and 16.19±0.36; 18.54±0.16 and
18.81±0.15; 19.60±0.11 and 19.69±0.14; 20.86±0.32 and 21.68±1.19; 21.51±0.16 and 22.18±0.35;
21.65±0.30 and 21.37±0.35, respectively. The head length was comparatively higher in all age groups
of females than males except in 2-tooth and broken mouth but the comparisons were statistically
insignificant (P>0.05). The nose length (cm) at temporary-tooth, 2-tooth, 4-tooth, 6-tooth, 8-tooth and
animals with broken mouth were 10.92±0.15 and 10.37±0.29; 12.72±0.15 and 13.02±0.13;
13.87±0.10 and 13.84±0.13; 14.95±0.25 and 14.21±0.11; 14.84±0.27 and 14.69±0.28; 15.50±0.26 and
15.73±0.47 in males and females, respectively. The nose length was found significantly higher
(P≤0.05) in males than females except in 2-tooth and broken-tooth age group. The estimated values
for poll length (cm) at temporary-tooth, 2-tooth, 4-tooth, 6-tooth, 8-tooth and animals with broken
mouth were 4.84±0.06 and 4.68±0.17; 4.57±0.14 and 5.55±0.12; 4.29±.0.11 and 6.03±0.41; 4.27±0.31
and 5.67±0.07; 4.43±0.35 and 6.26±0.10; 4.14±0.42 and 5.64±0.23in males and females, respectively.
The females had significantly higher (P≤ 0.05) poll length than males except in temporary tooth age
group. Males were horned and the mean horn length recorded was 15.47±0.49 cm.

The measured values for ear length (cm) at temporary-tooth, 2-tooth, 4-tooth, 6-tooth, 8-tooth and
animals with broken mouth were recorded as 8.82±0.41 and 10.05±0.33; 10.69±0.30 and 10.09±0.27;
10.49±0.77 and 10.02±0.23; 9.61±0.45 and 10.53±0.26; 9.19±0.50 and 9.94±0.53; 10.92±0.63 and
13.08±0.37 in males and females, respectively. The ear length (cm) in all age groups was
comparatively higher in females than males except two- tooth and 4-tooth but the comparisons were
statistically insignificant (P>0.05).
The chest girth (cm) in temporary-tooth, 6-tooth, 8-tooth and broken mouth age groups were recorded
as 55.59±0.65 and 52.30±1.21; 64.06±0.54 and 66.07±0.63; 69.96±0.53 and 71.66±0.46; 78.64±0.95
and 78.04±0.61; 83.92±1.39 and 80.53±2.14; 77.33±1.46 and 77.09±0.98 in males and females,
respectively. Males had significantly higher (P≤0.05) chest girth than females in all the age groups
except 2-tooth, 4-tooth. The estimates obtained for paunch girth (cm) at temporary-tooth, 2-tooth, 4-
tooth, 6-tooth, 8-tooth and animals with broken mouth were 54.87±1.66 and 52.79±2.22; 70.96±0.58

73
and 71.47±0.60; 75.39±0.59 and 74.77±0.61; 85.09±1.42 and 82.26±0.63; 89.10±1.81 and
88.27±1.82; 84.16±2.67 and 77.67±1.19 in males and females, respectively. The estimates for paunch
girth were significantly higher (P˂0.05) in males than in females in all age groups except 2-tooth age
group. The mean values for body length (cm) in Purgi sheep at temporary-tooth, 2-tooth, 4-tooth, 6-
tooth, 8-tooth and broken mouth were recorded as 48.24±0.83 and 44.22±1.30; 55.62±0.46 and

55.48±0.52; 59.17±0.39 and61.09±0.37; 63.78±0.83 and 63.00±0.33; 63.81±1.06 and 66.48±0.99;

61.34±0.75 and 63.68±0.61in males and females, respectively. The body length was significantly
higher (P˂0.05) in males than in females in all age groups except in 4-tooth, 8-tooth and broken
mouth. The wither height (cm) in Purgi sheep at temporary-tooth, 2-tooth, 4-tooth, 6-tooth, 8-tooth
and animals with broken mouth was recorded as 45.11±0.42 and 42.29±0.98; 49.22±0.42 and
49.15±0.28; 52.17±0.32 and 52.43±0.31; 57.24±0.71 and 54.68±0.30; 57.66±0.75 and 57.33±0.85;
54.70±1.39 and 55.88±0.81 in males and females, respectively. The wither height was significantly
higher (P<0.05) in males than females in all age groups except in 4-tooth and broken mouth. The
estimates obtained for tail length (cm) in Purgi sheep at temporary-tooth, 2-tooth, 4-tooth, 6-tooth, 8-
tooth and animals with broken mouth were recorded as 11.44±0.29 and 11.54±0.82; 13.15±0.26 and
11.72±0.23; 13.37±0.18 and 12.23±0.21; 13.42±0.50 and 12.57±0.20; 12.53±0.32 and 12.15±0.29;
12.60±0.50 and 11.74±0.39 in males and females, respectively. The tail length in all age groups was
significantly higher (P≤ 0.05) in males than females except in temporary tooth.
The weight (kg) of Purgi sheep at temporary-tooth, 2-tooth, 4-tooth, 6-tooth, 8- tooth and at broken
mouth was recorded as 12.06±0.28 and 10.21±0.47; 17.64±0.34 and 18.52±0.40; 20.67±0.30 and
21.87±0.27; 23.51±0.43 and 23.81±0.28; 26.31±0.55 and 25.69±.51; 25.71±0.82 and 26.39±0.68 in
males and females, respectively. The body weight was significantly higher (P˂0.05) in females than
males in all age groups except in temporary-tooth and 8-tooth.
In conclusion, the socio-economic profiles of the people of Kargil revealed that majority of them were
illiterate or read up to middle level, lacked knowledge about adequate nutrition especially for pregnant
and lactating stock. Illiteracy was the major hindrance in adoption of scientific managemental
practices. Joint and medium-sized (5-8 member) family represented the predominant type of
household in the study area. Majority of the households owned on an average 5-10 kanals of land
most of which was uncultivable as 85% of it was non-irrigated. The Purgi sheep provide income,
employment and food security to the resource poor farmers of the Kargil through the sale of animals
and wool. Livestock rearing was the main occupation of the people but the income generated from
sheep was less owing to high household consumption of meat during 6 months long harsh winters.
The purgi is a small sized sheep with predominant white colour, long pointed flat head profile, short
and slightly tubular ears and curved downwards horn orientation. Growth potential in terms body
weight, reproductive efficiency, twinning percentage and ability of twice lambing in a year reveal its
potential to sustain and produce under the arid-climatic conditions. All these features along with some
unique morphometric characteristics possessed by Purgi sheep merit its documentation for better
exploitation.

74
 Kashmir Anz: The First Registered Geese Breed of India
Henna Hamadani, Azmat Alam Khan and M. T. Banday
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology
Shuhama, Alusteng, Srinagar-190006, Jammu and Kashmir
Abstract :
A study on characterization of domestic geese in Kashmir revealed their predominance
around water-bodies. Small proportion of birds showed presence of knob, dewlap and
paunch. Ample colour variation was seen in plumage, eye and bill but not in shanks. Body-
weight, bill-dimensions, knob-diameter, neck-dimensions, body-length and wing-span was
significantly more in males. Males showed presence of spiral, creamy copulatory organ.
Among viscera, only jejunum-length showed significant difference between sexes. Left
testicle was significantly larger than right. Geese had 19-cervical, 5-thoracic, 7-coccygeal
vertebrae and 9 pairs of ribs. Sternum was boat shaped and clavicle U-shaped. Different types
of behaviour and variation in vocalizations were recorded. Significant differences were found
in heart-rate and temperature between the sexes. P, QRS and T waves were present in E.C.G.
with QRS complex inverted. No significant difference between sexes was seen in haemato-
biochemical parameters. Parasitogicalstudies revealed presence of various eggs and parasites.
Fast juvenile growth and low egg-production was recorded. Significant difference was seen
in slaughter and cutability characteristics. Quality wise, geese egg and meat were found to be
good and consumers liked geese-meat. Hatchability of eggs was zero under artificial
incubation. Geese keepers practised varied occupations and some owned land and livestock.
Geese flock-size varied widely. Geese keepers practiced different systems of rearing,
housing, feeding andincubation, used different criteria for sex-determination and practiced
various identification methods. Various reasons for mortality were reported with poor
prognosis of disease. Veterinary service was available and sought by proportion of farmers.
Indigenous preparations were usedto treat sick geese. Eggs were mostly kept for incubation
while geese were sold as well as consumed in family. In villages geese were marketed at the
farmer’s door-step and in city, middlemen were involved. Based on thew study the breed
stands registered by National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources with Accession No:
INDIA_ GEESE_0700_KASHMIRANZ_18001
Keywords: Kashmir Geese, Characterisation, Registration
Introduction :
The spectacular growth that poultry sector has witnessed worldwide, has been mostly chicken centric.
Continued selection for fast growth and high egg production among broiler and layer type birds
respectively, has narrowed down the chicken genetic diversity to the extent that bulk of the global
poultry production relies on just three breeds: White Leghorn for egg and, Plymouth Rock and
Cornish for broiler production. Alternate or non-chicken poultry production systems offer an
opportunity to widen a resource base for the growing poultry sector and at same time provide
alternatives both, to the poultry producers as well as consumers. Alternate poultry species include
duck, geese, turkey, guinea fowl, quail, ostrich and emu. Amongst these, geese have interesting
biological characteristics, such as a high juvenile growth rate, a good adaptation to free range and
grazing, high dietary quality of meat (Romanov, 1999) and disease resistance (NRC, 1999).
Geese belong to the family Anatidae, sub-family Anserinae, tribe Anserini,genus Anser,
speciesanser(Johnsgard, 2010). However domestic geese are classified under the
subspeciesdomesticus.Although ducks and swans also belong to the same family as geese do, but they
can be easily differentiated from each other. The term ‘goose’ applies to the female member of the
species while as ‘gander’ applies to the male member in particular. Young birds before fledging are
called ‘goslings’. The collective term for group of geese on the ground is a ‘gaggle’. Goose and
gander are known as ‘Hans’ and ‘Hansini’ in Urdu/Hindi, and ‘Anz’ and ‘Anzin’ in Kashmiri.

75
Geese were one of the first animals and bird species to be domesticated by man, though there are
conflicting reports in literature about the era of their domestication. In general, domestic breeds are
much larger than their wild ancestors although they have in many cases retained their ability to fly.
Historical and archaeological sources suggest that in the 13th and 14th century goose husbandry was at
its peak. It is believed that geese have saved Rome from invaders. Geese have also got some religious
significance among Christians and Jews. ‘Nottingham Goose Fair’ with 700 years of history and
annual ‘Goose Fair’ of Tavistock dating back to 12th century indicate popularity of geese farming in
Europe over last many centuries. Both the fairs continue to be celebrated even now.
The geese are both popular backyard companions as well as produced commercially in specialised
farms. Geese are found all over the world but at present goose farming is economically important only
in Asia and Central Europe. United States and Taiwan has number of farms specializing in geese
raising. Though the number of farms maintaining geese has decreased over the years but number of
geese per farm has increased. In Europe also, ever since the introduction of modern production
techniques in agriculture at the beginning of the twentieth century, the number of geese has dropped
steadily. Many developing countries now recognize the importance of livestock in integrated
production systems to provide the sustainable increases in food necessary to feed their rapidly
expanding populations. Geese fit well into such systems and are especially well adapted to the humid
tropics. Most geese are well adapted to hot climates, as long as shade is available, and to high-rainfall
regions. They are especially well suited to aquatic areas and marshlands and are completely at home
in warm, shallow waterways. Geese adapt easily to captivity, and if small quantities of supplementary
feed are provided in the evening they will even return home by themselves, thus requiring little extra
work. These birds supply nutritious meat, huge eggs and rich fat for cooking, as well as soft down and
feathers for bedding and clothing, which makes them particularly appropriate for providing farmers
with a supplementary income.
Geese meat has high nutritional value in terms of optimal composition of essential amino acids as
well as favourable composition of fatty acids, with a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids
and a favourable ratio of omega 6- to omega 3-fatty acids. Global geese meat production has
increased from 0.77 million tons in 1991 to 1.91 million tons in 2001 and 2.47 million tons in 2009.
With 94 % of total goose meat production, Asia accounts for a dominant share of global goose
production. China ranks first in the goose meat production with 93.9% contribution at global level.

The geese are also known for a speciality product “foiegrasdoie” produced by fattening their liver.
Delicacies prepared from this are relished in many countries especially in France and China. The fat
contained in foiegras is actually unsaturated fat, which has coronary benefits.In 2007, France exported
2510 tons of duck and geese fatty liver (foiegras), followed by China and Thailand with 712 tons
each.
A special Chinese cuisine, ‘Pidan’ or ‘Century egg’ is produced from the goose eggs by processing
and preserving them over months together, using some traditional method. Such processed eggs are
known to have a shelf life of 50 – 100 years, hence the name ‘Century egg’. Consumption of ‘Pidan’
is believed to benefit patients with high blood pressure or coronary disease and improves appetite,
clears vision and protects the liver.
Fat produced from geese is a good medium for cooking and in Syria has been used for some
medicinal purposes well. Their soft feathers are used as a durable filling material for beddings and
upholsteries with a shelf life of up to 50 years. In ancient times, their quills were used as writing pens.
Being intelligent and charming, geese make good companions as well. They can be used as ‘watch
dogs’, since they are capable of making a lot of noise. They can also be used as ‘lawn mowers’ or
‘weed control’since they are grass foragers and unlike chicken do not compete with humans for
grains. They are utility birds for small holders with source of extra income and much needed animal
protein for family.
In spite of all these advantages, domestic geese have remained a neglected species in many countries
including India to the extent that not even basic statistics are available. The lack of information about
the domestic geese of Kashmir, locally known as ‘Anz’, has even led to divergent views between

76
various scholars as to whether to name this bird as ‘geese’ or ‘swan’. In very few studies carried out
on ‘Anz’, certain workers have termed it as a ‘goose’ while others have termed it as a ‘swan’. Lack of
scientific knowledge on all aspects of geese production viz. breeding, nutrition, management and
healthcare are some of the major impediments in development of geese production. Perusal of
literature reveals meager scientific studies being carried out on geese across the world. Apart from
some studies on wild geese, the situation is more dismal as far as research on domestic geese in India
is concerned.

In order to generate a data on available domestic geese germplasm and the prevalent production
practices, a study has been planned to record the morphological characteristics of local geese of
Kashmir, document production performance of Kashmir Geese and study the prevalent farming
systems of domestic geese.
The study was conducted Kashmir valley. The geese rearing areas were identified and during the
survey various morphological, morphometric and behavioral observations were carried out on the
geese found there. Other studies included the observation of external genitalia, visceral morphometry,
anatomical and radiographic observations of various bones of geese skeleton, recording of
physiological parameters, haematological analysis, estimation of biochemical indices and parasitic
examinations. Besides these studies, slaughter, carcass and egg quality analysis was done, which also
included the evaluation of sensory attributes and consumer acceptability of geese meat. Goose eggs
were graded on the basis of various traits. Artificial incubation of eggs was also attempted.
Interactions with geese rearers were carried out, to gather information about the geese rearing
practices, production parameters and other details.
In all the areas ts included in our study; geese rearing areas were mainly found confined in and around
the water bodies like Wular lake, Manasballake, Anchar lake, River Sind, Dal lake and Nigeen lake.
Only some proportion of birds showed the presence of knob (44.71%), dewlap (3.07 %) and paunch
(13.59 %). No curled feathers in the tail were seen in any of the geese studied.

Ample colour variation was seen in the plumage, eye and bill but not in shanks. Colour of the
plumage along the body, head, neck, abdomen, and across the wings varied from all cinnamon to all
white through all intermediate gradations. Similar variation of colour in the bills was seen where it
varied from all black to all yellow through all intermediates. Colour of eyes was either grey or brown,
while no variation was seen in the shank colour, which was orange in all adults and yellow in
goslings. Sexual dimorphism on the basis of plumage colour or eye colour was absent.

The overall mean body weight, bill length, bill width, knob diameter, head width, neck length, neck
girth, chest girth, breast angle, keel length, length from tip of bill to tail tip, length across wings and
shank length was 3.564 ± 0.067 kg, 8.888 ± 0.970 cm, 2.656 ± 0.024 cm, 2.400 ± 0.073 cm, 3.976 ±
0.035 cm, 30.599 ± 0.368 cm, 10.135 ± 0.099 cm, 40.865 ± 0.522 cm, 42.977 ± 0.568 o, 15.433 ±
0.206 cm, 86.646 ± 0.698 cm, 134.742 ± 1.343 cm and 11.538 ± 1.381 respectively. Among these
parameters, body weight, bill dimensions, knob diameter, neck dimensions, length from tip of bill to
tail tip and wing span was significantly more in males than females.

On observation of genitalia, males showed the presence of spiral like creamy copulatory organ which
was absent in females.

Among the visceral measurements, only jejunum length was found to show a significant difference
between the sexes. The overall length of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caeca, colon with cloaca,
oesophagus and trachea was 34.283 ± 0.925, 79.444 ± 1.888, 79.118 ± 1.816, 20.833 ± 0.583 and
15.761 ± 3.625, 32.8 ± 0.728 and 24.909 ± 0.929 cm respectively. Overall Proventriculous length and
breadth was 4.818 ± 0.255 and 3.5 ± 0.117 cm respectively. The overall mean weight of gizzard,
spleen, liver and heart was 94.08 ± 3.32, 1.763 ± 0.079, 55.18 ± 1.49 and 25.29 ± 0.53 g respectively.
In females, the mean oviduct length was 38.5 ± 8.5 cm and the mean weight of ovaries was 12.51 ±

77
2.225 g. In males, left testicle was seen to be significantly larger than the right one in terms of length
and breadth but the weight of left and right testicle did not vary significantly.
Geese had 19 cervical, 5 thoracic, 7 coccygeal vertebrae & 9 pair of ribs. Sternum was boat shaped
with a wide body and formed by the fusion of 8 pieces. Thoracic process was absent in sternum. The
pectoral girdle comprised of three bones viz. scapula, clavicle and coracoid.The clavicle was in the
form of thick curved plate which joined the bone of opposite side forming the broad ‘U’ shaped
furculum. Os-coxae comprised of ilium, ischium and pubis.

Different types of behaviours observed in geese were feeding, swimming, walking, flocking,
preening, laying, broodiness, parenting and social behaviour. Besides flightlessness and variation in
the vocalizations was also recorded.

Body temperature, respiration rate and heart rate was recorded to be 104.083 ± 0.262oF, 17.158 ±
0.754 breaths/min. and 79.498 ± 5.70 beats/min. respectively. Significant difference was found in the
heart rate & body temperature between the sexes. P, QRS & T waves seen to be present in the E.C.G.
with QRS complex inverted.

No significant difference between the males & females was seen in the biochemical and
haematological parameters. The overall mean of the hemoglobin, erythrocyte sedimentation rate
(ESR), packed cell volume (PCV), total erythrocyte count (TEC), cell volume (MCV), cell
hemoglobin (MCH), cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) and total leukocyte count (TLC) was
found to be 11.517 ± 0.203 mg/dL, 0.1 ± 0.174 mm/hr, 50.083 ± 1.815 %, 3.060 ± 0.779 x 106/mm3,
166.133 ± 5.349 m3, 38.248 ± 1.265 pg, 23.14 ± 0.504 % and 67.007 ± 4.083 x 103/mm3
respectively. The differential leukocyte count revealed an overall mean of 89.273 ± 1.361, 7.773 ±
1.303, 2.955 ± 0.453 and 0.0 ± 0.0 % neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes and basophils
respectively. The overall mean concentration of glucose, total protein, cholesterol-LS and HDL-
cholesterol observed were 216.308 ± 5.517 g/dL, 21.588 ± 1.291 g/L, 123.008 ± 10.418 mg/dL and
29.041 ± 2.242 mg/dL respectively.

Out of the total 150 samples, 68.67 % were positive and revealed the presence of Acaridiaspp. eggs,
Capillariaspp. eggs, Eimeriaspp. oocysts, Strongyloidesspp. eggs and Notocotylusspp. eggs. The endoparasites
recovered from different portions of intestines in our study were identified as Cotugniaspp., Notocotylusspp. and
Capillariaspp. and the ectoparasite recovered from the anterior lower neck region of the geese was identified as
Cuclogasterheterographus.

Body weight of different age groups was seen to show an increasing trend with increasing age.
Goslings on an average weighed 89.285 ± 9.472 g and a sharp increase was observed in the body
weight at 3 month of age (2875 ± 0.243 g). Age at sexual maturity, average clutch size and
hatchability of eggs was 13.733 ± 0.534 months, 9.445 ± 0.298 eggs and 83.37 ± 2.49 %. Reports
among the farmers, about the incubation period of goose eggs varied, with 81.03 % of farmers
indicating an incubation period of 30 – 32 days and 18.97 % reporting 40 – 41 days of incubation
period.

Significant difference was seen in various slaughter characteristics & yields, yield characteristics of
giblets and other by-products, and cutability characteristics of geese. Overall, shrinkage, dressing
percentage, evisceration loss and ready-to-cook yield was 4.711 ± 0.06, 67.711 ± 0.48, 13.258 ± 0.55
and 73.72 ± 0.58 % respectively. The overall mean values for weight before feed withdrawal, pre-
slaughter weight, bled-out weight, de-feathered weight, dressed weight and ready-to-cook weight was
3071.88 ± 51.01, 2927.08 ± 48.50, 2792.83 ± 48.01, 2577.42 ± 43.95, 1980.92 ± 32.92 and 2155.38 ±
33.13 g respectively.

No significant difference between the sexes was seen in the yield characteristics of giblets except in
the total giblet weight which was 171.98 ± 3.78g in males and 159.93 ± 2.18g in females. The overall
mean yield of abdominal fat, blood, feather, head and shanks was 1.224 ± 0.216, 4.608 ± 0.104, 7.348
± 0.15, 4.285 ± 0.088 and 2.791 ± 0.058 % respectively, and the overall mean weight of abdominal

78
fat, blood, feather, head and shanks was 36.76 ± 6.68, 134.25 ± 2.63, 215.42 ± 6.14, 125.29 ± 3.21
and 81.33 ± 1.54 g, respectively.

The overall mean of yield of breast, drumsticks, thighs, back, neck and wings in terms of percent live
weight was 20.035 ± 0.274, 7.60 ± 0.208, 6.386 ± 0.114, 14.119 ± 0.264, 7.186 ± 0.17 and 11.437 ±
0.154 respectively, and the overall mean of yield of breast, drumsticks, thighs, back, neck and wings
in terms of percent dressed weight was 29.567 ± 0.355, 11.201 ± 0.275, 9.449 ± 0.211, 20.82 ± 0.32,
10.587 ± 0.201 and 16.882 ± 0.207 respectively.
Weight of goose eggs ranged from 116 – 157 g with the average weight equal to 136.648 ± 2.095 g.
Shape index was 71.050 ± 0.702 % and specific gravity was found to be 1.092 ± 0.004 g/dl. Egg shell
colour was observed to be white in all eggs studied. Average weight of albumin, yolk and shell was
60.061 ± 1.555, 55.879 ± 1.767 and 22.333 ± 0.627 g respectively. Average shell and membrane
thickness was 0.526 ± 0.313 and 0.111 ± 0.061mm respectively. Albumin and yolk index was 0.091 ±
0.003 and 0.377 ± 0.005 respectively, whereas Haugh unit was found to be 71.312 ± 1.836. Colour of
yolk varied from orange to yellow through all intermediate grades and average grade for yolk colour
was calculated to be 4.182 ± 0.370. Albumin, yolk and shell accounted for 43.479 ± 0.776, 40.268 ±
0.813 and 16.253 ± 0.464 % of the total egg weight. No inclusion bodies were found to be present in
the eggs studied.

Quality wise, both egg and meat of geese were found to be good and consumers showed liking
towards the geese meat vis-à-vis chicken meat and mutton. Presence of negligible odour in the geese
meat was reported by the consumers.

Hatchability of geese eggs was zero under artificial incubation along with chicken eggs, and hatchery
break-out study of the unhatched eggs revealed 50 % infertiles and 50 % embryonic deaths.

Goose rearing was the primary occupation of only 6.56 % of the surveyed farmers, while the
remaining rearers, who were mostly small agricultural farmers, kept geese either to suppliment their
income or merely as a hobby. Most of the farmers, kept small to medium flocks with only 9.68 % of
farmers owning large flocks. At the time of survey, average sex ratio in Kashmir geese flocks was
observed to 1 male : 5 females.

Varied occupations were seen among geese rearers with a proportion of rearers owning land as well
other livestock.

Different systems of rearing, housing, feeding and incubation were being practised by the farmers.
Three systems of geese rearing were being practiced by the farmers viz. backyard, semi-intensive and
extensive system. Besides using different types of separate shelters, varying in type, shape and
construction material; integrated housing with other livestock was being practised by the farmers of
Kashmir to house their geese. Feed, mostly rice and paddy, was offered twice or thrice a day and in
different ways.
Geese rearers made complete nests of straw, either inside a basket/box or on the floor of the geese
shed/pen, besides the larger colony nests made by large scale geese farmers. 88.24 % of the surveyed
farmers practiced the custom of placing an iron sickle underneath the straw bedding of the nest. Such
a practice was prevalent because of the farmer’s belief, that if an iron sickle was not placed, then
thunders would spoil the eggs and hamper hatchability. During incubation, goose was fed on alternate
days by the surveyed farmers of Kashmir. Alternate feeding was preferred over daily feeding in order
to restrict the broody goose’s movement during incubation. Predominantly the Goose was used to
hatch geese eggs and an average of 9.531 ± 0.282 eggs was set under each goose.

79
Goslings were kept along with their mother and were fed rice, besides allowing them nibble on grass
as well. Goslings were carried from one place to another in a plastic or cardboard box containing
bedding material such as straw.

Geese rearers used different criteria for sex determination and various methods for identification of
their birds. According to the surveyed farmers, ganders show larger knob, longer neck, bigger body,
absence of paunch, peculiar voice and gait, and comparatively aggressive nature. farmers used
different methods of identification which included making slits or punch holes at different locations in
the webs, and nail removal of different digits. However, most farmers preferred slits over punch holes.
Other prevalent practices included trimming of the wings and tail feathers in more aggressive males.

Various reasons for mortality were reported by the farmers with poor prognosis of disease. Veterinary
service was available and sought by a proportion of farmers. Certain indigenous preparations were
also used by farmers to treat sick geese at home.

Eggs were mostly kept for incubation while geese were sold as well as consumed by the family. In
villages geese were being marketed at the farmer’s door step and in the city, middlemen played a role
in the marketing.

Based on the study the breed stands registered by National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources
under Accession no: INDIA_ GEESE_ 0700_ KASHMIRANZ_ 18001

------------------

80
Section-IV 81-131

Economics and Marketing of Animal Products

Export and Import of Livestock Products in India
Vinod Kumar Vidhyarthi

Scope and Strategies for Augmentation of Meat Production, Processing and

Marketing Avenues to Enhance the Income of Animal Keepers
K Sarjan Reddy, Vijayabhaskar Reddy and C G Varma

Marketing of Livestock and Their Products: Opportunities and

Challenges for Marginal Farmers
Harish K. Gulati and Vishal Sharma

Pharmaco-Economics: An Integral Part of Animal Health Economics in India

H. B.Patel, R.D.Singh, V.N. Sarvaiya, S.K.Modi and B.R. Patel

Securing the Dairy Value Chain: Challenges and Options

Smita Sirohi and Bishwa Bhaskar Choudhary

Editors: Dr Sarita Devi and Dr Pankaj A Patel

81
 Opportunities to Export of Livestock Products from India
Vinod Kumar Vidhyarthi
NABARD, Mumbai
Introduction
Animal husbandry and agriculture sector are bound together by a set of mutual input output
relationships. Over the last four decades there has been rapid growth in livestock production
as well as a rapid change in how animal products are produced, processed, consumed and
marketed. Livestock and its products are considered as an important source of food and
nutritionfor livelihood security in Asia and the Pacific, where production of animal-based
foods has grown dramatically over the past two decades. The meat and egg production in
India in 2017 was about 2.8 and 9.2 times the 1980 level while milk production 5.2
times.Meat, milk and egg consumption hasgrown rapidly in India over the past 25 years.
Dairying is not an adjunct to the crop-mix of Indian farms but anintegral part of the total
farming system. Hence, treating dairy cattle as the backbone of the livestock wealth of our
country would not be an exaggeration. Although dairying provides livelihood to millions of
Indian farmers and generates additional income and employment for a large number of
families in the countryside with significantly greater participation of women in this important
activity, our country with about 12.7%, 56.6%, 1.4%, 5.3%, 13.2% and 3.4% of the world’s
total cattle, buffalo,camel, sheep, goats and poultry/ chicken population, respectively
accounts for only about 18.3 per cent of the world’s total milk production (GOI, 2016). In
2015-16, livestock generated outputs worth Rs.415949 crore (at 2011-12 prices) which
comprised 3.7% of the GDP and 25.7% of the agricultural GDP. The total output worth was
higher than the value of foodgrains.The major thrust oflivestock development strategy in
India has been onachieving self-sufficiency in livestock products throughimport substitution.
India’s international trade in livestock and livestock products is mainly in live animals (17%),
meat and meat products (82%), dairy products and eggs (1%). At the global level, India’s
exports and imports account for only 0.17% of each. Meat and meat products have
dominated the exports from livestock.
Our livestock are roughly half as efficient as the average milch animals in the world and
probably only one fifth as efficient as those in the advanced countries. However, there is
consistent rise in India’s share in world milk production, which has grown from 9.9 per cent
in 1990 to 12.3 per cent in 1996 and further to18.3 per cent in 2016. Although India has huge
livestock population, in terms of trade it stands insignificant in the world trade of livestock
products. However, it is to be noted that India has tremendous potential to produce and export
various livestock products. Despite constraints like rearing of livestock under sub optimal
conditions due to low economic status of livestock owners, India has now become the largest
producer of milk in the world. The development of Indian dairy sector is an unprecedented
success story as it is based on millions of small producers. Government of India is making
concerted efforts to raise the per capita availability of milk through increase in productivity of
milch animals. In order to achieve this ambitious goal, assistance is being provided to the
state governments for controlling animal diseases, scientific management and up gradation of
genetic resources, increasing availability of nutritious feeds and fodder, etc. Earlier, the past
trends in milk production and domestic consumption had indicated a possible exportable

82
surplus of a modest level of one lack MTs of dairy products by the turn of the century (Baxi,
1994). The emergence of India as an exporting nation of livestock products in the era of
globalisation is sure to upset the traditionally exporting block of nations in these products.
Keeping in view the main objective of paper is to access the trends in production and export
trade of livestock products of India.

Data and Methodology

The data used in this paper was collected from various secondary sources issues of the annual
publication of Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Production Yearbook, Trade
Yearbook, International Trade Statistics Yearbook, Export Import Data Bank, Agricultural
and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), DGCIS, Annual
Reports From Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, Ministry of
Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, GoI, Basic Animal Husbandry & Fisheries Statisticsfrom
Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers Welfare, GoI, National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), Economic Survey, GoI,
Dairy India 2017 and from research papers.

Results and discussion:

India continues to be the largest producer of milk in world. Several measures have been
initiated by the Government to increase the productivity of livestock. During the years 2015-
Figure 1: India: The largest milk producing country in the world would even take over
the European Union by 2022 (million tonnes)
200
176
180 159
160 151
2010-11 2022
140 127
120 103
100 89
80
58
60 43 42 39 36
40 33 32 32 24 22
18 15 12 12 15
20 11 11 11 9 11 9 9 8 8 8 9
0

Source: OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2013-22

16 and 2016-17 the milk production registered an annual growth rate of 5.47 per cent. The
per capita availability of milk is around 351 grams per day in 2016-17. Moreover, India’s
milk production is expected to increase upto 176 million tonnes by 2022. This has been
achieved through ingenious organisations of a large number of small milk producers spread
across the rural areas of the country. The operation flood, one of the world’s largest dairy
development programmes, played a crucial role in achieving transformation of dairy industry
in India. In addition to being the largest milk producer, India also holds distinction as the low

83
cost milk production. More excitingly, there is a wide gap in the next highest milk producing
states viz : the US (89 million tonnes), China (43 million tonnes) and Pakistan (33 million
tonnes)(Figure1).

Livestock population in India:

The population of cattle in the country seems to have increased from 155.3 million in 1951 to
204.6 million during 1992. Similarly the buffalo population in the country has continuously
increased from 43.4 million in 1951 to 108.7 million in 2012. The sheep and goat population
has increased upto 2007 and a considerable slowing down was noticed in 2012. The total
livestock population in the country was 512.05 million in 2012, has decrease about 3.33 per
cent over the previous census (2007) was recorted. The total cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pigs,
Table 1: Change in livestock population by species annual growth rate (%)
Species 1951-56 1956- 1961- 1966- 1972- 1977- 1982- 1987- 1992- 1997- 2003- 2007-
61 66 1972 1977 82 87 92 97 2003 07 12
Cattle 2.19 10.65 0.34 1.19 0.95 6.94 3.74 2.45 -2.79 -6.89 7.51 -4.12
Adult female -13.05 7.82 1.57 3.09 2.25 8.42 4.90 3.70 0.00 0.16 13.18 5.07
cattle
Buffalo 3.46 14.03 3.52 8.30 8.01 12.58 8.88 10.79 6.77 8.90 7.56 3.23
Adult female 3.33 11.98 4.53 12.60 9.44 3.83 20.31 12.02 6.85 8.97 6.86 3.85
buffalo
Total 2.47 11.39 1.06 2.84 2.67 8.35 5.15 4.75 0.00 -1.97 7.52 -1.58
bovines
Sheep 0.51 2.29 5.47 -5.66 2.50 19.02 -6.35 11.16 13.19 6.96 16.42 -9.08
Goat 17.37 9.93 6.08 4.49 12.00 26.06 15.63 4.63 6.42 1.39 12.94 -3.77
Horses and 0.00 -13.33 -15.38 18.18 0.00 0.00 -11.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 -25.00 0.00
Ponies
Camels 33.33 12.50 11.11 10.00 0.00 0.00 -9.09 0.00 -10.0 -33.3 -16.6 -20.00
Pigs 11.36 6.12 -3.85 38.00 10.14 32.89 4.95 20.75 3.91 1.50 -17.7 -7.21
Mules -100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -50.0 100.00
Donkeys -15.38 0.00 0.00 -9.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -10.0 -22.2 -42.8 -25.00
Yak 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mithun 0.00 50.00 0.00 0.00
Total 4.68 9.75 2.38 2.53 4.59 13.59 6.10 5.77 3.08 -0.08 9.22 -3.32
Livestock
Poultry 28.98 20.46 1.05 20.02 14.95 30.46 32.55 11.55 13.19 40.68 32.68 12.39

Source: Livestock Census, DAHD&F, GoI

camels, mithuns and yaks, horses and ponies and mules and donkeys contributes nearly
37.28, 21.23, 12.71, 26.40, 2.01, 0.08, 0.07, 0.12 and 0.10 per cent, respectively of the total
livestock population as per 2012 census. In case of poultry population, it increase about 12.39
per cent over the previous census (2007). Another important featureof the livestock census
2012 is that camel, sheep and goats population decreased by about 20.00,9.03 and 3.77 per
cent over 2007 census (Table 1). They provide milk, meat, draft power, hidesand skin,
manure and other valuable by product thereby significantly contributing to
sustainablehumannutrition and economy of the nation. Although, India stands at number one
in milk production in the world whereas the meat production is a miserably lower compared
to otherdeveloping countries.Country has abundant export opportunities of animal products
since it has huge livestock and poultry population/resources.
Share of livestock sector in agriculture gross value added:
The livestock sector is of critical importance for sustainability of agriculture growth. The

84
share of livestock in agriculture and allied sector in terms of Gross Value Added (GVA) is
estimated to be growing steadily from 21.79 per cent in 2011-12 to 25.72 per cent in 2015-16.
The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of livestock GVA is 6.23 per cent, much higher
than that for agriculture and allied sector (2.02%) (Table-2). This is a clearl indication of
growing importance of livestock sector in overall agricultural development the country.
Table-2: Gross value added (GVA) by economic activity (at constant prices (Rs in crores): 2011-12)
Agriculture, forestry Share of livestock in GVA of
Year Livestock
and fishing agriculture and allied activities (%)
2011-12 1501947 327334 21.79
2012-13 1524288 344375 22.59
2013-14 1609198 363558 22.59
2014-15 1606140 390436 24.31
2015-16 1617208 415949 25.72
CAGR (%) 2.02 6.23
Source: National Accounts Statistics, 2017, MOSPI, CSO, GoI
Value addition:
The development of animal husbandry and dairying over time has resulted in significant
Table 3: Output and value added from livestock sector (at constant (2011-12) prices, Rs. incrore)
Particular 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 CAGR(%)
Value of output from 487751 508074 530953 562016 591691 4.99
livestock sector
Milk group 327767 339240 352247 374269 396691 4.92
Meat group 96219 102623 110744 117299 121756 6.23
Meat 88469 94428 102444 108579 112843 6.46
Beef 11754 12997 13243 15252 16822 9.17
Mutton 32667 34585 34905 35691 35774 2.15
Pork 4465 4376 4615 4475 3883 -2.54
Poultry meat 39583 42470 49681 53160 56364 9.76
Meat products 3346 3551 3597 3764 3805 3.20
By-products 4404 4644 4703 4957 5108 3.68
Hides 1887 1981 2012 2158 2277 4.72
Skins 1189 1249 1259 1290 1294 2.04
Other by-products 1328 1415 1432 1509 1537 3.63
Eggs 16633 17364 18308 19095 20223 4.98
Wool & hair 496 508 522 518 473 -0.75
Wool 352 363 376 378 333 -0.70
Hair & bristles 144 145 146 139 140 -0.98
Dung 32599 33468 33311 34140 34831 1.53
Dung fuel 11280 11399 11594 11766 12280 2.04
Dung manure 21318 22069 21717 22375 22551 1.27
Silk worm cocoons & 4326 4507 4718 4743 4743 2.38
honey
Increment in livestock 9710 10364 11102 11952 12974 7.49
Source: National Accounts Statistics, 2017, MOSPI, CSO, GoI

85
expansion in the value of livestock products produced in India. The estimates relating to
output and value added from livestock sector for period 2011-12 and 2015-16 is presented in
Table-3. At constant prices, the value of livestock products produced in the country in 2015-
16 was estimated to be Rs.591691 crore, with milk and milk products holding 67 per cent
share. The contribution of meat in the total value of livestock output is the second highest
after milk (21%). The value of meat output is continuously increasing at the CAGR of 6.23
per cent followed by eggs (4.98) and milk (4.92%) during 2011-12 to 2015-16.
Although India has huge livestock population, in terms of trade it stands insignificant in the
world trade of livestock products. It is also widely believed that with the ushering in the
agricultural policy reforms in major developed countries, the demand for livestock products
from developing countries, like India, will get a real boost. The adoption of several liberal
policy measures by the Government in more recent times and the application of scientific
production techniques have boosted India’s livestock production. However, the point that
merits consideration is how did the structure of livestock product trade of India changed over
time and what future prospects India holds in the export trade of livestock products in the
light of the rapidly changing world market conditions and in view of the various trade policy
measures adopted by the various developed and developing nations.

Trends in milk and livestock production : (i) Milk production :

India is the world's largest milk producing nation, achieving an annual output of 163.7
million tonnes during the year 2016-17 as compared to 155.49 million tonnes during 2015-
16, recording a growth rate of 5.47 per cent. Milk production increased from 53.9 million
tonnes in 1990-91 to 164 million tonnes in 2016-17 with Annual Compound Growth Rate
(ACGR) of 4.25 per cent (Figure 2). It is expected that the increase in milk production
significantly increased the dairy farmers’ income. The dairy sector in the India has shown
remarkable development in the past decade and India has now become one of the largest
producers of milk and value-added milk products in the world. Despite India being the largest
milk producer in the world, its yield continues to remain miserably low at 1.1 per ton per
head during 2010-12. USA has the world’s highest milk yield with 9.7 tonnes per head
followed by European Union (6.6 tonnes per head) during the same period. The vast gap in
milk yields and dependence on other animals for milk purpose such as sheep, goats and
camels which inherently have lower milk yields comparedto milch cows is responsible, to a
large extentfor huge disparity between the share of milk production and inventories between
developed and developing countries especially India. The gap in milk yield in India may be
due to the shortage of 62.76 per cent (665.80 million MT) green fodder and 23.46 per cent
(138 million MT) dry fodder in the country. The availability of green and fodder per animal
per year is only 1.2 MT and 1.4 MT, respectively (GoI, 2015). National Action Plan Vision
2022 is being prepared by Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare, GoI, to fill the gap
in the infrastructure required to handle the increased coverage and milk production not only
to meet the demand of milk and milk products but also to fulfill the objective of doubling of
farmers’ income.
The per capita availability of milk has reached upto 351 grams per day during the year 2016-
17, which is more than the world average of 299 grams per day in 2015. About 69 per cent of

86
the milk in the country is produced by small and marginal farmers (NABARD, Annual
Report, 2014-15). 198 dairy cooperative milk unions have covered about 20.05 million
farmers under the ambit of177314 village level dairy corporative societies up to March 2017.
The Cooperative Milk Unions have procured an average of 42.85 million kgs per day of milk
during the year 2016-17 as compared to 42.56 million kgs per day in the previous year. The
sale of liquid milk by the Cooperative Dairies has reached 33.08 million liters per day during
theyear 2016-17 as compared to 32.13 million liters per day recording a growth of 2.7% over
the previous year (NDDB, Annual Report, 2016-17).

Figure 2: Production and Per Capita Availability of Milk in India

Production… Per Capita Availability…
180.0 400
337 351

Per capita aavailability (Gr/day)

160.0 299 307 322 350
Milk Production (MT)

290
140.0 273 281 155.5164.0 300
233 132.4137.7146.3
120.0 217 116.4121.8127.9 250
100.0 176
80.6 92.5 200
80.0 130 126 128
112 150
60.0 53.9
40.0 31.6 100
17.0 20.0 22
20.0 50
0.0 0

Meat production:
The situation of meat production in India recorded a steady increase from 2007-08 onwards
and a leap in the same year due to inclusion of more parameters like commercial meat
production (Figure-3). The total meat production in the country is pegged at 7.4 million
tonnes in the year 2016-17, which marks a significant progress in the meat production.

Figure 3: Meat Production in India

8 7.4
6.7 7
7 5.9 6.2
In Million Tonnes

6 5.5
4.9
5 4.2 4.5
4
4
3 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3
1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9
2
1
0

The state-wise share of meat production vis-a-vis total meat production in the country is
presented in the Figure 4. The largest producer of meat is Uttar Pradesh, producing 20.2% of

87
the total meat production in the country followed by West Bengal (9.8%), Maharashtra (9.6
%), Andhra Pradesh (8.1%), Tamil Nadu (7.8%) and Telangana (7.8%) during 2015-16.

Figure 4: Share of Meat Production (%)

25
20.2
Percentage Share

20

15
9.8 9.6 8.8
10 8.1 7.8 7.8
6.6 5.7
4.3 3.6
5 2.8 2.6 2.3

Species-wise meat contribution :

The figure 5 shows the contribution of meat production from Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat,
Figure 5: Species-wise Meat Contribution (%)
Pig
6%
Goat
14%

Sheep
8% Poultry
47%
Cattle
5%
Buffalo
20%

Pig and Poultry. It shows that nearly 47% of meat production is contributed by Poultry.
Buffalo, Goat, Sheep, Pig and Cattle contribute 20%, 14%, 8%, 6% and 5% of meat
production, respectively during 2016-17.
Egg production:
Poultry production in India has taken a quantum leap in the last four decades, emerging from
an unscientific farming practice to commercial production system. Egg production at the end
of the Tenth Plan (2006-07) was 50.70 billion as compared to 66.45 billion at the end of the
Eleventh Plan (2011-12). Currently the total Poultry population in our country is 729.21
million (as per 19th Livestock Census). The per capita availability is around 69 eggs per
annum during 2016-17. The poultry meat production is estimated to be 3.26 million tonnes.
Egg production increased from 29.48 billion number in 1985-86 to 88.14 billion number in
2016-17, registering a CAGR of 6.1 per cent (Figure 6). Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West
Bengal and Maharashtra are the major egg producing states in the country.

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 Figure 6: Egg Production (Billion No.)
100.00 88.14
90.00 82.93
80.00 74.75 78.48
69.73
70.00 63.02 66.45
55.56 60.27
60.00 50.66 53.58
46.24
50.00 40.40 45.20
40.00 36.63 38.73 39.82
30.00 29.48 30.45
20.00
10.00
0.00

Trends in export of animal/livestock products from India : (i) Dairy products:

Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu are the major production area of dairy products in India. Butter fresh, butter oil, fresh
cheese, milk and cream, powder, milk for babies,other fat, skimmed milk powder, other milk
power, whole milk and ghee are the major dairy products. Milk and cream concentrated or
sweetening accounted for the highest share of 60 per cent in India’s dairy export in 2014-15
followed by butter and other fats and oil derived from milk and dairy spread (25%), cheese
and curd matter (10%). The export of dairy products from India were estimated at Rs.905.72
Table 4: Export of Dairy Products(Qty. in tones &Value in Rs. million)
Dairy Products 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15

Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value

Milk & cream not concentrated 2737 90.9 14615 394.3 4886 219.1 7392 323.2 16354 617.5
nor containing added
sugar/sweetening matter
Milk & cream concentrated 17904 2431.9 519 66.7 72038 1261.6 139231 29369.3 336248 7212.6
containing added
sugar/sweetening matter

Butter milk, curdled milk & 372 45.3 160 22.3 264 35.6 463 176.7 176 24.2
cream, yogurt, khir& other
fermented acidified milk &
cream
Whey & products concentrated 1174 105.2 116 12.3 610 81.1 135 20.4 38 7.1
of natural milk constituents not
containing added or sugar/
sweetening matter

Butter and other fats & oil 12165 2306.9 7841 1944.3 6500 1758.9 8765 2569.5 8912 2991.4
derived from milk and dairy
spread
Cheese and curd 2501 358.7 2389 453.6 3526 764.8 3263 799.4 4695 1201.2

Source: Trade map

crore during the year 2016-17 as against Rs.755.49 crore in 2015-16 (Table-4), registering a
growth of 19.89 per cent.The major destination and direction of export of dairy products from
India is presented in Table 5. The main markets for Indian dairy products are UAE, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal and these four countries, together, accounts for 58 per cent of

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the total export of dairy products. For boosting our milk and milk products exports, GoI has
further extended ban on Chinese milk and dairy products until 23 June 2018. The notification
also prohibits chocolates and chocolate products, candies, confectionary and food preparation
made with fluid milk or dairy solids as an ingredient. In the dairy industry, packing of
products is crucial since it plays an important role in maintaining the freshness and quality of
food products. In case of perishable food products, packaging is of prime consideration as it
provides protection from undesirable physiological changes and quality deterioration.
Table-5: Country-wise Export of Dairy Products from India (Qty in MT & Value in Rs. Crore)
2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Country Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value
UAE 6,135.99 187.44 5,461.66 180.84 5,733.87 203.22
Bangladesh 10,490.32 224.03 5,359.84 95.05 7,092.68 124.6
Bhutan 3,707.97 49.1 2,082.41 36.89 4,362.75 109.23
Pakistan 7,876.65 175.24 6,235.63 121.5 4,364.67 85.22
Nepal 18,153.59 113.02 2,119.48 42.01 5,055.48 72.65
Singapore 4,225.16 46.42 3,865.68 45.92 3,585.81 48.39
Philippines 1,833.81 47.37 932.75 20.56 1,840.97 41.35
Afghanistan 689.36 16.01 1,638.87 31.64 1,836.20 39.38
Saudi Arabia 682.82 22.48 758.63 28.16 730.35 28.75

Other Countries 12628.67 324.27 4987.6 152.92 4564.2 152.93

Total 66,424.34 1,205.38 33,442.55 755.49 39,166.98 905.72
Source: APEDA
(ii) Albumin:
Albumins are commonly found in blood plasma, and are unique from other blood proteins in
that they are not glycosylated. Substances containing albumins, such as egg white, milk are
called albuminoids. There are two types of albumin-egg albumin and milk albumin. The
Table 6: Export of albumin (eggs and milk; Qty in MT and value in Rs. crore)
Country 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value
Japan 1,246.75 98.52 1,077.12 86.37 926.33 45.21
Vietnam 358.94 25.49 392.34 29.25 332.37 17.97
Thailand 112.25 8.72 72 5.63 112.01 5.59
Indonesia 75.63 5.43 67.21 4.56 83.71 4.58
Philippines 58.75 4.02 48.75 3.73 50.33 3.42
UAE 15.5 1.29 11.26 0.83 38.92 3.26
Saudi Arabia 12 0.8 23.3 1.63 36.11 1.86
Russia 0.25 0.02 32 2.32 42 1.65
Malaysia 158.03 11.05 96.08 7.03 32.76 1.62
Other Countries 86.92 5.84 114.07 8.46 48.78 2.64
Total 2125.02 161.18 1934.13 149.81 1703.32 87.8
Source: APEDA

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country has exported 1703.32 MT of albumin to the world for the worth of Rs.87.8 crore in
2016-17 (Table 6). Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines and UAE are the major
export destinations of India’s albumin. Japan and Vietnam are the largest importers of Indian
albumin accounting for 51 per cent and 20 per cent share, respectively in 2016-17.
(iii) Buffalo meat:
India is having largest livestock population including buffaloes, sheep and goats, pigs and
poultry, which are generally used for production of meat products. India has about 3600
slaughter houses, there are live modern abattoirs and one integrated abattoir meat processing
plant for slaughtering buffaloes for exports and domestic consumption. There are 24 meat
processing plants including 13 are hundred percent export oriented units, who are mainly
engaged in export of meat products. During last one-year three new export oriented units of
buffalo meat processing have been approved and are reportedly under implementation. In
addition, there are few animal casing units engaged in collecting, cleaning, grading and
exporting sheep, goat and cattle guts. Carcasses of bovines (fresh and frozen) and meat of
bovines with bones (fresh and frozen) and boneless are the major items under this category.

The export of buffalo meat from India during 1990-91 and 2016-17 is given in Table 7. It
may be observed from the table that barring 1998-99, 2001-02, 2015-16 and 2016-17, the
export in both quantity and value terms is continuously increasing at the compound annual
growth rate of 12.71 per cent and 23.32 per cent, respectively. It may be concluded that
demand for Indian buffalo meat in overseas market is high due to its quality as compared to
our major competitors. Major buffalo meat production states are Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Punjab.
Table 7:Export of Buffalo Meat from India(Quantity: In MT; Value: Rs. in Crore)
Quantity / Value 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 2005-06 2010-11 2016-17 CAGR

Quantity 63477.95 159703.91 288002.84 461027.87 726718.05 1330660.48 12.71

Value 106.85 555.00 1374.93 2638.11 8614.04 26161.51 23.32

Major destination of exports of buffalo meat from India:

India is among the largest exporters of meat in the world and value of exports during 2016-17
was Rs.26,161.51 crore. The major destination and direction of export of buffalo meats from
India is presented in Table 8. Buffalo meat is exported to Vietnam, Malaysia, Egypt,
Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Algeria, UAE and Philippines. These 9 countries, together,
accounted for 89.64per cent of buffalo meat from India during 2016-17. India exported to
Vietnam 50 per cent followed by Malaysia (9%), Egypt (8%), Indonesia (6%)of total export
of buffalo meat in 2016-17.The GoI has taken steps to provide thrust to the buffalo meat
sector by introducing schemes on salvaging and rearing of buffalo male calves and
modernization of abattoirs. Indian meat industry on scientific and modern lines is needed for
benefiting livestock producers, processors and finally consumers. Indian meat contains less
fat i.e. 4% as compared to 15 to 20% in mostly developed countries and the present
international trend is favourable for low fat meat. Moreover, meat is free from growth
promoters, therapeutic residuce and mad cow disease favours Indian meat in the global
markets.

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Table 8: Country-wise export of buffalo meats from India(Quantity: In MT; Value: Rs. in Crore)
Country 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value
Vietnam 633,800.24 13,204.65 605,247.34 13,125.18 662,450.78 13,579.49
Malaysia 130,876.81 2,586.03 135,936.81 2,682.89 112,619.63 2,377.55
Egypt 128,082.00 2,574.03 115,317.00 2,325.58 107,594.00 2,026.75
Indonesia 84 1 812 15.43 65,304.00 1,532.33
Saudi Arabia 73,821.31 1,585.37 64,649.54 1,415.62 43,804.94 998.45
Iraq 23,602.54 406.16 42,986.88 766.63 53,988.43 859.59
Algeria 42,672.99 760 40,664.91 751.49 37,470.83 716.32
UAE 40,876.26 801.01 35,496.37 746.19 35,195.13 688.31
Philippines 42,891.95 707.57 44,359.22 762.44 40,174.05 673.66
Other Countries 359601.68 6663.35 229063.52 4096.66 164974.32 2709.06
Total 1,476,309.78 29,289.17 1,314,533.59 26,688.11 1,323,576.11 26,161.51
Source: APEDA
Sheep and goat meat:
Goats and sheep constitute a very important species of livestock in India, mainly on account
of their short generation intervals, higher rates of prolificacy, and the ease with which their
products can be marketed. They are considered to be very important for their contribution to
the development of rural zones and people. The local initiatives to promote quality labels and
innovative products for cheeses, meat and fibres could help goats in keeping a role for
sustainable development in an eco-friendly environment all over the world. However, the
future of the goat and sheep industry as a significant economic activity will also be
dependent on the standards of living in the countries where there is a market for the goat
products. Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Hilly regions of North and
Eastern Himalays are the Indian regions with heavy livestock population
Table 9: Country-wise export of sheep/goat meat from India (Qty in MT and value in Rs. crore)
2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Country Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value
UAE 11,439.11 408.49 12,449.84 472.59 13,003.17 500.25
Saudi Arabia 6,925.56 255.7 4,700.95 188.11 4,550.69 194.29
Qatar 2,003.65 70.49 2,173.64 84.17 2,102.87 82.44
Kuwait 1,741.99 63.5 1,680.44 66.38 1,612.95 65.11
Oman 480.69 15.16 318.29 11.14 363.87 13.09
Bahrain 178.96 6.61 211.53 8.53 274.91 11.6
Maldives 31.94 0.98 84.75 2.44 80.98 2.39
Other Countries 25.87 0.61 16.26 0.53 19.14 0.56
Total 22,827.77 821.54 21,635.70 833.89 22,008.58 869.73
Source: APEDA
India is largest exporters of sheep and goat meat to the world. The country has exported
22,008.85 MT of sheep and goat meat to the world for the worth of Rs.869.73 crore during
the year 2016-17. UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait and Oman are the major destination for

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India’s sheep and goat meat accounting share of 58%, 22%, 9% and 7%, respectively in
2016-17 (Table 9).
Processed meat:
The total meat processing capacity in India is over one million tonnes per annum, of which
40-50 percent is utilized. The lack of sufficient cold chain infrastructure in one of the
constraints to processing. Dairy processing and infrastructure fund with a corpus of Rs.8000
crore over three years and initial corpus will be Rs.2000 crore and Fisheries and Aquaculture
Infrastructure Development Fund for fisheries sector and Animal Husbandry Infrastructure
Development Fund with a corpus of Rs.10000 crore are being set up in NABARD for
financing infrastructure requirement of animal husbandry sector announced in Union Budget
2017-18 and 2018-19, respectively. About 90 per cent of buffalo meat exports are boneless
and the remaining is shipped as carcases. India exports about 18,95,497 tonnes of animal
products, mostly buffalo meat. Indian buffalo meat is witnessing strong demand in
international market due to its lean character and near organic nature. Unlike cow slaughter,
there is no social taboo in killing buffalo for meat. Goat and lamb meat are relatively small
segments where local demand is outstripping supply.
The recent trend in India is to establish large abattoirs-cum-meat processing plants with the
latest technology. India has already established 27 state-of-art mechanized abattoirs-cum-
meat processing plants in various states for slaughtering buffaloes and sheep. These plants are
environmentally friendly, where all the slaughterhouse by-products are utilized in the
production of meat-cum-bone meal, tallow, bone chips and other value-added products. The
plants follow all the sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures required by the International
Animal Health Code of World Organization for Animal Health (O.I.E.). These plants mostly
produce buffalo meat for export. India is becoming a major buffalo meat producing country
and will be a main player in the international market with additional establishment of the
state-of-art-abattoirs cum meat processing plants. These plants have HACCP and ISO:9000
Certification. Many integrated plants have SGS Certification also and follow Good
Manufacturing Practices and Good Hygienic Practices. Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal,
Maharashtra, Kerala, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan are the main processed meat
producing states in India.
India's exports of processed meat attained 140.90 MT with the value of Rs.4.58 crore in
2016-17.UAE, Pakistan, Korea, Vietnam and Italyare the major export destinations for
India’s processed meat in 2016-17. Globally, India is the second fastest growing processed
meat and poultry markets with a CAGR of 22 per cent. However, Indonesia stands first in this
category with 26.7 per cent CAGR during 2011-2015. Global innovation within processed
meat category has increased over the years and many markets with the highest growth
potential are from Asia Pacific region, especially India.

Poultry products:
Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural sector in India today. While
the production of agricultural crops has been rising at a rate of 1.5 to 2 percent per annum
that of eggs and broilers has been rising at a rate of 8 to 10 percent per annum. As a result,
India is now the world's fifth largest egg producer and the eighteenth largest producer of

93
broilers. The potential in the sector is due to combination of factors i.e. growth in per capita
income, a growing urban population and falling real poultry prices. Poultry meat is the fastest
growing component of global meat demand, and India, the world's second largest developing
country, is experiencing rapid growth in poultry sector. In India, poultry sector growth is
being driven by rising incomes and a rapidly expanding middle class, together with the
emergence of vertically integrated poultry producers that have reduced consumer prices by
lowering production and marketing costs.
Poultry production in India has taken a quantum leap in the last four decades, emerging from
an unscientific farming practice to commercial production system with state-of-the art
technological interventions. Egg production at the end of the Tenth Plan (2006-07) was
50.70billion as compared to 66.45 billion at the end of the Eleventh Plan (2011-12).
Currently the total poultry population in our country is 729.21 million (as per 19th Livestock
Census) and egg production is around 88.14 billion during 2016-17. The per capita
availability is around 69 eggs per annum in 2016-17. The poultry meat production is
estimated to be 3.26 million tonnes.
Tamil Nadu counts for maximum egg production in the country. In Andhra Pradesh,
Hyderabad is the city with maximum poultry and hatcheries. Besides the state of Andhra
Pradesh, Vishakhapatnam, Chittoor, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa and North Eastern States are the major egg contributors in the country. The
layer birds are mainly concentrated in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra and Punjab. Egg production is also expanding in the states of West Bengal,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. India’s per capita consumption of poultry meat is
estimated at around 3.1 kg per annum, which is very low compared to the world average of
around 17 kg per annum. However, the consumption is expected to grow in the near future.
India is the seventh largest poultry meat producer in the world. Chicken is the preferred meat
in India due to its lower price than other meat sources and is not subjected to the same
religious restrictions as other meats.

The main products under poultry products includes live poultry <=85 gram, other live poultry
<=185 gram, live poultry >185 gram, edible poultry meat (fresh), edible poultry meat
(frozen), other poultry meat not cut in pieces, cuts and offals excluding livers, eggs in shell,
egg yolks dried, eggs not in shell (dried/cooked / frozen/preserved).
India has exported 448,724.74 MT of poultry products with the value of Rs.530.41 crore
during 2016-17. With exports of Rs.159.33 crore, Oman is the leading export destination of
poultry products from India, accounting for a share of 30 per cent during 2016-17. Saudi
Arabia, Indonesia, Russia and Maldives are the other major export destination for poultry
products. Gulf and our ASEAN and South East Asian countries are the major markets for
poultry products (Table 10). There is a need for developing efficient distribution system with
large investments in cold chain infrastructure and increasing the market acceptability of
frozen chicken industry drivers in the long-term. Other factors such as the increased
requirement for upgraded infrastructure will also play a key role in determining India’s
continued presence in the global poultry market.Further, Indian meat contains less fat and the
present international trend is favourable for low fat meat.

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 Table 10: Country-wise export of poultry products from India (Qty in MT and value in Rs. crore)

2014-15 2015-16 2016-17

Country Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value
Oman 221,224.09 140.55 300,898.18 203.84 236,915.52 159.33
Maldives 76,413.26 36.38 109,548.54 52.9 111,837.18 48.91
Indonesia 1,655.98 41.64 1,397.02 45.39 1,437.01 45.28
Saudi Arabia 18,470.42 47.72 42,087.86 95.64 4,973.66 41.9
Russia 0.4 0.01 16.25 0.47 1,387.60 36.49
Bahrain 25,706.80 28.71 38,353.82 49.37 28,474.68 31.31
Vietnam 2,852.39 26.83 768.98 21.2 1,633.20 27.32
Japan 1,718.12 56.25 2,539.66 80.18 629.81 18.99
UAE 1,334.85 14.53 1,522.51 16.52 3,716.36 17.28
Other Countries 207322.49 258.59 162171.35 203.18 57719.72 103.6
Total 556,698.80 651.21 659,304.17 768.69 448,724.74 530.41
Source: APEDA
Animal casings:
India has resources for production of animal casings of high quality with excellent calibration
and shining colour. This makes India one of the major exporters of animal casing in the
world. Animal casing like bladders and stomachs of animals, cattle casings, guts for animal
casings, sheep casings, etc. India has exported 173.23 MT of animal casings to the world for
worth of Rs.13.84 crore in 2016-17. Albania, South Africa, Turkey, Portugal and Lebanon
are the main export markets of Indian animal casings (Table 11).

Table 11: Country-wise Export of Animal Casings from India (Qty in MT and value in Rs. crore)
Country 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value
Albania 35 1.25 48.62 3.37 56 5.14
South Africa 91.69 3.84 50.8 2.78 58.71 3.27
Turkey 28 2.59 25 1.87 19 1.57
Portugal 34.5 2.56 27.4 1.75 15.5 1.16
Lebanon 20.49 2.54 5.74 0.83 4.9 0.84
Zambia 10.76 0.19 11.43 0.63 9.62 0.64
Other countries 39.71 6.35 37.38 5.81 9.5 1.22
Total 260.15 19.32 206.37 17.04 173.23 13.84
Source: APEDA
Caseins:
Casein is the main protein found in milk and contains 21 amino acids. Acid Casein is
produced by controlled acid precipitation from skim milk. Casein derivatives (casein glues
and Caseinate) are the main products under caseins. The country has exported 6,129.90MT of
caseins to the world for the worth of Rs.237.65crore during 2016-17. United States is the
leading export destination of casein from India, accounting for 54.7 per cent followed by
Poland, Thailand, Brazil and Philippines and these five countries, together, accounts for about
89 per cent share in total export of casein during 2016-17 (Table 12).

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 Table 12: Country-wise Export of Casein from India(Qty in MT & Value in Rs. Crore)
Country 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value
United States 4,146.99 211.51 2,039.58 71.11 3,365.64 129.9
Poland 1,037.00 57.36 766.74 25.33 615.92 21.69
Thailand 279.02 14.54 563.6 22.76 590.92 21.46
Brazil 0 0 42 1.53 457 19.14
Philippines 300.92 17.02 404.2 13.8 496 18.2
Korea 91.03 4.36 143.1 5.74 183 7.65
Vietnam 195.5 11.69 186.9 8.84 131.03 6.21
Other Countries 2117.59 112.1 1751.88 66.83 290.39 13.4
Total 8,168.05 428.58 5,898.00 215.94 6,129.90 237.65
Source: APEDA
Major constraints in promoting exports of dairy/livestock products from India
Despite phenomenal growth in milk production to become the largest milk producing country
in the world, dairy exports from India face a number of constraints that may be summarised
as under:
 In spite of being the largest milk producer in terms of absolute quantity, India’s average milk
yield per cattle remains very low as compared to developed and even many other developing
countries.
 The small size of milch animal holdings in India makes it difficult to adopt mechanised
system of milking, cooling and chilled storage which hampers the efforts to improve quality
at the farm production stage.
 India being a huge milk consumer owing not only to its large population size but also due to
the largest vegetarian population in the world whose only source of animal based essential
nutrient is milk, much low surplus is left for exports unlike other major dairy exporting
countries.
 In many developing counties like India faces a perception of being a country with common
prevalence of foot and mouth disease (FMD) despite the sporadic incidences of the disease in
some part of the country. India needs to make concerted efforts to eradicate FMD and
occurrence of any disease in milch animals.
 Cow milk is the only popular milk in most developed countries and buffalo milk is unheard
of, whereas India produces substantiation quantity of buffalo milk. As foreign buyers are not
always sure of suitability of buffalo milk for human consumption, they often insist upon dairy
products manufactured from cow milk.
 Major challenges of livestock sectors are effective control of animal diseases, shortage of
feed and fodder, breed improvement while preserving diverse genetic resources and
dissemination of technology, skills and quality services to farmers for improving
productivity, which need to be addressed for boosting the livestock export from India.
International (CODEX) food standards:
The Codex Alimentarius Commission has established over 330 standards/guidelines/codes of
practices (together referred to as Çodex standards) of which over a third are relevant to the
dairy sector. These include Codex standards that apply across the food sector (horizontal

96
 standards) such as labeling requirements, hygiene requirements, etc and also those that
specifically apply to the dairy sector (vertical standards) like various commodity standards
for different milk products (milk powder, cheese, butter, etc). A list of Codex standards that
are relevant to the dairy industry is presented in Table 13.Brief information on some
important Codex standards relevant to dairy sector is given below:
General standard for the use of dairy terms (Codex/Standard 206): This is one of the
most important standards for dairy sector. It defines the terms ‘Milk’ and other ‘Dairy Terms’
as follows:
 Milk is the normal mammary secretion of milking animals obtained from one or more
milking without either addition to it or extraction from it, intended for consumption as liquid
milk or for further processing.
 Dairy terms means names, designations, symbols, pictorial or other devices which refer to or
are suggestive, directly or indirectly, of milk or milk products. It also provides clear guidance
on when the above terms can be used on the product labels. For example, these terms cannot
be used on the label of a product in which milk components are replaced with non-dairy
components or a product which is intended to substitute milk.
Recommended International Code of Practice – General principles of food
hygiene(CAC/RCP 1): It is fundamental code of practice that provides guidance for ensuring
hygiene throughout the food chain from primary production to the final consumer and is
horizontally applicable to all foods. It forms the baseline structure for other specific codes
applicable to particular sectors. In this Code, the terms ‘food safety’ and ‘food suitability’
have been defined as under:
 Food safety – assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared
and/or eaten according to its intended use.
 Food suitability - assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its
intended use.
The Code also contains an Annex detailing Principles of the Hazard Analysis and Critical
Control Point (HACCP) system and guidelines for application of HACCP system.
Code of hygienic practice for milk and milk Products (CAC/RCP 57): It is sector specific
Code that applies to production, processing and handling of milk and milk products excluding
raw drinking milk. It is to be read in conjunction with the Code on General Principles for
Food Hygiene (CAC/RCP 1). It emphasizes upon the following overarching principles in
relation to the production, processing and handling of all milk and milk products:
 From raw material production to the point of consumption, dairy products should be subject
to a combination of control measures, and these control measures should be shown to achieve
the appropriate level of public health protection.
 Good hygienic practices should be applied throughout the food chain so that milk and milk
products are safe and suitable for their intended use.
 Wherever appropriate, hygienic practices for milk and milk products should be implemented
within the context of HACCP as described in the Annex to the General Principles of Food
Hygiene (CAC/RCP 1-1969).
 Control measures should be validated as effective.

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 It also contains guidelines for primary production of milk including special provisions for
smallholder dairy farms like those in our country. (The term ‘Small Holder Dairy Farm’refers
to farms where the number of animals per farmer or per head usually does not exceed 10,
milking machines are not generally used, milk is not chilled at the producer’s level and/or the
milk is transported in cans).
General standard for contaminants and toxins in food and feed (Codex/Stan 193): This
standard lists the maximum levels and associated sampling plans of contaminants and natural
toxicants in food and feed. It also contains the main principals which are recommended by
the Codex Alimentarius in dealing with contaminantand toxins in food and feed. The
maximum levels of contaminants and natural toxicants in feed are included only for the cases
where the contaminant in feed can be transferred to food of animal origin and can be relevant
for public health.
Maximum residue limits for pesticides (CAC/MRL 1): This standard pertains to the
maximum residue limits (MRLs) of pesticides in various foods including milk and milk
products. There are MRLs for 129 pesticides under this standard for milk and milk products.
Maximum residue limits for veterinary drugs in food (CAC/MRL 2): This standard
pertains to the maximum residue limits of veterinary drugs in various foods including milk
and milk products. There are MRLs for 31veterinary drugs under this standard for milk and
milk products.

Code of practices for the reduction of aflatoxin B1 in raw materialsand supplemental

feeding stuffs for milk producing animals (CAC/ RCP 45): This Code provide measures to
be taken to control Aflatoxin contamination during production, harvest, storage and transport
of raw materials and supplemental feeding stuff for milk and milk products
It may be concluded that production of milk and milk products demands strict compliance to
food safety and quality standards. Both national and international organisations have defined
elaborate standards. It may, however, be noted that presently there is more focus on food
safety aspects than compositional aspects.
The Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS or HS) Code used for export/import of dairy and
livestock products are summarized in Table 14 and 15, respectively along with the existing
tariff structure of dairy products and livestock products in India for the year of 2017.
Knowledge of these codes is necessary for a person associated in this business. On the basis
of codes, exporters and importers, can classify their products by various government and non-
government agencies in India and abroad, where 8 digit code used in India whereas 6 digit
HS code is used all over the world.
Table 14:India: Tariff Structure for Various Dairy Products, 2017
HS CODE Description of Item Basic IGST Total Duty Import
with 3 %EC Policy
04011000 - Milk and cream, not concentrated nor 30 0/5 30.9/37.445 Free San P
04015000 containing added sugar or other
sweetening matter
04021010 Milk and cream, concentrated or 60 5 68.00 Free San P
containing added sugar or other
sweetening matter

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 04021020 - Milk and cream, concentrated or 60 5 68.00 Free San P
04021090 containing added sugar or other
sweetening matter
04022100 Milk and cream, not containing added 60 5 69.89 Free San P
sugar or other sweetening matter
040229 Other: whole milk, milk for babies, 30 5 37.445 Free San P
other
04029110 Condensed milk 30 18 54.462 Free San P
04029190 Other 30 5 37.445 Free San P
040299 Other: whole milk, condensed milk, 30 5/18 37.445/54.462 Free San P
other
0403 Buttermilk, curdled milk and cream, 30 0/5 30.9/37.445 Free San P
yogurt, kephir& other fermented or
acidified milk & cream, whether or not
concentrated or containing added
sugar or other sweetening matter or
flavored or containing added fruits,
nuts or coco
0404 Whey, whether or not concentrated or 30 5 37.445 Free San P
containing added sugar or other
sweetening matter; products consisting
of natural milk constituents, whether
or not containing added sugar or other
sweetening matter, not elsewhere
specified or include
04051000 Butter 30 12 46.608 Free San P
04052000 Dairy spreads 40 12 58.144 Free San P
04059010- Butter Oil and Ghee 30 12 46.608 Free San P
04059020
04059090 Other 40 12 58.144 Free San P

04061000 Fresh (unripened or uncured) cheese, 30 12 46.608 Free San P

including whey cheese & curd
04062000 Grated or powdered cheese of all 30 12 46.608 Free San P
kinds
04063000 Processed cheese not grated or 30 12 46.608 Free San P
powdered
04064000 Blue-veined cheese and other cheese 30 12 46.608 Free San P
containing veins produced by
Pencilliumroqueforti
04069000 Other cheese 30 0/5/12 30.9/37.445/46. Free San P
608
170211 Lactose and lactose syrup containing 25 18 48.385 Free
by weight 99 percent or more lactose,
expressed as anhydrous lactose,
calculated on the dry matter
21050000 Ice cream and other edible ice, 30 18 54.462 Free
whether or not containing cocoa
3501 Casein, Caseinates and other casein 20 18 42.308 Free
derivatives; casein glues
Note: IGST-Integrated Goods & Services Tax, EC-Education Cess, Free SanP-Free Sanitary Permit.
Source: Gain Report-India- Dairy and Products Annual, USDA, 01Septerber 2017

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 Table 15: India: Tariffs for selected livestock products, 2017
HS CODE Description of Item Basic IGST Total Duty Import
With 2+1%EC Policy
010121000-1012990 Live Horses 30 12 46.608 Restd

01013010-01019090 Live Horses, Mules & Hinnies 30 0 30.90 Restd

01022100- 01029090 Live Bovine Animals 30 0 30.90 Restd
01031000-01039200 Live Swine 30 0 30.90 Restd
01041010- 01042000 Live Sheep & Goats 30 0 30.90 Restd
01051100- 01059900 Live Poultry I.E. Fowls of the 30 0 30.90 Restd
Species Gallus Domesticus,
Ducks, Geese, Turkeys and
Guinea Fowls
02011000- 02013000 Meat of Bovine Animals, Fresh 30 0 30.90 R SanP
and Chilled
02021000- 02023000 Meat of Bovine Animals, Frozen 30 12 46.608 R SanP
02031100-02031900 Meat of Swine, Fresh, or Chilled 30 0 30.90 Fr SanP
02032100-02032900 Meat of Swine, Frozen 30 12 46.608 Fr SanP
02041000- 02042300 Meat of Sheep or Goats, Fresh 30 0 30.90 Fr SanP
Chilled Or Frozen
02043000-02045000 Meat of Sheep or Goats, Frozen 30 12 46.608 Fr SanP
02061000 Edible Offal of Bovine Animals, 30 0 30.90 R SanP
Fresh or Chilled
02062100- 02069090 Edible Offal of Bovine Animals, 30 12 46.608 R SanP
Swine, Goats, Horses, Asses,
Mules or Hinnes, Fresh, Chilled
or Frozen
02071100 Meat, & Edible Offal, of the 30 0 30.90 Fr SanP
Poultry of Heading 0105, Not
Cut in Pieces, Fresh or Chilled
02071200 Meat, & Edible Offal, of the 30 12 46.608 Fr SanP
Poultry of Heading 0105, Not
Cut in Pieces, Frozen
02071300 Cuts & Offal, Fresh or Chilled 100 0 103.00 Fr SanP
02071400 Cuts & Offal, Frozen 100 12 127.36 Fr SanP
Note: IGST-Integrated Goods & Services Tax; EC-Education Cess, Restd-Restricted,
R SanP- Restricted Sanitary Permit; Fr SanP-Free Sanitary Permit.
Source: Source: Gain Report-India- India-Livestock & Products Annual, USDA, (2017)

Conclusions:
The countries expected to be benefited the most from global due to increase in demand for
animal products are developing countries having low cost of production. Increasing
productivity of animals, better animal husbandry practices, breeding facilities can reduce the
cost of production. If India has to emerge as an exporting country. It is imperative that we
develop proper production, processing and marketing infrastructure, which is capable of
meeting international quality requirements. A comprehensive strategy for producing quality
and safe dairy and livestock products should be formulated with suitable legal backup. With
the trade liberalization, despite the attempts of Indian companies to develop their product
range, it could well be that in the future, higher value-added products will be imported and
lower value products will be exported. As India has ample export potential of dairy and

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 livestock products, the effective implementation of the SPS and the Technical Barriers to
Trade (TBT)measures would provide substantial dividends in the long run.

Recommendations:
Keeping in view, Indian agricultural products including livestock sector having export
potential and India’s position in the global markets pertaining to these sectors, steps needed
to be taken to optimal realization of the potential of these sectors are given here under.
 India can boost up their export with a suitable policy initiative on cattle slaughtering. The
processing industry should be considered as an integral part of total livestock sector.
 Appropriate initiatives are required to upgrade, modernize and expand the existing
slaughtering infrastructure. Use of modern technology in value addition stages is not only
required for the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) compliance but also for getting good
quality by-products.
 As physical infrastructure and logistics remains a main concern for exports of dairy products
from India, a holistic approach for overall enhancement of export logistics in terms of
creating cold chain facilities for transportation and storage needs to be adopted. Besides,
India needs to focus upon exports of value added products with increased shelf-life and
improved packaging to compete in international markets. Concerted efforts to market
especially in building international brands and establishing global marketing channels are
also called for.
 The country should have an effective and efficient market intelligence system to monitor
developments in the world markets (price, subsidy levels demand and supply) and link import
tariffs to world prices.
 There is a need for an integration in the various export promotion organisations such as
APEDA, Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI), NDDB, the Marine Products
Export Development Authority (MPEDA), the Coffee Board, the Tea Board, the Spice Board,
the Cashew Export Promotion Council, the Export Inspection Council such that collaborative
efforts can be synergised with the objective of augmenting exports.
 Emphasis should be given towards formulating a focused agri export policy, as even in the
case of free trade agreements and regional trade agreements, agricultural trade is largely
overlooked. Measures should be taken in this regard, to ensure hassle free provision of credit,
availability of appropriate infrastructure and marketing facilities.
 The mind-set of the farmers should be from subsistence and domestic oriented farming to
export oriented farming.
 Non-tariff barriers restrict agri exports from India largely because of the lack of
harmonization of standards for products, stringent quarantine procedures, mandatory
labelling and packaging, different minimum residual limits by countries for pesticides, drugs
and other contaminants, including dispute with regard to definitions. To reduce compliance
costs and minimize disputes, an institution like APEDA can play a crucial role in advocating
a globally uniform set of accepted rules and regulations for various products at international
forums.
References:
References are available on request from editor.

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Scope and Strategies for Augmentation of Meat Production, Processing and Marketing
Avenues to Enhance the Income of Animal Keepers
K Sarjan Reddy, Vijayabhaskar Reddy and C G Varma
Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, Tirupati
Email : kapasarjanreddy@gmail.com
Abstract:
Many factors for the slow growth of the meat industry, including the negative attitude of
public towards meat on account of misinformation campaign, and socio-political
considerations. Most meats are sold in the domestic market without proper sanitary
inspection by the veterinarians. Mostly small animals, sheep, goats and pigs are slaughtered
in unregistered slaughter houses in small numbers ranging from 2–10 by the individual
butchers and meat is sold fresh on the same day. However, large numbers are slaughtered in
the modern state-of-the-art abattoirs following world class sanitary and phyto sanitary
measures. The issues pertaining to status of meat production, processing and export values of
meat including the solutions for the constraints involved in the meat trade are discussed in the
paper. A special attention has been given on the quality production and anti microbial
residues in meat.

Introduction:
Livestock sector is one of the most important components of agriculture in India. Recent
statistics revealed that thetotal meat production has increased from 2.24 million tonnes
during 2015-16 (rainy) to 2.43 million tonnes during 2016-17 (rainy) registering a growth
of 8.74%. As against the targeted production of 7.37 Million Tonnes during 2016-17, the
total estimated production in two seasons, summer and rainy, is 4.67 million tonnes
showing an achievement of 63.28%. Nearly, 47.86% of the meat production is contributed
by poultry and 20.11% is from buffaloes. The first five highest meat producing states are
Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana during the rainy
season.Meat production in India is estimated at 4.9 million tonnes, standing eighth in rank in
the world’s meat production whereas contribution of buffalo, cattle, sheep, goats and poultry
is 30%, 5%, 10%, 10.2% and 11.5%, respectively in total meat production of India.

Figure- 1: Meat Production Estimates during 2014-15 (visualize data.gov.in)

In spite of big potential because of large livestock population, the meat industry in India has
not taken its due share. Although India has acquired number one status in the world
contributing 13% of world milk production, the meat production, which jibes well with
dairying, is very low. The compound average growth rate during the last two decades works
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out to 4.6% as against 21% during the last 5 years, which shows it is now the fastest growing
segment of livestock sector.It is noticed that about 6% cattle, 11% buffaloes, 33% sheep, 38%
goats and 84% pigs are slaughtered each year.The share of bovine meat in the total meat
production in India is about 60% as against small ruminants (15%), pigs (10%) and poultry
(12%)(FAO, 2016).
Table-1: Brief meat industry profile of India (2016)
India
Cattle herd (head) 304 millions e

Cattle slaughter (head) 38 million

Beef production (tonnes cwt) 4.2 million
Domestic per capita consumption 12kg/year*
Beef exports (tonnes swt) 1.26 million
Chilled 1%
Frozen 99%
Top five export markets Vietnam, Egypt, Malaysia,
Indonesia, Saudi Arabia
Average export price US$3.9/kg
Source: USDA, MLA , DAWR, GTA 2016 e = estimate * = non-Hindu population
Values of meat:
Meats constitute a dietary food group, that contributes to the intake of different nutrients
necessary to meet the metabolic requirements and, thus, is an important factor in the
achievement of adequate nutrition. Meat is a rich source of proteins, conjugated linoleic acid
(CLA), minerals such as iron, zinc and selenium, L-carnitine, histidyl dipeptides (carnosine
and anserine), Creatine, Taurine, B complex vitamins, glutathione, ubiquinone, lipoic acid,
etc. On the other hand, it also contributes to the intake of fat, saturated fatty acids,
cholesterol, salt and other substances that can have negative health implications. Therefore,
the meat processing industry is driven by increasing consumer demand for healthier meat
products which includes enriched products with fiber and omega-3 fatty acids and reduced
levels of fat, cholesterol, sodium and nitrite as there is increased awareness about the effect of
food on human health in terms of incidences of coronary heart diseases, hypertension, and
cancer. Value addition of meat products via incorporation of novel ingredients and processing
technologies are being seen as an opportunity to improve the image of meat and address
consumer needs.
It is well emphasized in the status report of FAO, 2018 on the projections of food and
agriculture for 2015 as shown in the Figure-2.

Figure- 2: The future of food and agriculture signifies the need of meat production (FAO, 2018)

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Distinct components of Indian meat industry (APEDA, 2016)
These are the following distinct components of meat and meat by-product related industries,
namely:
 Trade in live animals: Weekly/daily Cattle markets dealing in Buffaloes, Sheep,
Goats, Pigs, Bullocks;
 Slaughtering the animals by individual butchers for retail in domestic markets;
 Slaughtering the animals in the mechanized abattoirs in export oriented unit for
export;
 Transportation of fresh frozen meat in refrigerated containers from the point of
production to the port for export to various countries;
 Marketing and processing of raw hides and skins;
 Marketing and processing of bones for further processing into Gelatin, Ossein and
Dicalcium Phosphate (DCP);
 Production of casings from the intestines;
 Marketing and Processing of hooves and horns in the Cottage Industry;
 Marketing and processing of blood for production of pharmaceuticals;
 Rendering plants for production of meat-cum-bone meal and bone chips

Meat production systems in vogue:

The healthy disease free animals are procured from the livestock
markets/farmers/feedlots/farms and are rested for 24 hours to produce quality meat.
Veterinarians subject the animals during rest period to ante-mortem examination. After their
approval, they are slaughtered either under Halal/Jhatka procedure depending upon
consumers choice. Thereafter, the Veterinarian subjects the carcass to post-mortem
examination. After its approval for safety, it is sold in the retail market as fresh meat. The
rejected carcasses on post mortem examination are sent to the rendering plant for production
of meat cum bone meal and/or buried depending upon the situation.
The meat meant for export has to pass through ante-mortem and post-mortem examination
after 24-hour resting period of the animals, like the meat meant for local market and is chilled
for 24 hours to bring down the pH below 6. Thereafter, it is deboned and deglanded. The
meat is then packed into different cuts, and frozen at –40 degree Celsius for 12 hours to bring
down the deep bone temperature to -18 degree Celsius. The frozen meat is stored in cold
storage for export.There is very little processing of the meat. The meat produced for the
domestic market is sold as hot meat. Goat/sheep meat is marketed in villages by slaughtering
one or two animals once in a week or as special occasions by a group of people joining
together and sharing the cost of the meat so obtained. There is not much over head cost on
meat in villages and realization on the cost of skin, blood etc., is poor.
In the small towns sheep/goat meat is directly marketed to the consumers from meat shops.
Since the time gap between slaughter and the sale is very short, the deterioration of the
quality of the meat is less. In the big towns and cities most of the meat is consumed on the
same day or kept in a refrigerator in the households.Large ruminants (buffalo and cattle) are
slaughtered in big towns and meat is sold directly to the consumers.
Poultry meat is mostly sold by slaughtering the live birds in the presence of the consumers.
However, there are a few modern processing plants where poultry is slaughtered; chilled and
frozen birds are sold in big cities.The export of poultry meat is insignificant. The reasons are
that mortality of birds is high, overhead inventories are abnormal. The greatest disincentive is
that exporters find the prices quoted in importing countries are not favourable.

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Meat quality and safety measures:
Most of the export-oriented meat processing plants in India follow world class sanitary and
phytosanitary measures given by the OIE, a referral institution of WTO. The plants are
certified with HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points), ISO-9002 and SGS meeting
the OIE norms. These measures are for meat safety which starts right at thePrimary
production level either with the farmers raising 5 – 20 animals or in the feedlot. The
identification and trace ability of the animals from production source to the abattoir is
completely maintained. It is ensured that animals have been raised under disease free
conditions mentioned in the list ‘A’ of OIE. Except for foot and mouth disease, which is
endemic in a few pockets in India and has an insignificant incidence (0.001%), India is free
from rinderpest, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia etc. India has now launched a massive
FMD control programme with central government assistance to make the three zones free of
FMD (comprising of 56 districts).
In the HACCP, the critical control points (CCP) are closely monitored at the reception of the
animals (procured from disease free areas), ante-mortem examination, post mortem
examination, chilling of carcasses at 0 – 4 0C for 24 hours to bring pH level below 7,
freezing of deboned meat at –35 to –40 0C for 10 – 12 hours and storage at –18 0C. All these
measures exclude the possibility of transferring any contagious/infectious/zoonotic disease to
the importing countries.The in-house quality laboratories in the plants ensure the absence of
Salmonella, Listeria and permissible limits of E-Coli, Coliform bacteria. Almost all the
export oriented plants follow the safety specifications given by the Meat and Meat Product
Order of 1993 issued by the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, GoI. In addition, the
measures recommended in Codex Alimentarius are also implemented.
Processing of meat and value addition-Indian scenario:
There is very little processing and hardly 1% of the total meat produced in the country is used
for processing. Pork and Poultry meat are used for production of ham, sausages, patties etc.,
for the elite market. The meat processors like Venky, Government Bacon Factories etc,
produce these products. Meat from small ruminants, namely, sheep and goat is also used for
production of traditional Kebabs.
Buffalo meat is basically used in the household for preparation of curries and Kebabs. It is
also mixed with vegetables like potatoes, cabbages, turnips, sugar beet to make delicious
dishes, to name a few, besides the irresistible Biryani, which is a mix of meat and rice.
Buffalo steak is also a delicious product. Both Seekh and Shami Kebabs are delicacies
prepared from buffalo meat only, which is liked by all classes of people in India. The buffalo
meat has a great water holding and binding properties, and is, therefore, used for industrial
purposes in the production of sausages, patties, nuggets, corn beef, ham etc. A large part of
the meat in the Philippines, Thailand, Iran etc., is used for the production of ham and corn
beef (Arhiara, 2006)
The recent trends in utilization of technologies and ingredients for development of functional
and healthier meat products are discussed below:
Meat processing sector: Global V/S India:
The global market for processed meat is estimated to be USD 362 billion in 2012 and is
projected to reach USD 799 billion by 2018 with a compound annual growth rate of 14.3%.
The market for meat processing equipments is USD 7.7 billion in 2012 and by 2018 it is
projected to reach USD 11.5 billion with a CAGR of 7.2%. According to a report published
by a global market intelligence agency, India is currently second fastest (after Indonesia)
growing processed meat and poultry market globally with a CAGR of 22% followed by

105
Vietnam, China and Brazil. India’s growing bulge of middle class consumers is pushing the
growth of the meat sector. Research shows that there will be around 80 per cent growth in
meat demand by 2022 driven by the desire for convenience, which will be at the heart of the
adoption of processed meat, fish, and poultry products.Because of huge anticipated growth,
leading manufacturers are focusing on expansion of their respective meat processing business
across India and setting up new manufacturing plants to ramp up production capacities and
broaden overall product line. The meat processing equipment market is driven by the
associated advantages such as increased consumption of processed meat and better quality of
meat products. The practice of processing the meat has shown significant changes, owing to
the developments made in the meat processing equipment industry. However, non-
availability of cheaper, indigenous meat processing equipments, huge cost of imported
machineries and lack of trained service personnel are the major constraints for several micro
and small entrepreneurs willing to venture into meat processing in our country. All these
factors coupled with other costs like creation of large scale infrastructure, manpower,
advertisement and other logistics result in cost escalation forcing meat processors to market
the ready-to-eat value added meat products at higher rates.At present further processing and
value addition of meat in India remains less than 2.0% with the exception of poultry where
~7.2% of meat undergoes processing. National Food Processing Policy aims to increase the
level of food processing from 10% in 2010 to 25% in 2025. The National Mission on Food
Processing has been launched by the Government of India with an out lay of INR 16 billion
for the XII plan (2012-2017). Under this policy, financial assistance is given for technology
up-gradation, establishment and modernization of the food processing industries, Cold chain,
value addition and preservation infrastructure for non-horticultural products, setting up,
modernization and expansion of abattoirs, human resource development, promotional
activities, primary processing and collection centres in rural areas, modernisation of meat
shops and reefer vehicles.

Although, 90 per cent of meat and poultry in India is still sold through wet markets and
butchers, Indian market is witnessing a revolutionary change and many established and new
brands in the fresh and frozen meat category have come up with innovative launches and
products while trying to reach out to more numbers of consumers.The meat category has
some established players who have been in the market for over two decades. McCain Foods,
Venky’s, Sumeru, Godrej Real Good Chicken and Godrej Yummiez are some of the major
brands. Suguna Foods Ltd. – India’s largest integrated poultry operator known for its chicken
products as well as a wide range of meat, eggs, ready to eat offerings, focuses on retail and
HoReCa(Hotel/Restaurant/Café) as its major consumer segments besides catering to other
segments such as the armed forces and other institutions like KFC, Vista, Nando’setc.
Suguna’smajor focus is in South India where they have more than 200 Suguna Daily Fresh
outlets to cater to the retail segment. Baramati Agro, under its ‘Delicious’ brand sells a range
of 29 non-veg products in different categories like fry and serve, grill and serve, heat and
serve and cold cuts. A majority of modern trade food and grocery retailers are inclined
toward selling frozen meat as compared to fresh meat– Godrej Nature’s Basket, (GNB) sells
a wide range of meat products comprising chicken, turkey, duck, lamb, pork and seafoods.
GNB also sells a very distinctive meat range – lamb meat from Australia and New Zealand,
turkey meat from Spain, raw pork from Belgium, German sausages, fresh seafoods (Salmon
and Basa), and imported cold cuts from Austria, Spain and Germany. The Modern Trade
players which have a meat section across all their stores are HyperCITY, Star Bazar and
SPAR. HyperCITY boasts of having one of the finest and premium range of meat / seafood /
cold cuts including raw chicken, mutton, fish, different cuts of chicken, mutton, marinated
chicken/mutton, New Zealand lamb, different varieties of eggs – Omega 3 enriched, herbal,

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brown, free range, duck, quail and many more. In addition, the start-up world has also started
showing interest in the meat industry as it has an opportunity to revolutionise this
unorganised sector. New entrants like ZappFresh, MeatRoot, Licious, EasyMeat.in, Fish On
Plate have captured a fair share of the market.

Fig.4. Export of meat and processed food from India

Fig 5. Major destination countries of processed food from India

Fig 6. Major beef exporters and top markets

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 Fig. 7. Status of Indian Carabeef consumption and exports

Value added meat products: Value addition can be defined as “a change in the physical
state or form of the products and production of a product in a manner that enhances its value
as demonstrated through business plan”. Meat processing and value addition involves a wide
range of physical and chemical treatment methods, normally combining a variety of methods.
Based on their processing type, meat products may be roughly classified into following types
a)Emulsion Chopping of meat with water, common salt Ex. Nuggets, Meat
based meat (NaCl) and other non-meat ingredients until a Balls/kofta, patties,
products fine, protein-rich slurry is formed. After Sausages (Banerjee
cooking, the salt soluble proteins are et al.,2012)
coagulated and this results in an
immobilization of the fat, water and other
constituents
b)Restructured Chunks of meat are partially disassembled and Ex. Turkey rolls,
meat products then reassembled to form products resembling meat slices
intact meat cuts
c)Cured and During curing, meat pieces or bigger cuts are Ex. Ham, Bacon
smoked meat dipped / injected with curing brine/pickle
products solution consisting of salt, phosphate,
nitrate/nitrite, ascorbate, sugar dissolved in
potable water to give a characteristic
color/flavor. Hardwood smoke gives a typical
surface color, flavor and preservative effect in
smoked meat
d)Enrobed meat Coating of meat products with edible materials Ex.Enrobed

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 products to preserve nutritive value, reduce moisture drummettes, wings,
loss, improve juiciness, and enhances the
acceptability
e)Designer meat Functional properties of meat products are Ex. Low salt, low
products improved by adding ingredients considered fat and high fiber
beneficial for health (ω-3 fatty acids, fiber) or meat products
by eliminating components that are considered
harmful to health (saturated fatty acids,
cholesterol)
f)Heritage meat products:
The ethnic meat products have percolated down through the history and culture and have
metamorphosed into spicy dishes. The diversity of India has had an impact on the type of
meat products available in different parts of the country. The products common to the region
are kabab, tikka, biryani, haleem, curry, meat pickle, and dry salted meat. The north has
tandoori, Kashmiri wazwan meats comprising of rogan josh, nate-yakhni, tabakmanss, rista,
goshtaba, and shaljamgosht; the south has Hyderabad haleem, Chettinad dishes of Tamil
Nadu, and Kerala lamb stew; the west has Kolhapuri mutton and Goan vindaloo;and the east
has momo/dumpling, rapka, kargyong, korma, dopiyaza, etc.The traditional meat products
have immense potential to generate income and employment for the local people. At present
there are many products that are not scientifically standardized and comprehensive
information are not available for their commercial production, packaging and marketing. The
traditional meat products are generally confined to the native geographical region mainly due
to their storage stability. Retort pouch processing can be applied to some of the ethnic meat
products to exploit their market potential.Thorough knowledge of their formulations, process
optimization, advanced packaging, and cold chain for distribution could definitely put many
of them on the world map.
Developments in meat preservation:
In the last century, several alternative or complementary preservation technologies for
classical processing were developed. A good example is gamma irradiation, which is
completely effective for food decontamination,yet its consumer acceptability is low (Zhou,
2010). For this reason, during the last decade different approaches have been studied and as a
consequence, there are several promising technologies currently being evaluated in meat
industry as described below.

Sous-vide processing:
Sous-vide means “under vacuum” in French, and the term describes both the process and end
product. It is an advanced method of cooking whereby fresh food is vacuum sealed in heat-
stable, high barrier plastic pouches or films, and then cooked (pasteurized) to a time-
temperature combinations sufficient to destroy vegetative pathogens but mild enough to
maintain the sensory characteristics of the product. This is followed by rapid chilling to avoid
germination and outgrowth of surviving bacterial spores, stored refrigerated, and reheated
before consumption. The advantages associated with sous-vide processing include superior
flavor profile, increased tenderness and moisture, color retention, least nutritional loss,
inhibition of oxidative changes and enhancement of shelf life. The disadvantage associated
with this technology in meat products is the retention of the juices inside the package while
thermal treatment (Church and Parsons, 1993)
Retort pouch processing:
Retorting is a method of preserving food by heating it in hermetically sealed containers to
improve keeping quality at ambient storage. The filled products in the pouch are heat sealed

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and sterilized by steam cooking in a retort to yield commercially sterile foods. As a result the
retort pouch processed foods are microbiologically safe. Retort-processed products offer
convenience.Thermal processing paved the way for developing shelf stable, ready to eat
(RTE) meat products. The popularity of RTE meat products is increasing among the
consumers due to changing socio-economic pattern of life. Retort flexible packaging reduces
the processing time up to 50% compared to metal cans and cylindrical containers. The other
benefits include less space for storage, shipping costs and easy disposable of the used
pouches. In Europe and Asia, retort flexible packaging has already reached a significant share
among the thermally processed foods. The retort pouch processing for chicken products
have potential as traditional Indian curries, soups, biryani, keema etc. that require appropriate
processing to ensure safety and longer shelf life for distribution and marketing. The shelf life
of thermally processed meat products varies between 6 to 12 months based on the processing
conditions such as the kind of products, the type of laminates used, the Fo achieved etc.
High-pressure processing:
High pressure processing (HPP) is gaining popularity inthe food industry, in part because of
its ability to inactivate microorganisms and enzymes at room temperature, while low
molecular food constituents, such as vitamins, volatiles and colour pigments, remain largely
unaffected. Over the last decades equipment development has progressed rapidly and HPP
food products, including meat and fish products, are now available in many countries.HPP
can effectively eliminate pathogens and prolong the shelf life of raw meat. In general, Gram-
negative bacteria were found to be more sensitive than gram-positive bacteria. Commercially,
high pressure preservation of meat typically involves application of static pressure not
exceeding 600 MPa for a few seconds or up to several minutes.Meat products are submerged
in fluid in a pressure vessel and pressure is generated by pumping fluid into the closed vessel.
The HPP technology tenderizes meat with constant pressure exerted over an extended
duration and at temperature as high as 40 °C.The implementation of HPP technology inthe
meat processing industry serves an important role in providing safer, higher quality, and
higher value products to the consumers. By taking advantage of the unique behaviour of raw
proteins and other commonly used raw materials, processors can formulate RTE meat and
poultry products with better sensory characteristics and with less dependence or no chemical
additives. (Devatkal et al 2015)
Smart packaging :
Packaging is crucial for maintenance of quality and protect against damage and microbial
contamination. Numerous different technologies, systems and equipments are currently used
for processing and packaging fresh red meat or meat products. Important current fresh meat
technologies used commercially are master packs and MAP with mixtures of O2 and CO2 or
O2, CO2 and N2. MAP plays a crucial role in increasing the shelf life of meat or meat
products. Unfortunately, MAP or active packaging does not provide any information on the
condition of packaged product before or at the time of consumption by visual examination.
Intelligent packaging or “smart packaging” is proposed to monitor or check the quality of
meat from farm to leading to consumer satisfactions, reduction of wastage and food
poisoning.

Many sensor based smart packaging technologies have been proposed during last decades. It
utilizes chemical sensor or biosensor to monitor the quality and safety of food, such as
freshness indication, leakage, carbon dioxide, oxygen and pH detection as well as
temperature fluctuations. Thus, a real time quality control and safety system is introduced in
the packaging system, which has great potential in the packaging industry to be beneficial for
both consumers and manufacturers.

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Superchilling:
Super chilling, also called ‘partial freezing’ or ‘deep chilling’ is a process, where food
products are stored between the freezing point of the products and 1-2 °C below this
temperature. Super chilling allows only partial freezing of surface water in the outer few
millimetre which gives insulation and maintains refrigeration capacity during storage and
transportation. Storing food products at super chilling temperature was reported to have three
distinct advantages: maintaining food freshness, retaining high food quality and suppressing
growth of harmful microbes. Super chilling has been utilised with some muscle foods,
particularly seafood, to extend the storage life of products (Dunn et al 2008).
A form of super chilling has been tried in pork processing where hot-boned, vacuum packed
pork cuts were crust frozen while being rapidly chilled before being held at 2 °C. Rapid
chilling did not have a beneficial effect on palatability or shelf life of hot-processed fresh
pork. Super chilling of pork roasts at -2.0 °C maintained good sensory quality and low
microbiological counts up to 16 weeks compared to traditional chilling at +3.5 °C with a
shelf-life of 14 days. Research work carried out at ICAR-National Research Centre on Meat,
Hyderabad depicted that vacuum packaging and super chilling at -1 °C was efficient in
maintaining the freshness of buffalo meat steaks without adversely affecting any physico-
chemical, sensory and microbial quality parameters up to 90 days storage ( Kaale et al 2011).
Developments in processing ingredients:
Processed meat products represent complex systems that can be considered as a ‘matrix’ of
interacting components. By improving understanding of the impact of interactions between
the food matrix and novel ingredients on technological and sensory performance, strategies
can be developed to optimise healthier versions of meat products.
Fat replacers Rice bran fiber, Oat fiber, Carrageenan, Carboxymethylcellulose, Tapioca starch,
Maltodextrin, Milk proteins, Plant oils such as maize, soy, cotton, canola,
linseed, grape seed, walnut etc.
Salt replacers KCl, K-lactate, KCl + citric acid + tartaric acid + sucrose + apple pulp, edible
seaweeds, algae oil, sodium poly/diphosphate, calcium gluconate,
Transglutaminase + caseinate + KCl + fiber
Natural Rosmarinic acid, α-Tocopherol, Ascorbic acid, Carnosine, Oregano extract, Fruit
antioxidants and vegetable extract such as citrus, guava, grapeseed, plum, pomegranate,
carrot, cruciferous vegetables, tomato active constituents of herbs and spices,
essential oil
Natural Active compounds in spices, herbs, essential oil, Bacteriocins, Lysoyme,
antimicrobials Antimicrobial polypeptides
Meat processing plants:
There are 10 fully integrated meat processing plants (Table 2) conforming to international
standards set out by Office International Des Epizooties (OIE), Paris. There are other
processing plants also which are partially integrated.Most of the above plants are fully
integrated where healthy animals are slaughtered and carcasses are deboned. The deboned
meat is frozen and exported. These plants have rendering plants and effluent treatment plants
attached to them. Some of the processing plants in Sahibabad, UP, Kirtinagar Industrial Area,
Delhi and Mumbai in Maharashtra, do not have their own slaughter houses, but receive the
carcasses of the slaughtered animals from the Government approved Municipal slaughter
houses. These plants do small business.
Challenges and opportunities for Indian meat industry:
In order to achieve the pink revolution the following steps have been taken by the
government and the entrepreneurs in India. The government and the private sector have
already initiated many of the steps.

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1. Setting up of the state of art-abattoir-cum-meat processing plants: The recent trend in
India is to establish latest state-of-the-art abattoirs-cum-meat processing plants. India has
already established 10 most modern state-of-art mechanized abattoirs-cum-meat processing
plants in various States based on slaughtering buffaloes and sheep. These plants are
environment friendly, where all the slaughterhouses by products are utilized in production of
meat-cum-bone meal, tallow, bone chips etc. They are also adopting appropriate technologies
to obtain value added products. These plants have effluent treatment devices which treat all
the washings of abattoirs, lairage etc. to safe water discharge having 30 PPM of BOD. A few
more (eight) are under construction.The plants follow all the sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS)
measures required by the International Animal Health code of O.I.E. Having no social taboo,
like the cow in India, with buffalo slaughter, these plants mostly produce buffalo meat for
export. India is becoming a major buffalo meat producing country and will be a main player
in the international market with additional establishment of the state-of-art-abattoirs cum
meat processing plants and control of FMD in three zones in few years from now. There are
also four integrated poultry meat-processing plants, which follow sanitary, and phytosanitary
measures of world class. The largest plant is of Venkateswara Hatcheries. APEDA has a
registered number of 80 abbatoirs cum meat processing plants and 28 meat processing plants
in India which are officially approved.
2. Packaging of technologies to raise male buffalo calves for meat production: In India,
every year, about 10 million male calves are removed from the buffalo production system due
to intentional killing by the farmers to save dam’s milk due to non-remunerative cost of
raising male animals, thus incurring a loss of about US $ 11 million per annum. These calves
could be salvaged for meat production, which will not only improve the economic condition
of the farmers but also would increase meat production for domestic consumption and export
market. Presently, in our country intensive feeding of male buffalo calves has started for meat
production. The male calves at the age of 6 - 8 months purchased from the farmers are
quarantined for 15 days during which vaccination and de-worming are provided. Thereafter,
they are fed on high protein/high energy diet to put on a weight of 120 kg in 4 months to
produce quality meat. They are never fed on antibiotics, hormones and growth promoters.
They are raised in organic farming. Meat from such animals is tender, lean and juicy and goes
to the wet market.
3. Buffalo rearing under contractual farming as backward integration to the modern
abattoirs for meat production: A strong need has been felt to establish a production base
around each modern abattoir to produce quality disease-free animals as per the sanitary and
phytosanitary (SPS) requirements of O.I.E. Hind Livestock Development Foundation has
established a model backward integration with 110,000 farmers who are raising more than
half a million buffaloes in 2,200 villages under contract farming system. The Foundation is
providing animal health, animal feeding and extension management services to the farmers at
their doorsteps. The marketing of the animals to the meat plant is organized by the
Foundation to pay them remunerative prices. This has reduced the mortality in the male
calves as inputs for animal rearing are provided by the Company in vaccination, de-worming
and feeds (Ranjhan,1996; 1999 and 2003).
4. Establishing disease-free zones for rearing animals: India is now fortunately free from
most of the trade related diseases listed at list ‘A’ of the Office International des Epizooties
(OIE), namely, rinderpest, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), etc. India has also
not reported bovine spongiform encephalapathy (BSE – Mad Cow Disease). The government
of India has established three zones with 56 districts to control FMD in the 10th Five Year
Plan in the North, Central and Southern zone, where most of the EOU plants are located.

112
5. Utilization of slaughter house by-products:The mechanized slaughter houses produce
huge quantities of offal from the slaughtered animals, which could be profitably utilized for
production of value added products, like meat-cum-bone meal (MBM), tallow, bone chips,
pet foods and methane as a source of energy for value addition in most of the modern plants.
MBM contains about 50% of good quality protein and is a cheaper source of protein for
poultry feeding. It is a good source of lysine and other sulphur containing amino acids.
Similarly, tallow is a cheap source of energy for broiler production vis-à-vis the vegetable
sources which are expensive. Tallow is also used for soap manufacturing. The rendering plant
cooks the by product at 1330C at Bar 3, which completely sterilizes the MBM and destroys
the prion causing BSE in the animals.
Employment generation:
About 40 million people are engaged in meat sector, namely, trade of live animals, hides,
bones, casings, horns and hooves etc. This sector when organized on scientific lines will
generate more employment in rearing of animals on scientific lines and processing of
slaughter-house by-products for allied industries. This will also fulfil the call given by the
Hon. Prime Minister of India during his address to the CSIR Society Meeting in January
1999.
Globalization of trade and removal of trade barriers under WTO agreement:
Most of the Asian countries are developing countries. They are put at a great disadvantage on
account of globalization of trade and removal of trade barriers under WTO agreement.
Although they have plenty of natural resources, but they have not developed technologies to
harness them. With the removal of quantitative restrictions on imports, many developed
countries are dumping their produce at a very low price compared to indigenous products, as
they have the twin advantage of subsidies from their country as well as ultra modern
technologies with nil or very little production losses. Take the example of chicken legs being
produced in developed countries giving lot of subsidies in production as against Asian
countries. The developed countries should completely eliminate the subsidies on the raising
of the animals for production of food so as to have level playing fields. Similarly, the
Governments of the developing Asian countries should, therefore, give at least 10% subsidy
to the meat and milk industry, and also establish R&D units so that the benefits should
percolate to entrepreneurs. Simultaneously, some agency must be formed which should
exercise quality control on imported items in the larger interest of indigenous industry.
Special issues for buffalo meat Development:
The following special issues deserve to be considered for serious consideration in policy
making in the event becoming unrest in the country on the cow slaughter:
 Discrimination against buffalo
 Buffalo as a tool for food security and rural employment
 Price parity with cattle beef
 Oorganization of meat sector – harmonization of standards for buffalo meat
There is need for harmonization of national standards for buffalo meat on the lines of beef.
1. Proper organization of cattle markets to save the small holders:
The meat animals are raised by the farmers, namely, sheep, goats, pigs etc. The farmers in
small hold farming also raise the large animals. There are three stages through which the
animal passes as has been shown in the figure below. At each stage, 15 – 25% cost is added
till the animal reaches the slaughterhouse. This excludes the cost of transportation The
surplus stock is sold to the primary trader in the village itself or it could be taken by the
farmers to the weekly animal markets near the village where the secondary traders who are

113
financially better off purchase the animals from the small collector. These trader also
purchases the animals from the market to supply them to the main slaughter houses for
export, while Government ought to modernize the cattle markets where end users should have
an access to the farmers’ animals rather than the involvement of the agents in between. There
should be a weighbridge and purchase prices should be displayed. This will give proper price
to the farmers.
2. Significance of antimicrobials:
Significant antimicrobials are used in livestock production to maintainhealth and
productivity. These practices contribute to the spreadof drug-resistant pathogens in both
livestock and humans, posinga significant public health threat. The first globalmap (228
countries) of antibiotic consumption in livestock andconservatively estimate the total
consumption in 2010 was 63,151tons. The projections showed that antimicrobial
consumption will rise by 67% to 2030, and nearly double in Brazil, Russia, India, China and
South Africa. This rise is likely to be driven the grow thin consumer demand for livestock
products in middle-incomecountries and a shift to large-scale farms where antimicrobialsare
used routinely. The findings call for initiatives to preserveantibiotic effectiveness while
simultaneously ensuring foodsecurity in low- and lower-middle-income countries. (Thomas
et al.,2015).

Figure -8: Status of antimicrobials usage in India

(A) Largest five consumers of antimicrobials in livestock in 2010.
(B) Largest five consumers of antimicrobials in livestock in 2030 (projected).
(C) Largest Increase in antimicrobial consumption between 2010 and 2030.
(D) Largest relative increase in antimicrobial consumption between 2010 and
2030. CHN, China; USA, United States; BRA, Brazil; DEU, Germany; IND, India;
MEX, Mexico; IDN, Indonesia; MMR, Myanmar; NGA, Nigeria; PER, Peru;PHL, Philippines.

3. Unconventional way of meat production:

Buffalo blood was collected from a local slaughterhouse and fibrin is separated by whipping
action over a wooden stick. The physico-chemical and microbiological properties of fibrin
were determined. Buffalo meat patties were prepared by replacing lean meat at 0, 3, 6 and
9% with fibrin.The physico-chemical properties of patties i.e emulsion stability, pH,
cooking yield increased significantly (P<0.05). Replacement of lean meat had significant
(P<0.05) effects on proximate composition of patties. The sensory attributes were also
significantly affected but remained good to very good upto a level of 9%. Results from this
study indicated that meat could be replaced up to 9% with fibrin in patties formulations
without adversely affecting quality.(Rao et al., 2016)
4. Tax benefits to the meat industry:
For the assessment year 2010-2011 tax holiday benefit under section 80-IB (11-A) has been
extended to the business of processing, preserving and packaging of meat and meat
products, poultry, marine and dairy products. If it began to operate such business on or after
April 2009 exporters availed the benefit of this section.

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 Conclusions:
Livestock products immensely contribute to nutrition and food security.Processing of meat
products of consumers’ choice with novel techniques and adequate quality control may find
their entry into national and global markets to fetch higher returns. There is a challenge for
the processing industry to choose appropriate ingredients having lower cost or no
detrimental effect on health, quality and shelf life. Meat scientists and industry have to
spend more efforts in informing and educating consumers about the health benefits of
functional meat and meat products. Moreover, the bio-availability of added functional
ingredients should be maintained during the processing and commercial storage.The future
success of meat processing sector will depend on the meaningful partnership and alliance
among Industry Partners and R & D Institutions as well as government agencies for
converting scientific knowledge into value added systems by improving linkages,
infrastructure, and food laws as well as drawing clear plans which benefits producer,
processors and consumers.
Table -3: Outlook on Indian Buffalo meat (Business Monitor International, MLA calculations)
Particulars Average growth Key factors influencing the forecast
forecast 2015–16
to 2020–21
Production 3.7% Growth in the dairy herd, driven by improvement in dairy
farm management, veterinary care, genetics and nutrition,
along with private investment and government support, will
continue to boost beef production in the coming years.
Consumption 3.6% Despite its politically sensitive nature, beef demand is
expected to increase in the coming years, driven by the non-
Hindus population rise.
Trade 2.4% India’s beef surplus will continue to grow. However, the
country will struggle to find new markets for its beef, and
strong competition from Brazil.

There is a sea change in the meat industry during the last one decade. The state-of-the-art
fully integrated slaughterhouses with meat processing plants have been established. The trend
towards establishing feedlots to raise meat animals has started. The Government has launched
the FMD Control Programme in three zones encompassing 56 Districts having EOU. All
these measures will bring the “Pink Revolution” in the country in the 21st Century.
Table-4: Integrated processing plants
Sr Company Processing plant Location Annual capacity
No (tones)

1. Allanasons Fully Integrated - Aurangabad 90,000

Buffalo Sheep Goat - Unnao 90,000
-Do- - Kolkata 100,000
-do- - Hyderabad 90,000
-do- - Sahibabad 50,000
Partially integrated

2. Hind Agro Fully Integrated Buffalo Sheep and - Aligarh, U.P. 120,000
Industries Goat -Sahibabad, UP 50,000
Ltd Partially Integrated - Meerut, UP 25,000
-Do- - Khurja, UP 20,000
-Do- -Lawrence Rd., Delhi 20,000

3. Al-Kabeer Fully Integrated : Buffalo Sheep & Hyderabad, AP 60,000

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 Goat

4. Arabian Fully Integrated: Buffalo, Sheep & Koregaon 50,000

Exports Goat Maharashtra

5. Fair Fully Integrated : Buffalo, Sheep & Barabanki, UP 50,000

Exports Goat

6. MKR Fully Integrated: Buffalo, Sheep & Nanded, Maharashtra 40,000

Goat

7. Punjab Fully Integrated:Buffalo, Sheep & Bassi, Punjab, 50,000

Agro Goat Chandigarh

8. Venkay Fully Integrated : Poultry Pune, Maharashtra 1 Million Birds

9. Government Fully Integrated Deonar, 50,000

Buffalo, Sheep, Goat Maharashtra

10 Government Fully Integrated: : Buffalo, Sheep, Goa 10,000

Goat

References:
References are available on request from editor.

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 Marketing of Livestock and Their Products: Opportunities and
Challenges for Marginal Farmers
Harish K. Gulati and Vishal Sharma
LLR University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences
Hisar – 125004, Haryana
Introduction :
Livestock production and marketing are intrinsically linked, each being dependent on the
other, and both crucial for overall food security. Marketing is the process of interesting
potential customers and clients in products and/or services. And an activity/process for
creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers,
clients and society at large. Marketing of Livestock for milk, meat and draft purposes in India
crucially contributes to the health and nutrition of the household, supplements the income,
offers employment opportunities, and finally helps encash “bank on hooves” in times of need.
India possesses vast domestic animal diversity. Total number of indigenous breeds now in the
country is 160, which include 40 for cattle, 13 for buffalo, 26 for goat, 42 for sheep, 6 for
horses & ponies, 9 for camel, 6 for pig, 1 for donkey and 17 for chicken. Majority of the rural
human population are dependent directly or indirectly on the agriculture and livestock related
occupations. Livestock plays an important role in the socio-economic development of the
marginal farmers and its importance can be gauzed from the contribution it makes towards
the national economy of the country (around 4 % of GDP).The livestock sector alone
contributes nearly 25.6% of Value of Output at current prices of total value of output in
Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry sector.
Poor marginal farmers mostly rear ruminants and poultry. Livestock is a way of livelihood
and serve as insurance substitute for poor and marginal farmers. Besides serving as bank,
they are a ready source of cash via sale.
Status of livestock in India:
India is one of the largest animal husbandry sectors in the world accounting for 11.6 % of the
world’s livestock resources. As per 19th livestock census, India’s total livestock population is
512 million. Out of this, 190.9 million are cattle, 108.7 million are buffaloes, 135.17 million
are goats, 65.07 million are sheep and 10.29 million are pigs. The total poultry population
was 729.2 million. The share of different species in total livestock population of India is -
57.83 % buffaloes, 15.06 % cattle, 7.14 % sheep, 17.93 % goats, 2.18 % camel, 1.3 %
equines, 1.2 % pigs, 4.72 % chickens and 1.94 % ducks. Livestock population (As per 19th
Livestock Census, 2012) is given below:
Table-1: Population of different species of livestock (2012)
Species Population (million) Effect over 18th
Census
Total livestock population 512.05 - 3.33%
Total bovine population 299.9 - 1.57%
Total cattle population 190.90
Milch animals (cows and buffaloes) 118.59 + 6.75%.
Animals in milk cows and buffaloes 80.52 + 4.51%.
Female cattle (cows) 122.9 + 6.52%
Exotic/crossbred milch cattle 19.42 + 34.78%
Indigenous milch cattle 48.12 + 0.17%.
Total buffalo population 108.7 + 3.19%
Female buffalo population 92.5 + 7.99%

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Milch buffaloes 51.05 + 4.95%
Total sheep 65.06 - 9.07%
Goat population 135.17 - 3.82%
Total pigs 10.29 - 7.54%
Total Horses & Ponies 0.62 + 2.08%
Total Mules 0.19 + 43.34%
Total Camels 0.4 - 22.48%
Total donkeys 0.32 - 27.22%
Total poultry 729.2 + 12.39%

Marketing system for livestock and livestock products in India:

Livestock production in our country is mostly done by small and marginal farmers.
Significant efforts have been made to improve the production in livestock sector both
quantitatively and qualitatively. But, even after decades of planned economic development,
marketing of livestock and livestock products remains largely unorganized, traditional and
fragmented with few exceptions like milk and egg. Livestock products require more efficient
marketing system which becomes more critical in our country since most livestock producers
are small, have poor resources and are unable to establish their own linkages with markets.

India’s cattle rearing traditions and economy are marked by mobility and exchanges. Cattle
rearing tradition in India involved transactions that were not always between adjacent
villages, but at times involved mobility across districts and state borders. Nomadic cattle
breeders from Rajputana travelled with their cattle to areas such as West Punjab, Gujarat and
the Malwa region to supply plough and cart bullock needs to cultivators. This mobility of
nomadic cattle breeders and traders/ dealers was intricately linked with cattle fairs that
punctuated the Hindu calendar as per auspicious tithis (dates). As a brilliant ethnographic
account of one such cattle fair, Kharwa Mela in Rajasthan by Deryck Lodrick (1984)
suggests that cattle fairs that were held by feudal princes and istimardars (landowners) in the
past continues to be held by their descendants, even as post-independence Cattle Fair Acts
legislated by state governments hands over this function to state bureaucracy. Documenting
the Kharwala Mela of October 17-22 in 1981, Lodrick underlines a long distance movement
of purchased cattle as well as a significant distance travelled by those who brought their cattle
for sale. Whether as agricultural cattle or as milch cattle for dairy development, the story of
cattle development in India is punctuated by cattle mobility from the breeding tracts to other
places.
Live animal marketing is very common phenomenon and can be linked to ancient times when
it used to be on barter system. In our country, livestock are sold and purchased in animal
fairs, daily or weekly markets etc. There are more than 2000 markets in India dealing with
different livestock species. Most of the livestock markets in our country are unregulated or
under the control of private bodies. Live animals are generally sold through direct negotiation
or through the involvement of middleman. There is no scientific method used for price
fixation and the phenotypic appearance is used to decide the price of animals.
Livestock products are perishable in nature, so their marketing is entirely different from the
marketing of other industrial products. So, their marketing is more risky and becomes more
prone to loss. Organized marketing system of milk based on AMUL pattern is followed in
some parts of the country but still the larger portion is marketed through unorganized
marketing system. The cooperative marketing system in our country is based on the three-tier
system, where milk is procured from the farmers by the village cooperative societies which
are taken to the nearest chilling centre by the district cooperative milk producers

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organizations which are controlled by the state milk cooperative federations. Price of milk is
determined by the fat and SNF content of the milk. However, now-a-days many private
agencies are also coming forward in the marketing of milk and milk products especially in
the metropolitan areas.
Meat marketing in our country is highly unorganized and there is no control of Government
organization or agencies on the production and marketing of meat and meat products. Meat
marketing is mainly dependent on the middlemen who share the maximum profit. The local
village traders and wholesale butchers operating in urban areas have tie up with rural
producers and they purchase the meat purpose animals in bulk quantities and then redistribute
to urban centres mainly to the retail butchers. In some areas, these retail butchers have their
own tie up with the village level producers. These retails are responsible for the slaughtering
and dispersion of meat. Scientific slaughtering and meat inspection procedures are followed
at the organized slaughter houses but their number is almost negligible in our country.
Though, commercial production of chicken meat on scientific principles has been well
standardized, marketing of broiler meat are not fully organized except few in urban sectors.
Broilers are sold live or slaughtered at the place of sale. Sometimes the birds are dressed and
displayed for sale in the open air without any concern for hygiene. Chicken Broiler marketing
in our country is moving towards organized way due to integrated approach of broiler
production and marketing by the private broiler producers. However, there is no government
agency to monitor or regulate the marketing of broilers. Price fixation is on the basis of
demand and supply as in case of eggs. Mostly live chicken and warm carcass are sold and
there is no value addition in the products. The poultry products processing and value addition
of the poultry products is still in infant stage.
Egg prices in our country are fixed by regional centres of National Egg Coordination
Committee (NECC) on the basis of supply and demand and not on the basis of production
cost of eggs. Eggs are still transported in open condition and in un-refrigerated vehicles.
Eggs are sold as commodity in India and purchased by consumers mostly from shop next
door for daily needs. Eggs are channeled through wholesale dealers, sub-dealers, retailers etc.
in two to three stages, which raises the cost of eggs by 10-15% over the actual sale price at
producer’s place. Similarly eggs are sold in open without consideration for preservation of
their quality. Seasonal variations in consumption and demand of eggs and meat pose greatest
challenge to the stabilization of prices. The fluctuations at times go to the extent of up to 25-
30% in a short period of 3-4 weeks. Thus, there is a need to strengthen the marketing system.
Opportunities in dairy industry:
Milk production alone involves more than 30 million small producers, each raising one or
two cows or buffaloes. India continues to be the largest producer of milk in world. India
alone produces about 17 % of world’s total milk production. The importance of dairying has
been recognized for upliftment of rural and poor marginal farmers. Several measures have
been initiated by the Government to increase the productivity of livestock, which has resulted
in increasing the milk production significantly from the level of 102.6 million tonnes at the
end of the Tenth Plan (2006-07) to 127.9 million tonnes at the end of the Eleventh Plan

Exotic Cross bred Indigeno Non-Descript Indigenous Non-descript Goat

cows cows us cows cows (Kg/day) Buffalo Buffalo (Kg/da
(Kg/day) (Kg/day) (kg/day) (Kg/day) (Kg/day) y)
11.21 7.33 3.41 2.16 5.76 3.80 0.45

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(2011-12). Milk production during 2014-15 and 2015-16 is 146.3 million tonnes and 155.5
million tonnes respectively showing an annual growth of 6.27%. The per capita availability
of milk is around 337 grams per day in 2015-16. The average yield of milk per day per
animal in milk at National level from different species during 2015-16 is given below:
Nearly 36% of the milk production is contributed by Indigenous Buffaloes followed by 26%
by crossbred cattle. The Indigenous cattle contribute 12% of the total milk production in the
country whereas non-descript cattle contribute 9% milk production and non-descript
buffaloes contribute 13% milk production.
Since the demand for milk and milk products is growing rapidly, there is enough scope to
upscale milk production activities. The upscaling would substantially enhance the income of
milk producing households.
Opportunities in broiler and egg industry:
Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural sector in India with around
eight percent growth rate per annum. The poultry sector in India has undergone a paradigm
shift in structure and operation which has been its transformation from a mere backyard
activity into a major commercial agri based industry over a period of four decades. Livestock
production in general in India is primarily the endeavor of the small holders and the sector is
extremely livelihood intensive. However, a very wide range of operations characterizes
poultry activity with livelihood and subsistence farming at one end of the spectrum to highly
viable and commercial operations at the other.

India ranks 3rd in egg production and 5th in chicken meat production in the world. About 3.4
million tons (74 billion) of eggs are produced from 260 million layers and 3.8 million tons of
poultry meat is produced from 3000 million broilers per annum in India. The Poultry Industry
is contributing about Rs.70,000/- crores to the national GDP and providing employment to
more than 4 million people either directly or indirectly. About 2-2.5 million tons of poultry
litter, a valuable organic fertilizer, is produced as a by product every year.

Egg production at the end of the Tenth Plan (2006-07) was 50.70 billion as compared to
66.45 billion at the end of the Eleventh Plan (2011-12). Currently the total Poultry population
in our country is 729.21 million (as per 19th Livestock Census) and egg production is around
82.93 billion during 2015-16. The per capita availability (2015-16) is around 66 eggs per
annum. The poultry meat production is estimated to be 3.26 million tonnes.
The growth in the broiler segment is expected to remain strong due to consumer preference
for chicken meat, increasing income levels, and changing food habits. The live market sales
of broiler meat still constitute more than 90 percent of total sales volume as most consumers
prefer freshly slaughtered chicken meat; the processed chicken meat segment comprises only
seven to ten percent of total production according to industry sources. More than 80 percent
of India’s chicken output is produced by organized commercial farms.

Clean, graded eggs marketed under brand name can create more opportunities and a healthy
competition among producers. Also there is a great scope for marketing of eggs in
international market as the price of egg in our country is very low. Value added eggs like
Designer eggs, organic eggs, low cholesterol eggs etc can be produced to cater the special
markets.
Opportunities in meat and wool Industry:
The Meat production has registered a healthy growth from 2.3 million tonnes at the end of
Tenth Five Year Plan (2006-07) to 5.5 million tonnes at the end of the Eleventh Five Year

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 Plan (2011-12). Meat production in the beginning of Twelfth Plan (2012-13) was 5.95
million tonnes which has been further increased to 7.0 million tonnes in 2015-16.
Opportunities in meat production are very high. Goat meat is the most heavily consumed
meat in rural areas as poultry development is still limited to urban and semi-urban areas.

Sheep husbandry is popular among many nomadic tribes. It is a key source in their
sustainable livelihood but unfortunately could not reach to its true potential. Wool production
declined marginally at the end of Eleventh Five Year Plan (2011-12) to 44.7 million kg from
45.1 million kg in the end of Tenth Five Year Plan (2006-07). Wool production in the
beginning of Twelfth Plan (2012-13) was 46.05 million kg and increased to 48.1 million kg
in 2014-15 but declined to 43.6 million kg in 2015-16. The Wool production has shown
negative growth as (-) 9.47% during 2015-16. But, the future of sheep industry seems to be
bright through the introduction of newer technologies, better access to market, development
of cooperatives and credit facilities.

Challenges for marginal farmers in marketing of livestock and their products:

Our country plays a lead role in the livestock sector but the actual producer or farmer does
not receive the price in comparison with the cost of production. A major share of the profit
goes in the hands of the middlemen involved in marketing of livestock and their products.
The poor and marginal farmer faces many challenges in the production and marketing of
livestock and its products. There are many constraints which prevents the growth of livestock
sector to its full potential.

1. Lack of organized marketing system - Unscrupulous middleman involvement and their

malpractice is the biggest hurdle in the live animals marketing in our country. In milk
marketing only 20 per cent of the marketing is carried out through organized system while
meat and meat products marketing is almost completely unorganized. Most of the profit is
shared by the middleman or brokers and the marginal farmers are not benefited by sale of
their priced animal to the extent of their value. Development of reliable and stable market
chain round the year for marketing of poultry products.

There is need to develop the organized marketing system and involvement of middlemen
should be minimized and licensing system should be introduced. Entry fees should be
uniform throughout and it should be fixed according to the species.

2. Poor infrastructure facilities at live animal markets- These are not located at proper
location, without proper market yard and floors. Lack of proper loading and unloading
facilities at the live animal markets, proper sheds, resting or waiting places are not available
except natural shady trees in most animal markets. At some markets, artificial sheds are
prepared but these are inefficient without proper attention towards ventilation and stocking
density.Infrastructure facilities should be developed for easy logistics of animals and market
functionaries.

3. Pricing policy - Phenotypic characteristics alone are not suitable for determining the price of
highly valued livestock. Actual milk yield of the animal is also altered by unscrupulous and
fraudulent activities. So, the pricing of animals should be based on scientific characteristics.
The value and quality of animals should be determined by veterinarians or animal
scientists.Pricing system for livestock products is not done scientifically and farmers often
receive fewer prices for their products that is insufficient to meet out the production cost.

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4. Poor veterinary facilities at livestock markets- There is poor disease prevention facilities
and poor disease screening facilities before entering the animals in market. There should be
restriction on the movement of animals in and out of the market and also the adequate disease
diagnostic facilities for screening of animals for contagious diseases.

5. Cold storage and refrigeration facilities for livestock products- Livestock products being
biological in nature, so their quality deteriorates with the advancement of time. So, this nature
makes their marketing more cumbersome, risky and prone to losses. The movement of such
products requires highly costly storage facilities and well refrigerated vehicles. This further
increases the marketing cost and the final price of the product.

6. Strengthening of infrastructure facilities in poultry production- In the rural poultry

production system, investment for some minimal infrastructure requirements like sheds for
mother units which will raise the birds to certain age before distribution is needed. In the
commercial sector, banks usually finance the large hatcheries/poultry houses. However, huge
infrastructure needs to be created for storage of feed and products. Cold storages, refrigerated
vans, state of the art laboratories for feed and product analysis etc commensurate with the
increasing level of production. This will help facilitate marketing and cope with the seasonal
fluctuations in prices due to undulating demand, like low demand in summers. Special
emphasis is needed for marketing of rural poultry produce coming from the backyard and
small flocks.

7. Poor marketing information system- Due to poor marketing information available to the
farmers, they are not aware of the ground realities in marketing with respect to demand and
price of their product.

8. Hygienic production and processing to meet international standards- This will create
market potential for international level. Facilities for hygienic slaughter and preservation of
eggs should be made available at market places in both urban and rural areas. Broiler
integrators and processors must be trained to know the importance of HACCP so that safe
and nutritious products can be delivered at reasonable price to the consumers. Moreover,
processing of products according to HACCP standards will improve the export potential.

9. Strengthening of cooperatives structure - Formation of producer co-operatives/associations

and rural market yards will help in proper marketing. In the absence of dairy cooperatives,
marginal farmers are forced to sale the milk and milk products at lower price to the
middleman, who enjoy the major benefit. Thus non-availability of cooperatives in rural area
is a serious challenge for small and marginal farmers.Sheep and goat farmers’ cooperatives
development can be helpful to safeguard the interest of the small farmers who are severely
exploited by the middlemen involved in sheep and goat marketing. National Egg
Coordination Committee, a farmers’ cooperative agency has been contributing to the
improvement in marketing of eggs. However, more systematized marketing strategy and the
state’s involvement in minimizing the channels are required for making poultry farming
remunerative and cost effective in the years to come.
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 Pharmaco-Economics: An Integral Part of Animal Health Economics in India
H. B.Patel , R.D.Singh, V.N. Sarvaiya, S.K.Modi and B.R. Patel
Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University
Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat – 385506
E-mail : drhitesh2002@rediffmail.com
Introduction :
The livestock plays an important role in the economy of our nation as well as its farmers.
According to estimates of the Central Statistics Office (CSO) of India, the value of output
livestock sector at current prices was about INR 5,91,691 crore during 2015-16 which is about
28.5% of the value of output from agricultural and allied sector. About 20.5 million people
depend upon livestock for their livelihood. Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small
farm households as against an average of 14% for all rural households. Economic analysis of
animal diseases has an important part to play in policy and strategy or decision making processes,
and increasingly it is a part of legislation development in many countries and regions. Animal
health economics can be described as the discipline that aims to provide a framework of concepts,
procedures and data to support the decision making process in optimizing animal health
management (Dijkhuizen et al., 1997).

Cost-benefit analysis, a pharmaco-economics tool, is one of the most common economic

modelling techniques in animal health economics which may be applied on three levels of
veterinary decision making: the animal, herd and national level. Pharmaco-economics is defined
as “the field of study that evaluates the behaviour of individuals, firms, and markets relevant to
the use of pharmaceutical products, services, and programs, and which frequently focuses on the
costs (inputs) and consequences (outcomes) of that use” (ISPOR, 2012). Thus, a
pharmacoeconomic study evaluates the cost (expressed in monetary terms) and effects (expressed
in terms of monetary value, effectiveness, efficacy or enhanced quality of life) of a
pharmaceutical product. Pharmacoeconomics developed its roots in 1970s. First Cost-benefit
analysis was employed in 1979 to appraise the outcomes of individualizing aminoglycoside
dosages to severely burned patients with gram-negative septicaemia (Bootman et al., 1979).
Initially, defined as “analysis of the costs of drug therapy to healthcare systems and society”, the
actual term “pharmacoeconomics” first appeared in the literature in 1986 when Townsend's work
was published to highlight the need to develop research activities in this new discipline.
Subsequently, in 1992, a journal named “Pharmacoeconomics” was started (Ahmad et al., 2013).
Types of pharmaco-economic evaluation:
There are major five types of pharmaco-economic evaluation: cost-of-illness Evaluation (COI),
cost-minimization analysis (CMA), cost-benefit analysis (CBA), cost-effectiveness analysis
(CEA) and cost-utility analysis (CUA) (Scaria et al., 2015). Cost-of-Illness (COI) evaluation
identifies and estimates the overall cost of a particular disease for a defined population. This
evaluation method is often referred to as burden of illness and involves measuring the direct and
indirect costs attributable to a specific disease. The costs of various diseases, including diabetes,
mental disorders and cancer, in the United States have been estimated. Cost-Minimization
Analysis (CMA) involves the determination of the least costly alternative when comparing two or
more treatment alternatives. With CMA, the alternatives must have an assumed or demonstrated
equivalency in safety and efficacy (i.e., the two alternatives must be equivalent therapeutically).
Once this equivalency in outcome is confirmed, the costs can be identified, measured and
compared in monetary units. Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is a method that allows for the

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identification, measurement, and comparison of the benefits and costs of a program or treatment
alternative. Both the costs and the benefits are measured and converted into equivalent dollars in
the year in which they will occur. Future costs and benefits are discounted or reduced to their
current value. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) is a way of summarizing the health benefits
and resources used by competing healthcare programs so that policymakers can choose among
them. It involves comparing programs or treatment alternatives with different safety and efficacy
profiles. Cost is measured in dollars and outcomes are measured in terms of obtaining a specific
therapeutic outcome. These outcomes are expressed in physical units, natural units, or non-
currency units (e.g., lives saved, cases cured, life expectancy or drop in blood pressure). Cost-
Utility Analysis (CUA) is a method for comparing treatment alternatives that integrates patient
preferences. CUA can compare cost, quality and quantity of patient-years. Cost is measured in
monetary currencies and therapeutic outcome is measured in patient-weighted utilities rather than
in physical units. Often the utility measurement used is a quality-adjusted life year (QALY)
gained. QALY is a common measure of health status used in CUA, combining morbidity and
mortality data.
Importance of pharmaco-economics:
Rising health expenditures have led to the necessity to find the optimal therapy at the lowest
price. Pharmaco-economics is an innovative method that aims to decrease health expenditures,
whilst optimising healthcare results. The increasing cost of healthcare products and services has
become a great concern for patients, healthcare professionals, insurers, policy makers and the
public. This increasing concern has prompted demand for the use of economic evaluations of
alternative healthcare outcomes. Healthcare resources are not easily accessible and affordable to
many patients, therefore, pharmaco-economic evaluations play an important role in the allocation
of these resources (Debjit et al., 2014). Pharmaceutical expenditures, which constitute a large part
of healthcare expenditures, have been increasing much faster than total healthcare expenditures.
Numerous drug alternatives and empowered consumers also fuel the need for economic
evaluations of pharmaceutical products. Pharmaco-economic evaluation is important in helping
clinicians and decision makers to make choices about new pharmaceutical products and in
helping patients to access new medicines (Scaria et al., 2015). Pharmaco-economics is used to
make formulary decisions (complementing clinical data), design disease management programs
and measuring the cost-effectiveness of interventions and programs in managed care (Sanchez,
1994).
Pharmaco-economics as a part of animal health economics: Indian scenario:
In India, the exact pharmaco-economics of animal diseases has not been attempted. The reports
on economics loss due to diseases and average cost of treatment have been studied by few
researchers/ livestock economists group. One such study (Sinha et al., 2014) stated that the losses
due to mastitis in monetary terms were estimated to be INR 1390 per lactation, among which
around 49% was owing to loss of value from milk and 37% on account of veterinary expenses.
Higher losses were observed in crossbred cows due to their high production potential that was
affected during mastitis period. The cost of treating an animal was estimated to be INR 509 which
includes cost of medicine (31.10%) and services (5.47%). Another approach used by co-
operatives of Karnataka States also gave insight into cost: benefit ration of animal diseases. The
13 milk producers’ unions, representing 17093 villages and involving 1.48 million farmers was
taken as a model for initiation of ‘Bovine Brucellosis Prevention and Control Project’ (BBPCP).
Study involves pooled milk samples from 6767 village level milk co-operative societies from 13

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milk unions with a turnover of 18 lakh litre of milk per day. The first round of milk ELISA
results indicated that 5 out of 27 districts are free from brucellosis and in the remaining infected
districts, 284 villages were positive for brucellosis (3.8%) by pooled milk survey. The maximum
number of calves that required annual calfhood vaccination in these 284 villages was about
30,000 for 3-5 years. The estimated cost of vaccine was Rs. 3 lakhs per year and operational costs
of another Rs 2 lakhs per year. This survey showed low or marginal infection in these five
infected districts. These findings gave strong credence for the use of calfhood vaccination in the
infected villages and that the disease can be controlled at low cost (Ahuja et al., 2008).
It is equally important to calculate or to know actual cost of animal diseases for proper
applications of pharmaco-economics evaluations. However, little is known about the actual costs
of animal disease. There are difficulties in estimating the costs of animal disease globally as
livestock product prices and productivity vary widely, as do the costs of resources used for
disease monitoring and control. FMD and Mastitis are most studied animal diseases for the
economic losses they do. The annual economic losses due to mastitis were calculated to be Rs.
7165.51 crores in India; almost same for cows (3649.56 crores) and buffaloes (3515.95 crores)
and out of which 57.93% (4151.16 crores) was due to sub-clinical mastitis (GADVASU, 2007).
The fact stressed out to focus more on prevention of sub-clinical mastitis.

In another study, economic losses due to FMD was calculated based on data (i) Department of
Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Government of India, (ii) based on sample survey
studies and (iii) published information in scientific journals. The total losses per infected animal
due to FMD in cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and pig were INR 12,532, 21,682, 2,023, 3,046 and
2,830, respectively. From this study, it was concluded that the annual total economic loss due to
FMD in India ranges from INR 12,000 crore to 14,000 crore (Singh et al., 2013). In the study, the
total economic losses was expressed as sum of loss from mortality, direct loss in milk yield,
losses due to reproductive failure, (includes Losses due to increased abortions, milk loss, losses
due to increased calving interval, value of calves that could have been born), loss in animal
draught power, loss due to reduction in growth of calf, Opportunity costs (includes the cost of
higher feeding and rearing inputs in surviving infected animals, loss due to extra human labour on
longer rearing time in young stock, cost of permanent disability, extra human labour for nursing
of animals and disinfection of sheds, and transportation of sick animals) and cost of treatment.
Cost of treatment, say for FMD, is one of the most immediate economic losses in FMD affected
animals, which includes cost of medicines and fee to veterinarians. Sick animals are usually
provided at least one week antibiotic treatment, 3 days antipyretic, 3 days vitamin B complex
along with liver extract, 14 days application of ointment on foot, udder etc. and 14 days
application of boroglycerol on tongue and in buccal cavity (Shaheen et al. 2005).
The concept of pharmaco-economics in India is still in infant stage to be used by the government
in order to make reimbursement decisions. Furthermore, the concept of Pharmaco-economics is
not being used in academic research though cost effectiveness studies have been performed in
various parts of India. Proper application of pharmaco-economics will empower the healthcare
practitioners and administrators to make better and more informed decisions regarding products
and services they provide.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

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 Securing the Dairy Value Chain: Challenges and Options
Smita Sirohi and Bishwa Bhaskar Choudhary*
ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
*
National Institute for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, N.Delhi
Introduction :
The dairy sector that accounts for about 4% of the national GDP, is an effective instrument for
bringing socio-economic transformation in rural India. In the span of past 68 years, although the dairy
sector has come a long way registering more than 9-fold increase in milk production, from 17 million
tons in 1950-51 to 165 million tons at present (DAHD&F, 2017), yet four important drivers demand,
viz. increasing population, rising income, rapid urbanization and greater economic liberalization,
makes it imperative that the rate of production of animal food is increased substantially to cope up
with the expected rise in its demand in future. A comprehensive study on the visioning of dairy sector
in India brought out that a passive production strategy that follows the business-as-usual approach
would not be sufficient to meet the high growth in economic demand of milk by 2035 (Chandel and
Sirohi, 2013). By 2050, in order to meet the domestic demand for milk and carve out a visible place
for itself in the world dairy markets, India will have to register about two-fold increase in milk
production crossing 380-400 million tonnes. To be able to achieve this level of milk production under
mounting competition for resources from alternate economic activities, there has to be revolutionary
changes in the manner of production, processing and management of dairy sector (NDRI, 2015). As
opposed to the traditional exclusive focus on production, there is a need for paradigm shift to the
value chain approach for achieving the desired results in the dairy sector. Value chain is a high- level
model of the way production entity receive raw-materials as input, add value to the raw materials
through various processes, and sell finishedproducts to customers.
A typical value chain of dairy production where the farm produce is sold to the unorganized and
organized market channels (Fig.1) comprises of three segments: the midstream value chain that
pertains to the dairy farms, usually of small-scale (upto 4 animals) but showing a subtle trend towards
commercialized farms of larger herd size (>30). The upstream value chain comprises of various
actors involved in providing inputs and support services, such as private entities supplying feed and
fodder, government, semi-government and non-government entities providing breeding and health
care services, banking and non-bank institutions providing credit, etc. As milk is highly perishable
product and has highly distributed production system located far from consumer markets, there are a
number of actors in the downstream value chain depending on the way milk is marketed and
processed.
Fig. 1: Dairy Value Chains in India

Organized Dairy Value Chain

Source: World Bank (2010)

Unorganized Dairy Value Chain
This paper outlines the various critical gaps at
different stages of the value chain, suggests the

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technological and policy imperatives, particularly indicating the role of various institutional
arrangements such as cooperatives, farmer producer companies, contract farming in strengthening
the dairy value chains
I. Mid-stream dairy value chain: profit margin under pressure:
Several studies have been carried out in various parts of the country on estimation of economics of
milk production. The returns from milk production vary widely across regions due to variations in
agro-climatic conditions, seasons, species and breeds of animals and estimation methodology for
working out the costs. Notwithstanding these differences, the synthesis of some of these studies
undertaken during the previous decade indicates that while the profit margins are negative for local
cow in nearly all parts of the country (Fig. 2). In case of crossbred and buffaloes, although the
profit margin was positive, yet it was quite less in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, M.P. and West Bengal.

Fig. 2: Profit Margin in milk production by type of animals (2000/01-2010/11)

Source: Sirohi et al. (2015)

A comprehensive study on the economics of milk production in nine geographical areas brought
out that the gross margin from crossbred animals and buffaloes was positive in all the regions;
indicating their short run economically viability. But there was need to improve the productivity of
these animals for positive net economic margin and to meet the future rise in feed and fodder costs
(Table 1).
Table 1: Regional estimates of profitability in milk production (Rs./litre)
Crossbreds Buffaloes
Region Gross Net economic Gross Net economic
margin margin margin margin
Northern Plains 4.56 -7.95 0.95 -9.82
Gujarat 7.70 -0.68 11.63 0.31
Tamil Nadu 6.18 1.34 - -
Malwa Region 15.79 2.06 16.86 6.07
Western Maharashtra 18.71 10.01 17.18 2.62
Eastern Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar 4.69 -10.32 6.58 -6.40
North east 23.66 16.64 - -
Chattisgarh 17.48 5.89 22.04 0.05
Uttarakhand 19.99 7.65 24.36 14.84
Note: i) Gross Margin:(Gross returns – Operating costs), Net Economic Margin:(Gross returns – Gross cost),
ii) All estimates at 2012-13 prices. Source: Sirohi et al. (2015)

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II. Up-stream dairy value chain: miles to go:
Timely availability of adequate inputs and services is hallmark of an efficient upstream dairy
value chain. These inputs and services can the classified into two broad categories, production
inputs/services (breeding, feeding, research, extension, etc.) and health services (curative and
preventive veterinary care, disease surveillance, etc.). A comprehensive report on the livestock
support services in India by International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) had highlighted the
deficiencies in the provisioning of these services that weakens the up-stream dairy value chain
(Sirohi et al., 2008). A decade down the line, the scenario at the national level has not improved
dramatically although the initiatives under the National Dairy Plan –I have picked up well in
some parts of the country.

Animal feed is the most crucial input in livestock production. The shortage of feed and fodder is a
serious constraint in increasing the productivity of livestock in India. At the all-India level, the
estimated deficit of dry fodder, green fodder and concentrates is 10, 33 and 35 per cent
respectively, which is likely to be enhanced to 11 per cent, 35 per cent and 45 per cent by 2020
(GoI, 2012). In the next decade, the feed balance may worsen further as production of green
fodder is projected to decline by 2030 (Suresh et al., 2012). Both public and private sector
support in development of green fodder resources is limited. The area under fodder crops in India
has stagnated at about 8.5-9.0 million hectares and accounts for only about 4.6% of the total
cultivated area. Government attempts to increase green fodder production have not been very
successful, primarily because they have focused on only technological problems with little
attention to the institutional dimension, particularly with respect to the effectiveness of networks
and alliances needed to put technology into use. In case of compound cattle feed (CCF) , the
major weakness that has limited its market penetration is that the effect of CCF in enhancing
milk yield was on the lower side, possibly due to inadequate quantity of CCF fed to dairy animals
and/or limited nutritional potential of the prepared cattle feeds available in the market. At the
existing level of feed and milk prices, its use was not improving the profitability of milk
production. (Sirohi et al. 2016).
The breeding services are provided mostly through the state. Due to shortcomings in semen
quality, its storage, availability of trained A.I. technician and coverage of animals, the conception
rates by state AI centres are generally low (40-49% on average) than that achieved by the NGO’s
such as BAIF and the private sector suppliers. Although private AI centres have higher charges
than the government centres, yet farmers are willing to pay higher rates for better conception
rates as the cost per calf is lower. Like breeding services, the health services are also largely in
public domain. Despite a vast network of veterinary institutions, the incidence of diseases and
epidemics is very high. The poor status of animal health stems from the extremely limited
attention paid to preventive health care services (only 3.5% of the total staff engaged in livestock
health institutions are involved in disease investigation and control) and inefficiencies in
provision of curative health services.

The provisioning of other support services such as credit, insurance and extension also plagued
with plethora of problems. For instance, there are a number of formal sector schemes aimed at
providing credit for the purchase of animals and investment in associated infrastructure. However
in many cases these credit products are not suitable for small scale producers and there is a lack
of support to assist in the preparation of business plans which are required by the banks. The

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public extension services have played a major role in technology and knowledge transfer in the
crop sector, but in the livestock sector extension service delivery has been very weak.
III. Down stream dairy value chain: Are cooperatives the best actors?
Milk is highly perishable product and has highly distributed production systemlocated far from
consumer markets. Thus, it requires efficient marketing andprocessing along its entire value
chain- from production to consumption- to realise itsbest value. In India, the role of actors in
downstream value chain is even more critical since most milkproducers are small, resource
poor and often unable to establish their own linkagewith markets, processors and consumers.
Although even after decades of economicdevelopment in the country, the marketing of milk
and milk products remain largelyunorganised, traditional and fragmented, yet organised
institutional arrangements incooperative and private sector have been successfully established
in many regions.Milk moves from producers to consumers through various value chains that vary
depending on the state and the production system (Fig. 3). Informal and semi‐formal chains are
generally short and primarily serve local markets, while formal chains are longer and link
producers with local and distant consumers. It is estimated that nationally about 40 percent of
milk output is consumed by producers themselves and 60 percent is marketed—36 percent
through informal traditional chains and 24 percent through organized formal ones (World Bank,
2010).Dairy Co-operatives, which first started in Gujarat and spread throughout the country with
the Operation Flood programme, are the largest player in the organised segment of the value
chain (Sirohi et al., 2012).
The empirical evidence indicates that although over the years, dairy co-operatives have played a
significant role in production, marketing and processing of milk and dairy products (Candler and
Kumar, 1998; Cunningham, 2009), thereby contributing towards livelihood security of the
millions of milk producers in the country (Singh and Pundir, 2000). However, partly due to their
skewed concentration in few states from west and south of the country and partly due to host of
socio-economic-political factors, their performance and impact is not universally discernible
across the entire length and breadth of the country.
IV. Integrating the 3 segments: Alternative models:
The discussion on three segments of the dairy value chain has brought out the each segment is
highly fragmented with weak linkages amongst them. Under the cooperative model that was
promoted under Operation Flood, the concept was to secure the entire dairy value chain such
that the co-operative members are provided with inputs and services—like feeds, veterinary
care, and breeding, at reasonable prices to improve productivity and increase marketable surplus;
the members get an assured market for a perishable commodity by creating a network of milk
collection points, then transporting the milk to chilling and processing centres, and finally
distributing it to retail outlets; and the key player of the value chain, viz. the dairy farmers get to
share the profits from value addition of milk. However, the success of dairy cooperative value
chains in Gujarat could not be replicated in most parts of the country and the integration of
upstream segment was virtually ignored in the model.

In the recent past, some alternative models have emerged such as, contract farming, farmers’
producer companies, progressive farmers’ associations, etc. As the private sector emerged in
milk processing and marketing segment, in order to competewith already established cooperative
value chains in the same milk shed for supply of milk, the private enterprises established physical
facilities—such as, collection points, chilling and processing plants and chain governance

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mechanism, system of price fixation and collection of milk, and provision of services to
producers.

Figure- 3: Marketing channels of milk and milk products in India

Source: Source: World Bank (2010)

A few large private dairies, like Nestlé India in Punjab, have developed some variant of contract
farming through which they get an assured supply of milk for their processing facilities. They
also provide producers an assured market for milk, reduced price uncertainty, lower marketing
and transaction costs, and easy access to inputs, technology, credit, and other services.It adapted
many of the principles of cooperatives in its management of contract farming arrangements. The
key elements of the Nestle model are:
 Development of a comprehensive extension system and continuously adding new
knowledge and technology; over 30,000 women in 550 villages have been covered by a
special program because they perform most of the dairy activities;
 Providing high quality feeds and good quality fodder seeds at reasonable prices—about
10 percent of gross cropped area in Punjab is devoted to planted fodder, to which Nestlé
contributed significantly;
 Providing breeding services free and veterinary services and drugs at cost;
 Helping farmers access bank loans and including mandatory insurance to cover risk; and

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  Collecting milk through commission agents and paying regularly in a transparent manner
based on quality.
In Punjab, Progressive Farmers’ Dairy Association (PDFA) has also been instrumental in
strengthening the milk value chain by disseminating information on latest technologies, importing
semen of high genetic potential cattle bulls from USA, providing better technical and medical
support to the member farmers, providing loans to the dairy farmers on low interest rate by tie up
with UCO Bank, providing better milk procurement price to the farmers through tie-up with
MILKFED Punjab. On similar lines, PDFA has also been established in Tamil Nadu.
Milk Producer Companies has been coming up in a big way in various parts of the country.
Unlike the cooperatives, these organizations have greater business orientation and are registered
under the Companies Act.The success of Milk Producer companies from Rajasthan, Gujarat, and
Andhra Pradesh in integrating the dairy value chain provides useful learning lessons and
replicable models in other regions.
V. Conclusions:
Dairy farming that has been a way of life for the millions of rural masses is gradually
acquiring greater commercial orientation. As profitability is the prime driver of any
commercial enterprise, it is imperative that there is a structural change in the way dairy rming
is managed in India. The growth of dairy value chains, has the potential to improve the scale
and efficiency of milk production and to mitigate risk for dairy producers, but only if those
value chains are inclusive and efficient.The future of dairy farming in India lies organising the
production activities in well-integrated value -chain mode.

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Section-V 132-155

Feeding and Nutrition Strategies

Technological Intervention in Ruminant Feeding to Utilize the Poor Quality
Feed Resources in the North-Western Region of India
Anil Kumar

Nutritional Strategies for Management of Goats under Arid and

Semi Arid Region of India
J. L. Chaudhary
Nutraceutical Approach to Improve the Reproductive Efficiency in Livestock
R.K. Chaudhari, T.V. Sutaria and P.M. chauhan

Small Ruminant Organic Farming: Prospective and Promising Enterprise

Sanjita Sharma and Vishnu Sharma

Editors: Dr M M Pawar and Dr Yogesh M Gami

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Technological Innovations/ Intervention in Ruminant Feeding to Utilize the
Poor Quality Feed Resources in the North-Western region of India
Anil Kumar
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology
Pantnagar-263145, Uttarakhand
Introduction :
Livestock forms an integral part of agriculture sector and milk production largely involving
small and marginal farmers including landless rural animal owners encompass a great impact
on the national economy. The contribution of livestock to the National GDP is about 9% and
25% to agricultural GDP. Livestock have been contributing about 15-20% to the household
income of farmers, which has been steadily increasing during recent years. Among different
products, milk is the major output contributing to the GDP as well as to food security. There
have been rapid development in the milk production in the country and India is placed at first
position in the world, with an annual milk production of around 164 million tones. The dairy
animals need balanced and adequate diet for better feed efficiency which depends upon the
quantity and quality of nutrients supplied to the animals from the feed resources.
In India, the availability of both the nutritious fodder as well as grains is too scarce. There is
also growing pressure of human population on land to grow cereal crops and with no
additional increase in area under fodder production (4% of total cultivable area). It has been
estimated that there is shortage of 7.58% dry roughages, 56.73% green fodders and 30.37%
concentrates in the country. The annual availability and requirement of the feeds and fodder
and their nutrient in the country as estimated for the year 1999 is summarized below (Table
1).
Table 1. Feed resources and nutrient availability
Feed source Requirements Availability Deficit Deficit
(mt) (mt) (mt) (%)
Dry roughage 613.84 567.34 46.5 7.58
Green fodder 1069.32 462.74 606.58 56.73
Concentrates 93.84 65.34 28.50 30.37
Nutrients:
Dry matter 904.22 655.95 248.27 27.46
Digestible protein 32.38 14.72 17.66 54.54
Totaldigestible nutrients 445.12 327.90 117.22 26.30
Such shortage of feed and fodder resources could be attributed to the growing livestock
population and low productivity. In such circumstances, the extensive use of crop residues in
livestock feeding seems to be indispensable to meet the nutritional needs of livestock;
however, the major constraint in the utilization of these crop residues is high crude fibre
content (35-48%) and poor nutritive value (crude protein, 3-4%) that even cannot support the
maintenance nutrient requirement of the animals. Hence, efforts are being made toward
assisting the animals to utilize these low-grade feedstuffs more efficiently as effective
utilization of available feed resources is the key to enhance livestock productivity
economically. Efficient utilization of crop residues available locally in appreciable quantum
seems to be accomplished by the application of feed technology to maximize advantage from
feeds in animal system. In this direction, many technologies have been developed so far.
Technologies and feeding strategies:
A. Improvement in nutritive value of poor quality straws and stovers:
The digestibility of crop residues in ruminants is decreased due to the presence of lignin
content. Lignin interferes with microbial degradation of fibre polysaccharides by acting as

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physical barrier and cross linking to polysaccharides by ferulate bridges (Buxton and
Redfearn, 1997)). The voluntary intake of crop residues is poor due to high content of crude
fibre and further low content of crude protein, vitamins, minerals and high lignin content, the
digestibility and utilization of nutrient is poor. Thus, there is a need for suitable processing
techniques which degrade lignin and disrupt lingo-cellulosic linkages and other anti-
nutritional factors, and increase accessible external and internal surfaces for microbial
fermentation in the rumen (Karimi and Taherzadeh, 2016 a,b). Various processing methods
include physical, chemical, biological treatments and complete diets technology that could
improve the palatability, intake, utilization and thereby productivity and performance of
animals with feeding of crop residues based diets.
(i) Physical methods:
The crop residues are low in protein, energy, minerals and vitamins and contain high amount
of lignin which affect the digestibility and utilization of nutrients. The nutritive value of
abundantly available agricultural crop residues can be improved by physical processing
methods like chopping, grinding, pelleting, which increase the surface area, density of
roughages and expose the lignocellulosic fractions for easy access to enzymatic digestion.
Chopping long crop residues facilitates mixing with other ingredients, reduces wastage,
increases dry matter intake, and reduces energy spent on chewing (Hadjigeorgiou et al.,
2003) and increases surface area for microbial attachment and OM digestibility (Mohamed
and Mohamed, 2009). The success of various forms of treatments in increasing digestibility
and intake of basal roughage has been attributed to their effect in reducing particle size of the
refractory material and/or increasing the susceptibility of the ingested roughage to microbial
degradation in the rumen (Lam et al., 1992; Lowry and Kennedy, 1996). When digestibility
increases, the intake of forage organic matter is also increased mainly because a higher rate of
reduction of the roughage to particle size and density allows faster clearance of digesta from
the rumen to the lower parts in the gastro-intestinal tract (Lechner-Doll et al., 1995).
(ii) Chemical methods :
The main emphasis in the development of treatment methods has been to improve the overall
utilization of agricultural fibrous residues by ruminants through increase dry matter intake
and digestibility. Accessible internal surface of lingo-cellulosic materials increases with
chemical treatment (Karimi and Taberzadeh, 2016b). Chemical treatment appears to be the
most practical method to be used on-farm. Various chemical treatments with sodium
hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, nitric acid etc can improve fibre digestibility
of crop-residues but generally not used because of high cost and corrosive nature of
chemicals. While, chemicals like calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide are cheaper and safer
to use, the lengthy processing period needed for these treatments prohibited its routine use at
farm level.
Urea-ammonia treatment:
Amongst the various chemical agents, urea-ammonia treatment has been found best. In this
treatment in the presence of moisture and enzyme urease, urea is decomposed to form
ammonia and carbon-di-oxide. For this treatment 4 kg urea in 40-50 litres of water is
dissolved and sprayed in 100 kg of straws and then ensiled for 3-4 weeks under anaerobic
condition. The treatment process increases availability of energy from the crop residues apart
from providing nitrogen for better rumen function and microbial protein synthesis. The
treatment process also improves straw quality in terms of digestibility and intake. Advantages
of urea-ammoniation treatment include increase in digestibility of straws by 5-15% (Madrid
et al., 1997) by solubilization of hemicelluloses, weakening of cell wall and promoting the
colonization by rumen bacteria, increase in N content and rumen microbial protein yield (Van
Soest, 1994). Urea treatment increased CP and lowered NDF content and increased

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digestibility of DM, OM, CP, NDF and cellulose of maize stover (Woyengo et al., 2004),
enhanced cell wall digestibility of bajra straw (Venkatramana et al., 1989).
(iii) Biological methods:
Biological methods used to improve fibre digestibility and nutritional value of poor quality
roughages/ crop residues include treatment with fungi, fibre degrading enzymes and non-
hydrolytic proteins with cellulose disrupting activity.
Fungal treatment:
The use of fungi that metabolizes lignocelluloses is a potential biological treatment to
improve the nutritional value of straw by selective delignification (Jalc, 2002) and increasing
accessible internal surfaces for the action of cellulases (Karimi and Taherzadeh, 2016b). The
fungal degradation of lignocelluloses is completed in two stages. The substrate is colonized in
the first stage with fungal mycelium and easily degradable carbohydrates are utilized and in
the second stage lignin is degraded (Zadrazil, 1977). Several strains of white rot fungi such as
strains of Pleurotus, Stropharia and Lentinus have been used for lignin degradation in solid-
state fermentation (SSF) without affecting cellulose and hemicelluloses (Mc Sweeny et al.,
1999).
(iv) Supplementation with leguminous fodders and mineral mixture:
Use of legume forages and supplementing the ration with adequate mineral mixture and
common salt is an important feeding strategy for improving the feeding quality of low grade
roughages. This practice has the following advantages:
 Improves palatability and intake
 Reduces the requirement of concentrates
 Reduces cost of feeding
 Improves utilization of nutrients
 Serves as source of dietary protein, energy, minerals and vitamins
B. Use of tree leaves and shrubs in northern and hilly region:
In some areas of the Northern and Hilly region, the livestock population greatly exceeds the
carrying capacity of the land and thus a situation of acute feed and fodder shortage exists. In
other areas, particularly in mid-altitudes, fodder supply for the livestock is inadequate due to
several constraints. This results not only in imbalanced feeding but underfeeding of the
animals which adversely affects the health and productivity of the animals (Jackson, 1985
and Sharma et al., 1993). Balanced and economical feeding of livestock is extremely
important for optimum productivity. Lower livestock production is mainly due to the scarcity
of feeds and unbalanced feeding practices.
Under the present scenario, where agricultural land is shrinking for green fodder production
and also due to shortage of concentrate feeds and dry roughages in the country, efficient use
of available feed resources along with developing feeding strategies while utilizing
unconventional feed resources is of immense importance to bridge the gap. Trees and shrubs
provide green biomass of moderate to high digestibility and protein content. There are several
commonly available options for making effective use of shrub and tree foliage in mountains.
Locally available fodder trees can be planted on bunds and terraces. The tree foliage can be
supplemented with other crop residues or native grasses.
The nutritive values of some very common fodder tree leaves available in the Himalayan
Mountains are given in Table 2. The species like Grewia optiva and Ficus palmate have quite
high crude protein content. The crude protein content ranged from 10.75 to 22.10 % in
various tree leaves. Beside, the tree leaves high in nutritive value; these contain anti-

135
nutritional factor-tannins which limits the utilization of nutrients. The leaves of Grewia
optiva and Celtis australis have been found to be devoid of tannins.

Table 2. Nutritional value and tannin contents of some fodder tree leave (% DM basis)
Trace leaves Dry Crude Crude Total Ca P Tannins
matter protein fibre ash
Celtis australis (Kharik) 32.60 14.81 15.67 12.00 3.44 0.20 NIL
Ficus palmate (Beru) 29.12 17.45 12.45 17.15 3.72 0.37 0.74
Ficus glomerata (Timla) 30.60 15.67 13.55 15.77 2.66 0.28 0.76
Quercus incana 48.72 10.75 31.80 5.98 1.62 0.17 2.59
leucotrichophora (Banj)
Grewia optiva (Bhimal) 47.25 22.10 15.07 13.02 3.79 0.38 NIL
Melia azederachta (Betan) 29.60 15.45 9.80 11.70 2.54 0.38 0.70
Bauhinia variegate (Guryal) 46.60 15.35 20.00 13.02 2.19 0.45 1.10
Prunus armeniaca (Chulu) 32.00 13.81 12.06 10.50 2.25 0.38 1.21
Toona ciliate (Toon) 28.50 14.82 22.00 10.68 3.30 0.19 1.00
Source: Singh et al. (1988)
C. Feeding system:
In India due to the shortage of both nutritious fodder as well as grains there is dire need to
change the conventional method of feeding system i.e. feeding of concentrate and roughage
separately to the complete feed system so that best use of available feed resources including
poor quality roughages/ unconventional feeds could be made to enhance milk production as
well as prepare cheap and balanced feed for draught animals.
The concept of complete feed system can advantageously be applied for improving the
utilization of agricultural fibrous crop residues and non-conventional feeds. This feeding
system not only ensures improved utilization of nutrients from crop residues, agro industrial
by-products and unconventional feeds but also helps in developing low-cost balanced feed for
ruminants. The feeding system can also be effectively utilized during drought, cyclones and
other scarcity situations. The complete feeds are prepared by mixing both concentrates and
roughages together in such a proportion and amount which will provide all the required
nutrients in terms of energy, protein, minerals and vitamins for various physiological
functions such as maintenance, growth, milk production and reproduction etc. The complete
feed can be prepared in the form blocks.
Feeding complete feed:
The complete feed has a balanced ratio of concentrate to roughage portions, reduces eating
and rumination time, and thus increases resting time. Establishment of a complete feed
production unit can also enhance the demand for fodder. Processing of the complete feeds has
been reported to improve the nutrient utilization in ruminant animals. Incorporation of crop
residues as a roughage source in TMR for ruminants and their further processing
(densification) is one of the practical ways of improving their utilization. The main
advantages of complete feed are:
 It provides a stable environment for rumen fermentation
 Minimal fermentation losses
 Minimal fluctuation in release of ammonia and to stabilize acetate to propionate
ratio which favours normal milk fat synthesis
 Enhances utilization of low grade roughages
 It ensures better consumption of feed in desired roughage: concentrate ratio
 No selection of feed and to avoid refusal of unpalatable portion of plant residues
 Increase in bulk density manifolds when processed either in mash or pellet form

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  Economic in transportation
 Less labour is required in feeding
 Increase in dry matter intake
 Increase in milk production with increase in fat content
Several studies have been carried out for assessing the effects of feeding complete feeds in
different ruminant livestock species on various aspects. Sharma et al., 2006 reported that
highly fibrous unconventional feedstuffs could be incorporated to form complete economic
rations for sustaining sheep farming during feed scarcity in arid region. Singh et al., 2016a
suggested that goats could be maintained under stall feeding with complete diets containing
high proportion of crop residues (gram or arhar straw). Furthermore, it has been reported that
supplementation of the complete feed in block form during feed scarcity in semi-arid region
helped grazing ewes to maintain their body weight (BW) compared to unsupplemented ewes
(Chaturvedi et al., 2014). Feeding complete feeds appear superior to grazing plus
supplementation in terms of dry matter (DM)/ nutrient intakes and animal performance, thus
can be recommended as an alternative to such feeding strategy for sheep production,
especially where the pastures are highly eroded and need resting for regeneration or curing
(Chaturvedi et al., 2009).

Effect of feeding complete feed on DM and nutrient intake:

Increased intake of DM and nutrients in different ruminant species on complete feed system
compared to conventional feeding system has been reported by several workers (Mudgal et
al., 2014; Sharma et al., 2010; Datt et al., 2011). Complete ration has beneficial effects in
terms of utilization of low-grade roughages; besides, its densification into feed blocks (Afzal
et al., 2009; Saijpaul et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2016b) distinctly improves the DM intake and
nutritive value of mash diet, thereby ensures efficient utilization of the feed. A higher intake,
therefore, gives scope for using cheap ingredient and various bulky by-products that are
available locally to economize livestock feeding.
Effect of feeding complete feed on nutrient utilization:
Feeding complete diet stabilizes ruminal fermentation that improves efficiency of nutrient
utilization in ruminants (Lailer et al., 2005). Utilization of poor quality feedstuffs can be
improved by their incorporation in complete diet rather than feeding separately along with
concentrate mixture. However, adequate DCP content in crop residue-based complete feeds is
necessary to meet the maintenance and growth requirements of the animals. Kumar et al.,
2013 reported that a dietary CP level of 13.5% in complete feed was sufficient for
successfully and economically raising of calves with no significant differences for feed intake
and utilization compared to other higher (15% and 16.5%) levels. Das et al., 2008 suggested
that the use of urea and molasses in paddy straw-based complete diets made from locally
available ingredients might maximize and economize the production of livestock through
improved degradability and utilization of nutrients and might be accessed through feeding
trials in animals.
Maximum benefits can be realized by incorporating such feeds as ingredients that are most
economically purchased, transported and stored. Feeding complete feeds significantly
increased (P<0.05) milk production in buffaloes (Reddy et al., 2003) and in crossbred cows
(Reddy and Reddy, 1983) as compared to conventional rations. Nehra et al., 2014 reported
that live yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) culture supplementation to green gram straw-
based complete feed blocks promoted rumen fermentation which improved nutrient
utilization resulted in stimulated growth of kids. Likewise, yeast supplementation to
groundnut straw-based complete feed block could be beneficial to improve the performance
of sheep due to a marked improvement in rumen fermentation pattern (Garg et al., 2009).

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Furthermore, Jha et al., 2011 reported similar findings in buffalo calves fed wheat straw-
based complete feed blocks incorporated with fungal (Neocallimastix spp.) zoospores and
sulfur (1% sodium sulfate). This technology developed to improve the nutritive value of
wheat straw-based diets, can be used at the compound feed industry level for providing a
well-balanced wheat straw-based complete feed rations to the animals at farmers door.
Conclusions:
Several processing techniques and methods have been shown to improve nutrient availability
from crop residues or crop residue based diets. Even though, the selection of particular
method or technique may vary with type of crop residue, but in general, it is decided by
extent of nutrient availability, suitability for large scale field application, economic and
ecological viability. Under these criteria, urea ammoniation technique remains the best
technique, but not practiced widely in field conditions. Complete feed system for feeding
ruminants is comparatively better option than conventional feeding of concentrates and
roughages separately or grazing plus supplementation. The complete diet system of feeding
particularly in the form of densified feed blocks proved to improve intake and nutrient
availability from crop residues. The knowledge of processing the feeds and feeding to
animals on scientific basis should be extended to livestock owners which will definitely be
helpful in increased and sustainable milk production under the available feed resources.
References :
References are available on request from editor.

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 Nutritional Strategies for Management of Goats under Arid and
Semi Arid Region of India
J. L. Chaudhary
MPUAT, Udaipur
Introduction:
Growing human population, increasing urbanization and raising per capita income are
predicated to double the income of farmers and demand for, and supply of all livestock
produces in developing countries over the next two decades (Delgado et al., 1999). Livestock
production is growing faster than any sub-sector and it is predicted that by 2020, the livestock
will produce more than half of the total global agricultural output in value terms (Taneja and
Birthal, 2003).Their small size of goats compared to cattle and buffaloes permit them to be
maintained on a limited area. The breeding animals are inexpensive. Goats consume a wide
variety of grasses, weeds, leaves and small branches of bushes and trees and crop residues
that would otherwise be waste and cause pollution. They are gentle and easy to control. Their
small size makes them suitable for home slaughter and the meat can be consumed by the
family before it spoils in warm climate where no refrigeration facilities are available. The
goats can be milked any time of the day and are therefore named as the moving refrigerators.
Goat milk is prescribed for children, old and sick as it is easily digestible and has medicinal
value. Goat meat (chevon) is preferred over other meats because it is leaner and there are no
religious taboos against its consumption.

Goat population and production:

World’s current goat population is around 743.4 million. Asian region has the highest and
over 63.20% of the world population of goats. India possessing 124.0 million (16.60%) of the
world goat population and ranks first. The developing countries of the world have about
94.5% of the goats and the developed ones only the rest 5.5%. Presently, there are 5.4, 15.1
and 41.5 goats per 1000 hectares of land area, 11.6, 12.7 and 12.2 goats per 1000 human
heads and 66.6, 114.4 and 212.2 goats against every 100 sheep in the world, Asia and India,
respectively (FAO, 2002). While the goat population has increased in Asian and African
regions it decreased in America, Europe, and Russia during the last over three decades. The
over all world growth rate, however, has been almost uniform during the last about 25 years.

Table 1: Sheep and goat population (M) and production (MT)

Particular Sheep Goat
World Asia India World Asia India
Population 1034.0 406.8 58.8 743.4 469.9 124.0
Milk prod 7763.9 3382.0 — 11845.8 6275.8 2550.0
Meat prod 7585.4 3644.9 230.4 3963.5 2873.3 470.0
Skin prod 1601.2 757.5 52.4 871.8 683.0 128.9
Wool 2211.1 710.4 53.7 – – –

The growth rate in India varied from 0.94 to 5.13% with an over all average of 3.05% during
1951-2002. The goals around the world contributed 11846 TMT of milk, 3963 TMT of meat
and 872 TMT of fresh skins annually. The Asian region contributed 52.98% of the milk,
72.50% of the meat and 78.35% of the fresh skins of the world production of goats. India

139
produced 21.53% of the milk, 11.86% of the meat and 14.78% of the fresh skins of the world
and 40.63% of the milk, 16.36% of the meat and 18.87% of the fresh skins of the Asian goat
production (FAO, 2002). Around 89% of the goats in the world are reared primarily for meat.
In India about 41% of the total populations of goats are slaughtered for meat every year. The
per capita annual availability of goat meat in India was 505 g. Goats around the world
contributed only 2.12% of the total meat and 1.60% of the total milk production from all
species.
Table 2: Projected demand for milk and milk products
Particulars 1995 2015 2022 2060
Per capita (g/d) 178 340 400 500
Population (million) 850 1250 1420 1710
Meat consumption (million tons) 56 150 210 320

Goat and ecology:

Man, animal and nature are in symbiotic relationship for their survival and sustenance. The
balance maintaining among the three for several millennia has been disturbed by over
exploitation of natural resources for meeting the demands of increasing population of men
and animals. The livestock in general and the goats in particular have been held responsible
by the foresters and environmentalists for causing ecological degradation and desertification
in Asian continent. There has been a lot of controversy over the role of goats in ecological
degradation and in desertification especially in India. Of the domesticated animals, no animal
has suffered from so much abuse as the goat due to this rather wrong conception. Two
conflicting views prevail on the goat’s role in land used. (1) The goat is the major cause of
deforestation, rangeland destruction and soil erosion, and as such, its propagation should be
checked, and (2) Goat acts as regenerator of vegetation through dispersal of seeds in its
droppings and vegetative propagation through browsing. It is undoubtedly true that an
uncontrolled population of goats roaming in open can be extremely harmful to the growth and
development of vegetation especially where new reseeding/ plantation has been done. But it
is just as true that any over grazing by any other ruminant will have similar consequence. The
high pressure on and shrinking of the grazing lands, especially in view of their low carrying
capacity results in over use of the land and depletion of natural vegetation. The man to land
ratio in the arid and semi-arid zones is fast declining. The livestock population is increasing
due to low farm incomes from marginalizing of land holdings and increased dependence on
livestock, leading to over exploitation of the shrinking grazing lands. In addition,
indiscriminate felling of trees and deforestation, removal of shrubs, bushes and roots for fuel
purposes, use of mechanical powers for cultivation and continuous neglect of the grazing
lands are the real reasons causing damage to the ecology.

The habits and behaviour of goats are generally studied in relation to sheep to justify that
there is no or very little competition in the two species for available feed resources. Goats
work as leaders and the sheep act as followers while moving in a mixed flock. Goats move
with their heads up and the sheep keep their heads down most of the time. Goat walks longer
distances than sheep during a given time in search of their choice feed. Flocking instinct is

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much high in sheep as compared to goats. Sheep prefer to graze together but goats scatter all
over the available grazing land. Goats prefer browsing on bushes, shrubs and lower branches
of trees and sheep like grazing on surface vegetation close to the ground. Goats are much
more selective than sheep. Browse and tree leaves are highly relished by goats and not so
much by sheep. Goats, unlike sheep, prefer variety of feeds. Taste sensation is more
discerning in goats as compared to sheep. Goats can distinguish between bitter, sweet, salty
and sour tastes and show a higher tolerance for bitter substances. Goats tend to consume their
diet less quickly and to take more meals as compared to sheep.

Socio-economic gains :
The socio-economic importance of goats in India is evident by the sharp increase in their
numbers and contributions during the last about 30 years. Goats contribute milk, meat, fiber,
skins and manure to the subsistence of small holders and landless rural poor. They play an
important role in income generation, capital storage, employment generation and house hold
nutrition. Importance of goats lies in the fact that human population is increasing very rapidly
creating increasing demands for animal protein foods on the one hand and the feed resources
for increasing large ruminants are decreasing due to shrinkage of grazing lands on the other.
This demand can, therefore, be met with by increasing population of goats. It is easier to
increase the population of goats than cattle and buffaloes because the capital investment is
relatively low, land requirements per animal are small, reproductive rates are higher both due
to shorter breeding interval and high prolificacy and they can be managed by spare family
labour and do not require any serious housing facilities and management skills. There is
much less risk in goat farming in drought prone areas where large mortality occurs due to
frequent droughts. The goats act as an insurance against disaster under pastoral and
agriculture subsistence system. Goats have religious and ritualistic importance in India.

Nutritional requirement:
There being no specific nutrient requirements prescribed for goats, the NRC of the USA set
up a Sub-Committee on Goat Nutrition in 1975 and published and released Bulletin No. 15
on “Nutrient Requirements of Goats” during the III International Conference on Goat
Production and Disease held at Arizona in 1981. The research on nutrition of goats in India is
been conducted only at a few Centers. A lot more needs to be done to determine the nutrient
requirements of goats. The work done on nutrient requirements of goats in India at IVRI,
Izatnagar (Majumdar, 1960), NDRI, Karnal (Jai Kishan et al. (1983) and RBS College,
Bichpuri Agra (Singh and Sengar, 1970, Sengar, 1992) has been reviewed and included by
Ranjhan (1998) in the ICAR Bulletin on nutrient requirements of livestock and poultry.

Feeding management:
Although a large number of goat feeding management systems are in practice and vary from
region to region within a country these can essentially be described under three systems viz.
extensive, semi-intensive and intensive. The ultimate aim of adopting a particular feeding
system should be to bring improvement in reproduction and survival rates of the goat flock
and birth, weaning and slaughter weights and dressing percentage in the male kids. Extensive
studies on evaluation of common grazing lands, developed pastures, supplementary feeding
with fodders and concentrates under semi-intensive and intensive feeding under feedlot vis-à-

141
vis performance and production levels in goats have been conducted. The results have been
reviewed by Singh and Patnayak (1987), Patnayak et al. (1995) and Singh (1998). The
production levels under different feeding management systems narrated above have been
summarized in Table 3.
Table -3:Production performance of goats under different systems of feeding management
Particulars Natural Developed Developed Feedlot -
rangeland Pasture Pasture + Conc. (Intensive)
(Extensive) (Semi-extensive) Suppl.
(Semi-intensive)
Kidding Rate (%) 68.0 87.0 113.0 108.0
Birth Weight (kg) 2.7 2.9 3.4 3.2
3m Weight (kg) 9.0 11.0 16.0 14.2
6m Weight (kg) 14.0 17.5 27.5 25.5
9m Weight (kg) 18.4 22.5 32.8 29.7
Dressing (%) 40.5 44.3 50.5 52.0
Milk Yield (kg)
(150 days) 65.0 86.0 110.0 94.0
Adult Mortality (%) 10.0 7.5 2.5 5.0
Kid Mortality (%) 20.0 15.0 5.0 10.0

Extensive system:
Goats are generally reared under extensive system and play only a secondary role to crop as
well as other livestock production. The goats usually owned by small farmers and landless
labourers are grazed together and tend to be herded over long distances in search of feed and
water. The flock sizes are larger and goats belonging to several owners are run together. A
low level of unpaid family labour represents the main input. The system is principally one of
low resource use and a low level of productivity emerges from poor nutritional availability.
There is marked fluctuation in feed availability and its nutritive value among different
regions and among years and seasons. Goats require feed all the year round. They produce all
the time if it is always plentiful and of the right kind. If, on the other hand, it is short or of the
wrong kind only for a month or two there is less milk, less kids and less meat. The greatest
limitation in our rangelands and natural pastures is on the availability of adequate energy
throughout the year and adequate amounts of protein for more than half the year. During the
period from January to June the problem of energy is very acute and the intake is much less
than even the maintenance requirements. Although the grazing on the rangelands is
considered to be the cheapest method for goat production, the migration of the animals and
over grazing of available lands is causing serious problems of soil erosion and degradation
leading to desertification. Due to long and dry summers, erratic rains and light textured soils
deficient in organic content having tendency to salination, the natural potential of these lands
falls short of the nutritional requirements of goats. The adult body weights, reproduction rates
and milk production are lower and morbidity and mortality rates are higher. The birth,
weaning and slaughter weights and dressing percentage are poor and bone: meat ratio is
narrow in kids maintained solely on grazing on the degraded lands. The common grazing/
rangelands can hardly carry one goat per hectare per year when unprotected and two when

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protected from biotic factors. There is great prospect of improving these natural rangelands.
Reseeding with Cenchrus ciliaris and Lasiurus sindicus perennial grasses increased the grass
yield from 0.5 to 1.5-2.0 ton per hectare per year. Intercropping of cowpea in Cenchrus
ciliaris pasture increased the dry matter yield by three times. Introduction of Dolichos lablab
legume improved the nutritive value and increased the dry matter yield from 1-1.5 to 2.5-3.0
ton per hectare. Such a grass-legume pasture could carry five goats per hectare for five years.
Plantation of 50 fodder trees of Prosopis cineraria, Ailanthus excelsa and Leucaena
leucocephala had no adverse effect on the pasture growth and provided an additional yield of
1 Ton dry matter when fully grown and lopped twice a year. Areas in arid and semi-arid
regions that can’t support cattle and buffaloes may be identified and utilized for small
ruminant production with low investment. Rural common grazing lands should be improved
through reseeding with nutritious, perennial and high yielding grasses and legumes. Fodder
tree plantation should be taken up on pasturelands, wastelands, river banks and road sides and
bunds of ponds, canals and agriculture fields on large scale.

Semi-intensive system:
A kind of compromise between extensive and intensive systems is referred to as semi-
intensive system of goat management. It is a combination of limited free range grazing and
feeding in stalls. Integration of goat rearing with arable cropping is also included where either
the goats are tethered or cut and carry system of available fodder is employed. The children
and women often tend the goats in this system. Animals belonging to several owners may be
combined for grazing which is mostly done morning and evening for 4 to 6 hours. The
animals are supplemented with kitchen wastes, concentrate mixtures, crop residues, green and
dry fodders and tree leaves etc. as per the availability. Thus goats utilize all available feed
resource including natural grasses, shrubs, bushes, tree leaves, crop residues, stubbles, weeds,
cultivated fodders and concentrates etc. under this system. The level of nutrition is just
optimum or low but surely better than that under extensive system. Production performance
depends on the quantity and quality of grazing/ browsing availability and supplementary
feeding provided.
Studies have shown that the natural range/ grazing lands available in Rajasthan can’t support
growth of kids for commercial meat production and additional supplementation with
concentrate mixture and/ or leguminous fodders and tree leaves is recommended.
Supplementation of additional energy and protein through concentrates has been
advantageous in increasing the growth rate and attaining the desired slaughter weights at
relatively younger age. It has been found that the kids fed on 50 concentrate: 50 roughage
ration @ 4% of body weight attained 25 kg live weight at about 6 months of age. If the
roughage portion of the diet can be made available from grazing, the remaining 50% of the
diet has to be supplemented through concentrate mixture.
Intensive system:
The intensive system of goat management includes grazing on developed pastures and/ or
completes feeding in stalls on cultivated fresh or conserved fodders, crop residues and
concentrates. Although goats prefer to browse as compared to grazing, they are quite capable
of making efficient use of cultivated pastures for meat and milk production similar to sheep.

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Stocking rates of 16 to 60 goats per hectare are feasible depending on the type of grass, level
of fertilization and the presence and absence of legumes and fodder trees. This system
requires high labour and capital investment and is suitable for only intensive meat production
from goats. In addition to providing better milk, growth and carcass quality it removes
pressure from the grazing lands. Several studies have been conducted on fattening of
indigenous and crossbred kids under ad libitum feeding on concentrates including barley
grain, maize grain, oil cakes, wheat and rice brans, molasses etc. and roughages including
tree leaves, cultivated grasses and legumes in the ratio of 40:60, 50:50 and 60:40. The male
kids weaned at 2-3 months age and fed under feedlot system achieved slaughter weights of 25
kg at 5 to 6 months age with a dressing % of 48 to 51. The kids maintained under semi-
intensive system reached the target live weight of 25 kg earlier than those under intensive
system. The kids under semi-intensive required less feed for a kg of gain than those under
intensive feeding. The dressing % was superior under intensive. The bone and lean % was
higher under semi-intensive and fat % under intensive system (Singh and Sahu, 1997).
Average daily gains were higher in lambs than kids under intensive system; where as the
daily gains were similar under semi-intensive (Shinde et al., 1995). The daily gains, milk
yied, meat quantity and quality and feed efficiency were found superior in the Sirohi,
Marwari and Kutchi kids maintained under semi-intensive as compared to those maintained
under intensive or extensive system. The milk yield during 150 days of lactation was higher
under intensive system than that under semi-intensive and extensive systems in Sirohi does
than that in Kutchi and Marwari does (Singh, 1993).

Commercial chevon production:

The goat meat available in the Indian markets comes either from old or culled adults from
male kids slaughtered any time between 6 months to 1 year of age. The quantity and quality
of this meat is poor due to poor market weights, lower dressing percentage and narrow bone:
meat ratio as these kids are maintained on scrub vegetation like their dams and hence hardly
attain a body weight of 15-16 kg when they are normally marketed. The dressing percentage
varies from 35 to 40 and bone: meat ratio from 1 : 3 to 1 : 4. The studies conducted in the
country have revealed that a marked improvement can be achieved both in the finishing
weights and carcass quality through intensive feeding of the male kids. Based on these
findings two packages of improved practices have been developed and recommended for
adoption by the goat farmers for commercial goat meat production.

Package for progressive farmers:

Sheep and goat Farmers Cooperative Societies may be formed in the goat rearing areas.
These Societies in association with the village Panchayats should develop improved
silvipastures on the available community grazing lands with financial assistance from the
financial institutions and subsidies being provided by the Central and State Governments.
The registered goat flocks may be allowed to graze on these pastures judiciously for 6 to 8
hrs daily. In addition to grazing, the pregnant does during last 30 days of pregnancy and the
lactating does during first 60 days of lactation be supplemented with 300g/ h/d concentrate
mixture containing 12% DCP and 65% TDN to ensure 2.5 to 3 kg birth weights and 14 to 15
kg weaning weights in male kids. To ensure a weaning weight of 14 to 15 kg, these male kids
be provided ad lib suckling, creep ration and green/ dry leguminous fodders during pre-

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weaning period and completely weaned at 60 days of age. These weaners may then be fed ad
lib on complete feeds comprise of 50% concentrate and 50% roughage under stalls till they
attain 25 to 30 kg finishing weight at around 6 to 7 months of age. Alternatively the kids be
allowed to graze on available pastures and supplemented with concentrate mixture @ 1.5 to
2% of the body weight till they reach the desired finishing weights. These finished kids
should then be sold by the farmers or their Cooperative Societies for slaughter to the
consumers or the traders directly avoiding involvement of middlemen.

Summary and recommendations:

Current world population of goats is about 743.4 million. Asian region has the highest and
over 63.20% goats of the World. India possessing more than 16.60% of the world and more
than 26.4% of the Asian population ranks first. Goats in India provide 2550 TMT of milk,
470 TMT of Meat and 129 TMT of fresh skins annually. The goats are reared by small and
marginal farmers and landless labourers and greatly contribute to their livelihood and
economy. Small size of goats has distinct economical, managerial and biological advantages
over other livestock species. Most of the goats in India are maintained under extensive
system. The density of livestock per unit grazing area is increasing resulting in ecological
degradation and desertification. Goats are not the destroyers of vegetation more than the large
ruminants. They in fact act as regenerators of vegetation through dispersal of seeds in their
droppings and vegetative propagation through browsing. But the controversy over goat’s role
does not appear to have settled so far. It is, not possible to obtain optimum production from
goats managed under free range grazing management. The extensive management system
should be gradually replaced by semi-intensive or intensive system and new technological
innovations should be adopted to improve the productivity of indigenous goats. The biomass
production of the common grazing lands may improved from 2.5-3.5 quintal to 25-30 quintal
per hectare through protection, reseeding with perennial grasses and legumes and plantation
of fodder trees. The areas in arid and semi-arid regions that can not support cattle and
buffaloes may be identified, developed through reseeding with perennial grasses and legumes
and plantation of fodder trees and utilized for goat production with low investment. The
finishing weights can be improved from 14-15 kg to 30-35 kg and the dressing yields from 35
to 50% through improved nutrition and feeding management.

References :
References are available on request from editor.

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 Nutraceutical Approach to Improve the Reproductive Efficiency in Livestock
R.K. Chaudhari, T.V. Sutaria and P.M. Chauhan
S D Agricultural University
Sardarkrushinagar, Banaskantha (Gujarat)-385506
Introduction :
The livestock sector has emerged as one of the key component of agricultural growth in
developing countries including India. Livestock plays a vital role in the socioeconomic
upliftment particularly of rural poor through employment generation. Reproduction is the
backbone of animal production. The maximal production potential can be harvested with
optimal fertility only. With increasing milk production, a dramatic decrease in reproductive
efficiency has been widely reported (Butler, 2003). Any impairment of reproductive function
leads to considerable economic losses in terms of production of milk, calf, cost of treatment
and involuntary culling. About one third of cows are being culled because of reproductive
disturbances in developed countries with failure of conception as a major reason (Royal et al.,
2000; Noakes et al, 2009). The figures may be higher for developing countries such as India.

A nutraceutical product is a substance, which has physiological benefit or provides protection

against illness.A dietary supplement is considered as a product that bears or contains one or
more of the dietary ingredients: mineral, vitamin, amino acid, fatty acid or medical herb to
supplement the diet by increasing the total daily intake. Nutraceuticals are of these nutritional
supplements which are used for health purposes other than nutrition (Zeisel, 1990). The
improvement of reproductive performance by genetic selection is slow and difficult as
reproductive traits are considered of low heritability (Devendra and McLeroy, 1992). While,
hormones have the limitations of high cost and require sound technical knowledge and
physical intervention to the animal. Thus, natural, hormone-free methods like nutritional
strategies are gaining importance for augmenting fertility in livestock. The use of such
“clean, green and ethical” tools can be cost-effective and improve the productivity and also
greatly improving the image of the livestock industry in the society.

The effects of nutrition on reproduction in farm animals have been documented by various
researchers (Cheng et al., 2013; Nazir et al., 2013; Khatti et al, 2017; Mahla et al., 2017;
Gokuldas et al., 2018). Following nutritional strategies can be used to improve reproduction
of livestock species.

Energy supplementation:
When cows experience a period of negative energy balance (NEB), the blood concentrations
of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) increase, at the same time that insulin-like growth
factor-I (IGF-I), glucose, and insulin are low (Butler, 2003). These shifts in blood metabolites
and hormones mightcompromise ovarian function and fertility. It has also been reported that
energy balance and dry matter intake (DMI) affect plasma concentrations of progesterone
(Vasconcelos et al., 2003), which may interfere with follicle development and maintenance of
pregnancy.

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During late gestation and early lactation, the nutrient requirements for the fetal growth and
milk synthesis increase dramatically concurrently with a 30% decrease in the feed intake
(Bertics et al., 1992). Consequently, most cows enter a period of NEB (Butler and Smith,
1989). Increased metabolites (NEFA and ketone bodies) lead to interdependent changes in
the GH-insulin-IGF-I-glucose signaling pathway (Lucy et al., 2001), resulting in impaired
follicular development and postpartum anestrus (Rhodes et al., 1998). Plasma progesterone
(P4) concentrations are also affected by the energy balance of dairy cows (Villa-Godoy et al.,
1988, Senatore et al., 1996).These metabolites and hormones have been shown to affect
folliculogenesis, ovulation, and steroid production in vitro (Reviewed by Silva et al,
2009)and in vivo (Scaramuzzi et al, 1999). The exact mechanism by which energy affects
secretion of releasing hormones and gonadotropins is not well defined; but it is clear that
lower levels of blood glucose, IGF-I, and insulin may mediate this process.Positive energy
balance resulted in greater intrafollicular IGF-I, plasma P4 levels and produced good quality
oocytes in the Holstein cows (Kendrick et al., 1999). It also improved the pregnancy rate
(Ferguson et al., 1990) and immune cell functions (Kimura et al., 2002). Supplementation of
carbohydrate and amino acids to the culture improved the fertilization rate and blastocyst
development (Steeves and Gardner, 1999). Increasing the energy content of the ration
improved embryonic development (Adamiak et al., 2006; Bender et al., 2014), embryo
hatching, embryo elongation and expression of interferon-tau (Kim et al., 2011). The diets
that induced high insulin reduced the interval to first postpartum ovulation and increased
theproportion of cows ovulating in the first 50 days postpartum(Gong et al., 2002).

It has also been suggested that feed intake and feeding behavior around parturition increased
risk for uterine diseases in dairy cattle (Hammon et al., 2006; Huzzey et al., 2007;). The cows
developing uterine disease postpartum experienced reduced DMI beginning 1 week before
calving (Hammon et al., 2006). Similarly, cows diagnosed with severe metritis after calving
were already consuming less dry matter 2 week prior to calving (Huzzey et al., 2007). In fact,
cows that developed uterine disease, either clinical metritis or subclinical endometritis,
experienced reduced DMI and neutrophil function prior to calving (Hammon et al., 2006).
These suggest that inadequate nutrient intake before calving might predispose cows to
impaired immune function; and, subsequently, increased risk for uterine diseases that
negatively affect reproduction.Resumption of ovarian activity in high producing dairy cows is
determined by energy status of the animal (Staple et al., 1990; Crowe, 2008). Therefore,
feeding management during the transition phase may reduce the risk of postpartum uterine
disease.
Nutritional efforts to minimize the extent and duration of NEB may improve reproductive
performance. The first and most important factor that affects energy intake in dairy cows is
feed availability (Grant and Albright, 1995). Feeding high quality forages, increasing the
concentrate : forage ratio, or adding supplemental fat to diets are some of the common ways
to improve energy intake in cows.Diets with greater amount of starch is the most important
for high producing. Degradation of starch in the rumen increases the proportion of propionate
relative to other volatile fatty acids and enhances glucose synthesis by the liver. Both glucose
and propionate are insulin secret agogue, and diets with high ruminally degradable starch

147
increase liver output of glucose (Theurer et al., 1999) and plasma concentrations of glucose
and insulin (Santos et al., 2000). Santos et al. (2000) observed that dairy cows fed diets with
higher ruminally degradable starch had higher plasma progesterone during the first two
postpartum estrous cycles. Feeding more ruminally degradable starch to early lactation dairy
cows reduced loss of body condition, that improve energy balance and NEB (Santos et al.,
2000).Maximizing DMI during the transition period, minimizing the incidence of peri-
parturient problems, adding supplemental fat to diets, and manipulating the fatty acid content
of fat sources are expected to benefit reproduction in dairy cattle (Wathes et al., 2007; Santos
et al.,2008; Gulliver et al., 2012).

Protein supplementation:
Although protein is generally regarded as less important than energy for reproduction, low
protein intake can also cause infertility. However, it may be difficult to differentiate the
effects of low protein intake from concurrent low energy intake, because protein deficiency
usually leads to decreased appetite. It has been found that reproductive performance may be
impaired if protein is fed in amounts that greatly exceed the cow’s requirements. Dietary
crude protein (CP) that is fermented by rumen microflora is defined as rumen-degradable
protein (RDP). This protein is degraded to ammonia, single amino acids, and peptides.
Ammonia produced in excess of that which microbial population can utilize is absorbed from
the rumen and transported in the circulatory system. A major portion is converted to urea in
the liver. Feeding diets high in total CP or diets containing an excess of RDP or soluble CP
can predispose lactating cows to elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels. Ferguson and
Chalupa (1989) found that serum urea nitrogen level of greater than 20 mg/dL resulted in a
lower conception rate. Excessive protein intake affects the reproductive function through
several mode of action, including altered uterine environment, altered endocrine profile and
indirect effect from altered energy partitioning during the period of NEB (Reviewed by
Butler, 1998).

Canfield et al (1990) fed diets containing either 16.5% CP or 19.2% CP to cows and heifers
from calving to 20 days after first breeding. The first service conception rate was lower and
plasma urea higher in animals fed high protein diet. Jordon and Swanson (1979) also reported
that feeding excess protein (19.3%) of DM) to dairy cows impaired fertility by increasing
days open and services preconception as compared to lower percent of dietary protein (12.7%
of DM). Patil and Deshpande (1981) reported that Gir cows that gained weight in the first
three months after parturition comes into estrus cycle while those that lost weight remained
anestrus. The cows that lost weight had lower blood glucose and serum proteins than cows
that gained weight. Carroll et al. (1988) reported no effect of high protein diet on
reproductive performance in freshly calved cows, however, the plasma urea was high in high
protein (20% CP) fed cow.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) supplementation:

Dietary fat supplementation has long been used as management tool to increase the energy
density of feeds to alleviate postpartum negative energy balance, improve milk production as
well as associated with an apparent improvement in the fertility of lactating dairy cow
(Santos et al., 2008). There is a general consensus that the effect of supplemented fat on

148
reproduction is not only a result of improvement in the energy status of animal but also the
composition of fatty acids in the fat has a crucial role in determining the effect on
reproduction (Wathes et al., 2007; Gulliver et al., 2012).

Studies on the effects ofn-3 PUFAs have suggested that dietary supplementation of these
fatty acids may benefit some aspects of reproduction in humans as well animals (Childs et al.,
2008; Cheng et al., 2013; Nazir et al., 2013; Mahla et al., 2017; Chaudhari et al., 2018;
Gokuldas et al., 2018). Then-3 PUFA may reduce uterine PGF2α secretion and/or decrease
the sensitivity of the CL to PGF2α during critical stage of embryonic development, preventing
the onset of luteolysis and facilitating the establishment of pregnancy in cattle (Mattos et al.,
2000), buffalo (Nazir et al., 2013), doe (Mahla et al., 2017, Chaudhari et al., 2018) and sow
(Gokuldas et al., 2018). Besides improvement in the conception rate, several reports in dairy
cattle have indicated positive effects of n-3 PUFA supplementation on different reproductive
processes like follicle turnover and growth, ovulation, CL size and steroidogenesis (Thatcher
and Staples, 2000; Petit et al., 2001; Petit et al., 2002; Ambrose et al., 2006; Petit and
Twagiramungu, 2006). Increasing the maternal supply of long-chain ω-3 PUFA during late
pregnancy has been shown to increase the gestation length and improve the neonatal
behaviour, which was measured in terms of reduction in latency to stand and suckling in
sheep (Capper et al., 2006) and pig (Rooke et al., 2001). Improvement in reproductive
functions by dietary supplementation in one or other way has also been studied in other farm
animal species such as buffalo (Malik et al., 2011; Nazir et al., 2013), mare (Ravi, 2014), doe
(Mahla et al., 2017; Chaudhari et al., 2018) and sow (Webel et al., 2004, Gokuldas et al.,
2018).

Pregnancy rates were reported higher with reduced pregnancy losses in dairy cows fed with
diets high in n-3 as compared to n-6 PUFA or saturated fat (Ambrose et al., 2006; Santos et
al., 2008; Wathes et al., 2007). Ambrose et al. (2006) reported that conception rate to first
timed AI (TAI) was greater in flaxseed oil supplemented cows than the sunflower oil fed
animals (72.6 vs. 47.5%). Similarly, pregnancy losses (9.8 vs. 27.3%) were also lower in
cows fed flaxseed oil as compared to sunflower oil. Petit et al. (2001) also reported that a
flaxseed-based diet increased the conception rate in dairy cows as compared to control cows
fed a diet containing Megalac, a calcium soap of palm oil. Dirandeh et al. (2013) also
observed a similar trend on pregnancy rate in flaxseed supplemented versus control cows
(66.7 vs. 50.91%; P<0.08). Embryo mortality in dairy cows was numerically lower (P=0.07)
following supplementation with the short chain n-3 α-linolenic acid from linseed (Petit and
Twagiramungu, 2006). The embryo recovery rate was not altered when cows fed a ruminally
protected long chain n-3 PUFA from fish oil, but number of degenerated embryos were
reduced (Childs et al., 2008). Nazir et al. (2013) observed increased conception rate in
buffaloes on day 63 post-AI supplemented with flaxseed than the control (66.7 vs. 31.2%; P<
0.05). The dietary supplementation of n-3 PUFA rich FO significantly increased the number
of preovulatory follicle(2.36 ± 0.13 vs. 1.69 ± 0.17) and ovulation ratewith numerical
increase in the kidding rate (1.5 vs 1.2) than the palm oil fed doe (Mahla et al., 2017), Ravi
(2014) recorded a significantly (P<0.01) higher conception rate (83.33 vs. 31.81) and lesser
number of AI per conception (1.00±0.32 vs. 2.00±0.75) in mare supplemented with fish oil

149
than that of control. In a study carried out on sow, higher conception rate (76.92 vs. 61.54%)
and lower service per conception (1.30 vs. 1.63) was observed in n-3 PUFA supplemented
females than non-supplemented (Gokuldas, 2015).

The potential mechanism by which fat supplements improve reproductive performance may
include altered follicular growth and ovulation (Moussavi et al., 2007), increased plasma P4
levels during the luteal phase (Burke et al. 1997), prolonged life span of the CL and
suppressed activity of estradiol (E2) and prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) around maternal
recognition of pregnancy (Mahla et al., 2017, Chaudhari et al., 2018). Altering the relative
concentrations of both n-6 and n-3 PUFAs in feeds can influence PGF2α synthesis and
conceptus development.

Minerals and vitamins supplementation:

Trace element deficiency is linked to problems such as retained foetal membranes (Gupta et
al., 2005), abortion (Mee, 2004), weak calf syndrome (Logan et al., 1990), repeat breeding
(Modi et al., 2013) and anoestrus (Jayachandran et al., 2013) in farm animals. Furthermore,
Husband (2006) has reported combined selenium and iodine deficiency in a dairy herd with a
high incidence of retained foetal membranes, milk fever and vulval discharge.Cows
diagnosed with clinical hypocalcemia were 3.2 times more likely to experience retained
placenta (RP) than cows that did not have clinical hypocalcemia (Curtis et al., 1983).
Whiteford and Sheldon (2005) also found that hypocalcemia was associated with occurrence
of uterine disease in lactating dairy cows. Markusfeld (1985) reported that 80 % of cows with
ketonuria developed metritis.

Retained placenta is a major risk for uterine disease. Generally, cows with RP have increased
risk of developing metritis compared with cows not experiencing RP. Both metritis and RP
double the risk of cows remaining with uterine inflammation at the time of first postpartum
insemination (Rutigliano, 2006).Both RP and metritis have devastating effects on
reproductive efficiency in lactating dairy cows, with reduced conception rates and extended
intervals to pregnancy (Goshen and Shpiegel, 2006).Curtis et al. (1983) reported that cows
with hypocalcaemia were at increased risk of suffering dystocia, retained fetal membranes,
and ketosis. Dystocia and retained fetal membranes are predisposing factors for postparturient
uterine diseases.In many tropical and subtropical countries, deficiencies of calcium (Ca),
phosphorus (P) and zinc (Zn) in soils, pastures and animal tissues of grazing ruminants are
common (Phiri et al., 1997; Pereka and Phiri, 1998). This has been suggested to contribute to
poor livestock health and low reproductive performance (Kasongo et al., 1997).

Phiri et al., (2007) reported that crossbred cows supplemented with Ca, P, Ca/P, Ca/Zn and
Ca/P/Zn had significantly (p<0.05) shorter interval from calving to resumption of oestrus as
compared to control (30 vs 69 days). Increasing the energy content along with
supplementation of Vitamin E and Se during the transition period in the crossbred cows
mitigates the oxidative stress, increased the immune cell function and improved the
pregnancy rate with early expression of postpartum estrus (Khatti et al., 2017).Overall,
vitamin and mineral status during the transition period from late gestation through the first 3

150
weeks of lactation have proven especially important. Supplementation of selenium and
Vitamin E has been shown to reduce incidence of retained fetal membranes (Julien et al.,
1976) and therefore reduces the risk of associated infections and injury to the reproductive
tract.Supplementation of diets of lactating dairy cows to improve energy metabolism while
also maintaining mineral and vitamin homeostasis during transition and early lactation
improves the fertility of the cow, resulting in improved reproduction.

Conclusion:
During the transition phase cow enters into the period of negative energy balance due to high
nutritional demand for the fetal growth and milk synthesis. Nutritional efforts to minimize the
extent and duration of NEB may improve the reproductive performance. Feeding high quality
forage, increasing the concentrate:forage ratio or by adding bypass fat to diets may improve
the energy intake and can reduce the NEB, ultimately improves the reproductive efficiency.
Supplementation of glucogenic diet (rumen degradable starch) during the early lactation may
improve the energy status of animal. Dietary supplementation of polyunsaturated fatty acid
(Ca-LCFA, flaxseed, fish oil, marine algae) during the transition phase and around the time
of breeding may improve the reproductive performance.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

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 Small Ruminant Organic Farming: Prospective and Promising Enterprise
Sanjita Sharma and Vishnu Sharma
Post Graduate Institute of Veterinary Education and Research
Rajasthan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Jaipur
Introduction:
Global demand for animal source food is expected to be more than 50% higher in 2030 compared
with 2000, because of growth of the world population, increased incomes and urbanization, mostly in
developing regions (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012). To sustainably contribute to food security,
livestock production systems are challenged to increase production levels reducing their
environmental impact, whereas being economically viable and socially responsible. Actions that need
to be implemented for sustainable livestock production in and across different systems remain subject
to debate.
Relatively low land area for organic production in Africa and Asia represents opportunity for growth
in organic animal farming and can become an alternative production system for entrepreneurs that
promote rural prosperity and alleviates poverty in these regions. Conventional livestock production
focuses on technologies for increased productivity, such as high yielding breeds, modern feeding
techniques and veterinary health products, and (synthetic) fertilizers and pesticides. In contrast,
organic livestock production focuses on cultural, biological and mechanical methods to ensure
environmentally safe and chemical residue-free foods, along with high animal welfare standards
(Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2007). Reviews have compared conventional and organic
livestock production systems on environmental impacts (De Vries et al., 2015), animal welfare (Hovi
et al., 2003) and public health (Smith-Spangler et al., 2012).
Livestock farming is an important part of organic farming systems both as a part of the concept and in
practice, forming an integrated system with harmony between the land, the animals, and the people.
Good animal health and welfare are important parts of an organic animal system (Sharma et al., 2005)
whereas main aspects of criticism were the increasing use of chemical substances, especially mineral
fertilizers and pesticides. The guidelines have been formulated and developed by the International
Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM, 1996) and meanwhile have found
application all over the world. Furthermore, the basic standards of IFOAM have been used as the
baseline for developing the regulation. These standards are then elaborated into more detailed
standards by national or local certification organizations.
Organic animal farming standards in India:
Government of India has launched the National Programme on Organic Production (NPOP) in the
year 2000 which provides information on standards for organic production criteria and procedures.
NPOP standards also take care of the organic livestock production. Salient features covering organic
livestock production standards are as follows:
Animal husbandry management should be governing by physiological and ethological needs of the
farm animal so that animal is allowed to conduct basic behavioural needs. Flock size should not
adversely affect behavioural pattern and sufficient free movement should be allowed. Land less
animal husbandry system shall not be allowed. Herd/ flocked animals shall not be kept individually.
Animal product may be sold as organic only after the farm has been under conversion period for at
least 12 months and standards have been met for appropriate time. Appropriate time for dairy and egg
production is 30 days and for meat production organic standard should be followed for 12 months. All
organic animals should be born and raised in organic holdings however when organic livestock is not
available, the certification programme brought- in conventional animals. Breeds should be chosen
which are adapted to local conditions. A.I. is allowed but ETT is not allowed in organic standards.

152
Hormonal heat treatment and induced birth not allowed. Mutilations not allowed except castration, tail
docking of lambs and dehorning. The livestock should be fed 100 % organically grown feed of good
quality. Agro-products from organic feed processed industry should be used. At least 50 % of the feed
should come from the farm itself. Synthetic appetizers, preservatives, colouring agent, urea, abattoir
waste, droppings & dung, solvent extracted meal and genetically engineered organism or products
shall not be included in feeding programme. Fodder preservatives as bacteria and fungi may be used.
Molasses are allowed. Management practices should be directed to the well being of animal for
achieving maximum resistance to the disease and preventing future infections. Use of natural
medicines and methods should be emphasized. Use of conventional medicines is allowed when no
other justifiable alternative is available. Vaccination shall be used when diseases are known or
expected to be a problem in the region and cannot be controlled by management practices. In such
cases it needs to be clearly defined. Transport and stress should be minimized to slaughter the animal
and preferably stunning should be employed before being bled to death.
Small ruminant organic farming:
Vital issues related to small ruminant organic farming have not yet been fully evaluated though,
identified & addressed by some workers during last decade. Organic sheep and goat farming is on the
rise in Germany and the EU. Subjective records (on-farm surveys or expert opinions) are available
and there is lack of objective based research studies. Author has attempted to review available
research studies on small ruminant production, though many of them regards to general organic
livestock farming, findings of those can be applied for small ruminants as general guideline for future
research.
Organic sheep and goat farming is based on established and monitored production and processing
guidelines. The process of conversion of small ruminant livestock from conventional to organic seems
apparently less complicated in terms of management procedures than in other livestock species and
livestock production systems. The transition period from conventional to full organic certification is
extremely variable depending on national regulation, type of production and the certification agency
(from a minimum of 12 to a maximum of 48 months). During transition, producers experience many
changes in management practices, with impacts on the entire production system (soil, crops and
livestock management) and therefore tendency for a decrease in profitability can be expected in the
transition period as it is accompanied by an increase in labour, infrastructure and machinery costs
(Cobb et al., 1999). In a recent analysis report (Nykänen and Canali, 2006) on transitional
research on organic food and farming in major European countries, Denmark had the largest
fraction of Animal husbandry research. Within this sub-subject area, most of the work has been done
on Dairy production and quite a small number of projects dealt with sheep and goat research. Most of
the research in Animal husbandry was done in Production systems research. Health and welfare
research has been done extensively but less research was carried out on Feeding and growth. Since
research on Breeding and genetics was done only in few countries, this topic can be identified as a gap
in organic Animal husbandry research.
Quality of product:
Consumer concerns over the quality and safety of foods are considered to be one of the primary
reasons for the increasing demand for organically produced food, which consumers perceive as
healthier and safer (Magkos et al . 2006). With regard to animal-derived foods, such as milk and meat,
again there have been few studies comparing organic and conventionally produced foods. Organic
livestock farming is a relatively new development, compared with the organic production of fruit and
vegetables, and therefore there are limited comparative data available. The main difference between

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the two types of farming methods is in the type of animal feed given (Magkos et al. 2003, Sharma &
Sharma, 2006).

Magkos and colleagues reviewed a small number of previous studies assessing the nutrient content of
organic and non-organic milk; however, no significant or consistent differences were found in protein,
fat or micronutrient content between the two types of milk. Although it is difficult to interpret the
results from these types of studies; even if significant differences had been found, these could be
attributed to species differences or genetic variation between animals of the same species that were
compared for the nutrient composition of their milk (Magkos et al. 2003).

There have been a small number of more recent studies comparing organic and conventionally
produced milk. A study carried out in Italy found significantly higher levels of alpha-linolenic acid
(ALNA), conjugated linoleic acid, alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) and beta-carotene in organic buffalo
milk and mozzarella cheese, compared with non-organic dairy products. The authors suggest that
these differences may be attributable to the animals’ diets; however, the higher vitamin concentration
could also be a function of the lower milk yield in organic cattle (Bergamo et al. 2003).
Although these findings regarding organic milk are interesting, there have been no reports of
differences in many other nutrients found in milk, such as calcium, zinc, vitamin B 2 or vitamin B12.
Milk and dairy foods are considered to be an important source of calcium and vitamins B 2 and B 12,
whereas they are not a major source of ALNA, vitamin E or beta-carotene, which are found in a
variety of other foods. Therefore, consuming organic milk is unlikely to make a huge difference to
diet in terms of micronutrient intakes. Furthermore, although organic milk was found to have higher
levels of ALNA, conversion of this shorter-chain n-3 PUFA to the longer-chain fatty acids found in
oil-rich fish (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid), associated with particular heart health
benefits, appears to be limited in humans (Lunn & Theobald, 2006). With regard to organically
produced meat, again the available data are extremely limited. Organic standards require that the feed
ration for non-ruminants is 80% organic and 90% organic for ruminants. For ruminants, at least 60%
of dry matter must be from fresh or conserved forage (DEFRA 2004). The feeding regimen of the
animal has a strong influence on the fatty acid composition of the meat. For example, meat from
ruminant animals fed on grass throughout the year has been found to have a higher concentration of
PUFAs, particularly the n-3 fatty acid ALNA (Williamson et al. 2005).

Forage-based organic diets therefore have the potential to affect the fatty acid composition of
organically produced meat, increasing levels of n-3 PUFAs However, valid comparison studies are
required to verify any nutritional differences between organic and non-organic meat. One recent
study examined antibiotic and microorganism content, hormone concentrations, and nutritional values
of milk in 334 samples from 48 states labeled as organic, not treated with bovine GH (referred to as
“GH-free”), or conventional. This study found that milk labeled “conventional” had lower bacterial
counts than milk that was organic or GH-free, although this was not clinically significant. Estradiol
and progesterone concentrations were lower in conventional milk than in organic milk, but GH-free
milk had progesterone concentrations similar to conventional milk and estradiol concentrations
similar to organic milk. Macronutrient composition was similar, although organic milk had 0.1%
more protein than the other 2 milk types. Several studies have demonstrated that organic milk has
higher concentrations of antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids. However, it is important to
recognize that the composition of milk is strongly related to what the cows eat. This differs by time of
year (outdoors in the summer, indoor forage in the winter) and whether the farms are high or low
input. High input farms supplement the diets of cattle with proprietary minerals and vitamins. Low-
input farms use methods similar to those used in organic farming but do not follow all the restrictions
prescribed by organic farming standards; they use mineral fertilizers but at lower levels than used by

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conventional high-input systems. One study comparing milk from all 3 production systems found milk
from both the low-input organic and low-input nonorganic systems generally had significantly higher
concentrations of nutritionally desirable unsaturated fatty acids (conjugated linoleic acid and omega-3 fatty
acids) and fat-soluble antioxidants compared with milk from the high-input systems; milk derived from
cows in both organic certified and nonorganic low-input systems was significantly higher in conjugated
linoleic acid content than was milk from conventional high-input systems.

It is commonly accepted that organic livestock farming systems is associated with improved food quality.
Natural pasture based farming systems produce milk rich in fat and in micro-components, which are
beneficial to human health (Morand-Fehr et a.l, 2007). Various recent studies have indicated positive
interactions between organic animal production and poly-unsaturated fatty acids, particularly CLA and
omega-3 fatty acids. The validation of products deriving from sheep and goat farming in the form of high
quality products may help to maintain traditional low intensity farming in harmony with the needs of
ecosystem (Boyazoglu and Morand-Fehr, 2001). Organic products from small ruminant livestock system
are expected to be less contaminated by chemotherapeutic agents and by other chemical treatments.
Similar conclusion drawn from a study (Shinde and Karim, 2009) regarding quality of sheep products
stating that meat and milk produced by sheep in Jaipur region meets the norms of food safety with regards
to levels of organochlorine pesticides residues.

Handling of endoparasites through grassland management is one important aspect of small ruminant
organic production. The use of selected bioactive forages may have a positive influence on parasite disease
control as well as on the quality and flavour of animal products. Consumption of forages high in
condensed tannins, such as polyphenolic proanthocyanidins, has been demonstrated to be useful in
reducing the level of parasitism in young ruminants, resulted in reduction of their fecal egg count and total
worm burden (Niezen et al., 1996). Many times it is feared that organic farms face excessive veterinary
costs, without good economic or welfare returns, particularly in sheep farms producing organic meat
(Cabaret, 2003).

Recommendations:
Organic livestock production should be placed on high priority while formulating various agricultural and
livestock policies since it ensures sustainable ecosystem which is desired globally by different
development actors. The transition period may be challenging therefore proper subsidy arrangement
should exist for farmers who are willing to convert their livestock to organic since transitional decline in
productivity limits conversion initiation. Existing standards for organic livestock needs revision since they
are largely adopted from foreign countries where livestock production system, agro-climatic situation and
socio-economic condition of farmers vary greatly than to our country. Proper funds should be available for
promotional research and awareness regarding organic livestock. Organized marketing system for organic
meat, milk, wool, yarn etc. so that farmer can get premium price for the product.Success of milk
cooperative societies can be translated in livestock organic cooperatives. Agencies like APEDA can play a
big role regarding exploration of foreign market however strict certification measures needs to be
implemented.

Most of the standards for organic livestock are subjective and vague which needs to be objective and
precise. For this, streamline research is required, evolving concrete recommendations, leaving minimum
room for discretion of various inspection authorities. The biggest hurdle in adoption of organic principles
is lack of awareness and sensitization among farmers, consumers and extension workers regarding short
term and long term advantages of organic practices. Therefore, tailor-made training programmes are
required for different sections of the society and mass campaign needs to initiate with regards to organic
livestock and small ruminant organic products.
References:
References are available on request from editor.

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Section-VI 156-191

Climate Change and Mitigation Strategies

Climate Smart Livestock Production Systems to Improve the Economy
of Small Holders’ in India
S.V. Singh and S.Kumar

Photoperiod Management in Dairy Animals

K.N. Wadhwani, R.J. Modi, and M.M. Islam

Impact of Environmental Stress on Livestock Reproduction and

Ameliorative Measures
A. Sarat Chandra;M. Mahender and J. Razia Sultana

Nutritional Intervention to Reduce the Enteric Methane Emission

from Dairy Animals in India
Asraf H. Sheikh; Pankaj L.Sherasia; Bhupendra T. Phondba

Editors: Dr A C Patel and Dr K P Shyma

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 Climate Smart Livestock Production Systems to Improve the
Economy of Small Holders in India
S. V. Singh and S. Kumar
ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal-132001 (Haryana)
Email : sohanvir2011@gmail.comj
Introduction:
Climate change is defined as the long-term imbalance of weather conditions such as
temperature, humidity, intensity of radiation, duration of sun shine, wind speed and rain fall
characteristics of a particular region. Climate change is emerging as a major threat on
agriculture, food security and livelihood of millions of people in many places of the world
(IPCC, 2014). Several studies indicate that agriculture production could be impacted severely
due to increase in temperature changes (Lobell et al., 2012), rainfall patterns (Prasanna, 2014)
and variations in frequency and intensity of extreme climatic events such as flood and
droughts (Singh et al., 2013). Climate change possesses one of the main challenges in the 21st
century. The climate of earth has warmed in the last century by 0.74 ± 0.18 °C. Global
temperatures have continued to rise, making 2016 the hottest year on the historical record
(https://www.nasa.gov/.../nasa-noaa-2016). Existingclimate models predicted the increase of
temperature by 0.2 °C per decade and the increase in global average surface temperature
would be between 1.8 °C to 4 °C by 2100 (IPCC, 2007). Variation in temperature, humidity
and radiations is hazardous in the growth and production of domestic livestock. High ambient
temperature accompanied by high humidity causes discomfort and stress to the animal and
ultimately affects production, reproduction, physiological responses and metabolic activities
adversely. As per the IPCC 2014 report, global warming may have a negative impact on
agricultural (crop and livestock) productivity. Crop yieldsmay be reduced by 2% per decade
and milk productivity of cattle and buffaloes by 10-20 percent depending upon the breed and
production levels. The estimated impacts of both historical and future climate change on
cereal crop yields in different regions indicate that the yield loss can be up to 35% for rice,
20% for wheat, 50% for sorghum, 13% for barley and 60% for maize depending on the
location, future climate scenarios and projected year (Porter et al., 2014). Changes in crop
cultivation suitability and associated agriculture biodiversity decrease in input use efficiency,
and prevalence of pests and diseases are some of the major causes of climate change impacts
on agriculture (Zabel et al., 2014). The volatility in food price seen over the recent past, to a
large extent caused by weather extremes and variability, is forecast to become an increasing
issue.

Demand for animal protein and dairy products are increasing around the world especially in
developing countries. From 2013-2022, demand for meat will increase by 24 percent, for
poultry by 28 percent and for dairy products by 12 percent in developing countries (GAP
Report, 2016). At the same time, ruminant animals are the major contributor to global
greenhouse gas emissions. As demand for meat and dairy products grows worldwide, every
effort must be made to reduce the amount of methane emission by livestock production.
Agriculture production systems require adaptation to these changes in order to ensure the
food and livelihood security of farming communities. There are several potential adaptation
options to reduce moderate to severe climatic risks in agriculture. Adaptation options that
sustainably increase productivity, enhance resilience to climatic stresses, and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions are known as climate-smart agricultural (CSA) technologies,

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practices and services (FAO, 2010). The need to tackle climate change while producing more
food to feed the world's growing population means that "climate-smart agriculture" is the
only way forward.

Climate smart agriculture:

Climate-smart agriculture is a sort of overview concept originally put forth in 2010 by the
UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The FAO has defined climate-smart
agriculture (including livestock) as ‘sustainably increases productivity, enhances resilience
(adaptation), reduces greenhouse gases (mitigation) and enhances achievement of national
food security and development goals’. The recognition has been growing for the importance
for adopting climate smart practices, policy and finance at a world level. Although there is
agreement on the need for adoption of climate smart agriculture, still there are gaps in
knowledge at the methodological, policy and financial aspects. These gaps hinder the ability
of different sectors of development for successful implementation of climate smart actions.

Why climate smart agriculture?

Challenges of climate change and achieving food security are the two major goals and issues
must be tackled on priority. Many agricultural practices and technologies such as minimum
tillage, different methods of crop establishment, nutrient and irrigation management and
residue incorporation can improve crop yields, water and nutrient use efficiency and reduce
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from agricultural activities (Sapkota et al., 2015).
Similarly, rain water harvesting, use of improved seeds, ICT based agro advisories and
crop/livestock insurances can also help farmers to reduce the impact of climate change and
variability (Altieri and Nicholls, 2013). In general, the CSA options integrate traditional and
innovative practices, technologies and services that are relevant for particular location to
adopt climate change and variability (CIAT, 2014). In this, we consider a technology or
practice as climate smart if it can help to achieve at least one pillar of CSA (either increases
productivity or increases resilience or reduces GHG emission). For all adaptation options,
farmers need to make ex-ante decisions under climatic risk, while making short and long-run
investments depending on the extent of current climate variability and expected climate
change in the future (Callaway, 2004). The implementation of CSA technologies (hereafter
CSA technologies indicate technologies, practices and services together) individually or in
combination have substantial potential to reduce climate change impacts on agriculture.
There are many factors that influence extent of adoption of CSA technologies such as socio-
economic characteristics of farmers, bio-physical environment of a particular location, and
the attributes of new technologies (Campbell et al., 2012).
It is anticipated that a 50 to 70 per cent increase in food productivity will be needed to feed 9
billion people by 2050. Livestock provides for about 26 per cent of human protein
consumption and 13 per cent of total calories. The demand for livestock products is estimated
to be more than double in the next 20 years, as a result of urbanization, economic growth and
a change in consumption patterns in developing countries. The livestock sector represents
nearly one billion smallholder livestock producers in developing countries, contributes 40 per
cent of agricultural GDP and from 2 to over 33 per cent of household incomes. Smallholder
livestock production is largely based on family farming and is key to poor rural people’s

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livelihoods, food security and employment creation. Livestock provide food for household
consumption, products for income generation and quick cash when emergencies and external
shocks occur (i.e. climatic conditions, diseases, price volatility, etc.). Livestock are important
assets that respond to the multiple needs of smallholders (e.g. manure, draught and hauling
power, etc.), while also having a cultural and spiritual value. Poultry and small ruminants are
generally managed by and provide direct benefits to women. In order for livestock keepers to
benefit from the opportunities offered by the growing demand for livestock products,
smallholder livestock production systems need to become more productive, efficient and
environmentally sustainable. This calls for interventions that are able to leverage
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) investments and scale up results in
a sustainable manner to benefit the greatest number of people.

Heat stress and livestock productivity :

Temperature-humidity index (THI) has been used as a weather safety index to monitor and
reduce heat-stress-related losses (NRC, 1971). Different livestock species have different
sensitivities to ambient temperature and humidity. The capacity to tolerate heat stress is much
higher in tropical breeds of cattle than crossbreds of temperate breeds. This is mainly due to
the fact that tropical breeds of cattle can dissipate excessive heat more effectively by
sweating, whereas exotic, crossbreds and buffaloes have relatively low ability to sweat.
During hot-humid conditions the thermoregulatory capability of temperate and crossbred
breeds of cattle and buffaloes to dissipate heat by sweating and panting are compromised, and
therefore heat stress occurs in these animals. The water vapor content of the air plays an
important role in determining the capacity to lose heat from skin and lungs. About 85%
places in India experiences moderate to high stress during the day time in April, May and
June where THI ranges from 75-85 at 2.00 PM. The THI increase and exceed 85 i.e. severe
stress levels at about 25% places of India during May and June. Even during morning THI
level remains high during these months and on an average exceed 75 at 75-80% places in
India (Upadhyay et al, 2007 & 2009). The THI greater than 75 affects growth and milk
production in high producing cows and buffaloes. The congenial THI for optimum
production from livestock i.e. 70 is during Jan and Feb at most places in India and only about
10-15% places have this optimum THI during summer and hot humid season. Temperature
rise due to climate change is likely to impact their production and health mainly due to their
capacity to withstand temperature and thermal tolerance.

Impact on animal reproduction:

Hot dry summer with limited access to water affect crossbred and exotic cattle and buffalo’s
heat expressions particularly from March to June, when animals have relatively non-
functional gonads with less number of sperms in semen of males and poor expression of heat
in females mainly due to higher thermal heat load that animals are unable to dissipate. Non-
availability of water or limited access for drinking and wallowing affects buffaloes during
summer. Therefore, changes in climate with a rise in temperature and change in precipitation
will not only alter reproductive rhythmicity, but also affect maturity and reproductive
functioning of vulnerable livestock (Kebede, 2016).

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Emergence and re-emergence of new diseases:
Livestock diseases are strongly influenced by climate change induced modification in
environmental conditions. Increased number of thermal stress days with higher temperature
and humidity are likely to favors growth of vectors and pests challenging vulnerable
livestock. Incidence of parasitic and viral diseases is likely to increase (FAO, 2004). It has
also reported that the transmission of air borne diseases and infections are transmitted by
ticks, flies, mosquitoes, midges and other arthropods, may be of great concern with respect to
the changing climate. The migration and spread of birds may change and affect the
geographical coverage of diseases such as highly pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) and
West Nile virus.
Strategies for climate smart livestock production:
An integrated approach may be adopted for reducing the impact of climate stress on
livestock. There could be following three major possible strategies to minimize the effects of
climate stress on livestock production:

1. Physical modification in the environment:

The environmental applications to alleviate heat stress in farm animals are not appropriate if
nutrition, disease control and breeding performance are not optimal. The heat stress can be
minimized by adopting simple and basic rules for designing animal shed (shape, orientation,
thermo-physical properties of construction materials, ventilation, etc.). The environmental
modifications attempt to reduce the potential for heat stress by lowering the solar radiation
around the animal. The provision of shade (natural or artificial) is one of the simplest and
cost-effective methods to minimize heat from solar radiations (Das et. al. 2016). Trees are
very effective and natural shading materials providing shade to the animals combined with
beneficial cooling as moisture evaporates from the leaves. The silvi-pasture system or
plantation of fodder trees in grazing area can be a successful integrated farming type
approach that provides feed as well as shelter during summer. Artificial shades have been
used with success for heat-stressed animals in confinement or in intensive situations. East-
west orientation is most suitable deign of shed under hot arid condition.

2. Breed management:
The nature has endowed arid and semi-arid areas with some of the best breeds of cattle
(Tharparkar, Kankrej, Gir, Rathi, Haryana, Sahiwal, etc.), Buffaloes (Murrah, Surti, etc),
sheep (Marwari, Jaiselmeri, Chokla, Magra, etc), goats (Sirohi, Marwari, Kutchi, etc) and
other species of livestock. There are clear-cut genetic differences in resistance to heat stress,
with tropically-adapted breeds experiencing lower body temperature during heat stress than
non-adapted breeds. Even in non-adapted breeds, it is possible to perform genetic selection
for resistance to heat stress. Considerable variation exists for heat tolerance between
individual species/breed and even between individuals within a species/breed. Indigenous
breeds, which have adapted to the tropical environment not only heat tolerant but also their
ability to survive, to grow and to reproduce in the presence of poor seasonal nutrition, high
parasite and disease pressure. The high heat tolerance of local breeds is generally correlated
with their small size, low-production level and some special morphological traits (properties

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of the skin or hair, sweating capacity, tissue insulation, special appendages) compared with
mainstream breeds and commercial lines.
Residual feed intake (RFI) can be used as a selection tool for selecting the ruminant animals
for lower enteric methane (CH4) emission. RFI can also be used as tool for selecting the
animals for better productivity even taking the less feed compared to other animals
consuming more feed and producing less. In order to enhance the resilience, temperate breeds
should be bred with tropical adapted breeds, which are not only resilient to heat stress and
poor-quality fodder, but also to parasitic infection and other diseases (Hoffmann, 2008).

The use of multi-species and multi-breed herds is another strategy that many traditional
livestock farmers use to maintain high diversity in on-farm and to buffer against climatic and
economic adversities. Such traditional diversification practices are useful for adaptation to
climate change. The small farms in developing countries were more climate change resilient
because of their more diverse species portfolios, the ease with which they can shift between
species and diversify.

3. Improved nutrition/feed management:

The crop residues represent up to 50 % of the diet of ruminant animals in mixed crop-livestock
farming systems in India. These crop residues provide an inexpensive feed resource, but are low
in digestibility, deficient in crude protein, minerals and vitamins. Lower digestibility of such
feeds lowers the animal productivity and enhances the methane emission through enteric
fermentation. Improving the digestibility of lower feed resources by improving the quality of crop
residues, or supplementing diet with concentrate will reduce methane emission. Other existing
feed management practices in mixed farming system include the use of improved fodder species
and forage legumes. Animal productivity can be improved by using a multidimensional approach
for improving the fodder quality and thereby the utilization of fodder crops.

Various feeding strategies have been used to alleviate the adverse effect of climatic stress with
varying degrees of success. The aim of the feeding strategies is to maintain water balance,
nutrients and electrolytes intake and/or to satisfy the special needs during climatic stress such as
vitamins and minerals. The depressed feed intake in hot weather is commonly considered as an
adaptation to reduce metabolic heat production. Practically, two main nutritional strategies are
adopted to minimize the reduction of energy and nutrient intake under heat stress by (1) using
energy or protein concentrate diets to overcome the low DM intake and (2) using low increment
diets to improve DM intake. Whatever the species, several authors have shown that increasing the
energy content of the diet via fat addition can partially overcome the effect of heat stress. In fact,
this practice not only increases the energy intake but also reduces the diet heat increment. Some
approaches have been successful, such as decreasing fiber intake in order to allow the rumen to
function properly, adding fat supplementation mostly because of its high-energy content and low
heat increment and implementing increased concentrate diets with caution to avoid metabolic
disorders. Strategic supplementation of fatty acids accordingly to physiological stage can
selectively benefit immune function, maximize production and improve reproductive responses.

Alterations in feeding system can help the animal to cope with climate stress. Stall-fed cattle
given access to feed only during the cooler hours of the day enhanced the animal's ability to cope

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with heat stress during summer. These feeding strategies will help in preventing the peak of
metabolic heat production and environmental heat loads simultaneously. In dairy animals,
provision of fresh feeds through multiple feedings (especially during night) can also encourage
the frequent feeding bouts and increase daily feed consumption under heat stress.

Vaccines against methanogens in the rumen are a powerful tool to mitigate the methane emission
from ruminants. Early warning systems and insurance the use of weather information to assist
rural communities in managing the risks associated with rainfall variability is a potentially
effective (preventative) option for climatic adaptation.

Water management:
Water management is the vital component for adapting to climate change, as it is an essential
nutrient for livestock. The water intake increases from about 3 kg/ kg DM intake at 10°C ambient
temperature to 5 kg at 30°C, and to about 10 kg/ kg DM intake at 35°C in Bos indicus (NRC
1981). During summer condition, water loss increases (evaporation by panting and sweating) and
water ingested in feed and generation of metabolic water is reduced. Consequently, drinking
water consumption has to increase to cover the requirements of a heat-stressed animal. In warm
climate, a key husbandry practice is to provide an abundant and clean source of drinking water
close to the feeding area. Studies have demonstrated that a provision of cool water would
improve animal performance through absorbed heat energy. Animals exposed to hot
environments, drinking 2–3 times more water than those in thermo-neutral conditions. In dry
regions an increased need of drinking water, as a consequence of prolonged exposure to high
ambient temperature, is often coincident with a reduction of water availability and forage water
content and quality.

Grazing on pasture:
Mixed livestock systems are found to be promising way for adapting to the changing climatic
scenario by mitigating the contribution of livestock and crop production system to green house
gases (GHG) emissions. The mitigation options for grazing of livestock on pasture are reduction
in enteric methane emission and removal of carbon dioxide through soil carbon sequestration
(Thornton and Herrero, 2010). Better quality of fodder helps in reduction of enteric methane
emission per unit of milk and meat production as well as in higher productivity (Waghorn and
Hegarty, 2011). Leguminous fodders in the diet of cattle and buffaloes also lower the methane
emission per unit of productivity. The agro-forestry trees also increase carbon sequestration. By
adopting these options can have substantial methane/ GHG mitigation potential, because
intensified diets would considerably reduce the number of ruminants needed to fulfill future
demand of livestock products.

Livestock migration as coping strategies:

In the arid and semi-arid regions of India where low rainfall and very high temperature, an
important traditional survival strategy that has been developed by the people to cope with the
seasonal changes through nomadic and transhumance systems. These nomads migrate with
their livestock in search of water and forage. In India, it is estimated that about 30-40 % of
the total small ruminant population is on the move annually. These movements are spectacular,
are a way of life, and involve whole households along well defined routes with several men
accompanying the large flocks. During heat stress, pastoralists migrate along with their animals

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 for 4 – 6 months in search of water and fodder. The animals on an average moving 10-15 km
daily to fulfill their nutritional requirements (CAZRI, 2015).

Investments in the livestock sector have been characterized by fragmentation, uncoordinated

projects funded by various donors, lack of market orientation and limited focus (health, fodder
production, breeding, etc.). Successful livestock development programmes: (i) have a lifespan of
at least 20 years, with phased interventions, (ii) are holistic and (iii) upgrade the entire livestock
commodity value chains. Livestock interventions are particularly complex as they entail different
subsectors (e.g. poultry, goats, cattle, etc.), commodities (e.g. meat, milk, eggs, fiber, etc.),
systems (e.g. agropastoralism, mixed crop-livestock farming and pastoralism) and institutional
arrangements (e.g. pasture access, use and management, veterinary service provision, etc.).

Preliminary assessments of livestock interventions should cover: (i) the feasibility and economic
viability of livestock development investments in a given environment; (ii) the capacity of public
and private institutions, including livestock grass-root organizations; (iii) the market demand,
opportunities and constraints (e.g. in terms of infrastructure, communication technology, prices,
etc.); and (iv) the interest of the private sector to invest in livestock as a business opportunity.

Initiatives to scale up smallholder livestock models should assess the following areas:
1. Access to and sustainable management of natural resources, such as land and water, particularly
for interventions in support of pastoral communities, with emphasis on the role of women and
youth.
2. Access to services, such as extension and training, health (e.g. vet services), breeding (e.g.
artificial insemination), inputs (e.g. feed, forage, seeds) and credit, particularly in remote areas
3. The existence and capacity of smallholder farmers and pastoralist institutions
4. Access to livestock-related markets and value chains for smallholder organizations and their apex
associations
5. Facilitation of innovation platforms to provide spaces for value chain actors to interact,
communicates, improve performance of the value chain and influence policies.

There are successful evidence-based livestock models that are important to consider as the basis
for scaling up interventions in the various livestock subsectors.

Rural poultry: Evidences from several countries shows that rural poultry enterprises help rural
women to take a first step out of poverty. The model consists of interlinked poultry enterprises
that include production, supply, training, and credit and extension service provision, aggregated
into village organizations / unions. The necessary institutional and policy spaces have been
created to enable smallholder poultry producers to access markets through the established value
chains.

Dairy goats: The smallholder goat development model has been successfully tested with
significant impact on rural poverty. The model focuses on improving productivity and economic
returns from goats kept by families on small farms. Small intensive dairy goat enterprises are set
up involving housed goats, on-farm fodder development and conservation, and cross-breeding
with an improved dairy breed. The small enterprises are linked to local markets and provided

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with services by a three-tiered community-based animal health care system – veterinary care,
breed improvement and training.

Dairy cattle: The “hub model” is centered on a chilling plant and a dairy hub, around which a
network of inputs and service providers are established, along with a credit facility. With the
support of their associations, farmers can access credit and livestock insurance, become
shareholders in a private entity and increase milk volume and quality. The hub model has been
scaled up in several dairy milk development projects, mostly through public-private partnerships
(PPPs). Milk processing and marketing centres are set up in urban and peri-urban areas to provide
direct access to consumers. This model contributes significant role in enhancing food security,
income generation and trading opportunities for smallholder dairy producers, particularly women,
while supporting the formulation of a national dairy development policy.

Pastoralism: The effective interventions aimed at raising the living standards of the pastoral
populations entail: (i) improving livestock productivity through better access to veterinary and
marketing services; ii) ensuring mobility and community-driven management of natural
resources; (iii) facilitating access to health, education and water; and (iv) enhancing pastoralists’
capacity for policy dialogue on pastoralists’ land-use rights, mobility versus settlement, livestock
trade and marketing, and public service delivery. The responsibility of pasture management was
entrusted to local governments, pasture users’ unions and their representative councils. The
approach has greatly improved rangeland management, pasture quality and productivity.

Community-based livestock service provision:

Access to viable veterinary services in remote areas reduces high livestock mortality, while
mitigating producers’ risks and building their assets.

Conclusions:
Challenges of climate change and achieving food security are the two major goals in present day
situation and both the issues must be address on priority. Therefore, a transformation in
agriculture, livestock, fisheries and forestry particularly in developing countries are required.
Livestock can make a large contribution to climate-smart food supply systems and improving the
income of small holders. Mitigation options are available along the entire supply chain and are
mostly associated with feed production, enteric fermentation and manure management. Livestock
have major contribution towards food security, as they provide the major source of energy,
protein and micronutrients. The contribution of the livestock sector to food security could be
strengthened, particularly at small holders levels, where current levels of consumption of
livestock products are low. Several Climate Smart livestock practices are available for
implementation viz. physical modification of the environment, genetic improvement of heat
tolerant breeds and improved nutritional management. Lack of information, limited access to
technology and insufficient resources are some of the barriers for adoption to Climate Smart
Agriculture. To overcome these constraints, specific technical and policy interventions and
funding mechanisms are required. Research efforts should also be made to identify the additional
combinations of mitigation and adaptation practices which suited to specific production system
and environment.
References:
References are available on request from editor.

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 Photoperiod Management in Dairy Animals
K.N. Wadhwani, R.J. Modi, and M.M. Islam
Anand Agricultural University, Anand
Email : knwadhwani@aau.in
Introduction:
Livestock sector has been considered back bone of agrarian economy of India having cattle
and buffalo population 190.90 and 108.7 million heads respectively responsible for milk
production of country (19th livestock census, 2012). Production per animal of India is not as
much of exotic cows which may be improved by controlling photoperiod exposure to the
retina of cow.
Photoperiod is defined as the virtual period of time during which animal receive illumination
i.e. day length. Photoperiodism is defined as developmental response in animals to the
relative length of light and dark period. India being tropical climate faces extreme of season.
Seasonal extremes affects the animals negatively especially with respect to production
performances. New management technique is always searched by researchers for improving
production of herd. Therefore photoperiod exploitation came into scene to counterbalance the
negativity caused by recurring variation of environmental setting. This technique received
interest as it is cost effective and easy to achieve production from cattle in general lactating
cow in particular. Photoperiod management deals with manipulation of light and dark
exposure to the animals during 24 hours duration. Shifting cow from Short day photoperiod
(SDPP) i.e., 8 hours of light to Long day photoperiod (LDPP) i.e.,16-18 hrs of light improved
production by 2.0 kg i.e., 6.5 % milk (Dahl et al., 2000; Dahl, 2012). Milk composition did
not affect by photoperiod significantly however decreased fat% (Dahl et al., 2000).

Photoperiod management used extensively by sheep, horse and poultry breeders to

manipulate reproductive events and breeding season with additional light exposure. Though
the cattle are regular breeder photoperiod can affect reproduction in cattle.

Measuring light intensity:

Light is measured as foot candles i.e., lumen/square meter or Lux i.e., lumens/square foot.
Dual range ‘light meters’ are available to read either unit. One foot candle is equal to 10.76
lux.

Types of lighting:
Photoperiodic response was reported clearly with fluorescent, metal halide, high pressure
sodium lighting. For cow 15 foot candle/162 lux, 1m (3’) from floor of the stall is
recommended. In close house 30 foot candle is good and open house 45 foot candle produce
the effect. Effect was reported on 10 foot candle also; however additional 5 foot candle is
aided for buffer for dirty lamp. It is practical that cows are not able to detect light below 5
foot candle. When lighting is considered especially for calf housing, it should have colour
rendition index (CRI) of more than 80. Incan-descent, halogen, fluorescent and metal halide
lamp can be used. Mercury vapour and high pressure sodium lamp can be avoided.

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Effect of supplemental lighting with 20 foot candle fluorescent lamp at eye level of buffaloes
was reported significant with production the light was controlled automatically with timer for
6.50 hours (Savalia et al., 2016).

Following formula can be used for calculating required number of lights for a dairy barn
Total lumens
Total fixtures needed =
Lumen output per lamp
Where, total lumens needed = Area (sq. ft. of barn) x 15 FC x K(15FC,
minimum intensity required for light period; K, barn constant = 2 for
closed barn or 3 for open barn)

Light intensity and distribution of light in a particular place can be measured by light meter.
The LDPP can be adjusted using timer alone or with a photocell connected in series. Timer
generally turns lights on and off at a pre-set time point, while photocell overrides the timer
(turns the lights off). Photocell adjusts pre-set time point according to availability of
sufficient natural sunlight (at least 15FC). Photocell should be shielded well from both
interior and exterior lighting to work properly and always fix under a side eave outside
(Janni, 2000; Buyserie et al., 2001).

Precautions :
In addition, one should have idea about how to fix the light sources. Light sources should be
mounted in such a way that there should be uniform illumination of required level of light at
animals’ eye level. Mounting height and horizontal separation distance should be taken into
care while fixing lighting system. When lights are mounted at a higher place from ground it
causes waste of light by dispersing to a large area. However, if separation distances increase
then it decreases uniformity of illumination (Janni, 2000). Separation distances of lights
should be more than mounting height i.e., 1.2 and 1.7 times (on an average 1.5 times) of
mounting height. Mounting height should be 14-35 ft depending on type of sheds (Janni,
2000; Buyserie et al., 2001; Dahl, 2005).

Photoperiod physiology:
Generally animals use circadian oscillator to sense day length. It depends on timing of light
rather than total amount of light exposure. In mammals, a circadian oscillator present in the
suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus receives photic stimuli via the
retinohypothalmic tract. The circadian system regulates the rhythmic secretion of the
melatonin i.e., pineal hormone. Melatonin is secreted at night and duration of secretion varies
inversely with day length. It shows light sensitivity encoded in melatonin signal. Melatonin
signal decoded at melatonin target tissue that are involved in the regulation of a variety of
seasonal responses. These seasonal changes appears to be due to differences in
responsiveness to melatonin, in other cases, variation in photoperiod responsiveness may
depend on differences in pattern of melatonin secretion related to circadian variation. In
mammals sit of action of melatonin is located at pars tuberalis of pituitary gland and
suprachiasmatic nuclei. Light suppresses secretion of melatonin in cattle like other animals.
Melatonin accordingly affect hormones like prolactin and IGF-1.

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Light never stimulates overfeeding rather it puts a physiological stimulus to produce more
milk followed by increase in dry matter to support milk production. Round the clock light
exposure has not similar effect as LDPP rather it has negative effect. Extending photoperiod
using 160 lux light for additional 4 hrs during winter season resulted in better growth rate and
early onset of puberty in Buffalo heifers (Roy et al., 2016). Increased duration of light hours
(16 hours) increases the production of prolactin which increases milk production and
decreases secretion of melatonin. Artificial light seem to work similar as natural light in this
event (Tiilikainen, 2015).

Melatonin secretion:
Melatonin is biological amine characterized and named by Aaron B. Lerner, 1958 (Yale
University). It is chemically (N-[2-(5-Methoxyindol-3-yl) ethyl] acetamide. Common name
of melatonin is 5-methoxy-N-acetyltryptamine. It is produced by small endocrine gland of
rice grain size named pineal gland, located at center of brain outside blood brain barrier. It is
also secreted by gut, retina, skin and leucocyte (Hardeland, 2005). It regulates sleep-wake
cycle, mood, learning, memory and reproduction. Chemically it causes drowsiness and
lowers body temperature. Sleep-wake rhythm regulating effect of melatonin is attributed to
its action on MT and melatonin receptor present in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of
hypothalamus. Ramelton (melatonin) and Agomelatine (melatonergic) is used as sleep
promoter antidepressant activityin human medicine (Srinivasan et al., 2009). It is a common
free radical scavenger and antioxidant. Interaction of melatonin with nuclear receptor site and
intracellular protein like calmodulin or tubulin associated proteins as well as direct
antioxidant effect of melatonin may explain function of pineal hormone (Cardinali et al.,
1997). Melatonin provides hormonal signal transducing day length. Duration melatonin
inversely related to day length its secretion changes hypothalamic pituitary axis,
hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis, brain gut axis, autonomic nervous system also immune
system (Walton et al., 2011). Prolactin also maintains body’s circadian rhythm. Secretion of
melatonin (indolic hormone) is stimulated by darkness. Light inhibits the rate limiting
enzyme hydroxyl indol-o-methyl transferase in pineal gland which leads to decrease
concentration of melatonin in circulation (Buchanan et al., 1992). Photoperiodic reaction
initiated with light perception at screen of retina, which directs signals to supra chiasmatic
nucleus (SCN), after that the superior cervical ganglion (SCG). Finally it reaches pineal
gland, where melatonin is secreted (Reiter, 1991). Melatonin is lipophilic in nature; therefore
easily pass through cellular membranes in living system generating the ability to act on cells
throughout the body (Chowdhury et al., 2008). Melatonin is very unique in sense that it
protects the body against free radicals via direct or indirect pathway. Melatonin binds directly
to cell membrane and help to stabilize membrane against oxidation and indirectly helping in
up-regulating antioxidant defense system (Reiter et al. 1995). It also activates macrophages,
proliferate NK cells and produces IL-2. Transcription factor NF-κB is the main factor
responsible for shift between pineal and extra pineal production of melatonin. NF-Κb inhibits
(pinealocyte) or induce (macrophages) the transcription of key enzyme (AA-NAT) in
melatonin synthesis through immune-pineal axis (Markus et al., 2013). Melatonin reduces
mammary development during lactation in cows (Wall and McFadden, 2012).

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Significance of colour of light:
Research have shown that Blue light suppress melatonin most effectively (West et al., 2011) i.e.,
reverse of sleep and rest. Red lights however are least likely to suppress melatonin level and
affect circadian rhythms. This makes red light a perfect option for night light in farms also.
Maintenance of routine time scheduled operation is very important at farm as melatonin begin to
increase before two hours animals goes for sleep or rest, therefore sticking to rigid sleep/ resting
time schedule will further aid in melatonin secretion. Hormone cortisol work just reverse of
melatonin i.e., it decreases just before sleeping or resting and increases as animal rise. Blue and
green light benefitted the intense protein metabolism leads to improve growth rate (Yurkov,
1980). Red orange and yellow light delay protein utilization and white light is intermediate
between blue and red with respect to protein metabolism. Adequate light decreases milking time
by 8-12% (Abrosimova, 1978).

Natural melatonin response appears in dark as melatonin secretion from pineal is inhibited by
light therefore concentration is naturally high during night and undetectable during day hours.
When light reach cow’s eye, it signals the cow’s body to produce less melatonin. Concentration
of melatonin maintain endogenous circadian rhythm which further influence and modulates
secretion of other hormones to show a clear cut shift in lactation, growth, health and reproduction
especially in seasonal breeder (Beltramo et al., 2014; Dardente et al., 2014).

Long day exposure increases prolactin (PRL) in blood as compared to short day. IGF- 1 and
Bromocriptine has reverse action as compared to PRL. IGF-1 supposed to inversely affect milk
production (Abribat et al., 1990). Others also reported IGF-1 increases milk production (Dahl,
2005). IGF-1 is an indicator of somatic maturity which triggers puberty (Santos et al., 2014;
Pinilla et al., 2012). Prolactin secretion was more with high (20 oC) as compared lower (5 oC)
ambient temperature of keeping duration of photoperiod constant (Yaegashi et al., 2012).

Melatonin acts on anterior pituitary activate or suppress gene expression controlling thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH) as well as enzymes de-iodinase II and III which direct the
transformation of T4 to T3 and its degradation (Beltramo et al., 2014; Dardente et al., 2014).
Melatonin also plays a crucial role in modulation of the somatotropic and adrenocortical axis
(Tsang et al., 2014). Melatonin using retrograde pathway TSH/de-iodinase involved in regulation
of reproduction by GnRH release acting on neurons which secretes Kisspeptin, a potent GnRH
secretagogue. Melatonin releases Kisspeptin which acts on Kisspeptidergic cells (Beltramo et al.,
2014). Melatonin stimulates prolactin release by means of TSH/ Deiodinase system or through
triggering tuberalin. Salsolinol, a dopamine derivative is commonly used prolactin secretagogue
(Yaegashi et al., 2012).

Photoperiod and performances of cattle and buffaloes:

Growth and development of mammary gland:
Duration of exposure to photoperiod directly affects the growth of growing calf and heifers, as
well as the mammary tissue growth in heifers. Exposure to LDPP during the growth phase results
larger, leaner animals at maturity, with greater mammary parenchymal growth, and these effects
are associated with greater yield in first calver. Calves reared under LDPP during early post-natal
period had greater starter intake (62.5%), resulted higher average daily weight gain (28%) than

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those reared under SDPP. Photoperiod effect was observed more pronounced after 4 weeks of
exposure in calves (Osborne et al., 2007).

Further, LDPP increase rumen development, digestibility and efficiency of nutrient utilization
and thereby increase growth in calf (Osborne et al., 2007; Dhal et al., 2012; Penev et al., 2015).
Effects of LDPP on growth are consistent and regulated by IGF-I due to its anabolic effect in
growing calves (Kim et al., 2010). Similarly, owing to increase in lean growth, heifers reared
under LDPP attend puberty at an early age than those reared under SDPP. Several studies
reported that heifers reared under LDPP until the first lactation have more mammary
parenchymal growth and produce more milk (Dhal et al., 2012; Penev et al., 2015). The LDPP
during pre-pubertal period has carryover effect on lean body growth and mammary tissue growth
till calving. Increased concentrations and positive effect of IGF-I and PRL on growth of
mammary and lean tissue during LDPP is the key reason for better growth and early age at sexual
maturity (Dhal et al., 2012).

During pre-weaning period the parenchymal growth induced by increasing level of protein and
energy in diet however during pre-pubertal period (lobulo-alveolar duct formation period) the
increase in protein and energy diet increase mammary growth towards a higher adiposity (Capuco
and Ellis, 2013).

More mammary parenchymal growth was observed in heifers exposed to LDPP (Dahl et al.,
2000). Mammary cell proliferation was better in SDPP dry cows as compared to LDPP or SDPP
+ PRL dry cows on biopsy of mammary tissue 20th day of parturition (Crawford et al., 2015).

Cow facing heat stress during dry period have increased prolactin through parturition, reduced
mammary growth and produces less milk in succeeding lactation (Tao et al., 2011; Tao et al.,
2013). However basal metabolic profiles in heat stressed cow remain unchanged as compared to
cool cow (Tao et al., 2012).
Lactation:
Lactating cows when exposed to LDPP produce more milk compared to those reared on natural
light. Photoperiod effect on milk yield was first studied at Michigan State University, USA and
about 2 lit more milk/day yield was observed in cows reared on LDPP during earl lactation than
on natural photoperiod. Later consistently several authors reported on an average 2-3 lit/ day
more milk (about 8-10%) in cows reared on LDPP during early lactation than on natural
photoperiod (Dahl, 2003). Effect due to LDPP developed gradually and significant effect is
observed after 3-4 weeks of exposure (Dahl et al., 2012). However, there is no carryover effect of
photoperiod on milk production. In lactating Jaffrabadi buffaloes, Savaliya et al. (2016) also
observed 1.35 lit/day more milk in buffaloes reared under LDPP during early lactation as
compared to those reared under natural photoperiod. Further, LDPP has little effect on milk
composition particularly milk fat depression (Dhal etal., 2000). Effect due to LDPP on milk yield
may be due to elevated prolactin, growth hormone and IGF-I. However, Dhal et al. (2000) after
reviewing several published reports concluded that increased milk production in LDPP is
primarily controlled by elevated level of IGF-I.

Cows facing LDPP increased prolactin concentration resulting in slower loss of mammary cells
due to inhibition of IGFBP-5 (Insulin like growth factor-5 responsible for cell death of mammary

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gland) leads to slow decrease in milk production (Dahl et al., 1997). IGFBP-5 expressed better in
cultured mammary explants in absence of prolactin (Accorsi et al., 2002).

Effect of 18 hours photoperiod i.e., LDPP along with showering on buffalo produced 27.68%
more milk as compared to control i.e., normal day length. More over LDPP alone contributes
24% hike in milk yield (Savalia et al., 2016). Author also reported increase in net income per
animal considering milk price Rs. 45/kg. 200 lux of light intensity is very good for milking
parlour (Clarke and House, 2006; Miteva, 2012) as it influences oxytocin mediated milk let-down
(Macuhova and Bruckmaier, 2004). Above findings suggest sensitivity of cows for light during
the time of milking.
Dry cow:
Dry period in cow should be optimized between 40 to 60 days (Kuhn and Hutchison, 2005) as if
it is below 30 days significant production loss in coming lactation was observed. Providing dry
cow with SDPP for entire dry period produces more milk (up to 3 kg) along with protein and fat
in coming lactation. SDPP also increases feed intake by more than 1 kg and also improved the
immunity (Auchtung et al., 2005; Auchtung and Dahl, 2004). SDPP exposure during dry period
might help in setting responsiveness of cow to long day. Stall comfort is also very important for
dry cow equally as in production (Dahl et al., 2006). Cows reared under SDPP during dry stage
gave birth to calves approx. 5 days earlier as compared to LDPP (Velasco et al., 2008). Data
related to time budget in dry cow reveals that stall comfort is more important in dry as compared
to lactating cows. As dry cows sit 15 hours per day which is quite higher than lactating cow (11-
12 hours). Dry cows will sit for longer period if dry place is available and therefore clean
comfortable stall is essential for dry cows without competition.

Milking frequency:
Cow milking three times a day respond to LDPP positively as compared to cow milking twice a
day (Dahl, 2005). Milking three times per day reduces stress on herd might support cow for
positive stimulus of LDPP.

Feeding behaviour and intake:

Dry matter intake reported to increased up to 6% with LDPP. However weight gain is not
increasing at the same rate. This might be due to increase in cow efficiency to produce milk with
LDPP. Dry matter intake also increases in heifer with increasing photoperiod however intake
reduces in dry cow. Effect of photoperiod on growth: Calves up to eight weeks of age if reared
under LDPP showed increased growth rate due to increased ruminal volatile fatty acid (VFA) as
compared to calves reared under SDPP (Osborne, 2007). Increased photoperiod also increases
lean tissue (Rius et al., 2005) and body weight due to increased IGF-1 concentration (Spicer et
al., 2007) and increased feed intake. Artificial lighting with 160 lux for 4 hours daily during
winter season result in better growth and early onset of puberty in buffalo heifers (Roy et al.,
2016). Heifers with supplemented light showed increase heart girth along with daily additional
gain.

The LDPP in lactating cows enhances dry matter intake (DMI) by 1kg/day compared to cows
reared under SDPP. However, advanced pregnant dry cows under SDPP have about 1 kg/day
more DMI than cows under LDPP (Dhal, 2006; Velasco et al., 2008). Increased DMI may
increase milk yield in dairy animals, but photoperiod has no carryover effect on DMI (Dhal,
2006). Although, photoperiod does not alter total duration of feeding time, the distribution pattern

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of feeding bouts alters significantly. Dry pregnant cows on SDPP spent more time in feeding just
after fresh feed delivery compared to on LDPP (Karvetski et al., 2006).
Reproduction:
Duration of day length during autumn and winter is generally shorter, but cattle and buffaloes
when exposed to LDPP show significant improvement of reproduction. Though cows are not
considered as seasonal breeders, photoperiod must have some effects on the reproductive axis of
cows (Dahl, 2005). Service period and number of services/conception decrease by 22 days and by
0.6 in cows exposed to LDPP during early lactation compared to without exposure. Improved
reproduction in cows reared under LDPP may be associated with increased circulating Ca, P,
vitamin D and A, total protein, haemoglobin, erythrocytes and γ-globulins (Penev et al., 2015).
Kassim et al. (2008) also observed improved reproductive performances (decreased puberty and
better expression of estrus) in buffalo heifers reared under LDPP during autumn and winter. In
buffaloes, puberty and sexual maturity reduced by about 35 days and 21 days, respectively when
buffalo heifers are reared 4 hours artificial light in addition to natural light during autumn and
winter seasons (Kassim et al., 2008). Roy et al. (2016) reported early attainment of puberty in
pre-pubertal buffaloes reared under extended photoperiod (4 hours/ day more photoperiod) during
winter season, where 85.7% heifers attained puberty at the end of 3 months experimental period
compared to 57.14% in control group.
During post-weaning period in heifers LDPP increase lean growth, mammary parenchyma
development (Petitclerc et al., 1985) there by reducing age at puberty by around one month.
Reduction in age of puberty is associated with greater release of LH hormones in response to
estradiol (Hansen et al., 1983). Heifer showed heavier conformation, taller length and after
parturition production is also higher (Rius and Dahl, 2006). However if herd provided light for 24
hours showed adverse effect on reproduction by increasing days open and number of
insemination per cow. Petrusha et al., (1987) reported increased light intensity (35 Vs. 100, 150
and 200 lux) has reduced the service period by 12, 22 and 21 days respectively. Author reported
best result with 150 lux luminance. Significant increase in heart girth, weight gain, udder
biometry and lower risk of dystocia was reported in LDPP exposed pre-pubertal heifers as
compared to natural lighting management protocol (Valenzuela-Jimenez et al., 2015). LDPP
heifers are more feed efficient. Seasonality in return to estrus was observed as summer calvers
return to estrus earlier as compared to winter calvers (Hansen, 1985).

Health and immunity:

Similar to growth, production and reproduction, photoperiod also significantly affects health and
immunity. Alteration of immune system under the influence of photoperiod in dairy animals is
associated with PRL secretion. Heifers reared under SDPP had increased lymphocyte
proliferation and enhanced neutrophil function than those reared under LDPP (Auchtung and
Dahl, 2004). In addition to milk yield, SDPP exposure to dry cows improves the immune status
and improve uterine and udder health immediately during post partum period (Dhal, 2003; Penev
et al., 2015). Rearing of pregnant cows under SDPP during dry period produces more number of
blood mononuclear cells in circulation, indicates improved immune status at calving than those
on LDPP (Auchtung et al., 2004). Milk somatic cell counts also reduced in cows exposed to
SDPP during dry period in contrast to cows under LDPP (Auchtung et al., 2004). Thus, proper
manipulation of photoperiod could improve the udder health and productivity by reducing risk of
new intramammary infection.

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Cows calving during winter (SDPP) shown longer delay in return to estrous cyclicity as
compared to cow calved in summer (SDPP). Said result support post parturient uterine involution
is earlier during LDPP (Dahl, 2005). During last 60 days of pregnancy exposure to SDPP
enhances production and immunity prominently during dry period or transition phase (Dahl and
Petitclerc, 2003; Dahl, 2004). Calves raised under LDPP during growth yield larger and leaner
body weight with greater mammary parenchyma growth in heifers.

Photoperiod and welfare:

Artificial lighting system during winter causes change of winter with summer coat. Energy losses
for body temperature related to thinner coat during winter. Cows prefer light as compared to dark
provided free will. Better illumination in herd provide better visual contact among cows for social
hierarchy build up within pen which results in less fighting and trauma. Proper illumination is
also essential for animal welfare and safe healthy working condition at farm (Penev et al., 2014).

Cow uses more feeding alley with LDPP exposure (Karvetski et al., 2006). Varlyakov et al.
(2010) reported production depends on physiological state and hierarchy in group rather
photoperiod and season. Reducing light intensity to 11 as compared to 33 & 74 lux does not
affect general activity as gate passages remain same in all three groups. Moreover milk yield
decreases with reducing light intensity which show lower feed intake in low intensity. Author
claims that night light offered to the dairy cows related to production rather than welfare aspects
(Hjalmarsson et al., 2014).

Heat production:
Cows under LDPP regimen produces 34-41% more heat and also increases heart and respiratory
rate as compared to control (Abrosimova, 1978).

Conclusions:
Milk production depends on secretory cells and metabolic activity of mammary gland.
Interventions like photoperiod i.e., sequence of light and dark has a very positive effect on
physiology of animals including cell number and secretory activity and ultimately milk
production. Different protocols for milk production may be used by progressive farmers like
manipulating light available round the clock. Light pattern manipulation works via altering
melatonin profile and also influencing several other hormones affecting physiology of animals
especially production. Prolactin administration reverses the effect of short day partially by
affecting production in coming lactation; this shows interconnection between melatonin -
prolactin with respect to photoperiodic response. In dairy cows long day photoperiod (like
summer) during lactation or short day photoperiod (like winter) during dry period enhances milk
production. Gathered evidence suggests that photoperiod manipulation can be exploited to
improve production of dairy cows.

References :
References are available on request from editor.

172
 Impact of Environmental Stress on Livestock Reproduction and
Ameliorative Measures
A.Sarat Chandra; M. Mahender* and J. Razia Sultana
College of Veterinary Science, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad
*College of Dairy Technology, PVNRTVU, Kamareddy, Telangana

Introduction :
Environmental stress is one of the most significant factors affecting livestock performance
and health, and it is only expected to increase with effects of global warming. Environments
are enormously variable in relation to the stress that they impose on their inhabitants, and this
stress may be both abiotic (physical and chemical factors) and biotic (direct and indirect
effects of other organisms, including competition and habitat modification). Heat stress is one
of the most detrimental environmental variable hampering animal production, especially in
tropical regions of the world like India. Environmental stress is not just limited to this
climatic factor, but also extends to nutrition, housing, and any stimuli that demand a response
from the animal to adapt to new circumstances (Lee, 1993).

The term stress is sometimes used to describe the hostile environment (Stott, 1981). There are
environmental forces that are continuously acting upon animals that disrupt homeostasis,
resulting in new adaptations that can be either detrimental or advantageous to man’s interest
(Stott, 1981). The natural environment is composed of various potentially hostile stressors. It
is a basic requirement of life that the cells of an organism must be maintained within closely
defined physiological limits. The maintenance of a constant interior milieu results from
physiological and behavioural homeostatic adaptations. The physiological regulation of
homeostasis is achieved by complex endocrine interactions, principally by the hormones
secreted from the adrenal glands (Harvey et al., 1984). Inability of livestock farmers to
identify or recognize environmental factors and management practices that pose stress to
farm animals may result in lower performance and reproductive ability of animals leading to
shortage of animal and animal products supply. Understanding of stressors that impact
domestic farm animal productivity and management practices that can relieve stress within
the environment will enhance animal comfort and maintain a secure, productive and low-cost
food supply.

Milk production in India has reached 163.7 million tonnes in 2016-17 and it is projected that
by 2030 India will be able to produce 200 million tonnes of milk. This target will be achieved
if there is optimum balance between productivity and fertility. Fertility is a broad term which
is influenced by various factors including genetic, nutritional, hormonal, physiopathology,
management and environment or climate. The fertility traits in animals show a very low
heritability value and this indicates that most of the variations in the fertility are determined
by non-genetic factors or environmental effects (Thiruvenkadan et al., 2010). Environment
plays an important role in influencing the reproductive performance of livestock. Fertility of
livestock is affected by high ambient temperature, excess humidity, sever cold and lesser
access to drinking water. Heat stress due to high ambient temperature coupled with excess
humidity during summer months causes infertility in most of the farm species especially

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 Dairy cattle and Buffaloes. Nutritional deficiencies and imbalances are frequently implicated
as an important cause of infertility in sheep (Naqvi et al. 2011).
This review attempts to identify the environmental stressors of livestock and their impacts on
reproductive performance of livestock and elaborate on the various ameliorative measures for
sustainable animal production.
Environmental stressors:
Of the environmental stressors that affect reproductive efficiency, adverse effects of heat
stress are most dramatic and the most documented. Other stressors include: animal handling
techniques, environment, transportation, disease, management techniques and changes in day
length among others (Gwasdaukas, 1975)
A. Thermal stress :
Thermal comfort may be quantified as the thermal neutral zone. Within this thermal neutral
zone, the animals can maintain body temperature, or homeothermy, by constriction or
dilation of blood vessels, changing postures or behaviour, changes in hair, or by sweating and
panting. Temperatures above or below the thermoneutral zones, the livestock will be
subjected to cold stress or heat stress
1. Cold stress : As air temperature falls below the TNZ known as the lower critical
temperature, the livestock must divert food energy from production or growth to produce
additional metabolic heat and maintain body temperature. This ultimately leads to a reduced
feed efficiency.
2. Heat stress: The thermoneutral zone (TNZ) of dairy animals ranges from 16°C to 25°C,
within which they maintain a physiological body temperature of 38.4-39.1°C (Yousef, 1985)
. However, air temperatures above 20-25°C in temperate climate and 25-37°C in a tropical
climate like in India, will enhance heat gain beyond that lost from the body and induces heat
stress. As a result body surface temperature, respiration rate (RR), heart rate and rectal
temperature (RT) increases which in turn affects feed intake, production and reproductive
efficiency of animals. Rectal temperature above 39.0°C and respiration rate more than 60/min
indicate that the cows are undergoing heat stress sufficient to affect milk yield and fertility.
Despite having well developed mechanisms of thermoregulation, ruminants do not maintain
strict homeothermy under heat stress. There is unequivocal evidence that hyperthermia is
deleterious to any form of productivity, regardless of breed and stage of adaptation. The best
recognized effect of raised body temperature is an adaptive depression of the metabolic rate
associated with reduce appetite.

B. Nutritional stress:
HS and feed scarcity often occur simultaneously and are the major predisposing factors that
cause low livestock productivity in tropical environment. Nutrient deficiency decreases the
blood leptin concentration. This acts on the appetite control center in the brain and increases
Neuropeptide Y which acts on the hypothalamus to decrease GnRH secretion. This decreased
GnRH simultaneously leads to lower LH and FSH secretion from anterior pituitary. This in
turn affects all the reproductive organs that control specific events of reproduction. Under
nutrition of donor ewes results in lower body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS)
with a negative effect on oocyte quality such as low rates of cleavage. Further, low BCS
affects hormone production, fertilization, and early embryonic development.

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Effect of heat stress on female reproductive performance :
High environmental temperatures impair the female reproductive process at various stages of
pubertal development, conception and embryonic mortality. Stress inhibits the reproductive
performance of livestock species by activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)
axis, which subsequently excites the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ATCH). The ACTH stimulates the release of glucocorticoids and catecholamines, which act
extensively to alleviate the effect of stress. However, ACTH-stimulated glucocorticoid
release is responsible for an inhibitory effect on the reproductive axis. Heat stress reduces the
length and intensity of estrus, alters follicular development and increases the rate of apoptosis
in the antral and pre-antral follicles. Extreme environmental temperatures delay the onset of
puberty in male and female animals.

Estrus intensity and duration:

During periods of heat stress, animals are less likely to show signs of estrus or heat which is
related to changes in the level of blood hormones. Heat stress reduces the intensity and
duration of estrus besides increased incidence of anestrous and silent heat in farm animals.
Cows attempting to reduce body heat production limit their physical activity, translating to
fewer physical signs of estrus, which makes heat detection more difficult. Thermal stress
increases ACTH and cortisol secretion and blocks estradiol-induced sexual behavior.Low
estradiol secretion suppresses signs of estrus, gonadotropin surge, ovulation, transport of
gametes and ultimately reduced fertilization (Das et al. 2016). They also reported that low
estradiol level on the day of estrus during summer period may be the likely factor for poor
expression of heat in Indian buffaloes (Upadhyay et al. 2009). The likelihood for a pink
vaginal mucosa, clear stringy estrus discharge and mounting traces decreased with increasing
THI and serum progesterone concentration < 1 ng/ml at the day of estrus decreased with
increasing THI ≥74 (Schüller et al.,2017). Exposure of ewes to high temperatures 1.5-6 days
prior to estrus has been reported to reduce estrus occurrence in ewes (Sawyer, 1979)

Follicular dynamics:
A follicle wave is characterized by the synchronous growth of a cohort of follicles, one (or a
species-specific number) which continues growing while the others regress at variable
intervals. The day of follicle wave emergence is the first day of a follicular wave when a
growing cohort of follicles is first detectable using ultrasonography. A dominant follicle is
one that continues to develop when the growth and development of other follicles is
inhibited. Subordinate follicles are the remaining follicles that regress in the presence of a
dominant follicle and is thought to end when the dominant follicle has been selected from the
subordinate follicles as seen by a difference in follicle size. In cattle, the wave-like pattern of
follicle development is very well characterized (Ireland et al. 2000; Fortune et al. 2001) with
most oestrous cycles comprising two or three waves of follicle development. Follicle waves
emerge on about days 2 and 11, or days 2, 9 and 16 for animals with two or three follicle
waves, respectively (Sirois and Fortune 1988).

Heat stress alters follicular development and dominance which leads to decrease in estrogen
circulation. Heat does suppress follicular dominance, resulting in a number of changes in

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follicular growth. Early emergence of the preovulatory follicle lengthens the dominance
period, and this has been shown to be associated with lower fertility in spontaneously cyclic
dairy cows (Bleach et al., 1998). Follicular size decreased 0.1 mm with each incremental THI
point at the day of estrus (Schüller et al., 2017).

Fertilization:
Lenz et al. (1983) and Edwards and Hansen (1996) performed in vitro maturation (IVM) and
reported reduced maturation rate when bovine oocytes are exposed to 41°C.Subsequently
,they also reported reduction in fertilization rate following invitro fertilization (IVF) at 41°C.
Sugiyama et al. (2007) recorded poor fertilization rates compared to the control group
confirming that not only do high ambient temperature during IVF impairs fertilization , but
also that on exposure to a maximum of 41°C for only 4 hours is sufficient to adversely affect
the outcome of IVF. Al-Katanani et al. (2002) collected oocytes from cows during summer
and reported that they have a reduced ability to develop to the blastocyst stage after IVF.

Effect on embryonic growth and development:

An embryo in heat stressed cows can die within 17 days after fertilization because the early
embryo does not have proteins that help it combat heat stress. When a cow is heat stressed,
the cow’s core body temperature rises. This increased heat inside the body affects the
embryo. Heat stress retards the growth of young follicle which results in the weakening of the
signals to the cow for pregnancy recognition. Without this signal from the embryo, the cow
will stop secreting the hormones needed to maintain pregnancy. HS causes embryonic death
by interfering with protein synthesis (Edwards and Hansen,1996) oxidative cell damage
(Wolfenson et al., 2000) reducing interferon- tau production for signaling pregnancy
recognition (Bilbyet al. 2008) and expression of stress-related genes associated with
apoptosis (Fear et al.2011) Low progesterone secretion limits endometrial function and
embryo development (Wolfensonet al., 2000).Putney etal. (1989) reported that early
cleavages of embryos are sensitive to the exposure to elevated temperature. The crossbred
ewes (Bharat merino) exposed to a temperature of 40 °C and relative humidity of 58.4% for 6
hours/day for 4 weeks, yielded relatively poor quality embryos (Naqvi et al., 2004).

Effect of heat stress on male reproductive performance:

The testes of most mammalian species are located extra abdominally in the scrotum and
function at a temperature that is few degrees lower than normal body temperature. Fertliity in
male animals is equally or more important to produce a good, viable and genetically potential
conceptus. The testis temperature is between 2 and 8°C below core body temperature in mice
(Bankset al., 2005) humans (Ivell, 2007) and bulls (Waites, 1970). Cardozo et al.(2006)
reported seasonal effects on changes in testicular volume, hormonal profiles, sexual behavior
and semen quality that affect the reproductive performance of males.

Spermatogenesis:
Exposure of testis to high temperature impairs spermatogenesis by elimination of
spermatogonial germ cells in the semeniferous tubules and degeneration of sertoli cells and
leydig cells.Oxidative stress is a major cause for thermal damage of spermatogenic cells and

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leads to apoptosis and DNA strand breaks (Paul et al., 2009). Spermatogenic defects of Heat
stress are associated with decreased HSP60 immunoreactivity in spermatogonia (Werner et
al., 1997).This decreased cytoplasmic HSP60 may negatively effect the mitotic proliferation
of spermatogonia because of the fact that HSP60 is necessary for normal functioning of
mitochondria (Sejian, 2012)

Seminal attributes:
Semen characteristics are not immediately affected by changes in testicular temperature
because damaged spermatogenic cells do not enter ejaculates for some time after heat stress.
Balic et al.(2012) studied seasonal influence on Bos taurus (simmental) bulls and found
summer HS declined semen quality parameters. Bhakat et al. (2014) observed optimal semen
qualities during winter, poor during summer and intermediate during rainy season and
conclude that hot-dry or summer season adversely affect the various bio-physical
characteristics of semen in Karan Fries bulls. Lower semen quality has been reported in bulls
exposed to ambient temperatures over 27°C for as little as 6 hours per day for several weeks.
Morphological changes first appear on day12 and progress to peak on day 18 in a
chronological sequence i.e tailless (day 12-15), diadem (Day 18), pyriform and nuclear
vacuoles (Day 21), knobbed acrosome (Day 27) and dag defect (Day 30). Mishra et al.(2013)
reported that membrane integrity status of fresh spermatozoa in four different breeds of bulls
(crossbred, Red Sindhi, Haryana and Jersey) were affected significantly (p<0.01) with
increases in air temperature from 10 to 18°C to more than 35°C.

Sperm fertilization:
It has been reported that males exposed to heat stress produce sperms which do not produce
normal offspring in unexposed females. According to Hafez (1987) a satisfactory level of
fertility may be retained throughout the whole year, but in many instances, fertility is
depressed when mating occurs during the hot months of the year. Conception failure in ewes
mated to heat stressed ram was related to a failure to fertilize than to embryonic
mortality.Rahman et al.(2013) also reported that HS spermatozoa showed a highly reduced
(p<0.01) fertilization rate in comparison to non-HS or normal control spermatozoa (53.7% vs.
70.2% or 81.5%, respectively)

Effect of nutritional stress on reproductive performance of animals:

Robinson et al. (2006) highlighted the impact of nutritional stress on the circulating
concentrations of the reproductive hormones and other nutrient-sensitive metabolites required
for the physiological function. Nutritional stress is an important environmental factor that
influences fertility directly because feeds and fodders supply specific nutrients required for
oocyte development, ovulation, fertilization, embryo survival and establishment of
pregnancy.. There are direct connections between nutrition and the endocrine system.
Nutritional status and body energy reserves are important to the hypothalamic-
hypophysisgonadal axis integrity in cattle (Schillozet al.,1992).Many hormones that are
influenced by digestive physiology, including secretin, growth hormone (GH), insulin, and
insulin-like growth factor I and II (IGF-I and II), carry out important roles in animal
reproduction.

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Dietary restrictions affect the onset of puberty in heifers, weight at calving, mammary
growth, milk production and postpartum anestrus in cows( Funston et al., 2010 )
Undernutrition slows down development of ovarian follicles and reduces lifetime
reproductive performance in livestock (Rae et al.,2001).Changes in dietary intake promote
changes in concentrations of Insulin, leptin, and IGF1 and reproductive hormones.Leptin is a
peptide hormone produced primarily by adipose tissue. Leptin is essential for puberty and
postpartum reproduction, and is positively correlated with body condition in ruminants.
Leptinaemia and expression of leptin in tissue are also affected by stage of pregnancy and
lactation, colostrum intake, circulating levels of insulin, glucose, glucocorticoids and GH,
ingestion of fatty acids, especially linoleic acid, and photoperiod (Chilliard et al.,2005).

Inadequate nutrition prior to calving results in emaciation which delays the onset of estrual
activity post calving. This delay influences the percent of cows available for breeding during
breeding season, thus reducing overall conception rates (Robinson et al, 2006).
Undernutrition of donor ewes results in lower body weight and body condition score with a
negative effect on oocyte quality such as low rates of cleavage. Low BCS affects hormone
production, fertilization, and early embryonic development (Sejian et al., 2010). Restricted
feeding (30% of ad lib intake) can significantly reduce the duration of estrus (15vs 26 h) and
increase the estrus interval (31.5 vs 18.6 days) in Malpura sheep (Maurya et al., 2004).
Kumar et al.( 2015) reported that restricted feeding (20-30% less than maintenance)
decreased the time for seeking females significantly (P < 0.05), increased refractory period
significantly (P < 0.05) and decreased the testosterone concentration in rams.

Strategies to ameliorate the impact of heat stress:

The farmers are subjected to huge economic loss as a result of the effects of heat stress on
livestock and it has been reported that its results in a loss of 1.8 tonnes of milk per year which
turns out to a loss of Rs. 2661 crores (Upadhayayet al., 2010) .The reproductive abilities of
animals in hot environments can be sustained by adapting certain strategies as detailed below
1. Genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress
2. Physical modification of environment
3. Nutritional management.
4. Assisted reproductive technologies
These strategies may either be used individually or in combination to obtain better results by
providing optimum productive environment for farm animals.

Genetic selection of heat-tolerant breeds:

The impact of thermal stress on animal performance can be addressed by utilising the
scientific advances in environmental modifications, selection and breeding tools and
nutritional management. The differences that exist between different livestock breeds and
ability of certain breeds to adapt well to climate change can be exploited and presents a handy
tool for the breeders to select breeds that have greater thermotolerance. The Indian experience
amply demonstrates that the selective breeding of dairy cows for higher milk production has
increased the susceptibility of cows to heat stress by compromising the summer production and
reproduction. Furthermore, selection for high milk yield reduced the thermoregulatory range of
the dairy cow and resulted in heat stress which has magnified the seasonal depression in fertility

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(Sejian et al., 2016 ). Hence, the identification of heat-tolerant animals within high-producing
breeds will be useful only if these animals are able to maintain high productivity and survivability
when exposed to heat stress conditions. Cattle with shorter hair, hair of greater diameter and
lighter coat color are more adapted to hot environments than those with longer hair coats and
darker colors (Bernabucci et al., 2010)]. This phenotype has been characterized in B. taurus in
tropical environment, and this dominant gene is associated with an increased sweating rate, lower
rectal temperature and lower respiratory rate in homozygous cattle under hot conditions
(Mariasegaram et al., 2007). The heat shock protein genes that are associated with thermo-
tolerance have been used as markers in the marker-assisted selection breeding program. The
association of polymorphisms in heat tolerant genes is reported in various breeds such as
HSP90AB1, in Thai native cattle (Deb et al., 2014), or the HSF1 gene, HSP70 A1 A gene and
HSBP1 in Chinese Holstein cattle (Li et al., 2011, Wang et al., 2013). In addition to HSPs, there
are also other thermo-tolerant genes reported in ruminant livestock species which undergo
changes in their expression pattern while subjecting them to heat stress. The other genes of
economic importance include ATP1B2, thyroid hormone receptor, interleukins, fibroblast growth
factor, protein kinase C, NADH dehydrogenase, phosphor fructokinase and glycosyl transferase,
among others (Wang et al., 2013 and Das et al., 2016). However, further detailed studies are
required to elucidate the expression pattern of these genes in diversified animal species before
they may be considered as biological markers to be used in marker assisted selection program to
develop thermo-tolerant breeds, which can produce and reproduce normally.

Physical modification of environment:

The optimum production in livestock can be achieved by ensuring a comfortable environment
to the farm animals during the summer months especially in tropical countries and
consequently environmental management is emerging as premier area of study in animal
sciences to counter the adverse impact of environmental stress. Primary means of altering the
environment may be broadly divided into two categories comprising (i) provision of shade
and (ii) evaporative cooling techniques (Dash et al., 2016). The environmental modifications
such as shade and cooling systems are critical in arid and semi-arid zones during heat stress
to maintain milk production, milk component levels, reproductive performance and animal
welfare (Brantly et al., 2013). The basics of providing shade are attributed to the efforts in
reducing heat load from direct solar irradiation in livestock. These shading structures could
be either natural or artificial. Trees are considered to be the most cost-effective methodology
to provide shade since they protect from the sun and capture radiation by evaporation of
humidity in the leaves. Buffington et al.(1983)pointed out that painting of upper part of the
shade unit with white color and installing a 2.5 cm thick of isolating material may
considerably reduce solar radiation. The height of shades in the corral must be from 3.6 to 4.2
m in order to guarantee reduction in solar radiation. It has been established that shading
reduces the incoming radiant heat load by 30% or more and shading of the feed and water
also offered production advantages for British and European breeds of cattle (Slimen et al.,
2014). The cooling systems alleviate heat load from livestock by using the principle of
evaporation, combining water misting and forced ventilation through use of spray and fans,
and are frequently placed inside free-stall barns or under shades in open space corrals. Milk
production and reproductive performance of dairy cattle are improved by the use of an
evaporative cooling system (Sejian, 2012). Furthermore, the animals that are cooled with

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sprinklers consume more feed with less quantity of water, which has increased milk, fat,
protein and production performance (Igono et al., 1987). Fogging and misting systems use
fine droplets of water, which are immediately dispersed into the air stream by quick
evaporation and cool the surrounding environment.

Nutritional management of heat stress:

Under the changing climatic conditions ensuring a balanced nutritional status of livestock is
crucial to optimize livestock production. Importance should be given for providing balanced
nutrition to ensure optimum reproduction in animals as the energy balance are closely associated
with their fertility (Sejian et al., 2015) . The environmental temperatures are highest in arid and
semi-arid regions where the available feed resources are both of low quality and quantity which
directly affect the reproductive performance of the livestock species. Combating the heat stress
effects on the metabolism is therefore very essential, as animals subjected to mild to severe heat
stress needs to be supplemented 7–25% extra maintenance requirements (NRC, 1981) .
Therefore, to meet their energy requirements, it is essential to enhance the nutrient density by
feeding high quality forage, concentrates and fat supplementations. In addition to the
supplementation of low fiber, high protein diet was also found to be helpful by reducing the water
requirement for metabolism. Feeding of feed additives stabilizes the distorted rumen environment
and also improves the energy utilization (Zimbleman et al., 2010). Moreover, fat content in the
diet has favorable effects on concentrations of cholesterol, progesterone, rate of synthesis and
metabolism of PGF2 α, follicle growth and pregnancy rates in dairy herds (Staples et al., 1998).
Also, dietary supplements of vitamins, trace elements and minerals can ameliorate the adverse
effects of heat stress. Vitamin E and selenium injections reduce the rectal temperature and body
weight loss in sheep during summer (Alamer, 2011). Supplementation of inorganic chromium in
the feed of buffalo calves reared under high ambient temperature improved heat tolerance and the
animal immune status without affecting nutrient intake and growth performance. It was also
demonstrated that the adverse effect of heat stress on the productive and reproductive efficiency
of Malpura ewes were reversed through mineral mixture and antioxidant supplementation
(Alamer, 2011). DiGiacomo et al.(2015) also reported that the feeding of betaine, a trimethyl
form of glycine, ameliorate heat stress in sheep. Feeding buffers during heat stress is highly
beneficial to animals, since buffers assist in the prevention of low rumen pH and rumen acidosis
(Chauhan et al., 2015). Also, the addition of common macro minerals Na+ and K+ in feed
increases dry matter intake and production performance(Chauhan et al., 2015). Inclusion of
ascorbic acid in the feed ameliorates, heat stress induced problems like poor immunity, feed
intake, weight gain, oxidative stress, body temperature, fertility and semen quality (Abdin et al,
2013). In addition, supplementation of L-ascorbic acid, both singly and in combination with l-
tocopherol acetate, was found to be helpful to heatstressed layers (Abdin et al., 2013).

Hormonal treatment and assisted reproductive technologies:

The effects of heat stress in livestock to a great extent can be addressed by hormonal treatments.
The administration of GnRH in the early stages of estrus coincides with the endogenous LH surge
and improves the conception rate successfully. GnRH agonist or hCG injected on day 5 of the
estrous cycle results in ovulation or luteinization of the first wave dominant follicle and forms an
accessory corpus luteum (CL) that enhances the plasma progesterone levels to compensate its
decrease in chronic heat stress (Wolfenson et al, 2000 and Samal, 2013). The timed artificial
insemination (AI) program also improves summer fertility when associated with an injection of

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GnRH to induce a programmed recruitment of the ovulatory follicle. This protocol should be
followed by PGF2α injection 7 days later to regress the CL which permits the final maturation of
ovulatory follicles. Further, a second dose of GnRH 48 h after PGF2α may induce ovulation and
the insemination of cows at 16 h to ensure successful conception (Pursley et al, 1998). The
Ovsynch protocol successfully synchronized the ovulation in buffaloes and increased conception
rate when combined with timed AI (Hoque et al., 2014). El-Tarabany and El-Tarabany reported
that the CIDRsynch and Presynch protocols improved the conception and pregnancy rate of
Holstein cows under subtropical environmental conditions. Embryo transfer (ET) improves
pregnancy rates during summer because embryos are transferred after the time at which they are
more sensitive to heat stress. Compared to AI, pregnancy rates in cows exposed to heat stress
have been improved by transfer of either frozen or unfrozen embryos produced by superovulation
(Stewart et al., 2011).
Conclusion:
In tropical countries higher temperatures coupled with relative humidity will definitely impose
heat stress on all the species of livestock and will adversely affect their reproductive ability.
Apart from heat stress nutritional stress also puts serious limitation on the reproductive abilities
of livestock, more so in countries like India where there is chronic deficit of feeds and fodders.
Hampered reproduction in livestock will result in enormous losses to the farmers especially
resource poor small and marginal farmers. Some of the effects of environmental stress on animal
reproduction can be mitigated through some proven strategies. These include housing animals in
facilities that minimize heat stress, use of timed AI protocols to overcome poor estrus detection
and implementation of embryo transfer programs to bypass damage to the oocyte and early
embryo caused by heat stress. Management alternatives, such as the strategic use of shade, wind
protection, sprinklers and ventilation in the summer, also need to be considered to help livestock
cope with adverse conditions. In addition to these measures, in the nutritional manipulation in the
form of diet energy density and intake may also be beneficial for livestock challenged by
environmental conditions. There are also several promising avenues of research that may yield
new approaches for enhancing reproduction during heat stress. These include administration of
antioxidants and manipulation of the growth axis. Opportunities also exist for manipulating
animal genetics to develop an animal that is more resistant to heat stress. Genes in animals exist
for regulation of body temperature and for cellular resistance to elevated temperature and
identification and incorporation of these genes into heat sensitive breeds in a manner that does not
reduce production and reproduction would represent an important achievement.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

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 Nutritional Intervention to Reduce the Enteric Methane Emission
from Dairy Animals in India
Asraf H Sheikh; Pankaj L.Sherasia; Bhupendra T. Phondba
NDDB, Anand, Gujarat, India
Email: ahsheikh@nddb.coop
Background :
In view of significant impact of methane (CH4) on climate change, there has been growing
interest in the scope for mitigating CH4 emissions from ruminants. Large ruminants,
especially cattle and buffalo are responsible of releasing large quantities of CH4. Although
impacting environment, livestock is and will continue to remain a livelihood option for
millions of rural poor in India. Being the largest milk producer and consumer in world, India
has the largest livestock population, accounting for ~50% of total CH4 emissions in India1.
Enteric fermentation is the major source of CH4, accounting for 90% of total CH4 emissions.
With dual benefits i.e. economic and environmental of mitigating CH4 emission from
ruminants, there is a growing awareness among the researchers for improved nutrition of
large ruminants, especially in developing countries, for implementing feeding strategies for
eco-friendly animal production system2,3.
Though the livestock sector contributes a significant share to anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions, it can also deliver a significant share of its mitigation strategies. Various CH4
mitigation strategies related to feeds and feeding like feed intake, feeding frequency, feed
processing, inclusion of concentrates, forage quality, forage preservation, balanced feeding;
feed supplements like ionophores, probiotics, enzymes, dietary lipids, inhibitors, propionate
enhancer, secondary plant metabolite; rumen manipulation like defaunation, vaccination; and
breeding have been published4,5. In all, dietary manipulation to induce changes in rumen
fermentation characteristics remains the most feasible approach to achieve reduction in CH4
emissions6. Hristov et al. documented that increasing animal productivity by providing
nutritionally balanced feed is the most relevant CH4 mitigation strategy for smallholder
mixed crop-livestock systems in developing countries7. For the developing countries,
CH4mitigation strategy should be cost-effective, practical and should also address socio-
economic issues of the rural milk producers.
In view of this, the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) of India is in the process of
implementing multistate ration balancing programme (RBP), under National Dairy Plan,
across the country. Large scale implementation of this programme would help in improving
the productivity of milch animals with the available feed resources in an environmentally
sustainable manner. Studies conducted in different parts of the country indicate that feeding
nutritionally balanced rations i.e. closely matching animal requirements and dietary nutrient
supply, improved milk production upto 14% and reduced CH4 emission (g/kg MY) by 10-
15% in lactating cows and buffaloes8,9. Improving milk production efficiency by feeding a
balanced ration could be a practical option for mitigating CH4 emissions from large
ruminants. The present review discusses various available strategies and highlights the
balanced feeding as a most practical and sustainable enteric CH4 mitigation strategy for
smallholder mixed crop-livestock feeding systems in India and other developing countries.
Enteric methane:
Enteric CH4 is produced as a result of microbial fermentation of feed components.
Fermentation of feeds in the rumen is the largest source of CH4from enteric fermentation and
is primarily emitted from the animal by eructation. The conversion of feed material to CH4 in
the rumen involves the integrated activities of different microbial species, with the final step
carried out by methanogenic bacteria (Fig. 1). Primary digestive microorganisms (bacteria,

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protozoa and fungi) hydrolyze proteins, starch and plant cell wall polymers into amino acids
and sugars. These simple products are then fermented to volatile fatty acids (VFAs),
hydrogen (H2), and carbon dioxide (CO2) by both primary and secondary digestive
microorganisms. Acetate (C2), propionate (C3), and butyrate (C4), which are the major
VFAs, are then absorbed and utilized by the host animal. The major producers of H2 are the
organisms which produce acetic acid in the fermentation pathway10.
C6H12O6 + 2H2O → 2C2H4O2 + 2CO2 + 8H
C6H12O6 + 4H → 2C3H6O2 + 2H2O
C6H12O6 → C4H8O2 + 2CO2 + 4H
Acetate and butyrate promote CH4 production, while propionate formation considers as a
competitive pathway for H2 use in the rumen. Various studies confirmed that with an
increased molar proportion of C3, the molar proportions of C2 and/or C4 are reduced. Moss
et al.11 established that CH4 production can be calculated from the stoichiometry of the main
VFAs formed during fermentation as CH4 = 0.45C2 – 0.275C3 + 0.40C4. Thus, the research
clearly indicates that the molar percentage of VFAs influence the production of CH4 in the
rumen.
Hydrogen – a central regulator of rumen fermentation:
Hydrogen is a central metabolite in rumen fermentation and its partial pressure is an
important determinant of rumen methanogenesis. The balance of hydrogen ion and dissolved
hydrogen gas concentrations directly determine the redox potential of the rumen and
therefore the possible extent of oxidation of feedstuffs. Hydrogen for CH4 synthesis occurs in
3 key states in the rumen, these being hydrogen gas, reduced cofactors (such as NADH and
NADPH), and as free protons. Hydrogen in all its forms is a central regulator of rumen
fermentation and for this reason it has been referred to as the “currency” of rumen
fermentation.
Although H2 is one of the major end products of fermentation by protozoa, fungi and pure
monocultures of some bacteria, it does not accumulate in the rumen because, it is
immediately utilized by other bacteria, which are present in the mixed microbial ecosystem.
In the rumen, formation of CH4 is the major way of H2 sink through the reaction: CO2 + 4H2
→ CH4 + 2H2O. Major and minor H2 sinks in the rumen are shown in Figure- 1 and 4.

Figure-1: Emission and sink of hydrogen in rumen

Literature states that the management of H2 production in the rumen is the most important
factor to be considered when developing strategies to control ruminant CH4 emissions. It
should therefore be possible to reduce CH4 production by inhibiting H2 liberating reactions or
by promoting alternative H2-using reactions or routes for disposing of H2 during

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fermentation. Mitigation strategies that reduce ruminalmethanogenesis by these mechanisms
are discussed hereafter.
Need to tap valuable feed energy loss:
Enteric CH4 emission means a loss of energy to the production system, part of the energy
ingested as feed is lost in the form of CH4 instead of being assimilated by animals and used
for production. Cattle can produce 250-500 litre of CH4 per day and enteric fermentation
causes 2–12% loss of dietary gross energy (GE) intake as CH4 in ruminants13. Early research
on CH4 production from livestock investigated enteric emissions as a loss of GE from feed
consumed. Later the focus moved to the environmental impact of CH4 emissions. In view of
the global concern for environmental safety, it seems to be the appropriate time and
opportunity to tap this valuable energy of CH4 for livestock productivity. Thus, it is the need
of hour to reduce the share of CH4 from ruminants to environmental pollution and utilize this
energy of food for benefit of the host animal.
Measurement of enteric methane: Use of SF6 tracer technique:
Choice of technique to measure CH4 emission from ruminants is paramount important.
Different techniques used to measure CH4 from animals have been reported in the literature.
These include the use of respiration calorimetry chambers, isotopic technique, sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) tracer technique, in-vitro gas production technique and mass
balance/micrometeorological techniques. Based on the review of advantages and
disadvantages of different available techniques, it can be concludes that, for measurement of
CH4 emissions from large number of ruminants under natural conditions of feeding and
management, SF6 tracer technique proves to be a more reliable technique, as compared to
others. It is widely applied, economic and only viable technique with minimum disturbance
of animals under field conditions. Therefore, the NDDB has standardized and used SF6 tracer
technique for measurement of CH4 emission from large number of lactating cows and
buffaloes under field conditions across the country.

Methane mitigation strategies:

Considering the economic and environmental benefits of mitigating CH4 emission from
ruminants, there is a growing awareness among the researchers to think about its mitigation
strategies. Following strategies mainly focusing on feeding, breeding and rumen
manipulation are reviewed and discussed hereafter in this paper.

Feeds and feeding management:

Feeding strategies to inhibit CH4 production and capture a greater proportion of the feed
carbon for use by the host animal and thereby reduce the amount expelled into the
environment have been a major focus of several research programs. It is very common to
follow the practices of feeding management that improves feed use efficiency and lowers
CH4 emissions. It is also common to introduce feed ingredients or additives that lower CH4
with a concomitant shift in other end products primarily to propionate. Following feeds and
feeding management practices be expected to have a positive role in improving feed use
efficiency and lowering CH4 emissions in ruminants.

Feed intake:
Feed intake is an important variable in predicting CH4 emission. Johnson and Johnson13 noted
that CH4 loss as percent of GE intake declined by 1.6% units for each multiple increase of
intake. This is caused mainly by the rapid passage of feed out of the rumen. As a result of the
increased passage rate, the extent of microbial access to organic matter (OM) is decreased,
which in turn reduces the extent and rate of ruminal dietary fermentation. Also, a rapid

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passage rate favors propionate production, which is a competitive pathway for the use of
hydrogen.

Feeding frequency:
Low frequency of feeding tends to increase propionate production, reduce acetic acid
production and lower CH4 production in dairy animals. This is mainly due to the lowering of
methanogens as a result of high fluctuations in ruminal pH, since low feed frequencies
increase diurnal fluctuations in ruminal pH that can be inhibitory to methanogens14. While,
more frequent feeding has been shown to increase the acetate: propionate ratio. Producers are
encouraged to increase their feeding frequency to reduce daily fluctuations in ruminal pH and
to ensure efficient digestion and milk production. Thus, low feeding frequency as a strategy
to reduce CH4 production would not be a practical way.

Feed processing:
Processing, through its effect on digestibility, energy losses and passage rate, can be an
effective CH4 mitigation strategy. Grinding to improve the utilization by ruminants has been
shown to decrease CH4 losses per unit of feed intake15. The lowered fibre digestibility,
decreased ruminally available OM and faster rate of passage associated with ground forages
can also explain the decline in CH4 production. However, application of this strategy in
Indian feeding and management conditions is insignificant.

Inclusion of concentrates:
Increasing the proportion of concentrate in the diet lowers CH4 emissions per unit of feed
intake and animal product. The addition of grain to forage diet increases starch and reduces
fibre intake, reducing the rumen pH and favouring the production of propionate rather than
acetate in the rumen5. There is a clear relationship between feed OM digestibility, concentrate
feed intake, and the pattern of ruminal fermentation. The stoichiometry of ruminal
fermentation dictates that more H2, and consequently CH4, will be produced with
fermentation of fibre as compared with starch. Increasing the concentrate proportion in the
diet above certain levels, however, might have a negative effect on fibre digestibility16.
Forage quality:
Improving forage quality tends to increase the voluntary intake and reduces the retention time
in the rumen, promoting energetically more efficient post-ruminal digestion and reducing the
proportion of dietary energy converted to CH4. For feeds with higher digestibility, however,
increased dry matter intake (DMI) depresses the amount of CH4 produced per unit of feed
consumed17. Methane emissions are also commonly lower with higher proportions of forage
legumes in the diet, partly because of the lower fibre content, the faster rate of passage, and in
some cases, the presence of condensed tannins. Improving forage quality, either through
feeding forage with lower fibre and higher soluble carbohydrates, changing from C4 to C3
grasses, or even grazing on less-mature pastures, can reduce CH4 production18.

Forage preservation:
There is inadequate information regarding the effects of feeding preserved forage on CH4
production in ruminants. Very few study observed lower CH4 production, when ensiled
forages were fed as compared to dried. This is because digestion is reduced in the rumen with
ensiled forages due to the extensive fermentation that occurs during silage making.

Feeding of balanced ration:

Feeding as per the nutrient requirement of animals is an imperative for improving genetic
potential of low producing dairy animals in developing countries. Improving productivity and

185
efficiency of nutrient use through balanced nutrition is also one of the most promising ways
to reduce CH4 emissions in dairy animals. Bayat and Shingfield, and Hristov et al. stated that
the most relevant CH4 mitigation strategy for smallholder mixed crop-livestock systems in
developing countries is to increase individual animal productivity as a consequence of
providing nutritionally balanced feeds6,7.

Despite the concerted efforts put forth by various agencies in the country to popularize
scientific feeding, most of the farmers follow traditional feeding practices, based on locally
available feed resources. Such feeding practices cause an imbalance of nutrients in terms of
energy, protein, minerals and vitamins19,20. Animals fed imbalanced ration not only produce
less milk at a higher cost, but also produce more CH4 per litre of milk21,22. For this reason,
improving animal productivity and reducing CH4 emissions from livestock in developing
countries can be achieved through proper diet formulation. Balanced feeding have an indirect
effect on enteric CH4 emission through maintaining a healthy rumen and maximizing
microbial protein synthesis, which is important for maximizing feed efficiency and
decreasing CH4 per unit of milk. It is established that animals fed imbalanced ration produce
more CH4 per unit of DMI due to lower microbial protein production and higher acetate
production.

Garg et al. documented remarkable progress in animal performance using a program to feed
balanced rations to lactating cows (n=540) and buffaloes (n=1131) in India9. Balancing the
ration significantly improved milk yield by 2 to 14%, and milk fat by 0.2 to 15%. Feed
conversion efficiency, milk nitrogen (N) efficiency, and net daily income of farmers also
increased as a result of the ration balancing. Therefore, it is of paramount importance that
introducing science-based feeding systems do not only have a measurable economic benefit
for the farmer but also helps maximize production and feed utilization, and consequently
reduce CH4 emissions from cows and buffaloes. Mohini and Singh23 also reported reduction
in CH4 emissions with supplementation of urea molasses blocks to lactating animals.

To quantify the impact of balanced feeding on CH4 emission under field conditions, NDDB
has undertaken CH4 emission measurement studies in different agro-climatic regions of the
country, using SF6 tracer technique. Methane emission measurements were carried out in 282
early lactating cows (n=172) and buffaloes (n=110), before and after feeding balanced rations
and the CH4 emission reduction on feeding a balanced ration was measured per kg of milk
produced (Fig. 6). Studies conducted by NDDB in different regions of the country indicate
that balanced feeding reduced CH4 emission by 12-20% in lactating cows and
buffaloes24,25,26. The increase in daily milk yield is observed from 0.4 to 0.7 kg and milk fat
percent from 0 to 0.5 in different regions of the country (Table 1). Result of these studies
conducted in the states of Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,Punjab and
Karnataka indicates that the balanced feeding has the potential to improve milk production
efficiency and reduce CH4 emission with an increase in net daily income of milk
producers27,28,29,30.
Rationale for reducing CH4 emissions through balanced feeding:
1. Microbial N supply:
Microbial N supply to the duodenum is an important indicator of efficiency of rumen
function. Makkar and Chen31 reported that supply of adequate nutrients increases excretion of
urinary purine derivatives, synthesis of rumen microbial N and enhances the supply of protein
post-ruminally to support production. Microbial N synthesis depends upon a balanced
ruminal supply of ammonia, energy and carbon (C) skeletons for amino acid synthesis32. A

186
 Table-1: Summary of methane field studies conducted by NDDB
FCM
MY Fat Methane Emission % change
Animals Y
Group CH4 CH4 CH4
/Particulars (g/ kg (g/ kg MY Fat FCM
(kg/d) (%) (kg/d) (g/d) (g/d) (g/kg (g/kg
MY) FCMY) (kg/d) (%) (kg/d)
MY) FCMY)
Before RB 10.82 4.08 10.92 218.7 21.95 21.64
Total Cows (n=115) +4.7 +2.0 +5.9 -12.1 -17.0 -17.8
After RB 11.33 4.16 11.56 192.3 18.22 17.78

Before RB 7.05 6.56 7.54 210.9 30.25 28.47

Total Buffaloes
+6.2 +5.5 +10.3 -12.2 -17.7 -20.0
(n=82)
After RB 7.49 6.93 8.32 185.3 24.91 22.76

Before RB 9.25 5.11 215.5 25.41 24.48

Total Milch
+5.2 +3.9 -12.1 -17.3 -18.9
Animals (n=197)
After RB 9.73 5.31 189.4 21.00 19.85

Before RB 13.4 4.21 13.82 422.2 33.04 32.05

By-pass protein trial
+4.5 +6.2 +8.0 -13.6 -18.0 -21.0
Total Cows (n=27) After RB with
14.0 4.47 14.93 365.0 27.1 25.31
BP

Green fodder trial BR without GF 8.5 7.36 9.74 256.9 31.43 27.2
Total Buffaloes +3.0 -1.6 +1.8 -9.8 -12.9 -12.0
(n=28) BR with GF 8.7 7.24 9.92 231.8 27.37 23.93

Mineral mixture BR without MM

15.4 4.41 16.32 211.5 14.74 13.93
trial +6.2 +0.7 +6.1 -8.7 -13.4 -14.1
Total Cows (n=30) BR with MM
16.3 4.44 17.31 193.2 12.77 11.97
RB = Ration balancing; BR = Balanced ration; BP = By-pass protein; GF = Green fodder; MM = Mineral mixture; MY = Milk yield; FCMY =
Fat corrected milk yield

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deficiency of feed N leads to spillage of ATP released on digestion of feed C and
suboptimum synthesis of microbial protein and release of feed C as CH4, while a deficiency
of feed C results in non-assimilation of ammonia by rumen microbes, again resulting in sub-
optimum microbial N synthesis33. In addition, ammonia in the rumen passes into the blood
through the rumen wall and is detoxified by the liver to urea in an energy demanding process,
which will decrease animal productivity. An inverse relationship between microbial protein
production, and its efficiency of production, with CH4 emissions have been reported34,35. In
our studies, the balanced feeding improved microbial N supply by 25.5 and 26.7%, whereas,
CH4 emission (g/d) reduced by 10.7 and 11.9% in cows and buffaloes, respectively (Fig. 7).

Supply (g/d)
Microbial N
Methane

Cow Methane Buffalo Methane

Cow Microbial N Buffalo Microbial N

Figure-2: An inverse relationship between CH4 emission and microbial N supply.

2. Electron sink :
Methane is the main electron sink in ruminal fermentation. Methanogens serve as an essential
electron sink for all microbes, thereby maintaining a low partial pressure of H2 in the rumen
which in turn promotes maximal yields of ATP to support microbial growth. Research also
indicates that the molar percentage of VFAs influence the production of CH4 in the rumen.
With an increased molar proportion of propionate, the molar proportions of acetate and/or
butyrate are reduced. It would be beneficial both for the efficiency of production and the
environment to divert reducing equivalents from ruminalmethanogenesis into alternative
electron sinks with a nutritional value for the host animal, e.g., by enhancing propionate
formation.

In our studies, balancing of nutrients shifted the rumen fermentation pattern towards higher
microbial cell production, which might have resulted in lower acetate and butyrate
production, whereas higher propionate production and thereby reduced CH4 emission. It is
reported that animals on imbalanced ration produce more CH4 as most of the dietary OM is
fermented to produce acetate and butyrate, resulting into more CH4 production23,34,36. On the
contrary, Leng2 reported that if the ration is balanced for all essential nutrients, OM is
fermented to produce more microbial biomass and less of CH4. Review suggests that the
changing plane of nutrition through balanced feeding improves nutrient use efficiency and
thus reduces CH4 production in lactating cows and buffaloes (Figure-3). Therefore, the
balanced feeding strategy i.e. closely matching animal requirements and dietary nutrient
supply could be a most practical and sustainable strategy to mitigate CH4 emissions from
ruminants in India.

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 Figure-3: Rationale for reducing CH4 emissions through balanced feeding

Feed additives:
A variety of feed additives are available in the market, having direct or indirect effect on
reducing CH4 emissions in cattle and buffaloes. However, none of these feed additives is used
routinely in commercial livestock production system to reduce CH4 emissions. Some of the
commonly used such feed additives are given here as under :
(a) Ionophores
(b) Probiotics
(c) Enzymes
(d) Dietary lipids
(e) Direct methane inhibitors
(f) Propionate enhancers
(g) Secondary plant metabolites
(i) Essential oils
(ii) Tannins and saponins
(h) Bacteriocins
Rumen manipulation:
Manipulating microbial populations in the rumen through chemical means or with
vaccination can reduce CH4 production.
(a) Defaunation:
Defaunation has been shown to reduce CH4 production by about 20 to 50%. Reduced
ruminalmethanogenesis observed with defaunation can be attributed to factors such as a shift
of digestion from the rumen to the hind gut or the loss of methanogens associated with
protozoa during defaunation. It has been reported that the complete elimination of protozoa is
not recommended as a method for reducing CH4, as it depresses fiber digestion. On the other
hand, protozoa have been reported to negatively affect ruminal protein metabolism through
predation of bacteria, which reduces the flow of microbial protein leaving the rumen55.
Therefore, the use of defaunation to mitigate CH4 production from ruminants should be
weighed against its possible impact on the efficiency of the whole ruminal system. The
response in CH4 production to partial or complete defaunation has been variable56. With such
variability and uncertainty in the response, defaunation cannot be recommended as a CH4
mitigation practice.
(b) Vaccination:
A preliminary study conducted in Australia suggests that the vaccination against
methanogens can reduce methanogenesis, although the results were not repeatable with
subsequent vaccine preparations. Wright et al.57 in 2007 suggested that methanogen

189
populations in the rumen are influenced by diet and geographic location, which increases the
challenge in developing a broad-spectrum methanogen vaccine. The development of a
vaccine against cell-surface proteins common to a broad range of methanogen species may
improve the efficacy of vaccination as a CH4 mitigation strategy5. Vaccines against archaea
have been successful in-vitro58 but not in-vivo59. Wright and Klieve60 explained that the
vaccination may be used as an effective CH4 mitigation strategy in the future, following
extensive research in this area.
(c) Ruminally produced bacteriocins and archaeocins
Similar to exogenous bacteriocins, there are bacteriocins released within the rumen itself and
could represent a new type of rumen modifier. Bovicin, a bacteriocin produced by
Streptococcus bovis has been reported as a possible CH4 mitigating agent in the rumen61.
Activity of bovicin against other rumen bacteria and on the fermentation pattern has not been
reported and remains to be investigated. Archaea, like bacteria, produce substances referred
to as archaeocins that also inhibit microbial growth but whether archaeocins produced by one
archaeal organism can inhibit the growth of other archea is unclear. Such biological control
strategies could prove effective in directly inhibiting methanogens and redirecting H2 to other
reductive rumen bacteria, such as propionate producers or acetogens5. However, most of
these options are in the early stages of analysis and still require significant research over an
extended period to deliver commercially viable vaccines or biological control options that
will be effective over a range of production systems and regions.
Breeding :
a) Animal breeding :
An alternative to animal feeding is to selectively breed livestock having more feed
conversion efficiency and lower CH4 production per unit DMI62,63. Selecting livestock which
consume less feed for a given level of production continues to be a global focus of research.
Various studies indicate that animal breeding could achieve a 10–20% reduction in CH4
losses. However, breeding for reduced methanogenesis is unlikely to be compatible with
other competing breeding objectives. It is possible to select for reduced CH4 production
indirectly via correlated traits such as feed intake or rumen digesta retention time. The
residual feed intake (RFI) trait is moderately heritable but the high cost of its measurement,
it’s questionable relevance to pasture-fed animals and its correlations with body composition
and reproduction, will continue to limit the use of RFI selection64.
b) Plant breeding:
Plant breeding can be expected to have a place in reducing livestock CH4emissions but new
species are still to be commercialised. Selecting plants for characteristics that change rumen
conditions could include, for example, high sugar in perennial rye grasses or tannins. High
sugar grasses might have shifted rumen fermentation towards higher proportions of
propionate and butyrate65, which may reduce CH4 production. However, extensive research
and field trials need to require before commercial application of such varieties.

Need for collective and concerted action:

In view of increasing interest in the scope for minimizing GHGs from ruminant livestock,
there is a need of society to have collective and concerted action in India. By involving all
stakeholders like private and public sectors, civil societies, national research institutes, state
agricultural universities and national organizations involved in livestock mediated GHG
emissions; the basic and practical approach i.e. feeding as per the nutrient requirement of
animals can be used in different agro-climatic regions of the country. There is also need to
focus on practice innovation, supported by knowledge transfer and awareness intensifying
amongst the rural milk producers to achieve maximum milk production, thereby reducing
CH4 emissions per unit of milk. Present review may help policy makers, science managers,

190
regulators, administrators and researchers for large scale implementation of balanced
nutrition approach with locally available feed resources in various parts of the country.

Conclusion:
A number of CH4 mitigating strategies have been identified that can be implemented in
animal production systems immediately or in near future, many of which are likely to be cost
effective in their own right. Further, most of the strategies reviewed require many years of
research before practical and commercially viable products and strategies are available for
use. It is also clear that most of the strategies currently available are more suited to intensive
animal production system, with far fewer strategies available for mixed crop-livestock
feeding systems.
For Indian feeding and management conditions, wherein most of the farmers follow
traditional feeding practices using locally available feed resources, the CH4 mitigation
strategy should be cost effective and also should address socio-economic issues. In this
situation, balanced feeding confirms for improving productivity of dairy animals, by way of
increasing nutrient use efficiency and there by reduces CH4 losses from ruminants. This
review concludes that optimizing rumen function for higher microbial protein synthesis
through feeding a balanced ration, matching the physiological stage of an animal, and
enhancing the overall efficiency of dietary nutrient use is the most efficient way of decreasing
CH4 emissions per unit of milk.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

191
Section-VII 192-222

Smallholders /Integrated Farming System

Prospectus of Dairy Farming in India: Present Status and Future Strategies
K.K.Datta and Shiv Raj Singh

Where is Small Farmer Dairy Farming in India?

N S R Shastry

Appraisal, Challenges and Opportunities for Strategic Management of Small

Holder Nomadic Gaddi Sheep and Goats in Western Himalayas
P. K. Dogra; V. Sankhyan; N. Kumar, A. Kumari and A. Thakur

Integrated Livestock Farming: A Sustainable Approach for Rural

Development
H.D.Chauhan; A.K. Srivastava, K J Ankuya and A.P.Chaudhary

Editors: Dr K J Ankuya and Dr Jagdish D Chaudhary

192
 Prospectus of Dairy Farming in India : Present Status
and Future Strategies
K.K.Datta and Shiv Raj Singh*
Central Agricultural University, Umiam, Meghalaya
*SDAU,Sardarkrushinagar, Banaskantha
Email: kkdatta2007@gmail.com
Abstract:
Deficiency to sufficiency’ has been the much touted slogan in Indian dairy since it decided to
traverse a path of organized development during the plan periods. With meager resources in
terms of holding of land and livestock assets and other endowment, the milk producers have
demonstrated their capabilities to accelerate milk production under a favorable policy regime.
Today, India is the largest producer of milk in the world. Nearly two-thirds of India’s
population derives their livelihoods from livestock and specifically from dairying directly and
indirectly.

Policy changes in the 1990s favouring liberalisation and globalization was aimed at effecting
structural transformation in the national economy. The challenge is now that how could we
make strategy, preferring a short-term reactive approach over a more coherent long term
sustainable approach towards inclusive growth, a laid out policy framework in our planned
development. It could open up to foreign capital inflows for developing back end
infrastructure facilities without harming the dairy cooperatives, which are striving to expand
and strengthen their network to protect the interests of small dairy farmers for sustainable
inclusive growth. It must open up completely too foreign capital inflows for developing the
back end infrastructure facility creation instead to enjoy or break the old age Dairy
Cooperatives motto, which need to expand and strengthen their network to protect the
interests of small dairy farmers. It must do so on an ex-post basis that can be justified with
legitimate national interest arguments rather than on an ex-ante basis that prevents flow of
fund from coming into the extent it can and wants to.

Introduction:
Dairying is an important activity in Indian economy contributing about 27 per cent of the
agricultural gross domestic product (GDP), which is around 4.35 per cent of the national
GDP. The total milk production has increased from 48.40 million tons in 1988-89 to 163.7
million tons in 2016–2017, which is equivalent to 18 per cent of the global milk output. The
country is now self-sufficient in milk and occasionally exports dairy products. Milk is now
the largest agricultural commodity in physical as well as value terms. Dairying in India is
more inclusive compared to crop production in the sense that it involves a majority of the
vulnerable segments of the society for livelihoods.There are about 70 million families, who
rear bovines in rural India, of which majority belongs to marginal and small operational land
holding group. Because of low cost of maintenance and multidimensional utility of animal
resources, the bovine resource is far more equitably distributed compared to land, which has
skewed ownership pattern. Therefore, from the perspective of income supporting economic
avenue, encouragement of this sector has greater welfare footprint and ensuring social equity

193
in the asset ownership (Shah and Datta, 2012, Singh and Datta, 2013, Kumar and Singh,
2008, Birthal et al., 2002).

As per the available statistics from NSSO (2003-04), around 70 per cent of dairy animals
were reared by the smallholders and they owned about 52 per cent of landholdings. Increase
in agricultural holdings and their continuous subdivision among the family siblings seemed to
be affecting the consolidation of milch animal holdings. But dairy sector in India has shown a
strong growth in the face of price rise in dairy products. Dairy sector has been recognized to
play a strategic role in promoting rural growth and reducing rural poverty in India (Singh and
Datta, 2013).

The major challenges are how to organize sustainable production and procurement from large
numbers of small farmers, how to ensure adoption of the right technology and practices to
generate quantity and quality output at a reasonable cost, how to obtain capital for ensuring
good processing technology and meeting the high working capital requirements in a
fluctuating business, how to deliver strong marketing efforts to compete and open nascent
markets, and how to ensure effective ownership, management and control to ensure
performance for its main stakeholders of producers, consumers and investors so that we can
move towards sufficiency to efficiency.

Promoting growth and increasing efficiency in production and marketing of dairy products
have been the overarching concerns of Government of India. The establishment of an
efficient value chain is more important for milk, which requires immediate transportation
from farm to consumption centers or storage or conversion into less perishable forms.
Further, value chain approaches can play a significant role in characterizing the complex
networks, relationships and incentives that exist in the dairy sector. For past one & half
decade, India has retained its position as the largest producer of milk in the world. Milk is
now the largest agricultural commodity in physical as well as value terms.

The transition from deficiency to sufficiency has been achieved by a series of policy
interventions by the government. It has been found that in the first phase of ‘Operation
Flood’, growth rate of value-added products was 0.93 per cent per annum, but in the third
phase, it became 9.10 per cent per annum. Further growth in the value added in dairy
products will compel organized dairy industry to reinforce the upstream linkages in supply
chain to secure additional quality of milk. The number of village-level cooperative societies
had increased to 75 thousand, procuring 4.5 million tons of milk from 9.7 million dairy
farmers. In 2013–2014, more than 15 million dairy farmers (20 per cent of the total) were
associated with 162 thousand dairy cooperatives and supplying 12.5 million tons of milk-9
per cent of the total milk produced (NDDB, 2014).
The paper addresses the following issues: What are the ways and means to integrate the
production and processing for smallholder dairy farmers? What kind of policy and
institutional changes are necessary so that it may accelerate the inclusive growth process and
leads towards efficiency? What are the policy choices?

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Source of data:
The study is largely based on the secondary data, available from National Sample Survey
Organization (NSSO) unit level data on “Situation Assessment Survey of Farmers” 2003 and
Annual Survey of Industries (unit level data of 1994-95, 1999-00 and 2010-11). Descriptive
statistical method was used for the data analysis. It also used different studies conducted time
to time by different research scholars.
Structure of production:
It is well documented that Indian breeds both cows and buffalos are much more competitive
than foreign breeds in terms of their adaptability in different agro ecological Indian climatic
conditions. But most of the breeds are now known as non-descriptive due to wrong vision and
introspection of the scientific community as well as development agency. Genetic
potentialities of those non-descriptive animals were generally judged based on their milking
capacity. The average milk yield per animal in India is just 3.2 kgs, compared to a global
average of 6.6 kgs. Needs of the day is to look the dairy policy on evidence based. Climate
change will reduce productivity in all cattle. Drop in milk yield will be maximum in exotic
breeds, not so in local Indian cattle. But where about 69 per cent of Indian cows are owned by
the economically poor strata of the society, they cannot afford to house these exotic breeds in
the regulated climate conditions. Moreover where 60 per cent of the milk cost is associated
with fodder only, ensuring fodder requirements for the exotic breeds will be difficult for the
marginal farmers. The most crucial challenges are in terms of adequate quality forage supply
and their efficient utilization in animals. To bridge the gap between demand and supply of
animal products it becomes imperative to augment the efforts on forage resource
development for better productivity of livestock population.

It is well known that forage production in India is mainly confined in the rainfed agriculture
(with annual rainfall of 750-850 mm) where it treated as an “orphan crops”, being cultivated
largely in degraded marginal areas prone to moisture stress. The moment farmers have access
to irrigation, they tend to shift to wheat or to paddy. Even in Maharashtra around 15 per cent
of the sown area irrigated by wells/ pump-sets or water from is mainly confined to grow
sugarcane. Promoting fodder cultivation is, moreover, useful for soil rejuvenation.

Grassland improvements were made with available community lands/ wastelands in village
through on farm spread of technologies by supplied live materials, interventions and
exhibition and trainings. It is to be done by forest department under joint forest management
scheme. Farmer community is to develop their available waste/ degraded lands as well as
available community land as well as through collaborative works with state forest
department. To enhance efficiency and improving quality of fodder through amalgamation of
scientific and traditional knowledge is the need of the day.

The economically marginalized group of the farmers who owned about 69 per cent of Indian
cows can afford the required feed and fodder to sustain their exotic breeds in near future? In
the changing climatic conditions, it may definitely hamper the production mode and
inclusiveness towards efficiency. Making good policy choices is often not about capacity but
it is about clarity of thought and negotiation of realities. India needs technologically

195
empowered food and livestock products which are whether resistant and environmental
tolerance to feed its people and livestock.

Structure of Indian dairy sector:

In Indian context, dairy has become more inclusive as compared to crop production in the
sense that dairying has involved majority of the vulnerable segments of the society for
livelihoods. The estimated figures (Table 1) of total farm households in India was around 89
million in the year 2002-03, out of them 68 per cent were engaged in the dairy farming.
Nearly 60.66 million households in India have been associated with dairying, and about 89
per cent of them belonged to landless, marginal and small landholders (<2 ha). It is also
interesting to observe from Table 1 that about 54 and 16 per cent of milch dairy animals are
owned by marginal and small farm households, respectively while they own 51.62 per cent of
agricultural resources. Similarly the households, who were landless also kept about 13 per
cent of milch animals. The marginal farmers contribute more than half of national milk
production. It is also interesting to note that the distribution of dairy animals was far more
even among the farm households than that of farm land suggesting that with efficient input
and output support services, dairying can serve as a major economic activity for the small,
marginal and landless farmers. The largest contributors of the country’s milk production are
marginal category households; their share is 52.17 per cent of total Indian milk production.
Combined share of landless, marginal and small dairy households in country’s milk
production is 77.34 per cent. Medium and large category households hold 48.37 per cent of
Table 1: Household level distribution pattern of the dairy animals in India
Particulars Landless Marginal Small Medium Large Overall

Estimated sample households keeping

9.30 35.74 8.65 6.64 0.33 60.66
dairy animals(No. in millions)
Total estimated sample household
17.33 53.43 10.72 7.60 0.37 89.44
(No. in millions)
% of household keeping dairy animal 53.64 66.90 80.73 87.37 90.33 67.82
% of milch animals owned by the
households 12.76 53.65 16.32 16.08 1.18 100
% contribution to total milk
7.71 52.17 17.46 20.84 1.83 100
production
% of land owned by the households 0.012 29.28 22.34 40.41 7.96 100
Note: Landless: 0 to 0.002 ha., Marginal: 0.0021 to 1.00 ha., Small : 1.01 to 2.00 ha., Medium : 2.01 to 10.00 ha. and
Large : ≥10.001 ha.
Source: Authors’ estimates based on unit level data of NSSO 59th round on Situation Assessment Survey of Farmers.

land resources but their contribution in country milk production is only 22.67 per cent vis-à-
vis combined landless, marginal and small categories that possess 51.63 per cent land but
contribute 77.34 per cent of total milk production. From this discussion it can be inferred that
the future of Indian milk production lies in the hands of smallholder (less than 2 ha) dairy
farmers. It is the smallholder dairy farmer that needs to be targeted by policymakers by
incentivizing them to increase their milk production for they don’t have land to increase their
income from agriculture exclusively. The incentives should include a host of input provision,
skill provision as well as institutional mechanism. Input provision include timely provision of
normal as well as drought-resistant fodder seeds, accessible veterinary services, availability

196
of water as well as electricity etc. Skill provision includes training in clean milk production,
artificial insemination, treating minor injuries/wounds, feed/fodder preservation, milk
preservation etc. Institutional mechanism include increasing their motivation towards
cooperative framework, livestock insurance, securing loans (for housing as well as animals),
better connectivity with dairy industry etc.

Till the economic liberalisation in 1991, cooperatives grew in a protective environment

without any competition. This made India one of the largest milk producers in the world.
Now these cooperatives that we had set up in last 50 years are failing us because politics has
overtaken them. Merely 15 per cent of our villages have milk cooperative societies. This will
lead to a milk crisis.

It is necessary to invite private sector to build back-end infrastructure in order to procure

directly from farmer-producer organisations for aggregation, processing and marketing of the
fresh dairy milk/produce from the rural areas where role of cooperative is insignificant or nil.
But the private sector is entering only where cooperatives are established to exploit the
existing infrastructure. They are not tapping the potential of other villages and promoting
milk production there. When a cooperative organizes producers into a structure, they invest
their time and efforts that the private sector is reluctant to do. Interestingly in India, the
highest milk producing state like UP where neither the role of cooperative nor the private
players are visible to handle the milk. Similarly in West Bengal, where demand for dairy and
dairy products are more, the cooperatives cannot act professionally. But acts on behalf of the
milk federation as marketing role, including the rights over using its brand. It has effectively
converted the established three-tier cooperative structure into a two-tier arrangement, where
the key marketing function is with a company over which farmers have no control. The dairy
farmers in turn receive no incentives from this structure. It seems the cooperatives do not pay
competitive prices to their milk producers. Their value chains remain fragmented which
favour the commission agents much more than the milk producers and the consumers.

Structural changes of dairy industry:

In the new economic reforms post-1990 period, there have been many significant reforms like
Operation Flood-III (1985-96), De-Licensing (1991), Milk and Milk Products Order (1992),
Amendment in MMPO (1999) and Abolition of Quantitative Restriction (QR) in Dairy
Imports (2001) in Indian dairy sector. The major objective behind the different policy reforms
was to create different arrangements (industrial organization) for value addition, favouring
smallholder dairy farmers. To ensure that the private players do not dominate the dairy sector,
the government introduced a policy that restricted milk processing and product
manufacturing to small firms and cooperatives. Only two private company’s existed then-
Nestle and Milk food Limited. Higher import duties on dairy and dairy products and stringent
licensing provisions for private dairy industries created a protected market that helped
cooperatives to expand.The MMPO Act of 1992 aimed at bringing out orderly growth of the
dairy processing capacities in the milk shed areas. Govt. of India amended MMPO-1992 in
1999 with the objective to infuse more investment in dairy industry. The impact of policy
reforms was different on different industrial organization of dairy processing industry. The
impact of this reform in the dairy industry was clearly reflected in terms of number of dairy

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units in organized sector, which rose from 432 in 1990-91 to 1493 in the 2010-11 (CSO,
2011-12).
Findings of Table-2 are clearly reflected that organized dairy industry has undergone
dynamic changes (in terms of fixed asset, labour and GVA) across the different industrial
organization in the post reform period. In the initial reform period (1994-95) ‘other’ type
industrial organization (mainly small and medium size dairy plants) had occupied largest
share (48.22 %) in terms of fixed asset formation, whereas in the post reform period (2010-
11) it was the lowest (8%). This trend reflects that either these organizations have not
maintained asset formation in the same pace as other organizations have done. At the same
time cooperative organizations have observed small increment in fixed asset formation from
29.86 per cent to 33.58 per cent. Whereas, public and private sector industrial organizations
have increased fixed asset formation. In the industrial organizations labour and capital are
complementary and competitive to each other. Table-2 shows that proportional labour
utilization in different industrial organization set-ups has not changed much vis-à-vis fixed
asset formation. Cooperative sector has had maximum labour hiring in comparison of public,
private and ‘other’ industrial organizations. Whereas, in the reform period private sector had
increased labour hiring share from 6.11 per cent to 21.12 per cent. But proportional labour
hired in ‘other’ industrial organization decreased from 38.82 per cent to 12.90 per cent.
Correlation coefficient between labour and fixed asset increased from 0.28 to 0.64 between
1994-95 to 2010-11. It shows that fixed capital and labour are complementary to each other
over the post reform period. Gross value addition (GVA) is one the important indicators of
sectoral profitability. Proportional share in terms of GVA was highest in cooperative sector
(43.23%) and lowest (5.58%) in the private sector in the initial period of reform (1994-95).
But over the reform period, private sector increased GVA significantly, as also the
cooperative sector. Interestingly ‘other’ industrial organization registered lowest share (8.81
%) in the post reform period (2010-11). So, overall in the reform period private sector

Table: 2 Share of fixed asset, labour and gross value addition (GVA) across
the different organization of organised dairy industry
Type of Fixed Capital Labour GVA
Organization
1994-95 1999-00 2010-11 1994-95 1999-00 2010-11 1994-95 1999-00 2010-11
Public Limited
11.58 54.55 25.93 12.50 32.28 16.54 21.23 28.63 19.37
Company
Private Limited
10.34 15.48 32.49 6.11 6.80 21.21 5.58 7.14 21.01
Company
Co-operative
29.86 15.33 33.58 42.57 30.31 49.36 43.23 33.67 50.80
Society
Others 48.22 14.64 8.00 38.82 30.62 12.90 29.96 30.56 8.81

performance has been observed encouraging in terms of fixed asset creation, labour hiring
and GVA. However, cooperative sector maintained its predominance in Indian dairy industry
even in reform period also. Farmers who sell milk to dairy cooperatives are their members.
Multinationals often have contracts with very large producers, usually those having larger
dairy herds (25 or more animals). They also provide milk coolers, milking machines, feed,
and veterinary services to their contract farmers. To integrate small producers on their value

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chains, MNCs establish village milk collection centers, which are managed by a local dairy
farmer on commission basis. Likewise, the private domestic processors have their milk
collection centers in the villages. Most farmers supply milk to the same buyers.

Others: Individual Proprietorship, Joint family, Partnership, Govt. Departmental Enterprise,

Public Corporation by Special act of Parliament/ legislator/PSU, Khadi & village industries
commission, Handlooms, Co-operative Society and Others (incl. Trusts, wakf board, etc).

Linkage between producers and with milk processing units:

Linkages between producers and processers are very much crucial if we want to add values
on it both in physical as well as in social terms. We must replace the one dimensional nature
of theory with a multidimensional one where everything is for the benefit of others in other
way it called as social business. Indian dairy sector is the most suitable example of it. Most
of the milk producers in the country belong to the categories of small and marginal farmers
and landless households (Table 1). So, any strategy for increasing milk production as well as
forward linkage with dairy factories must aim at benefitting small and marginal holders who
are in advantageous position in terms of cost of production and their geographical location.
Therefore, it can be assumed beyond any doubt that the future course of growth in the form of
value-added products will be completely guided by the small and marginal holders. To link
the smallholder milk producers with the organized dairy industry, it is important to visualize
the structural changes in the Indian dairy industry. This information is helpful to infer
whether industrial dynamics has been in favour of smallholder dairy farming or not. In this
regard, Table 3 provides the results for structural changes in Indian dairy sector over the post
liberalized period of 1994-95 to 2010-11. The study period can be classified into the two
phases i.e. 1994-95/1999-00 is Pre MMPO-1999 and 1999-00/2010-11 Post MMPO-1999.
Due to the growing pressure of competition from global players in the dairy sector, the
tightening of the WTO Agreements as well as the anomalies in the license structure, the
government made an amendment (in the year 1999) in the MMPO in 1992. The amendment
allowed the dairy players to setup dairy processing units wherever and whenever they want
to. MMPO-1992 was actually introduced in India to protect the interest of the cooperative as
well as domestic small and medium size dairy plants. So, this amendment is one of the major
policy amendments in the Indian dairy sector from government front in the post liberalized
period.

From Table-3 it can be inferred that at the reform time (1994-95), organized dairy industry
was mainly dominated by the cooperatives and others (mainly small and medium size dairy
plants) in terms of ownership of dairy plant. These two subsectors constituted around 78 and
79 per cent, respectively of the total quantity of milk processed and number of dairy plants in
the organized dairy sector. The private sector dairy plants were very less both in terms of
numbers as well as milk handled by them. In the Pre MMPO-1999 period their share did not
change much. At the same time, cooperative sector increased their share in terms of quantity
of milk handled despite the fact that their number reduced drastically. It means that in the Pre
MMPO-1999 period, the cooperative sector kept their reliance on consolidation of milk
procurement and handling capacities and capabilities as even though they reduced their
numbers they continued to increase their share in Indian dairy sector.

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In the starting phase of Post MMPO-1999 period, the organized sector was mainly dominated
by the cooperatives sector (42.09 per cent in the year 1999-00). Similar trend continued till
the end of 2010-11 (Table 3). At the same time, the private sector processed 6.29 per cent of
total milk handled in the organized sector with 21.26 per cent of the dairy factories. But at the
end of 2010-11, this sector increased their share from 6.29 to 21.98 per cent with almost same
proportion of dairy factories. It is estimated that the capacity created by the private dairies in
the past 15 years equals the capacities created by the cooperatives in over 30 years (Joshi R.
M., 2011). Some of the big private players in the market today are Hatsum Agro, Heritage
Foods, Tirmula Milk Products, VRS Foods, Sterling Agro Industries, Dynamix Dairy
Industries and Bhola Baba Dairy Industries, each handling more than one million liters of
milk per day. There are also a clutch of smaller private companies, handling 0.5 –1million
liquid milk per day. Between 2013-13, Hyderabad- based Heritage Foods increased its milk
procurement capacity tremendously so that its turnover grew by almost 16% in 2013 (Sood,
J., 2014).

Similar but marginal incremental trend was observed in the public sector operated dairy
industry. One important observation from Table 3 is dairy plants operating in the “Others”
category, they decreased their numbers but at the same time they drastically lost their share in
the milk processing in the organized sector. It may be conjectured that private sector owned
dairy factories could be providing some kinds of sops to the farmers and they have
consolidated their milk handling capacity as there is no proportional increase in number of
their dairy factories.

Table 3: Dynamics of Organized Dairy Industry with respect of types of ownership (in%)
Type of 1994-95 1999-00 2010-11
Ownership Quantity No of Quantity of No of Quantity of No of
of Milk factories Milk factories Milk factories
Processed Processed Processed
Public 17.48 10.23 21.07 21.81 18.80 12.54
Private 4.62 11.13 6.29 21.26 21.98 32.16
Co-operative 45.98 33.39 42.09 12.76 50.59 28.42
Others 31.92 45.24 30.53 44.17 8.63 26.88
Source: Authors’ estimates based on unit level data of ASI (1994-95, 1999-00 and 2010-11).

Others: Individual Proprietorship, Joint family, Partnership, Govt. Departmental Enterprise,

Public Corporation by Special act of Parliament/ legislator/PSU, Khadi & village industries
commission, Handlooms and Others (incl Trusts, wakf board, etc)

Key challenges in dairy sector and suggestions:

Dairy sector in India has shown a strong growth in the face of price rise in dairy products.
Further growth in the value added in dairy products will compel private milk processor to
reinforce the upstream linkages in supply chain to secure additional quantity of milk. Private
processor needs to seize this opportunity to focus on milk procurements model for the future.

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The key will be to support farmer-driven dairy farming, with downstream companies/ private
players/ corporate/ organized processor playing the anchor role to involve service providers
such as those supplying feed, genetics, health care and equipments.
Direct sourcing from the farmers is critical for milk processors and will require a dedicated
focus to lift the quantity of the milk supplied maintaining quality. Large-scale corporate dairy
farming is only likely to develop in the long term. In the meantime, medium-scale corporate
dairy farming will be essential to secure sufficient milk supplies. Processors will have to play
an anchor role for other stakeholders. This will help create integrated dairy companies in the
milk production and in the processing and distribution of dairy products, yielding higher
returns in value chain.

The conversion from an unorganised to an organised milk procurement chain will be

continuous and a steady process. The National Dairy Development Board focuses on
establishing linkage with the organized sector through National Dairy Plan. Only
Cooperatives are involved in this process. Analysis from 14 major state milk federations by
Down To Earth magazine shows that only five federations are chaired by elected members,
while rest are headed by Government nominated Chairpersons. Nine federations have state
government equity; six have over 51 per cent government equity. State governments used
subsidies as bait to control these huge conglomerations of milk producers’. Example to hike
of subsidy, per liter of milk by the Karnataka Milk Producers Federation Ltd (KMF), where
more than 2.2 million dairy farmers are members of the state cooperative. Following this
move, milk producers in other states like Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra are
demanding similar subsidies (Sood, J, 2014). They are slowly loosing the market
competitiveness. They are interested to operate within the same locations/ areas where
cooperatives established basic infrastructure and all kinds of enabling conditions for smooth
operations as those private players realised that institutional building was a difficult task for
them.

In order to overcome the issues that the dairy cooperatives face, both institutional and
government intervention, it is necessary to organise the existing cooperatives into producer
organisation/producer Company transcending the geographical boundaries of taluka or
district while maintaining the basic tenets of cooperative principles that may lead towards
efficiency both in terms of inclusiveness as well as enhance the quality of social business.

The need to organise farmers, especially the small holders, is a well established fact. The
basic purpose of the producers’ company is to collectivise small farmers or producers for (a)
backward linkage for inputs like feed, genetics, health care and equipments, credit, insurance,
knowledge and extension services and (b) forward linkages such as collective marketing and
processing.

The existing value chains remain fragmented which favour the commission agents much
more than the farmer or consumer. It is necessary to invite private sector to build back-end
infrastructure for aggregation, processing, packing and marketing of the fresh dairy produce

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in rural areas to procure directly from farmer-producer organizations. This will create
millions of ‘off-farm’ rural jobs, save on post-harvest losses, and create more efficient value
chains giving a better deal to farmers and consumers alike, as also making more competitive.

The sector requires a fundamental paradigm shift in dairy-food system policy supported by
institutional change, capacity development and investment, in order to move towards a
sustainable production system and consumption patterns. At the heart of this effort is to gain
collective bargaining power for small farmers/ producers. The collectives of farmers in the
form of producer companies is gaining popularity among the farmers/producers and among
the promoting agencies primarily due to several advantages it carries in comparison to the
conventional model of producers cooperatives. It may leads towards efficiency because
market efficiency is the result of competition policies being implemented across the
economy.

Indian dairy industry is mainly dominated by the cooperative sector which connect million of
resource poor farmers to the market and still this sector in nascent stage of development. It is
important that government keep dairy and food sector away from Free Trade Agreement
(FTA) otherwise smart move by the developed countries increases the arbitrage possible for
dairy and food business for foreign big retailers.

The giant multinationals along with the domestic retailers with whom they are going to form
joint ventures are going to have much greater financial power than the domestic big retailers
alone. Therefore, in the new set-up, big organized retail is likely to cover a much larger
portion of the market than before. There is concern in food and retail sector that some MNCs
might use their monopsony power, their ability to access cheap products from domestic and
foreign market, and use that monopsony power to give competition to domestic food
companies. That’s not a good basis for growth. Monopsony is a market similar to a monopoly
except that a large buyer, and not seller, controls a large proportion of the market and drives
the prices down. It is sometimes referred to as the buyer’s monopoly. It will definitely affect
the domestic cooperative and private player of Indian dairy sector.

To protect the small and medium producers, processors as well as the consumers would
require effective regulations. Effectiveness of regulations is a must which mainly depends not
only upon the regulations themselves, but also on the regulatorand the environment in which
they are implemented. Emergence of regulations can in turn be dependent upon these three.
Will and wherewithal on part of the regulator on one hand and public pressure on the other
are critical for successful implementation. Equally important, if the regulator does not have
the requisite information or is constrained by factors beyond his control, then again, the
regulations may not achieve the desired objectives. It is essential to transform traditional
supply chains from linear, sequential processes into adaptive supply chain networks in which
communities of customer- centric, demand-driven, intelligently adapt to changing market
conditions, and proactively respond to shorter, less-predictable life cycles.

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Conclusions:
The finding of study indicates that in Indian dairy production system is more dominated by
smallholder dairy farmers. Major concern in this production system is the sustainability as in
near future it is going to be more intensified. Therefore, it puts more pressure on feed and
fodder resources. For sustainability of production first prerequisite is to increase sectoral
profitability. Developing smallholder-based dairy sector is justified on the ground that it
realizes the needs of the production base by the masses and self sustaining. It generates
income, employment to cover their better way of living with self respect. In this kind of
social business, part of the surplus is invested in expanding the business, and part is kept in
reserve to cover uncertainties. By fulfilling the inclusiveness it is not moving towards
efficiency but also the achieving a social goal ‘ Sab- ka sath- sub ka bikas’.
Value addition in milk is unavoidable if one has to enhance sector profitability; the same does
not seem feasible unless the organized sector improves its penetration. Because, it is the
involvement of the organized sector that will drive the growth by resorting to value addition
in basic product and harnessing the consumer market. The mechanics of the organized sector
penetration could be agency-specific as also area-specific. Need of the day is to provide
quality of efficient input and output support services as provided by the co-operatives (Amul
model at Gujarat, Nandani Milk Federation at Karnataka Model), private sector (Nestlé) and
contract dairy farming.

Most of the milk processed in unorganized sector which operated at very low margin in rural
area and most of these firms are tiny enterprises and do not fall under small and medium size
enterprise. So there is very less scope for any foreign firm to purchase dairy products from
tiny size enterprises. But, in organised sector there is scope for foreign firm to purchase dairy
products by subcontracting or on some franchising format. This kind of linkages and
subcontracts between the foreign firm and organized dairy firm increases the possibility or
avenues for huge investment in dairy sector especially at the back end format (because of the
conditionality of 50 percent investment in back end infrastructure facility creation).

In the recent years some new dairy development models have been implemented and scaled
up by the co-operative sector like New Generation Cooperatives (Dairy Producer Companies)
such as producer companies in Saurashtra and Kutch region in Gujarat as Mahi Producer
Company and in Rajasthan as Payas producer company. Whereas, in Punjab group of
progressive farmers started Punjab Progressive Dairy Farmers Association. The replication
and scaling up of these models largely depends on the governance, institutional support and
market forces.

It is essential to transform traditional supply chains from linear, sequential processes into
adaptive supply chain networks in which communities of customer-centric, demand-driven,
intelligently adapt to changing market conditions, and proactively respond to shorter, less-
predictable life cycles. In the last 15 years, the share of milk producers’ share in consumer
money has declined from 52% to 38% in USA and from 56% to 36% in UK (IFCN, 2011).
As compared to that, Indian milk producers get more than 70% on an average and the milk
producers affiliated to co-operatives get more than 80% share of consumers’ rupee.

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Key question is whether the organized retail trade would be able to operate at low margins as
practiced by GCMMF and other co-operatives, failing which they would not be able to
maintain the farmer’s share in consumer price. Neither do our farmers receive fair price for
their produce, nor do consumers benefit from low prices. The issue is not just about
converting our farmers from price-takers to price-makers (as that would have further
complicated the equation among farmers, distribution agents and consumers), but to balance
the need of different interest groups by addressing the root causes of anti-competitive
practices, which are rampant all over the country.

It is high time that the various stakeholders in the discussions relating to retailing in India
start making a serious effort to understand how efficient or inefficient India’s retailing
infrastructure is today. And then how to make it more efficient for the consumers, the
producers of consumer goods, those whose livelihood rests upon the retailing value-chain
and, finally, the state and central governments who have to expand their tax revenue base to
meet their revenue needs to provide better physical and social infrastructure to India’s
masses.

References :
References are available on request from editor.

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 Where is Small Farmer Dairy Farming in India?
N.S.R. Sastry
Consulting Livestock Specialist
303, Gokulam Vinayagar Mansion
9-21-1/8 CBM Compound, Visakhapatnam-530003, Andhra Pradesh
Email: nsrsastry@Gmail.Com

Abstract:
While the backbone of milk production in India is traditionally by a large number of small
farmers, the present approach seems to go for larger farms by Indians or by Indians with
foreign collaborations or directly by foreign entities. While this has greatly increased milk
output in the country, unfortunately, it is driving out the traditional small dairy farmers,
whose production is local market-oriented ‘unorganized’ sector – either directly or through
the dairy cooperatives. Experts feel that this trend has to be halted via policy decisions. More
important, more emphasis is needed in the sustained funding, implementation and supervision
of the already announced grandiose plans. This article is an attempt at throwing light on such
details.
Key words: Small farmer dairying; Dairy policy; Local versus large milk markets;

Unbridled urbanisation effort is deserting rural landscapes, reducing livelihood security and
increasing poverty. This ground reality, however, adds to more malnutrition, unemployment,
greater deprivation, violence, debt-ridden rural families, a fractured education system and
regressive governance. The latest casualty of such an environment is the Indian dairy sector, the
so called India’s “sunshine sector”. There is a massive milk crisis unfolding in the country, which
is threatening to destroy the “informal sector” dominated resilient Indian milk market.

Experts’ views on government interventions :

This critical situation has to be halted via policy decisions. And greater emphasis is needed in
the sustained practical funding to the grassroots level (not mere stances), implementation and
supervision of the already announced grandiose plans. The measures suggested by
knowledgeable economists and entrepreneur managers (not necessarily dairying experts)
listed at the end of this article are as follows:

1. Priority sector status: Dairy and animal husbandry sectors should be given priority sector
status, just like giving priority sector benefit to the crop cultivation or the agriculture.

2. No income ta – though there is any income tax on income from agriculture, dairy and animal
husbandry sectors are taxable. So small farmers (65 to 80%; dairy farmers earning Rs. 5
lakhs+) are liable to pay income tax, big farmers (up to 20-30% possessing above 10 acres)
are not liable to be taxed. Animal husbandry should be treated on par with the agriculture, at
least; income from which should be exempt from income tax.
3. Higher budget allocation:There should higher budget allocation to dairying and animal
husbandry if at all, real improvement of farm income is the criterion.

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4. Subsidies:The crisis (plenty of milk produced but producers are not benefited) can be partly
explained by the fact that India’s dairy producers receive absolutely no support or subsidies
from the government. A similar crisis affects small farmers in the European Union and the
US, where subsidies favour large dairy players, said a study.Sound is the FSA’s suggestion
on subsidies. “The cost of producing milk for the small scale dairy farmer is quite high. And
if they sell milk to the big companies at the current procurement prices, they incur losses
perennially.

5. Foreign direct investment in animal farming, dairy and dairy processing must be revoked.

6. Loans and interest subvention:Similar to giving crop loan or interest subvention to crop
farming, the same should be given to the dairy farmer also, so that he or she can also be able
to buy even cow(s) or buffalo(s) with an interest subvention.Especially crucial to the dairy
farmer is the short term credit on moderate or low interest rates. Loans for working capital
should be given at very concessional rates.

7. Dairy imports: India must not cut import tariffs on milk and milk products. The
government must pressure the EU, the US, Australia and New Zealand to withdrew subsidies
that distort dairy markets.
8. Focus on scheme implementation: The government has already launched good flagship
schemes. But the focus should be now on implementation, so that, at the ground level, they
are translating into reality of the intent with which they have been started.

9. GST rates: Obviously better agriculture production has not led to better status of farmers as
unscrupulous players have distorted the level playing field in their favour, rather than that to
the farmers. Goods and services tax (GST), should preferably at zero percentrates to dairy
sector to show results by way of economic betterment of farmers.
10. APMC: The new model of Agricultural Produce Market Committee Act is a positive move.
The states have to be enabled (mechanism of action) to implement the same in segregation of
the role of regulator coupled with the non-enforcement of the said Essential Commodities on
supply chain players (dairy inputs and services) as opposed to hoarders or speculators.

11. Higher minimum support price (MSP) would be unsustainable as government has to keep a
leash on inflation. For dairy farmers, the desirable routes are – i) productivity improvement
matching, ii) taking value added products to the consumer, is how one must get the farm
incomes rising.
12. Income from ADP and wastes:The potential of cashing Animal Draft Power for local rural
transport and Value Added Products (biogas, vermicompost, organic manures, Panchagavya,
Jeevaamritametc) from wastes are other routes that have to be encouraged through
appropriate schemes for increasing sustainability of small dairy farmers.

13. Private sector role: A mechanism has to be ensured, so that the states adopt the new Model
Act, to overseea clear role of the private sector in a market oriented economy, i.e., whether

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 the private sector is doing good for the farmers; as it hardly matters so long as the consumers'
milk demand is met in a smooth manner.

14. DBT: Fertilizer direct benefit transfer does not cause a rise productivity but will reduce cost.
At any rate animal waste based manures have to be encouraged for fodder cultivation, via
appropriate schemes. Also DBT requires adequate checks to prevent misuse of funds by some
farmers.

15. FSA recommendations:The Dairy Working Group of the Food Sovereignty Alliance (FSA,
India, a Hyderabad-based NGO)launched in June 2015, a Farm Sector Analysis studycovering
small farmer members from Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh and Medak district in
Telangana revealed that the FSA study made several recommendations. Some crucial one are:
a) The state must guarantee a minimum price for milk sold by small farmers. This price must
cover their cost of production and should be executed through public-sector cooperatives (for
example, Telangana’sVijaya Dairy recently increased its procurement price by Rs 4 per litre
to support milk farmers).
b) Natural Resources (land, water, air, forests, biodiversity, seed), agricultural produce and the
dairy, meat, eggs and milk sector must be excluded from all bilateral, multilateral or regional
free trade agreements being negotiated by India with various countries.
c) Experts believe that states need to formulate policies that will return the focus to
cooperatives.
16. Milk processing – a must: States need to formulate policies to concentrate on processing
milk and milk products. For instance, Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of milk but it
processes only 12% of the milk. If the processing capacity is increased, it will mean better
returns for small dairy farmers,which will encourage further processing of milk, resulting in
value addition and then ensure that a percentage from this goes to the dairy farmers. Milk
processing is also important because about half of India’s milk, vegetables and fruits are
wasted due to the lack of cold storage.
17. Protection to small farmers: Farmers are reaching out directly to consumers because bigger
federations and companies are procuring milk at extremely low prices.There should be some
form of support from the government to subsidise the cost of production or increase
procurement prices so that the small scale farmers could sustain their businesses. After all,
this in the interest of our own food needs.
18. Fodder crisis: The biggest crisis being faced by dairy farmers is the shortage of cattle fodder
caused by low production, moderate wastage and great shrinking of grazing lands due to
other ‘development’ needs. India may have to import milk in four years if it cannot increase
fodder supply for its 299 million cattle, as rising pressure on land reduces pastures
nationwide. In this the initiative of the government of AP in implementing (initial stages) of
the project for encouraging intensive green fodder production and bulk silage making in all
possible places (by public agencies and private farmers, has to be appreciated. Like fodder
banks, foder/silage so produced is for distribution to the needed small dairy farmers like in
PDS of food items.

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19. Labour welfare: On medium and big farms employing outside labour, we have to do more for
farm workers’ welfare. It looks that higher profit farms tend (though not always linearly) to
have higher income from milk sales, due to the tendency of a combination of (i) higher milk
production per cow,(ii) higher milk price, (iii) lower feed costs, (iv) lower stock replacement
costs and (v) labour on a dairy farm. Hence,the need for labour welfare measures.

20. Cow and heifer feeding strategies: Feeding appropriately during various stages of a cow’s life
– before calving, early, mid and late (pregnancy) stages – need wise and economy wise.
Similarly, post-weaning, the dairy heifer care is neglected, under the plea that they are not
producing anything. Due to this,their most potential period for growth between 6 and 20
months of age is wasted. Whereas, many experiments in India revealed that daily weight
gains of around 1 kg can be achieved in indigenous cattle breeds and buffaloes.

21. Better waste utilization: Animal wastes can give incomes equal to that from milk! As ‘green’
manure and other VAP (biogas, vermicompost, organic fertilisers. Panchagavya,
Jeevaamritam etc.) can bring in more income to the farmers and allow production of high-
niche organic milk and milk products. Also, such practices reduce environmental pollution
besides sustaining the soil physical, chemical and biological health.

22. Animal welfare: Minding the natural animal behavior, individually and in groups, (Applied
Animal Ethology) and animal welfare as an integral part of dairy farming is a must; only
contented animals produce best. The NDRI-ICAR publication, National Code of Practices
for Management of Dairy Animals in India, brought out after a national workshop sponsored
by the World Animal Protection is a good guide for farm level animal welfare.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

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 Appraisal, Challenges and Opportunities for Strategic Management of Small
Holder Nomadic Gaddi Sheep and Goats in Western Himalayas

Pardeep Kumar Dogra, Varun Sankhyan, Narender Kumar

Anjali Kumari and Ankaj Thakur
CSK Himachal Pradesh KrishiVishvavidyalaya
Palampur-176062, Himachal Pradesh
Email : pkdograplp@rediffmail.com
Introduction:
Pastoralism involving rearing of different livestock species makes significant contribution to
the economy of developing countries, both in terms of providing employment and income
opportunities and in supplying nutrition to rural poor. Pastoralism generally has a mobile
aspect, and movement of animal herds in search of fresh pastures and water is a key feature
qualifying pastoralism. The term nomadic is used when mobility is high and in irregular
patterns; transhumance when there are regular back-and-forth movements between relatively
fixed locations. Nomadic pastoralism is a form of pastoralism where livestock are herded to
find fresh pastures to graze. Strictly speaking, true nomads follow an irregular pattern of
movement, in contrast to transhumance where seasonal pastures are fixed. However, this
distinction is often not observed and the term nomads used for both. Geographically, nomadic
pastoralism is most prevalent in dry lands of Western India (Thar Desert) and in Deccan
Plateau, as well as in mountainous regions of North India (Himalayas). The types of livestock
raised under mobile, transhumant pastoral systems include buffaloes, sheep, goats, camels,
cattle, donkeys, yaks, and even ducks.
Nomadic pastoralism is very common in the Himalayas and a number of nomadic
communities practise this (Misri, 1998). Though with the changing times and availability of
diverse occupations, a considerable decline has taken place in the number of pastoral nomads,
yet this system is still the only occupation of a large Himalayan population. Gaddi is a
distinct tribe of nomadic pastoralists found in the Himachal Pradesh state of India. Gaddis
follows Alpiwirtscaft type of strategy, associated with movement of people and animal in
vertical space, community control of pastures combined with individual control of
plots/haying fields and social institution that schedule the complex movement in space and
time (Bhasin, 2013). The Gaddis, in all, have derived their name from their native land, the
Gadheran, which lies on both sides of the Dhauladhar ranges. In its north east the Dhauladhar
leads to the higher Himalaya, while towards its south west it touches the Shiwaliks- the lesser
or outer Himalaya which merge into the plains.This continuity of the plains upto the higher
Himalayan ranges offer an excellent migratory route to the Gaddis.
Gaddies are distinct from other nomads in having a permanent house somewhere in the area.
During migrations, the elders of the family and the women live in these houses. Gaddi
habitations are situated on the Dhauladhar between an altitudes of 1000 - 2500 m above
MSL. Oflate some of the Gaddis have migrated to other districts of the state but the majority
still lives in Bharmour region of Chamba district. While 30 percent of the Gaddis are still
fully migratory, 70 percent have adopted to sedentary or semi-migratory mode of life.
Gaddis rear both sheep and goats. The sheep and goat population of the state of H.P as per
2012 census is 8,04,871 and11, 19,491, respectively. Although over the last few censuses
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(Table 1), sheep and goat both recorded decline in population over the years, the reduction in
sheep was more marked than goat. Contrary to sheep, over last 15 years, goat population had
shown positive growth during 2003-2007 period. The contribution of goat to total livestock
population remained more or less same for past four livestock census, while sheep had shown
a clear cut decreasing trends.
Table-1:Sheep and goat population over a period of 15 year in Himachal Pradesh
(BAHS; 1997 to 2012)
Census Sheep Goat Total Livestock Sheep % Goat % Sheep and
(millions) (millions) (millions) of TL of TL Goat % of
TL
1997 1.08 1.17 5.22 20.68 22.41 43.10
2003 0.93 1.13 5.21 17.85- 21.68 39.54
(-13.88) (-3.42) (-3.83) (16.58) (-3.25) (-8.26)
2007 0.90 1.24 5.05 17.82 23.96 42.38
(-3.23) (+9.73) (-3.07) (-0.02) (+10.5) (+7.18)
2012 0.81 1.12 4.85 16.70 23.09 39.79
(-10.00) (-9.67) (-3.96) (-6.28) (-3.63) (-6.11)
Annual -1.67% -0.3% -0.47% -1.28% +0.20% -0.51%
change /year
Note : TL: Total Livestock, Figure in parenthesis indicate percent change in particular category over the previous census

The breeding tract of Gaddi Sheep and goats cover Chamba, Kangra, Kullu, Bilaspur and
Mandi Districts in Himachal Pradesh, adjoining hilly parts of Jammu and Kashmir and
Dehradun, Nainital, Thhrigarhwal and Chamoli districts of Uttarakhand.These animals
entirely depend upon grazing. During winter, the flocks graze in the valleys, while in summer
they move to higher altitudes. The main reason for their migration to the lower hills during
winter is the absence of grazing pastures due to heavy snowfall in the high altitude areas. The
shepherds migrate from middle hills to plains in the month of November and return back to
same place in month of April. From April on wards they migrate to high altitudes (8500-9000
feet above MSL) and remain there upto May and from June to August in higher hills (10000-
12000 feet above MSL) of Lahual and Spiti, Churah, Satrundi and Rohtang. These animals
are well built, sturdy and adopted to long distance migration.

Opportunitiesassociated with migratory production system:

Low input output production system: Nomadic pastoralism is a low input production
system as the animals are reared on minimal available resources. No special feeding regime is
followed and animals fulfil their appetite by grazing. Since animals are mostly on the move,
they do not require any housing structures as well. Hence, this system presents an easy
venture as starting capital requirement is less, besides other expenditures are negligible. On
similar lines, the output is also low but margin of profit is sufficient for the sustainability of
the nomads. If the role of middle man, necessary marketing channels, addressing health and
nutritional issues are taken care, the enterprise can reap huge benefits.

Well adopted breeds for migration:The Gaddi breeds of Sheep and goats are well adopted
for migration and have notable characteristics which make them quite suitable for this system
of rearing. They are sure-footed and medium sized breeds well adopted to diverse climatic

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conditions and adjusted to sustain hypoxic temperate environment in one season while at
higher hills and normal sub-tropical environment in another season while at foot hills. Thus
these breeds are best utilizers of the available feed resources of the region.
Ample scope for improvement: In terms of improvement, this system is at its infancy and
presents a huge scope for improvement. Introduction of some critical inputs like regular
health care facilities can increase the productivity considerably. These will help to generate a
healthy flock free from diseases. On the flip side, improvement at the level of output will
require setting up effective marketing channels and development of potential market for the
produce. These will help to fetch remunerative prices to the farmers and will potentiate
encouragement.

Availability of grazing facilities: The state of Himachal Pradesh is blessed with approx.
15.10 lakh hectares of permanent pastures and grazing lands (2010-2011) which are poorly
managed and shrinking. Yet, appropriate conservation and improvement measures can
possibly boost the ongoing process of nomadic pastoralism. This vast resource in the form of
pastures and grazing land can be exploited to the fullest and used to sustainably reap benefits
through migratory pastoralism.

Nearly organic production system: This system of production is nearly organic as there is
minimal use of medicines, antibiotics, feed supplements. Animals suffice their appetite by
grazing on natural pasture grasses and herbs. No additives or growth promoters are fed to the
animals. So, it is quite different from those reared in intensive system and fattened. This
serves as a huge opportunity as these days great impetus is given to organic farming and is
promoted by the government as well.

Non organized marketing system for meat: Absence of an organized marketing system is
both a drawback as well as beaming opportunity. The produce is sold through the middlemen
who buy it at nominal prices and sell it at high prices. Meat is of excellent quality and taste
yet all the benefit goes to the middlemen. So, establishing an effective marketing channel
directly from producer to consumer will eliminate the middlemen and ensure remunerative
prices to the nomads and livestock owners for their produce. Besides, meat processing and
storage will maintain all the year round supply of meat.

Challenges associated with migratory production system:

Veterinary and institutional facilities: Although, state Department of Animal Husbandry
ensured proper health care of migratory flocks and had established several dedicated
institutions for the same, but these are limited to low and middle hills and are insufficient
owing to very long and tedious migratory routes in tough topography (usually flocks migrates
from lower hill about 350 m to inner Himalayan ranges up to 5000 m above MSL).
Moreover, during summers the flocks climb to alpine pastures and it is difficult for these
institutions to provide health care facilities at such remote places except in emergency
situations.

Attack by predators: One of the factors responsible for major losses during migration
especially the young progeny was predation. Various predators including leopard, wolf and

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even group of stray dogs attacked the flock while migrating through forests. During daytime,
when the flock is away from temporary camping site for grazing, the young kids were
generally left unattended only under the watch and ward of Gaddi dogs and they become easy
prey to the predators.

Incidence of diseases and poisoning: It has been observed that the migratory flocks were at
a greater risk to diseases (viral, bacterial and parasitic) and morbidity and mortality rates
were usually higher compared to intensive system since most of the times immediate
veterinary aid was not available especially in high hills. Secondary data from various sources
showed that important diseases prevalent were PPR, foot rot, enterotoxaemia, infectious
lameness, mange/scabies and pneumonia. Generally, in high hills when any disease problem
was noticed, there was delay in reporting due to lack of communication facility and difficult
approach of the area. The low risk problems were first tried to be addressed by the flock
owners and if problem persisted then only expert help was sought and by that time
considerable losses had already occurred.

Accidental deaths: Accidental deaths are very common during migration to upper hills and
back through narrow and treacherous path making animals prone to accidental slip from cliffs
resulting either in death or sometime serious locomotive injuries which rendered the animal
unfit for further migration and forced the farmers to dispose it off at throw away prices.

Theft: This constraint is more frequent during migration in lower hills. Many farmers
reported that almost every year substantial livestock losses occurred due to theft by antisocial
elements and farmers were not in a position to report it immediately to local authorities. This
problem had increased manifolds and needed immediate intervention of local authorities for a
logical solution.

Environmental extremes: Under migratory production system, the animals were not
provided any shelter at all; therefore they became vulnerable to environmental extremes such
as heavy rainfall rendering animals susceptible to diseases. Sometimes, the animals had to
cross high passes and long glaciers covered with snow resulting in foot affections and
associated problems.

Marketing: Due to lack of organized markets, farmers usually had to sell surplus animals
and young kids at their own level. Moreover, the window for sale was only available while
camping in lower hills and near human settlements. Hence returns are not equally balanced
throughout the year and for almost six month farmers are unable to sell their surplus animals.
The existing sheep and goat marketing system in lower hills of Himachal Pradesh
encompasses flock owner, middleman and consumer itself. The wholesale establishment is
located near urban pockets that acted as link chain between retailer and flock owner en-route
migration upward hills or downward plains. Wholesaler usually purchase 5-10 heads from
each owner and 50-60 at a time from different flocks and temporarily rear them for few days
before further supplying to retailers. The retailers usually slaughter 2-4 animals depending
upon the need of local market. Retailer mostly relied upon wholesaler for the supply of
animals but occasionally they did direct marketing from the farmer. The price of a live animal

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was estimated by sex, size and body condition of animals and is subjected to individual
assessment.

Other challenges faced by the pastoralists :

Government attitudes to pastoralist: In social evolutionary thinking, the nomadic lifestyle
has traditionally been categorized as less civilized, less productive and more degrading than a
settled lifestyle (Sabherwal, 1999). Due to problems of their cultural stereotyping, small
population and migratory lifestyle, the Himalayan pastoralists are ignored in various policy-
level decisions. Non-participation and ignorance of their rights and status have seriously
marginalized these communities. Their political marginalization is visible across all
Himalayan states where most of the pastoral groups are not vocal about their concerns.
Non-recognition of pastoral land rights: Local pastoral groups regard themselves as owners
of pasture resources in Himalayas and follow traditional rules and regulations in distributing
and managing these resources amongst themselves. The customary usage of forest resources
or common lands is neither documented in government records nor officially recognized.
There are instances where winter pastures of Gaddi pastorals in Himachal Pradesh were
allotted to landless people under some social welfare scheme ignoring the resource use and
right to access of Gaddi pastoralists.

Population growth and land fragmentation: Owing to growing human population in

Himalayan region, land resources per household are decreasing along with sub-division and
fragmentation of agricultural land. It has posed serious livelihood social problems due to:
(a) Reduced pastures: Across all the Himalayan states, the pastoral livelihoods are
seriously threatened by problem of shrunken pasturage. This decreasing availability of
pasture resources has been due to misinformed conservation policies of the states and
encroachment. Ever increasing human population, increased infrastructure and development
in these areas have seriously reduced the size of available winter pasturage for pastoralists.
Similarly, terrorist activities in areas bordering Jammu and Kashmir also affect summer
pastures in Himalayas. The increasing agricultural activities in the high altitude regions of the
Himalayas are also a threatening trend for Himalayan pastoralism.

(b) Disturbed migratory routes: The migratory pastoralists in Himalayas travel long
distances from low to high altitudes and vice versa. On their way to summer or winter
grazing lands, they halt at common lands of various villages, which is important for animal
forage and their social relations with the agricultural communities. Himalayan states have
gone through dramatic infrastructure and tourism development in last few decades besides
extensive road building, hydro power plants, hotels etc. across its length and breadth. As a
result, pastoralists frequently have to alter their migratory routes and face problems of
livestock being killed on roads, thefts and a constant pressure to move. There are instances
where animals die of eating noxious weeds growing close to the roads or on degraded land.

Strategic management of migratory goat and sheep flocks en-route migration in

Western–Himalayan region of HimachalPradesh : A case study (Sankhyanet al., 2016):
A study was conducted in the sub-Himalayan ranges of Himachal Pradesh, India .The data of

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migratory flocks were collected through personal interviews by structured questionnaires.
Four different migratory routes were selected in entire state and 30-40 migratory farmers
from each migratory route were interviewed.To understand the characteristics of migratory
goat and sheep husbandry, after conducting the survey, four medium sized flocks, one from
each migratory route, were adopted and monitored continuously during their migration for
data recording. Out of these four units, two were exclusive goat units and two were mixed
sheep and goat units.The data recording was done only for goats although various inputs were
provided to all the flocks irrespective of the fact whether animals were included in the study
or not. All the animals were identified by ear tagging.Thereafter, for studying the impact of
improved practices and breeding management, strategic manage-mental and breeding inputs
were provided to these flocks throughout the year for next three years along with data
recordings.The primary or secondary data so generated was organized and subjected to
statistical analysis.

Flock structure and socio-economic characteristics: The primary data generated through
surveys revealed that majority (50%) of flocks were medium sized (200-350), followed by

Route Map of Study Area Gaddi Flock in Lower Hills

Table-2: Flock structure and Socio- economic characteristics of migratory
sheep and goat farmers
Particulars Flock
Flock Characteristic Small Medium Large Overall
Flock (No)/ proportion of total 40(40.8) 49(50) 9(9.2) 98
Total flock size 2477 7529 3416 13422
Average flock size (mean ± SE) 64.5±2.72 153.7±6.36 379.6±15.45 136.9±10.49
Sheep (%) 56.51 56.71 59.25 57.44
Goat (%) 42.83 42.57 39.81 41.92
Others (dogs, ponies etc.) 0.65 0.71 0.94 0.76
Social characteristics
Average family size (mean ± SE) 5.53±0.22 5.74±0.27 6.89±0.91 5.76±0.18
Land holding,(Mean ± SE),Bigha 8.87±0.95 7.25±0.88 9.94±1.03 8.15±0.60
Economic characteristics
Income (all sources)/year, INR 53,625 57,143 71,111 56,990
Income (migratory farming/year), INR 26,875 36,120 43,333 32,959
Proportional income from migratory 57.25 63.03 60.54 60.94
farming (%)
Note : Figure in parenthesis indicate the relative proportion of particular class compared to overall.

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40.2% small flocks (100 animals) and 9.8% larger sized flock (>350 animals). Each flock has
3-4 ponies for carriage of loads during migration and 2-3 dogs (of distinct Gaddibreed) for
watch and ward. Overall proportion of sheep, goat and other animals (ponies, dog etc.) was
found to be 57.44%, 41.92% and 0.76 % respectively. The overall average family size and
land holding observed was 5.76±0.15, 8.15±0.60 Bigha, respectively (Table-2). On an
average, these farmers derived more than 60% of their income from migratory goat and sheep
husbandry and in many cases this accounted to even 100%. The annual average income as
per survey results was around 56960 INR (876 USD) /annum, which may be an
underestimate as many a times the farmers were reluctant enough to reveal the actual income
and disclosed figures towards lower side.
Breeding management: Farmers owned flock was the primary source (68.4%) of breeding
buck followed by buck purchased from middleman (20.4%) and only in limited cases
(10.2%) the buck was purchased from fellow farmer’s flock. Irrespective of the size of flock,
the number of breeding bucks used at a given time in the flock usually ranged between 1- 3
while majority of the flocks maintained 2 bucks only (Table 3). These breeding bucks were
found to be used continuously for 4-5 breeding seasons before their replacement. The male
buck selection was based on indigenous knowledge, traditional wisdom and certain myths
which were passed from one generation to the other. The buck: doe ratio was observed to be
quite wide as farmers usually kept only one or two breeding bucks in their flocks. The
periodical rotation of breeding buck was also not observed and bucks were used continuously
for four to five breeding season or sometime even more, which led to inbreeding in the flock.
Female goat selection was usually not practiced and almost all the potential breedable does
were used for breeding. Occasionally few animals (old and suffering from some ailments)
were culled by way of selling.

Table-3: Breeding management of migratory sheep and goat farmers

Particulars Flock
Overall
Flock Characteristic Small Medium Large
Source of breeding buck
Own Flock 24(60.0) 36(73.5) 7(87.5) 67(68.4)
Fellow farmer 6(15.0) 4(8.2) 0(0) 10(10.2)
Fairs/middleman 10(35.0) 9(18.3) 1(13.5) 20(20.4)
No of buck in flock 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-3
No of years buck used 3-4 4-5 4-5 4-5
Note : Figure in parenthesis indicate the relative proportion of particular class compared to overall.

Gaddi Flock in Upper Hills Buck Suppplied as Breeding Input

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Effect of improved management practices on body weights in adopted flocks:
The study continued for a period of four years to see the effect of intervention on production
potential of migratory production system and results are summarized in Table 4. The results
revealed significant improvement in body weights at different ages in every unit every year,
which could be attributed to the strategic manage-mental and breeding inputs. Also the
differences observed between different units were not significant and almost all units
revealed similar trend of improvements which further strengthened the findings of the study
that with improved management strategy the production potential of migratory system can be
increased.

Table 4: Body weight at different ages in the adopted flocks en-route migration.
Weight(Kg)
Factor Birth 3M 6M 9M 12M
Year
2011-12 2.70±0.02(158) 14.91±0.39(178) 18.18±0.21(118) 21.16±0.34(142) 26.21±0.23(150)
2012-13 2.91±0.03(171) 14.88±0.13(235) 19.32±0.20(142) 23.65±0.16(128) 27.32±0.23(169)
2013-14 2.98±0.02(206) 15.03±0.13(209) 19.17±0.17(173) 23.57±0.12(163) 26.80±0.18(213)
* NS * * *
Sex
Male 3.08.03(218) 15.18±0.34(268) 20.15±0.32(84) 23.64±0.49(61) 28.67±0.52(54)
Female 2.72±0.03(317) 14.46±0.29(354) 18.19±0.23(349) 22.56±0.26(372) 26.40±0.24(478)
* NS * NS *
Unit
Unit- 1 2.88±0.05(176) 14.81±0.28(214) 18.76±0.36(172) 22.54±0.39(145) 26.88±0.49(173)
Unit- II 2.88±0.06(120) 14.98±0.39(189) 19.25±0.43(113) 23.39±0.54(143) 26.54±0.61(159)
Unit- III 2.85±0.04(97) 15.00±0.26(172) 19.02±0.39(115) 22.79±0.49(121) 26.65±0.51(169)
Unit- IV 2.89±0.05(42) 14.92±0.36(47) 19.15±0.51(33) 23.70±0.56(24) 27.43±0.59(30)
NS NS NS NS NS
Overall 2.88±0.02(535) 14.94±0.31(622) 18.95±0.18(433) 22.80±0.21(433) 26.80±0.21(532)

Effect of improved management practices on reproductive performance and mortality

in adopted flocks:
The reproductive performance and mortality losses are summarized in Table 5. The analysis
of various reproductive parameters revealed that over the years, there was continual
improvement in population growth (5.5%), kidding rate, percent twin birth (10.92%) and.

Table 5: Effect of improved management interventions on reproductive performance and

mortality
Traits Year Percent
2011* 2012 2013 2014 Improvement**
Population growth (%) 99.47 103.82 106.14 104.73 5.5% (104.89)
Kidding rate (%) 1.16 1.18 1.25 1.21 4.3% (1.21)
Percentage of twin births (%) 18.32 19.81 19.96 21.19 10.92% (20.32)
Percent of abortion still/birth (%) 7.32 7.49 6.71 6.58 5.6% (6.92)
Pre weaning kid Mortality (%) 15.70 10.83 8.67 9.03 39.42%(9.51)
Note : * 2011 is taken as base year to see the effect of adopted strategies
**Percent improvement is assessed by comparing mean of trait for three year (2012, 2013 and 2014)
compared to the corresponding value in base year; figure in parenthesis are mean of three years.

216
 decrease in the incidence of abortion/still birth (5.6%). The pre-weaning kid losses which are
the major losses in migratory farming showed substantial improvement over the base year
(39.42%) along with gradual improvement in kid birth weight. This improvement might be
attributed to the improved management strategies and it can be visualized that better
management practices adopted by farmers and periodical monitoring of flocks helped in
reducing kid mortality.

Management strategies for improving productivity:

1) Conservation of pastures: Invasive alien species have invaded most of the grazing lands viz.
Lantana, Parthenium, Eupatorium, Leucaena, Prosopisjuliflora, etc. severely affecting their
productivity. So there is immediate need to eradicate these toxic exotic weeds and rehabilitate
the affected grazing lands with native species. Also, there is shrinkage of pasture cover due to
diversion of grazing lands for non- pasture uses. Hence there is immediate need to avoid their
fragmentation by proper demarcation of these grazing lands and resorting to other means and
measures to generate fodder to mitigate the scarcity.
2) Ensure protection of migratory routes: Since migratory routes are fast receding so it poses
a great threat to the very existence of the nomadic pastoralists. Extensive urbanization and
improperly conceived projects have not only reduced the grassland cover but also lead to
fragmentation of migratory routes. So effective measures at the government level are needed
to ensure protection of the migratory routes.

3) Provision of health care and other facilities en-routemigration: Vaccinations against

major diseases, medications, dewormers and other health care facilities should be provided to
the nomads at reasonable and affordable rates to minimize losses due to diseases. Its
importance also lies in the fact that they are always in movement and on the way may pose a
threat to other sedentary livestock owners whose animal may contract diseases from them
through aerosol or other modes of transmission.

4) Ensure remunerative prices for the meat: Usually middlemen or “Vyoparis” are involved
in the sale of the commodities and all the profit is pocketed by them. Their involvement has
to be minimized for economic viability.

5) Educate flock owners regarding management practices: Lack of knowledge and

awareness is the major constraint in the development of the nomads. Due to their lifestyle
they are totally cut off from the outside world and are ignorant about the new management
practices which can make their work easier. They can be introduced to new mechanized
methods of shearing which will not only increase production but also save time per animal
and reduce the chances of injury caused by crude methods. Awareness programs should be
organized for the same.

6) Reducing the morbidity and mortality rate:Sankhyanet al.,(2014) reported that pre-
weaning losses in migratory Gaddi flocks were mostly due to sub-optimal health
management. During migration to higher hills veterinary aid is not available easily or at time
of need. Enroute to higher hills small veterinary care centers need to be established at easily

217
 approachable sites to assist in cases of health emergency and to provide medication in case of
outbreaks.
7) Improving marketing infrastructure- The major output of the production system is meat
but it is being managed by the mighty middleman due to lack of proper marketing
infrastructure. Mostly flock owners has to sale the surplus males and culled animals at
through away prices due to non-organized sector. There is huge demand of the mutton and
chevon from Gaddi animals owing to its excellent acceptable meat quality and nearly organic
status, yet the price in the local market is very less. If proper sale outlets are created and meat
is sold by a brand name, a drastically high revenue can be harvested from the same product.
Hence intervention of the government at its highest level is required to create and provide
good marketing infrastructure. So eliminating middlemen will ensure remunerative prices for
their produce and ensure economic upliftment of the nomads.
8) Provision of help during natural calamities and epidemics: Many a time huge losses occur
due to natural calamities en-route migration like lightening, sudden snowfall, leopard attack,
disease outbreak etc. and the flock owners are left with very few animals, thus drastically
affecting their livelihood resources. Although some financial help by local administration is
provided but it is very meagre and takes long time due to many official formalities involved.
So some concrete government policy is needed to ensure prompt help at the time of
emergency so as to minimize losses and save them from the crisis.

Conclusion:
The migratory system is the cornerstone of sheep and goat farming in the region practiced for
long time and will remain as integral part of the agro-economy of hill farming system. In
spite of various constraints the migratory system is still sustainable being a low input system
which effectively counterbalances its constraints and makes it a profitable venture. Moreover,
the strong association of migratory system with tribal population and their cultural heritage
will ensure its propagation as long as the entity of tribe is maintained. Sustainable migratory
sheep and goat farming would be influenced to a greater extent by developing solutions for
existing constraints, and it will require institutional and extension support. So there is a need
to focus the research to address the following issues:

 Strategy to ensure optimum feeding management including supplementary

concentrate feeding of, at least, pregnant animals and breeding bucks during
migration.
 Management of rangeland and grazing area and formulation of new policies to
minimize conflicts with the locals and forest officials during migration.
 Characterization and estimation of nutritional potential/anti-nutritional effects of
various types of fodder which animals consume during migration.
 Recognition of chevon and mutton from migratory animals as some distinct entity/
brand in contrast to mutton and chevon from stall-fed animal so as to fetch premium
prices.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

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Integrated Livestock Farming : A Sustainable Approach for Rural Development
H.D.Chauhan; A.K. Srivastava, K J Ankuya and A.P.Chaudhary
SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat
Introduction:
In recent years, food security, livelihood security, water security as well as natural resources
conservation and environment protection have emerged as major issues worldwide. It has been
accepted by everyone across the globe that sustainable development is the only way to promote
rational utilization of resources and environmental protection without hampering economic growth.
(TNAU, 2017). It refers to agricultural system that integrates livestock and crop production. (TNAU,
2017). It is also necessary to alleviate environmental stress (Delgado et al., 1999).
(i) Problems of present agriculture:
» Decline in agriculture growth rate
» Increasing malnutrition
» Shrinkage in net cultivable area
» Increasing environmental pollution
» Depleting ground water table
» Increasing cost of production
» Low farm income
» Problems of farm labours due to large scale migration (PCI, 2017)
(ii) Define farming system:
Farming system is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustained agricultural
production to meet diverse requirements of farm livelihood while preserving resource base and
maintaining a high level of environment quality (Lal and Miller, 1990). Farm enterprises are crop,
livestock, aquaculture, agro forestry and agri-horticulture (Sharma et al, 1991). It interacts adequately
with environment without dislocating the ecological and socioeconomic balance on one hand and
attempts to meet the national goals. (Jayanthi et al.1997).

(iii) Components of farming system:

There are three important components of a farming system:
» Crop component (cereals, pulses, sugar, vegetable, fruits, agro forestry etc.)
» Animal component (cattle, goat, sheep etc)
» Homestead farming (biogas, value added products, grinding, splitting of pulses)
Thus selection, production/cultivation and /or rearing of the activities within a farm will determine the
nature of farming system being practiced in any situation (AGRIINFO, 2017).

(iv) Importance of farming system:

(a) There is effective recycling of waste material in farming system. In which the products and/or the
by-products of one enterprise serve as the input for the production of other enterprise.
(b) Combining crop with livestock enterprises would increase the labour requirementand help in
reducing the problems of employment.
(c) IFS provides an opportunity to increase yield per unit area per unit time by virtue of
intensification of crop and allied enterprises.
(d) In IFS waste materials are effectively recycled by linking appropriate components, thus minimize
environment pollution.
(e) Organic wastes available in the system can be utilized to generate biogas.
(f) Every piece of farm area is effectively utilized.

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(g) By linking agro- forestry appropriately, the production level of fuel and industrial wood can be
enhanced without any effect on crop.
(v) Ideal situations for introduction of IFS (AU, 2017):
 The farmer wishes to improve the soil quality
 The farm household is struggling to buy food or below the poverty line
 Water is stored on-farm in ponds or river-charged overflow areas
 Soil salinity has increased as a result of inorganic fertilizer use
 The farmer is seeking to maximize profits on existing holding
 The farmer is looking to reduce chemical control methods
 The farmer wants to reduce pollution or waste disposal costs

(vi) Factors determining type of farming (Manjulatha, 2014)

 Physical factors (climate, soil, topography)
 Economic factors : Marketing cost; Labor availability; Capital; Land value;
Consumer demand; Prevalent pest and diseases
 Social factors (type of community, easy transport, marketing facilities)
 Objectives (income, production, minimizing cost etc.)
 Environment (availability of resources and components)

Types of Integrated Farming System :

 Crop-livestock farming system
 Crop-livestock -fishery farming system
 Crop-livestock -poultry - fishery farming system
 Crop-poultry-fishery - mushroom farming system
 Crop-fishery-duckery farming system
 Crop- livestock-fishery-vermicomposting farming system
 Crop-livestock-forestry farming system
 Agri-horti-silvi-pastoral system
Productivity and economic analysis of different integrated farming systems:
Experiment conducted at TANU, Coimbatore and results depicted in the following Table-1:
Table-1: Selected IFS model studied at TANU, Coimbatore.
Cost of
RGEY Gross return Net return Per day return
Farming system production
(kg/ha) (C/ha) (C /ha) (C /ha)
(C /ha)
Cropping alone 12,222 24,922 61,112 36,190 167
Crop+fish+poultry 31,858 44,627 159,292 1,14,665 436
Crop+fish+pigeon 32,554 43,310 161,772 1,18,462 443
Crop+fish+goat 39,610 51,483 1,78,047 1,12,564 493

Productivity enhancement by IFS:

In a study conducted at ICAR Research Complex, Goa, it was revealed that rice-brinjal crop
rotation is the best in terms of productivity and profitability owing to higher yield of the brinjal.
Further, with the integration of mushroom and poultry production the system productivity was
increased to 21, 487 kg/ha especially with rice-brinjal rotation leading to an additional returns of
C 30,865/ha with integration. In Tamil Nadu, the IFS increased the net return on an average of C
31,807/ha/year over the arable farming (C 19,505/ha/year). While in Goa, when coconut was
integrated with crop, vegetables, mushroom, poultry and dairy enabled to enhance C
17,518/ha/annum over the cashew nut cultivation alone. In In Haryana, Singh et al. conducted
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studies of various farming systems on 1 ha of irrigated and 1.5 ha of unirrigated land and found
that under irrigated conditions of mixed farming with crossbred cows yielded the highest net
profit (C 20,581/-) followed by mixed farming with buffaloes (C 6,218/-) and lowest in arable
farming (C 4,615/-). In another study conducted with 240 farmers of Rohtak (wheat-sugarcane),
Hisar (wheat-cotton) and Bhiwani (gram-bajra) districts in Haryana which represented zones of
different crop rotations revealed that maximum returns (C /ha) of 12,593, 6,746 and 2,317 were
obtained from 1 ha with buffaloes in Rohtak, Hisar and Bhiwani, respectively.
Another study involving cropping, poultry, piegon, goat and fishery was conducted by Jayanthi et
al.(1997) under wetland conditions of Tamil Nadu. Three years results revealed that integration
of crop with fish (400 reared in 3 ponds of 0.04 ha each), poultry (20 babkok layer bird), pigeon
(40 pairs), and goat (Tellichery breed of 20 female and 1 male in 0.03 ha deep litter system)
resulted in higher productivity. Integration of enterprises created the employment
opportunities.Cropping with fish and goat created additional 207 man-days/annum. The resources
were recycled in such a way that fish were fed with poultry, pigeon and goat droppings.
Balusamy et al.(2003) explained that rice + Azolla-cum-fish culture is one of the economical
option in such type of area. The fish in rice field utilized the untapped aquatic productivity of rice
ecosystem as the rice bottom is highly fertilized on account of the production of zoo and
phytoplankton and these resources are fully utilized by the fish. The data clearly advocated the
beneficial effect of Azollaon rice+fish. The gross income obtained in rice + Azolla+ fish was 25.7
% more over the rice crop and 6.9 % more over the rice + fish. The net income followed the same
trend. Thus rice + Azolla+ fish on an average gave C 8,817/ha more over the rice monoculture
and C.3,219/ha over the rice + fish. This model was proposed for extensive scale adoption in
Tamil Nadu.

Possible output of Integrated Farming System:

Since Integrated Farming System (IFS) is an interrelated complex matrix of soil, water, plant,
animal and environment and their interaction with each other enable the system more viable and
profitable over the arable farming system. It leads to produce the quality food. Horticultural and
vegetable crops can provide 2-3 times more energy production than cereal crops on the same
piece of land and will ensure the nutritional security on their inclusion in the existing system.
Similarly inclusion of bee-keeping, fisheries, sericulture, mushroom cultivation also give
additional high energy food without affecting production of food grains. Likewise, it is pre-
requisite in farming system to ensure the efficient recycling of resources particularly crop
residues, because 80-90% of the micronutrients remains in the biomass. In the Indo-Gangetic
plains, where rice straw is not recycled in an effective way and even in Punjab where rice
cultivation is practiced. On 2.6 ha produces about 16 tones of paddy straw, which is destroyed by
burning. To curtail such precious input loss, the use of second generation machinery for efficient
crop residue management to conserve moisture, improve soil micro-organism activities, regulate
soil temperature, check soil erosion, suppress weed growth and on decomposition improves soil
fertility.
Besides, the community land in the villages, which are accessible to better use, must be used for
productive purpose. Therefore, adoption of concept like social forestry, water harvesting and
recycling fishery, and stall feeding to the animals (goatery / piggery) will add to the profit margin
with other numerous indirect benefits of employment and improved ecology of the area. The
income enhancement due to integration of processing and on-farm value addition by 25-50%,

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 yield improvement on account of improved soil health by 0.5-1.0 tonne/ha, cost reduction by
C.500 - 1,000/ha and employment generation by 50-75 man days/household have also been
observed.

Advantages of Integrated Farming System(RROIJ, 2017):

 Increased productive through increased economic yield per unit area.
 Improved profitability achieved mainly by way of reduced cost.
 Greater sustainability in production on farm due to integration of diverse enterprises of different
economic importance.
 Integration of different production systems provides an opportunity to solve malnutrition problem
due to production of variety of food products.
 The recycling of wastes for production helps to avoid pollution.
 The farming system provides flow of money to the farmer round the year.
 Because of cash available round the year could induce small and marginal farmers adopt new
technologies.
 Recycling of organic waste reduces requirement of chemical fertilizer.
 Fodder/ pasture/tree species included in the system help to get more fodder and thus solve fodder
crises to some extent.
 Inclusion of timber component in the farming system reduces pressure on forests.
 Diverse component integrated can provide enough scope to employ farm labour round the year.
 Integrated farming system forces the entrepreneur to know more things and hence improves the
literacy level.
 IFS provide opportunities for the growth of agricultural oriented industries.
Limitations of Integrated Farming System(RROIJ, 2017) :
 Lack of awareness about sustainable farming systems
 Unavailability of varied farming system models
 Lack of credit facilities at easy and reasonable interest rate
 Non-availability of ensured marketing facilities specially for perishable commodities
 Lack of knowledge/education among farming community.
Conclusion:
Sustainable development is the only way to promote rational utilization of resources and
environmental protection without hampering economic growth and Integrated Farming System
hold special position as in this system nothing is wasted, the by-product of one system becomes
the input for other. India has a considerable livestock, poultry population and crop wastes. IFS is
a promising approach for increasing over all productivity and profitability through recycling the
farm by-products and efficient utilization of available resources. About 95% of nutritional
requirement of the system is self sustained through resource recycling. It could further generate
employment opportunities to the farming communities round the year and provide a better
economic and nutritional security. This can go long way uplift rural life through increased
income. The farmers having sufficient land and other farm resources can prefer for integration of
horticultural crops viz; fruits, vegetables and floriculture as an additional enterprise along with
prevailing ones. Farmers living in vicinity of the towns and cities can grow vegetables and green
fodders as per market demand and availability.
References:
References are available on request from editor.

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Section-VIII 223-234

Animal Health Management and Behaviour

Impact of Animal Health on Livelihoods Security of Livestock

Owners in Gujarat State
K. M. Jadhav, A.N. Suthar and A. S. Prajapati

Economic Impact of Emerging and Re-emerging Zoonotic and

Transboundary Diseases of Animal Origin on Smallholders in India
H. C. Chauahn, A. P. Chaudhary and B. S. Chandel

Editors: Dr R D Singh and Dr Sandip S Patel

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 Impact of Animal Health on Livelihoods Security of Livestock
Owners in Gujarat State
K. M. Jadhav; A.N. Suthar and A. S. Prajapati
SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat
Introduction:
About 1.4 billion people accounting to one quarter of the developing world population lived
below the new international poverty line compared to 1.9 billion poor 25 years ago (Chen
and Ravallion, 2008). An estimated two thirds of resource poor rural household keep some
type of livestock. Therefore, livestock keeping is critical for many of the poor in the
developing world, often contributing to multiple livelihood objectives and offering pathways
out of poverty. Thus, animal health indirectly affects an indispensable asset of the poor and
human capital including animal owners own nutrition and health (Randolph et al., 2014).
Brian and Delia (2009) state that in sustainable livelihood frame work, livestock are critical
physical assets that can improve the stock or quality of each of the key household assets,
reducing vulnerability, broadening livelihood alternatives and improving outcome.

As per 2004-05 figures, Gujarat state has 16.8% population below poverty line (BPL), of
which 19.1% are rural and 13% urban households (as against the national average of
27.5%). Out of 101 lakh families in Gujarat, 41.58% are associated with animal husbandry
activities, of which, 13.60 lakh families are living below poverty line. Thus around 13.60
lakh families directly thrive on animal husbandry and livestock are well positioned to
contribute to social transformation as assets for poor population especially in lower income
social groups, where they are primarily intended to generate income and meet the growing
demand for animal source food.

India possess huge livestock population, which is endangered by different endemic

infectious diseases, which collectively causes significant economic losses to the
landless poor farmers. Infectious diseases impose economic losses by causing morbidity,
mortality, decreased production (milk, meat, wool etc.), decreased feed conversion ratio
which results in reduced weight gain, decreased draught power and fertility.
Furthermore, economic burden is also due to the cost of treatment, abortion,
consequences on internal livestock movement, germplasm and international trade. Some
of the animal diseases are zoonotic and inflicts considerable impact on public health.
Uncertain agrarian climate, unpredictable weather, drought, floods, migration of livestock,
scarcity of fodders, and unhygienic zoo-sanitary and healthcare practices together resulted
into endemicity of diseases that ultimately leads to more incidence and prevalence of
diseases throughout the year.
Because of the circulation of zoonotic agents between animals, humans, and the
environment, the zoonotic disease affects human activity and health in addition to other
economic sectors (Clareet al., 2012). The zoonotic pathogens caused more than 65% of
emerging infections incidence in the past six decades with direct cost of more than $ 20
billion and over $ 200 billion indirect losses to the economies (World Bank, 2010). Global
burden of disease (GBD) shows that six infectious diseases (about 20 % of total classified)
are responsible for 75% of total disability adjusted life years lost. Under these circumstances,
animal health becomes even more important and has larger economic impact.

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According to19th livestock census (2012), cattle population in India and Gujarat was
estimated 190.90 and 9.98 (5.22%) million, buffalo population 108.70 and 10.39 million
(9.56%), sheep population 65.07 and 1.71 (2.63%) million, goat population 135.2 and 4.96
million (3.67%), camel population 0.40 and 0.03 (7.50) million, horse population 0.63 and
0.018 (2.86%) million and poultry population 729.20 and 15.00 (2.05%) million,
respectively.
Animal husbandry sector play an important and vital role in Gujarat State Gross Domestic
Product (7.66 lakh crores), which is nearly about 5.0%. Among the districts of Gujarat
Banaskantha district produced 15,42,180 tonnes of milk and ranked first, while Anand and
Kachchh also ranked first in egg and wool production (2014-15), respectively in the state.
According to BAHDS (2014-15), total milk production of India was around 146.32 MMT
and that of Gujarat 11.69 MMT (7.99%), total egg production of India was valued around
78.49 billion, while Gujarat stood out with 16.56 billion (2.11%), total meat production of
India was valued around 6.24 MT, while Gujarat stood out with 0.033 MT (00.53%), total
wool production of India valued around 48.13 million kg, while Gujarat stood out with 2.57
million kg (5.35%).
The overall contribution of livestock sector to the agricultural gross domestic product (GDP)
increased from 14 to 25% over the last two decades and has consistently accounted for over
4% of the country’s GDP. Milk is the largest contributor to the Indian National GDP among
agricultural commodities and contributes about 70% of total output from livestock sector in
India.

The greatest fear of livestock owner is disease that causes sudden mortality or loss in
production. Large scale drop in demand due to fear of zoonotic disease is also matter of
concern. Diseases that reduce production or have effect on production include vector borne
parasitic, bacterial or viral infections. Transboundary diseases like FMD, CBPP, African
Swine Fever, have been controlled in developed countries, but continued to be problem in
underdeveloped countries.

The health management of livestock in Gujarat is most efficiently looked after by the
Department of Animal Husbandry, Co-operative Dairies, Veterinary Colleges and NGOs.
They coordinate their efforts to attend outbreaks, collect samples, investigate disease
outbreaks, treat sick animals and take suitable actions for prophylactic measures. Due to wide
veterinary network of dispensaries and mobile veterinary services, the livestock of Gujarat
are well protected. Dairy co-operatives under the umbrella of Gujarat Cooperative Milk
Marketing Federation Limited (GCMMF) and National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
also plays vital role to uplift the socio economic status of the farmers in the state through
veterinary services, supply of quality feed and community development programmes.

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The cooperative dairy network in Gujarat has 18549 village cooperative milk producers’
societies, spread in 33 districts under 19 District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Unions Ltd..
The average daily milk procurement during 2016-17 was 180 lakh liters with annual turnover
of Rs.27,000 crores. Presently, the state has one Veterinary Dispensary per 27000 animals.
The government intends to strengthen animal health care by opening new veterinary
dispensaries in the next five years (2015-16 onward) to achieve the target of one veterinary
dispencary for every 10,000 animals. The technical input services being provided by milk
unions are at subsidized rates, while that of government is free of charge and almost all
villages are protected under the animal health umbrella.

Source: Animal Disease Investigation Report (2012-13), Department of Animal Husbandry, Gujarat state.

Major animal health problems :

The major animal health problems in Gujarat state are FMD, HS, PPR, Brucella and Mastitis.
Mastitis: Among dairy animals, it is one of the important diseases leads to heavy economic
losses in the country. Globally, mastitis accounts for about 38 per cent of the total direct costs
of the common production diseases. In India, the economic losses due to mastitis have
increased about 115 folds in the last five decades, which was Rs 1607.20 crores in 1992
(Singh and Singh,1992). Lack of awareness, delay in detection of sub-clinical mastitis, lack
of markers for detecting ensuing mastitis, unhygienic milking practices, diverse production
systems, inadequate treatment etc are some of the important contributing factors for higher
incidence of mastitis. It is believed that sub-clinical mastitis is more prevalent than clinical
case in most countries and ranges from 19 to 78 per cent. In India, annual economic losses
incurred by dairy industry on account of udder infections is estimated to be Rs 6053.21 crores
and of which loss of Rs 4365.32 crore (70 - 80 per cent) is attributed to sub-clinical mastitis.
Foot and mouth disease : India has about 528 million FMD susceptible population of
livestock (Annual Report, GoI, 2007) and it leads to loss in milk production of 3,508 million
kg (Rs 12,520 million in terms of foreign exchange and Rs 16,500–18,370 million in terms of
loss of domestic surplus), and sum of losses due to loss of draught power, animal deaths and
cost of treatment were to the tune of Rs 18,130 million/year. Direct loss amounting to Rs
20,000 crore/annum has been recently reported and 8% of the total direct loss caused by
FMD is due to drop in milk productionn. Last outbreak of FMD was reported in 2012-13,

226
whereas its outbreak in Gujarat does not show any distinct seasonal rhythm. During the year
2012-13 in Sabarkantha and Gandhinagar district FMD out breaks was reported (ADSR,
2012-13). Under the FMD typing scheme collection of samples for typing of viruses and it
was found that in Gujarat FMD outbreak was linked with serotypes “O” (ICAR FMD project
database 2015).
Brucellosis:The estimated monetary loss due to bovine brucellosis in a population of 100
cattle and buffaloes was Rs 245917.30 and Rs 158774.80, respectively with overall loss of
Rs 404692.10 per year. The economic losses due to culling of Brucella positive animals in a
population of 100 cattle and buffaloes wasRs 5,44,000 and Rs 5,50,000, respectively. In case
of Gujarat, 18.30% cattle and buffaloes were found positive for Brucella abortus antibody.
MRT, STAT and RBPT were showed 7.28%, 14.84% and 15.49% positively (Patel et al.,
2015).
Haemorrhagic septicaemia:The total economic loss per infected animal due to
Haemorrhagic Septicaemia has been estimated to be Rs 6816 in case of cattle and Rs 10901
in buffalo. These losses when scaled-up at the national level have indicated a loss of Rs 5255
crore. The direct losses contribute 80.3 per cent and indirect losses contributed 19.7 % to the
total economic losses. The study has found that calves contribute 74.8% and adults
contribute 25.2% to the total economic loss due to HS. During last five years outbreak of HS
are declining in the state. During the year 2012-13, 7 outbreaks were recorded and maximum
outbreaks were reported during the month of Nov-12 to Feb-13. The out break of H. S. was
reported through out the year, where mortality and morbidity rates were observed 0.47% and
1.03%, respectively (ADSR, 2012-13).

Sheep and goat diseases : The economic losses per animal in sheep and goat population
ranges between Rs 523 to 945. The growth of goat industry is hampered by PPR owing
to high morbidity (50-90%) and mortality (50-85%) rates. Kids more than 4 months and
less than one year of age were more susceptible to PPR. During the year 2012-13,
outbreak was reported during winter season in Amreli, Banaskantha, Anand and Navsari
district, while mortality and morbidity rates were observed 2.73% and 11.17%, respectively
(ADSR, 2012-13).

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Poultry diseases: The poultry population in Gujarat is 81,53,000, which is about 2.06% of
total poultry population of India. Since 2007 to 2012, Gujarat had shown 12.33% hike in
poultry population. Major poultry diseases in Gujarat were RD, IBD, MD, ILT, Coccidiosis,
Mycoplasmosis, CRD, E.coli, Salmonellosis and LPAI, where a recent outbreak of LPAI in
Ahmedabad city was reported during the year 2017.
Reproductive problems : In Gujarat state, major reproductive disorders are anestrous,
repeat breeding, retention of placenta and torsion, out of which anestrous cases were
estimated around 15.43% and repeat breeder 22.20%.
The postpartum complications were higher in buffaloes and zebu cows as compare to cross
bred cows in the arid and semiarid region of Gujarat (Dhami et al, 2015, 2017).
Surgical problems : The major surgical problems encountered in livestock of Gujarat are
horn cancer, eye and ear infections, diaphragmatic hernia, laminitis, urolithiasis, fracture,
tumors and foreign body syndrome (Patelet al., 2013).
Schemes of assistance for animal husbandry sector in Gujarat :
 Cattle and buffalo development
 Fodder development
 Poultry development
 Veterinary services and animal health
 Schemes sponsored by central government
 Veterinary emergency ambulance services (Karuna)
Action plan for better animal health and economic gain :
» The link between international trade, animal health and epidemiology has been recognized. The
Sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures of the World Trade Organization demands these measures.
» To control or elimination of zoonotic diseases costly public investment for coordinated
interventions like “test and slaughter,” mass vaccination of domestic animals and wildlife, health
education, milk pasteurization etc are required.
» Efforts should be directed towards the mitigation (transmission control) strategies.
» Surveillance of zoonotic diseases as part of “one-health” collaboration between veterinary
medicine and human medicine should be speed up.
» More extension work is required on prevention of infectious and nutritional -metabolic diseases
besides vector and parasite control.
» Synchronized monitoring and disease surveillance system to be establishedthroughout the country.
» Good management practices consisting of stringent bio-security measures, strict sanitation and
hygiene practices in the farm, isolation and quarantine of diseased animals should be prioritize besides
timely vaccination.
» The state as well as national strategy should be formulated to eliminate these diseases, will help the
livestock keepers and ultimately to improve the livelihoods security in the region.
References:
References are available on request from editor.

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 Economic Impact of Emerging and Re-emerging Zoonotic and Transboundary
Diseases of Animal Origin on Smallholders in India
H. C. Chauahn, A. P. Chaudhary and B. S. Chandel
SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar
Introduction:
Any disease and/or infection which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and
men with or without an arthropod intermediate are called zoonotic disease or zoonosis, which
are responsible for leading causes of illness and death in animals as well as human. These
infectious diseases of bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal and parasitic origins are responsible
for losses in the animals and also cause death of human beings throughout the world and
hence, they are of great economic importance. In the present day situation, these infectious
diseases are not only a health issue; but they also have become a social problem with
tremendous consequences for the wellbeing of the individual and the world we live in.
Emerging zoonotic infectious diseases are those infections, the incidence of which in humans
and animal have either increased during the last two decades or threaten to increase in near
future. Newly appearing infectious agents or those spreading to new geographical areas are
considered as emerging diseases. Those diseases/ infections which were previously easily
controlled by antimicrobials, but have developed antimicrobial resistance are also included in
this category. Re-emerging infectious diseases are those that have reappeared after a
significant decline in their incidence. Re-emerging viral disease can arise when virus broaden
their host range (monkey poxvirus), or can be a consequence of intrinsic properties of the
virus itself, such as high mutation rate (influenza A virus). Since last two decades, it is
observed that a new virus has been emerging almost every year.
Following factors are contributing to emergence of zoonosis:
A. Agent factors
 Evolution of pathogenic infectious agents (microbial adaptation and change)
 Development of resistance to drugs
 Resistance of vectors to pesticides
B. Host related factors
 Human demographic change (inhabiting new areas)
 Human behaviour (sexual and drug use)
 Human susceptibility to infection (Immunosuppression)
 Poverty and social inequality
C. Environment related factors
 Climate and changing ecosystems
 Economic development and land use (urbanization, deforestation)
 Technology and industry (food processing and handling)
 International travel and commerce
 Breakdown of public health measure (war, unrest, overcrowding)
 Deterioration in surveillance systems (lack of political will)
Economic impact:
From a ‘one health’ or ‘eco health’ perspective, disease impacts on human / animal health
and ecosystem health are considered holistically and these disease havea negative impact on
the livestock production system, thus setting off a cascading effect of low production, low
income, and subsistent livelihood. This may be resulted into a very complex consequences
which include, productivity losses for the livestock sector (production losses, cost of
treatment, market disturbances), loss of incomefrom activities using animal resources

229
(energy, transportation, tourism), prevention or control costs (production costs, public
expenditure) and suboptimaluse of production potential (animal species, genetics, livestock
practices). Highly contagious diseases viz., foot and mouth disease (FMD), hemorrhagic
septicemia (HS), mastitis, peste des petits ruminant (PPR), birdflu cause irreparable economic
losses. They also occupy the top position among the livestock diseasesdue to wide host range,
plurality of immunological types, short duration of immunity and their impact on production
and productivity. Besides these, other diseases viz., rabies, CCHF, leptospirosis, brucellosis
also need special attention in Indian scenario.
One of the most striking aspects of new, emerging and re-emerging zoonotic diseases has
been the unexpected nature of their occurrence and have a negative impact on commerce,
travel and economies.These infections cause devastating effects internationally, with millions
infected and billions spent.
Losses due to any livestock disease may be classified as losses in production (direct losses),
expenditure and lost revenue (indirect losses) (Rushton 2009). The former includes visible
losses, such a reduced milk yield or increased mortality, weight loss, reduced fertility rate,
abortion, reduced meat production efficiency and death (Sperlova and Zendulkova 2011),
whereas indirect losses include costs of vaccines or lost revenue, such as through trade
restrictions limiting access to higher value markets:
The following issues should be taken into consideration for the assessment of economic
impact of diseases:
(1) Production and productivity:The most direct economic impact of disease/s are the loss
of production, attributed due to mortality or reduced production efficiency of the affected
animals and this reduced productivity of animal/s can persist for longer period of time.
Sometimes, a short-lasting loss of productivity may create a long lasting effect. Loss of a
breeder animal is of paramount economic significance.
(2) Price and market effects:Market price of commodity is very well influenced by loss of
production and productivity. Limited supply can result in increase in market price but on the
contrary public health concern associated with the disease occurrence decrease the demand.
Moreover, relative effects on producers and consumers of the production shortfall will
depend on the relative elasticities of demand and supply. Another dimension of the price and
market effects is that the producers and the traders both are directly affected.
(3) Trade (domestic and international): Diseases mainly of trans-boundary in nature
imposes trade restrictions. The trade implications of transboundary animal diseases can cause
a greater economic impact than the direct production losses themselves. Therefore, the
countries which are free from major diseases will tend to protect their local agriculture and
livestock by totally excluding the importation of livestock and their products from areas
affected by specific animal diseases. Conversely benefits of elimination of transboundary
animal diseases can be very large as it offers the opportunity of gaining access to high-value
export markets. TADs also have implications on domestic trade as the veterinary authority
imposes restriction on animal movement as a part of disease control measure.
(4) Food security and nutritional aspect:Certain diseases can often have significant
negative impacts on food security and nutrition in developing countries. This impact could be
very significant on poorer communities that do not have access to substitute supplies.
(5) Health and environment related issues: Nearly 75% of infectious human diseases had
their origins in animals. Many of them have adapted in humans with efficient human to human
transmission, while others still remained zoonotic with frequent transmission from animals to

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humans. Such zoonotic transmission of diseases has increased in recent years, perhaps due to
increasingly intensive livestock production in areas of proximity to human populations and loss
of habitats of wildlife. Most of these are considered as emerging pandemic threat. An emerging
zoonotic disease may affect humans accidentally and sporadically, but also may adapt sufficiently
to human host to cause a deadly epidemic or pandemic in the immature human host population.
Apart from public health concern the economic consequence of a human pandemic could be
enormous.
Diseases may have some environmental concerns. This may be from the disease itself that has
moved from wildlife to domestic animal and human population or from the huge amount of
contaminated animal carcasses and farming materials. The economic concern is the cost of
decontamination of infectious carcasses, materials and premises.
(6) Cost of disease prevention and control:The cost of disease prevention and control depends
upon the control strategy of the specific disease. In general, it include the cost of treatment,
surveillance and detection including quarantine at the port of entries, public communication,
stamping out operation including decontamination, vaccines and vaccination campaign, improved
bio-security and management, compensation and overhead cost of state veterinary services.
In the above context, a comprehensive economic assessment of animal diseases is of utmost
importance before formulating the various livestock health interventionefforts. Several studies in
the Indian context are available on the prevalence of major livestock diseases and the economic
loss due to different diseases. However,scant literature is available on economic implications of
important diseases based on data from the field level.
Rabies :Rabies is a zoonotic viral disease of mammals most often transmitted through the bite of
a rabidanimal. Warm blooded animals are susceptible to infection with rabies virus and are
therefore possiblereservoirs. Dogs are the main reservoir of rabies virus in developing countries
and are responsible for99% of human infections. Even though developed countries have been
able to contain recent outbreaksof zoonotic diseases, many resource-limited and transitioning
countries have not been able to reactadequately. Rabies remains a global zoonosis of major public
health, agricultural and economic significance. It causes economic losses in many developing
country. Rabies transmitted by dogs isresponsible for the loss of over 1.8 million disability
adjusted life years every year, with direct and indirect economic costs, animal tests, dog
vaccination, and livestock losses) totaling $5.5 billion peryear. In addition to that its effects also
included the costs associated with the risk of human mortality,resulted in a global cost for canine
rabies of $120 billion. These virus disease result in about 24,000 to60,000 deaths world wide per
year. More than 95% of human deaths caused by rabies occur in Africaand Asia. (Gemechu
Regea, 2017).
The overall economic cost of canine rabies was estimated as 8.6 billion USD (95% CIs: 2.9–21.5
billion), which is mainly due to productivity losses from premature deaths (2.27 billion USD),
direct expenditure on PEP (totalling 1.70 billion USD) and lost income. Only around 0.01% of
costs were from laboratory-based surveillance. India, the world’s second most populous country
(with close to 18% of the global population) accounts for over 35% of the global rabies burden
(approximately 20,800 deaths).
The rabies in India accounts for 2390.327 USD including 491.23 USD direct costs, 42.60 USD
travel costs, 138.03 USD due to lost income, 1,646.650 USD productivity losses from premature
death, 9.050 due to livestock losses, 0.417 USD for dog vaccination, 62.348 USD for dog
population management and 0.002 USD for surveillance, Hampson et al (2015).
Avian influenza: Avian influenza strain H5N1 wreaked havoc and spread panic when it first
appeared in Hong Kong in 1997. The disease has been reported from many southeast Asian
countries including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, China, Japan and Taiwan. The disease has also

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been reported from many countries in Europe and elsewhere. The disease was reported from
Navapur, Maharastra (2006), Manipur (2007) and 13 districts of West Bengal (2008) and Kerala
(2014). The economic loss to poultry industry in India was placed at Rs. 30,000 million in 2006
and Rs. 6,500 million in 2007.
The cost to control, compensation paid to stakeholders (transfer payments) and market reactions
on own and substitute product prices and backwater tourism (boat operators) due to avian
influenza (AI) outbreaks in Kuttanadregion of Kerala, India, during 2014. The primary data from
91 poultry farms (duck farms, broiler chicken and backyard poultry), four hatcheries and 90
backwater boat owners were collected through pre-tested schedules. The secondary data on
transfer payments and expenditure incurred to control AI were collected from developmental
departments and were analysed. The estimated loss (culling live birds, eggs and feed destruction)
per duck farm was USD 9,181, USD 3,889 and USD 156 in case of commercial farms reared for
meat, dual-purpose and backyard farms, respectively. The loss incurred by small-scale broiler and
backyard poultry farmswasUSD453andUSD40, respectively.The loss incurred by large and small
duck hatcheries wasUSD11,963 and USD5,790, respectively, due to culling of hatchlings, young
birds and destroying eggs.
It would have strong micro-impact, in the regions, where smallholders are dependent on poultry
production and have difficulties in overcoming the costs of culling and restocking in the face of
an outbreak (Verbiest and Castillo, 2004). They face immediate loss of income and assets from
the death of infected poultry and the culling of other birds. Additional income losses occur in the
period between an outbreak and re-stocking. Production costs are likely to rise following the
introduction of avian flu control strategies. The value chain for poultry is a complex one
involving several activities, viz. breeding, feed production, input supply (feed, breeding chicks,
medicines), production, collection and trade (of eggs or live birds), slaughter, processing, final
sale andconsumption. Hence, besides business threat to small poultry holders, there is also
shrinkage of consumer base to chicken outlets, leading to loss of employment to the persons
involved in the entire value chain from production to consumption; threat to food and nutritional
security; and negative impact on subsidiary sectors like feed, chick, medicine, hatchery, transport,
etc. and thereby, threat to poultry industry as a whole (Ganeshkumar et al,2008).
Leptospirosis:WHO (2007) describes leptospirosis as an emerging outbreakprone disease in
India which is associated with flooding. Outbreaks have been reported from states like Gujarat,
Orissa, Maharastra and Tamil Nadu. Rural farm workers are more vulnerable to the disease.
Outbreaks have also been reported from Andaman and Nicobar Islands and areas of south and
west in the country. The pathogen has also been recovered from farm animals. Investigations
demonstrated the presence of the disease in Delhi and adjoining areas. Prevalence was high
during August and September (monsoon season). The role of rodents and domestic animals in
harboring the leptospires has been speculated.
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus : Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus
(CCHFV) is a member of the genus Nairo virus, family Bunyaviridae. Ticks of the genus
Hyalomma are considered to be both the main vector and the natural reservoir . These ticks are
present on the ground and can infest a number of small and large mammals. Most infected
animals can carry the virus without showing symptoms, providing a source of virus in their blood
for further transmission to other animals and/or humans. Although tick bites are the main route of
transmission to humans, direct contact with the body fluids, tissue or blood of infected animals
can also lead to human infections.
Since its first recognition in 1944, human CCHFV infections have been documented in over 30
countries in Asia, the Middle East, South-Eastern Europe and Africa. The fatality rate of CCHFV
infection in humans can vary from 5% to 30% depending upon the virus strain, the location and
the public health infrastructure associated with outbreaks.

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Climate change could be the risk factor that has the greatest potential to cause an expansion in the
geographical distribution of CCHFV. Hyalomma ticks prefer warm summers and mild winters.
The direct introduction of infected Hyalomma ticks might be through migratory birds or by
international trade in livestock or introduction could be the other vectors, such as the various
ixodid ticks, which have already played a role in transmitting tick-borne encephalitis in Central
Europe and Russia.
Brucellosis: Brucellosis is a major health issue in animal and human and have effect on the
economy of affected countries. The losses in animal production due to brucellosis disease can be
of major important, primarily because of the decreased milk production by aborting dairy
animals; the common sequel of infertility increases the period between lactation, and in an
infected herd the average inter calving period may be prolonged by several months. It is of great
importance for beef animal herds, where the calves represent the sole source of income.
In India, brucellosis is a serious public health issue caused heavy economic losses required to
formulate prevention and control strategies. According to Shome et al (2013) losses in India due
to this diseases brucellosis is around Rs 350 million, due to abortion in the affected animal
population, loss of pregnancy and reduced milk production. Singh et al (2015) estimated
economic losses due to brucellosis and revealed that brucellosis in livestock is responsible for a
median loss of US $ 3.4 billion (5th–95th percentile 2.8–4.2 billion). The disease is responsible
for a loss of US $ 6.8 per cattle, US$ 18.2 per buffalo, US $ 0.7 per sheep, US $ 0.5 per goat and
US $ 0.6 per pig. These losses are additional to the economic and social consequences of the
disease in humans. For small ruminants in India, the annual economic losses per animal were
estimated at Rs. 1180 per sheep and Rs. 2121.82 per goat (Sulima and Venkataraman, 2010)
Human brucellosis causing physical incapacity and loss of 3 million man days of labor annually
and it is estimated 5 lakhs new human cases are affected annually in the world (Shome et al,
2013).
Foot and Mouth Diseases: Besides the acute stage of the disease, characterized by the
formation of ulcers in the mouth, feet and udder, the virus of foot and mouth disease exhibits its
pathology in some of the vital hormonal glands, which control metabolic processes of the body.
The disturbance in physiological process of lactation leads to a significant reduction in milk yield.
In milch animals lesions on teat and udder can lead to mastitis, which may damage the teats and
thereby affect the milk yield permanently. The economic losses (direct / indirect) to the livestock
industry attributed are large due to (Singh, 2011) :
(i) Direct losses to livestock sector :
 Abortion in 25% pregnant animals.
 Reduction in meat production by 25% in endemic areas.
 A drop in milk production by 50%
 A reduction in wool production by 25% in affected sheep.
 Mortality rate upto5.55 in the affected cases.
(ii) Indirect losses to livestock sector :
 Loss of productive function during the acute phase of disease.
 Loss of milk yield on a permanent basis.
 Loss of breeding capacity including abortions.
 Loss due to reduced draft capacity in working bullocks.
 Interference with food production programme.
 Loss in national and international cattle trade.
 Loss resulting from tempeorary cessation of A.I. programmes.
 Loss of flesh in meat animals.
(a) Mortality in young calves due to heart failure.
(b) Flare up of inter current infections viz., H.S., theileriosis, babesiosis,
anaplasmosis and surra.

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Bluetongue: Bluetongue (BT) is a vector-borne disease of ruminants, which affects many
species of domestic and wild ruminants such as sheep, goat, cattle, buffalo, white-tailed deer,
antelope, sambar, camels and llamas. The disease is caused by bluetongue virus and transmitted
between vertebrate hosts by Culicoides species. It has a potential to spread rapidly and causes
economic losses in terms of high morbidity, mortality, abortion, fetal death and deformities as
well as milk, meat and fleece losses. It is listed under the category of multiple species diseases by
World Organization for Animal Health i.e. Office International des Epizooties (OIE, 2012),
formerly it was includes in category ''A'' list of OIE. Due to its possible socio-economic
consequences, mandatory export restrictions and surveillance requirements are imposed on
movement of live animals and its products, semen, foetal calf serum ,germ plasm, embryo from
BT-endemic to BT free countries. The worldwide economic losses due to bluetongue have been
estimated as 3 billion US$ a year (Tabachnick, 1996).
Peste des Petits Ruminant (PPR) :The presence of PPR can have a serious impact on the
economics of a region. Economic losses are due to loss of production, death, and abortion. The
presence of disease can limit trade, export, import of new breeds, and the development of
intensive livestock production. PPR is a major constraint on the availability of protein for human
consumption as well.
The estimated annual economic losses due to Peste des Petits ruminants disease in goats and
sheep reported by Government of India shown average annual economic loss of Rs 167.83 lakhs,
of which Rs 125.67 lakhs and Rs 42.16 lakhs respectively were due to the incidence of disease in
goats and sheep. Based on the cases and deaths as reported in sample survey studies, the
estimated annual economic loss due to PPR in goats and sheep were Rs. 5477.48 and Rs
3417.64 crores, respectively.
Conclusions:
Since we live in a “global village”, we can’t afford to be complacent about the tremendous
economic, social and public health burden of these diseases. Effective surveillance is the key to
their early containment. There is a need to develop epidemiology at the community level and
improved diagnostic facilities, which should be rapid, specific, simple and affordable. The
strategy to combat these diseases needs a strong public health structure, effective risk
communication, epidemic preparedness and rapid response. To confront the threats of emerging
zoonotic diseases, much can be done by education and by growing awareness among different
health professionals, and facilitating communication and collaboration between veterinary, public
health, agricultural and national policy making personnel. This will help to control the zoonotic
diseases in animal / human in a possible efficient and effective way. For the well being of animals
and human, considerable challenges are presented by livestock and zoonotic pathogens to the
health. Hence, it is also important that first line of defense will be the deployment of state of art
approaches for diagnosis and surveillance to provide a net work of global intelligence on their
spread and an assessment of risk presented. Combined with this, the delivery of effective vaccine
strategies for the control of major pathogens of livestock will be especially testing and a
continuum of new and better vaccines able to deliver more long-lasting and durable protective
immunity and to be effective against multiple strains or variants will be essential. One step
forward in preventing animal diseases in smallholder settings is to encourage and educate the
farmers about basic bio-security measures and importance of vaccination against disease.
References :
References are available on request from editor.

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Section-IX 235-260

Livestock Products Technology, Value Addition,

and Employment Opportunity

Camel milk- A Promising Super Food for Human

Nilufar Haque, AP Chaudhary and M C Desai

Pig Farming: An Emerging Opportunity for Livestock Diversification

and Employment Generation in India
Amit Sharma and Sandeep Kaswan

Present Status and Future Prospects of Fisheries in Telangana

M. Kishan Kumar, Ravi Gugulothu, Srinu Rathlavath and Suresh Kummari

ICTs in Livestock and Dairy Sectors: An Indian Scenario

H. B. Patel, R. D. Singh, V. N. Sarvaiya and S. K. Modi

Rabbit Farming for Employment and Nutritional Security for

Disadvantage Regions of India
A.K. Srivastava, A.P. Chaudhary, H.D. Chauhan and D.V. Joshi

Editors: Dr Sameer H Raval and Dr Bhavesh I Prajapati

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 Camel milk- A Promising Super Food for Human
Nilufar Haque and AP Chaudhary and M C Desai
SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar
Introduction:
Camel is an important component of the dry land and desert ecosystem. As estimation of
Food and Agriculture Organization the total population of camel in the world is believed to
be 25.89 million, of which 89% are one-humped dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius)
and the remaining 11% are the two-humped (Camelus bactrianus). It is not only an important
economic means of short distance transport to the rural and urban societies inhabiting in arid
and semi arid zones, but also serves as a source of milk in some of areas of camel rearing
societies. Camel can produce more milk for a longer period of time in arid zones and harshy
environment than any other domestic livestock species. Following dairy cattle, water buffalo,
goat, and sheep, camels are the fifth most important dairy animals in the world. Camel milk
so called “white gold of the desert” is more similar to human milk than any other milk. Camel
milk has been acknowledged for a long time to provide a potential treatment for a series of
diseases (Gizachew et al., 2015).
Composition of camel milk:
Camel milk composition is vastly different from that of ruminant as is their physiology.
Water: Unlike other animals the water content of camel milk increases during dehydration.
With water freely accessible the water content of the milk is 86 percent, but when water is
restricted the water content of milk rises to 91 percent. This is useful as water source for
dehydrated calf and the humans in area where water is scarce. The reasons for increment of
water content of milk of dehydrated camel are ADH secretion is elevated in the dehydrated
camel, a decrease in the fat content and type of forage eaten (Sisay and Awoke, 2015).
Fat: The level of dromedary camel milk fat is believed to be 2.9 to 5.4 percent and can be
reduced from 4.3 to 1.1 percent in the milk of thirsty camels. It includes 96% triglycerides
(TGs) and quite a low amount of cholesterol, i.e. 30mg/100 g dry matter. The homogenous
form of FAs and low amount of carotenes are probably the reason of the smooth white colour
of CM Among buffalo, cow, goat and camel, the smallest fat globules have been found to
correspond to camel. A high state of dispersion of small milk fat globules has a positive
influence on the access the lipolytic enzymes. Therefore, milk from camels is more digestible
for humans (Ibrahem & Zubeir, 2016).
Milk proteins: Dromedary camel milk contains 3 to 3.90 percent of protein. Casein is a
major part of protein in camel milk. Dromedary camel milk has 1.63 to 2.76 percent of casein
protein that constitutes 52 to 87 percent of total milk protein. It is rich in the β-fraction. In
whole casein portion, β-CN is 65 percent andαs1-CN is 21 percent. Camel milk has more
digestibility and less allergic reactions in infants as αs-CN slowly hydrolyze than β-CN.
Whey protein is the second biggest fraction of protein of camel milk which covers 20 to 25
percent of camel milk protein. The milk of dromedary camel has a whey protein in range of
0.63 and 0.80 percent. β -lactoglobulin is found in trace, while α-lactalbumin comprises the
major camel milk whey protein portion. It also consists of some other main components such

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 as lactoferrin, lysozymes peptydoglycon recognition protein, N-acetyl-β glucosaminidase and
Immunoglobulins (Shamsia, 2009).
 Lactoferrin: Camel milk apparently contains much more lactoferrin than in ruminants (cows,
sheep, and goats) milk. Lactoferrin activity in camel milk varies from 95 to 250 mg/dl.
Positively charged amino acids in Lf can interact with anionic compounds on certain
bacterial, viral, fungal and parasite surfaces, causing cell lysis. The subsequent release of
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) leads to altered permeability and a higher sensitivity to lysozyme
and other anti-microbial agents. The anti-microbial properties of Lf are also attributed to
some of its peptides such as lactoferricin (fragment 17-42) and lactoferranpin (fragment 265-
284) that have shown to possess anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, and anti-parasitic activities
stronger than the entire Lf (Abbas et al., 2013).
 Lysozyme: Lysozyme in milk protects infants from gastro-intestinal invasion by pathogenic
bacteria. Milk of healthy camels contains a concentration of lysozyme higher than that of
cows' milk (0.07mg/ L bovine milk), ranging from 0.15-5mg/L. With a higher lysis activity
than the bovine counterpart, the camel lysozyme shows lytic effects on Gram-positive
bacteria, such as Micrococcus lysodeikticus (Gul et al., 2015).
 Peptydoglycon recognition protein (PGRP): The PGRP was first discovered in camel milk
and milk has highest concentration of this protein. It has apparent effect on breast cancer by
controlling metastasis. It has found to stimulate the host‘s immune response (Gul et al.,
2015).
 N-acetyl-β glucosaminidase (NA Gase): NA Gase activity is similar to that in woman’s
milk conforming the nutritional advantage of camel milk over cow milk. Furthermore, camel
milk has higher antibacterial and antiviral properties than cow milk (Gul et al., 2015).
 Immunoglobulins (Igs): The immunoglobulins (Igs) in camel milk contribute to camel
milk’s incredible infection fighting and eradication capacity. Camel Igs are able to penetrate
into tissues and cells that human Igs were unable to do. Because of its reduced size (one-tenth
the size of human antibodies) it can readily passes to the milk of the lactating camel, can pass
the blood brain barrier and readily absorbed from the gut into the general circulation.
Additionally, the level of immunoglobulins G in camel milk is highest among goat, cow,
sheep, buffalo and human milk (Abdel et al., 2016).
Carbohydrate: The major carbohydrate fraction in camel milk is lactose sugar with range
between 3.3 to 5.80 percent. However, in some dromedary varieties of the world lactose
contents is found to be changed slightly over a period of time. Lactose of camel milk is
readily digested by human lactase hence, is being prescribed for person suffering from lactose
intolerance (Abbas et al., 2013).
Vitamins: Numerous vitamins such as D, E, A, C and vitamins of B group are found in
dromedary camel milk. Camel milk contained higher concentration of niacin (B3) as
compared to bovine milk. It has powerful antioxidant property because of vitamin C which is
two to three folds higher as compared to cow milk. It also contributes to the low pH of camel
milk which helps in stabilization in the milk and therefore it can be kept for relatively longer
periods without cream layer formation (Haddadin et al., 2008).
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Minerals: Minerals make up less than 1% of the camel milk including K >Cl>Ca> P > Na >
Mg, Cu, Fe, and Zn. The iron content of CM is about ten times higher than in BM. The heavy
metals are in the range of harmless limits concerning the maximum daily intake of these
elements. The values of trace minerals are significantly higher in camel milk as compared to
bovine milk. It also contains higher amount of zinc which is essential for the development
and maintenance of normally functioning immune system. Mineral content in CM is very
similar to human milk. Thus, it is well possible to provide the nutritional mineral
requirements of human by CM (Nagy & Juhasz, 2016).
Beneficial health effects of camel milk :
Camel milk as a therapy for Diabetes Melitus:
In India a comparison between conventionally treated juveniles diabetes with those also
drinking camel milk showed that the group drinking the camel milk had significantly reduced
blood sugar and reduced HbA1C levels. Camel milk has insulin like activity, regulatory and
immunomodulatory function on β cells of pancreas. It contains large concentration of insulin
(approximately 52 micro unit/ml in camel milk to cow milk 16.32 micro unit/ml). Although
human, cow and goat milk contain insulin, but it is degraded in the acids environment of the
stomach. This does not occur with camel milk which does not react to acid and no coagulum
is formed. This is attributed to the low degree of phosphorylation of the caseins and higher
buffering capacity in camel milk. In addition, camel insulin is contained within micelles and
is thus protected from digestion and proteolysis in the upper gastrointestinal tract that
facilitate its absorption and easy passing to the blood stream (Abdalla, 2014).
Camel milk in heart disease:
Diabetes is associated with profound variations in plasma lipids, triglycerides, and lipoprotein
profile, and is responsible for vascular complications and an increased risk of heart disease. It
is reported that administration of camel milk can help decrease the levels of cholesterol in
diabetic patients. The exact hypocholesterol mechanism is still unclear, however the presence
of orotic acid in camel milk is considered responsible for the lowering of cholesterol levels
(El-Sayed et al., 2011)

Camel milk in hypertension:

Camel milk may have an interest in the prevention of arterial hypertension. The
antihypertensive activity of camel milk is due to reduce angiotensin II formation which elicits
a direct cardio-depressant effect through activation of the endothelium and NO pathway and
reduction in blood pressure. This is accompanied by fall of systemic resistance due to
vasodilatation process that may result from ACE inhibition (Moslehishad et al., 2013).
Beneficial effect of camel milk on liver and kidney function:
The beneficial health effects of camel milk are also extended to the liver and kidney function.
Oral administration has significantly improved liver function parameters eg AST, ALT (Khan
et al., 2012). In addition camel milk has renal protection actions that prevent the renal
damage associated with diabetes, as it attenuates the biochemical and morphological features
of diabetic nephropathy in diabetic animals (Mohamad et al., 2009).

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Camel milk and Oxidative stress:
Oxidative stress and its subsequent damage happen when antioxidant defense mechanisms
fail to efficiently counter endogenous or exogenous sources of reactive oxygen species
(ROS). Increased oxidative stress reduces the levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants such as
glutathione, vitamin E, and vitamin C, which subsequently damages metabolic pathways. The
protective effects of camel milk may be attributed high levels of vitamins (e.g., A, B2, C, and
E) and mineral contents (e.g., sodium, potassium, copper, magnesium and zinc) which
possess antioxidant activity and probably have chelating effects on toxicants (Kumar et al.,
2016).
Camel milk in prevention of milk allergies:
Food allergies in children are often very serious and can lead to anaphylactic reactions.
Various foods can cause allergies, especially consumption of ruminant milk and milk
products. Camel milk has been reported as a therapy for milk allergies because camel milk
contains a low amount of β-lactoglobulin and β-casein; which are responsible for allergies,
hence, camel milk has little or no allergic effects (Ehlayel et al., 2011). Another pertinent fact
is that the components of camel milk include immunoglobulins similar to those in mothers’
milk, which reduce children’s allergic reactions and strengthen their future response to foods.
Camel milk in lactose intolerance:
Camel milk contains a high percentage of β-CN, similar to human milk. β-CN is more
sensitive to pepsin hydrolysis than αS1-CN that reflects higher digestibility rate of camel
milk than bovine milk. It is due to the fact that camel milk produces less casomorphin, which
provokes less intestinal motility, and this would cause lactose to be more exposed to the
action of lactase. Therefore CM is metabolized by lactose intolerant people with no trouble
(Shori, 2015).
Camel milk as a therapy for auto-immune disease:
Many observations over the past years suggest that autoimmune diseases are controlled or
even healed by drinking camel milk. A major flaw in the development of human
immunotherapy is the size of the antibodies. Larger antibodies cannot reach their target. But
the camel immunoglobulins have no short chains and small so are active against antigen.
Hypervariable regions of camel Igs have increased repertoire of antigen binding sites. Camel
VHH domains are better suited to enzyme inhibitors than human antibody fragments, thus
offering a potential for viral enzymatic neutralization. These comparative simplicity, high
affinity and specificity of camel Igs, and the potential to reach and interact with active sites
allow for penetration of dense tissues to reach the antigen. As immunoglobulins are found in
camel milk throughout lactation, drinking camel milk would provide a tool for combating
autoimmune diseases (Abdel et al., 2016).
Camel milk in treatment of autism:
It is a primary autoimmune disease which affects an intestinal enzyme responsible for the
formation of the amino acid from the milk protein casein. But autism causes breakdown of
casein in to the casomorphine, not in amino acids. These casomorphine is a powerful opioid,
which leads to typical cognitive and behavioral symptoms so eventually this casomorphine
causes brain damage. It has been seen that autistic children drinking camel milk have

239
amazing improvement in their behavior. This may be due to the fact that camel milk
meagerly contains β lactoglobulin so camel milk does not lead to autism symptom. Beside,
camel milk contains β - casein, but its structure is very different from the cow milk protein.
Phylogenetic differences could be responsible for the failed recognition of camels’ proteins
by circulating IgEs and monoclonal antibodies and helps in treating autism (Sharma and
Singh, 2014).
Camel milk in viral diseases:
Camel milk antibodies are potent and selective inhibitor of the viral enzyme system. This
explains the extreme resistance to many deadly animal viral diseases like foot and mouth
disease, Rift Valley fever and Rinderpest, virucidal and virus-inhibiting properties against
ortho- and paramyxoviruses, hepatitis C virus (El-Agamy, 2000).
Camel milk in tuberculosis:
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacterium, usually
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These results suggested that there is a positive benefit of camel
milk supplementation in TB patient. Mal et al. (2006) suggested that camel milk contains
protective proteins which may have a possible role for enhancing the immune defenses
mechanism. Antibacterial properties of these camel milk proteins destroy Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
Camel milk in Crohns diseases:
Crohn’s disease, also known as Crohn syndrome and regional enteritis, is a type of
inflammatory bowel disease that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth
to anus, showing a wide variety of symptoms. Camel milk has shown good effect for treating
Crohn’s diseases. As the bacteria belongs to the family of tuberculosis and as camel milk has
been used to treat tuberculosis it becomes apparent that the powerful bactericide properties of
camel milk combined with PGRP have a quick and positive effect on the healing process.
Crohn’s disease (Shabo et al., 2008).

Camel’s milk in colitis:

The promising alleviating effects of CM on colitis are likely mediated via abrogation of
leukocyte migration, attenuation of TNF-α andIL-10 cytokines, accompanied with
suppression of oxidative stress via inhibition of elevated lipid peroxides and NO and
restoration of GSH and inhibition of colon cell apoptosis as indicated by caspase-3 activity
(Tanida et al., 2011).
Camel milk on wound healing:
Camel milk whey protein has been shown to reduce the wound size significantly (Badr,
2012). This is correlated with increased epithelization activity, angiogenesis, granulation
tissue formation, and extracellular matrix remodeling. Hydroxyproline is a primary
component in collagen. A significant restoration of hydroxyproline content has been reported
after the oral administration o f camel milk whey proteins.
Antimicrobial effects of camel milk:
Camel milk has shown profound antibacterial, antifungal, antinematodal properties.
Significant antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes,
Lactococcus lactissub sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, inhibitory effects

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against some pathogenic fungi, anthelmintic effects on adults Haemonchus contortus,
Schistosoma mansoniihave been recorded. The antiparasitic effect of lactoferrin is
predominantly linked to iron sequestration and destabilization of the parasite membrane
(Elbarbary et al., 2014). Besides, lactoferrin in camel milk acts as a probiotic having a strong
physiological activity against antimicrobial infection in the gastrointestinal tract (Jrad et al.,
2015).
Anti-cancer action of camel milk:
The claimed anti-cancer action of camel milk is widely accepted by local healers who use of
a mixture of camel milk and urine in the treatment of patients suffering from a variety of
cancers, including breast, nasopharyngeal, lung and others. Multi-tasking and multifunctional
protein lacto-ferrin is believed to be a possible anti-malignant candidate in camel milk (Habib
et al., 2013).
Camel milk is good for anti-ageing :
Camel milk is good for anti-ageing as the high levels of vitamin C protect collagen, a protein
that aids in the growth of cells and blood vessels and gives skin its firmness and strength. It
also strengthens the structural support and resiliency of skin and slows the rate of free-radical
damage which causes skin dryness, and wrinkles. In addition, liposome occurring in camel
milk is applicable for a potential cosmetic ingredient to improve anti-aging effect (Salami et
al., 2011).
Cosmetic values of camel milk:
Camel milk has cosmetic effect due to presence of α-hydroxyl acids which are known to
plump the skin and smoothens fine lines. α—hydroxyl acids help to shed the outer horny
layer of dead cells on the skin (epidermis) by helping to break down sugars, which are used to
hold skin cells together. This helps in revealing new cells, which are more elastic and clear
(Baumann, 2007).
Present scenario :
The global camel population, spread across 47 countries. About 83 percent of the camel
population inhabits mainly the Eastern and Northern Africa and the rest are present in the
Indian subcontinent and Middle East. India stands tenth in the world with0.38 million camels.
In last five decades, the world’s camel population increased by about twofold as a result of
nearly threefold increase in the Africa region, while it recorded a decreasing trend in the
Asian region including India. This might be due to declining trend in the use of camel in
agricultural and transport works and less demand of camel milk and other products in these
countries (FAOSTAT, 2015).
Milk production potential of Indian camel breeds:
The Indian main camel breeds, viz. Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachhchi and Mewari, are shown to
producefrom3.8 to 10.8 kg/day. The lactation period in the Indian camels can last up to 14–16
months depending upon the time of weaning of the new born. India ranks 7th in the world in
camel milk production, producing around 23.08thousand tons annually (FAOSTAT, 2015).
Famous camel milk drink in world:
Shelf life of raw camel milk is 8–9 h at 37°C and more than a week at 4–6 °C. Nowadays,
pasteurized CM is one of the most important CM products in some countries. Freshly

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prepared or preserved ‘Shubat,’ a fermented camel milk drink is used in Kazakhstan. Chal is
a traditional sparkling beverage of fermented CM with a sour flavour, popular in the north of
Iran, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. Oggtt is dry fermented CM which can be consumed
either as dry or after rehydration. Oromis another type of fermented CM product usually
consumed fresh (Soleymanzadeh et al., 2016).
Camel milk products in India:
Various camel milk products have been prepared and assessed at NRC on Camel, Bikaner.
Camel milk and milk products were sold for more than thirty lakhs of rupees during the
period from April 2007 to March 2017 period. The products include ice cream/kulfee, frozen
desserts with different flavors, camel milk tea and coffee, fermented milk/curd, butter and
ghee, flavored milk, paneer, cheese,khoa/mawa, gulabjamun, barfi/chocolate barfi, peda,
lyophilized whole and skim milk powder, chocolates and human skin cream. Processing
technologies for the manufacture of rasogolla, sandesh, rabri from fermented camel milk;
sweet lassi, frozen yoghurt with oat flour, frozen yoghurt with improved texture, camel milk
whey drink and spray dried milk powder have also been standardized (Singh et al., 2017).
Future perspective:
Despite several advantages of camel milk, camel farming is losing its glory day by day. In
March 2015 the Rajasthan Camel Bill 2014 declared camel as endangered because there are
less than 2 lakh animals left in the state. The sustainable development in the face of the
intensification process in camel farming systems is obviously important for the scientific
community. The commitment to sustainable development that minimizes negative impacts
and maintains balance between social, environmental, and economic growth implies
responsible and proactive decision-making and innovations. On 2 October 2016, the
Rajasthan state government announced UshtraVikasYojana, an innovative new Camel
Development Scheme. But the measures announced still need to be flanked by further
interventions and investments to make camel breeding economically viable again.
References :
References are available on request from editor.

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 Pig Farming: An Emerging Opportunity for Livestock Diversification and
Employment Generation in India
Amit Sharma and Sandeep Kaswan
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Ludhiana, Punjab
Email : draslpm@gmail.com
Introduction:
Agriculture sector is growth engine for the sustainable development of secondary
manufacturing and service sector. So, overall socioeconomic development of country largely
depends on growth of agriculture sector. But after green revolution, agriculture production
has achieved a plateau and potential benefits of green revolution interventions have been over
exploited which is now creating a new series of challenges.

Green Revolution interventions Side Effects

 Introduction of high yielding  Loss of plant genetic biodiversity,
crop varieties.
 Application of chemical  Deterioration in soil health and environmental
fertilizers and pesticides. pollution
 Improved irrigation facilities.  Excessive ground water harvesting leading
water scarcity decreased water table.
There has been a continuous decline in the share of agriculture and allied sector in the gross
value added (GVA) from 18.2 % in 2012-13 to 17.0 % in 2015-16. Decreasing share of
agriculture and allied sector in GVA is a major concern for welfare of a vast agrarian
community of country. In the situation of shrinking agriculture growth, livestock sector
holds key to protect the agrarian community from current severe economic crisis. During
2013-14 against the total agriculture, forestry and fishing sectors growth of 3.7%, livestock
sector expanded at higher rate of around 5.5%. In current situation, following factors favor
future growth of livestock sector over crop farming.
Table: 1 Major drivers of crop and livestock sectors growth
Factor Crop Farming Livestock Farming
Land holding Continuously decreasing land Low land requirement.
holding increasing input cost.
Climate More vulnerable to sudden More vulnerable to sudden
vulnerability climate change and losses. climate change and losses.
Demand Surplus production of cereal Increasing demand of animal
crops. products.
Employment Generate seasonal employment. Generates round the year
employment
Value addition Limited Lot of scope of value addition
Whereas livestock products are still deficient in India but the demand in domestic market is
steadily increasing with rising income and changing food habits of Indian population.
According to the sample registration system (SRS) baseline survey 2014 released by the
registrar general of India, 71 % of Indians over the age of 15 are non-vegetarian.

243
 Table-2:Livestock food in India
Produce Availability ICMR Deficiency
recommendation
Milk (g per day) 352 300 Surplus
Eggs ( per annum) 69 180 111 %
Meat ( kg per annum) 6.14 10.95 43.95 %

This situation offers an opportunity to farmers with a paradigm shift in current agriculture
practices with emphasis on livestock diversification and integration for meat production.
Among livestock species, pig is natural meat producing animal due to its higher growth rate,
prolificacy, short generation interval and better feed conversion ratio, low initial investment,
higher rate of return and short payback period. But still in India, due to some socio-religious
taboo, pig production is still in nascent stage and full potential of this excellent meat animal
is yet to be exploited to cater the increasing domestic demand of pork.
Present scenario of pig production: In India, 70% of the pig population is reared under
traditional small holder, low-input demand driven production system, except for limited
number of semi-commercial pig farms in Kerala, Punjab and Goa. Distribution of pig
population across the country is not uniform, thick population of pigs is recorded in the
eastern (2.8 million) and north-eastern (4.5 million) states; highest population is in Assam (2
million), followed by Uttar Pradesh (1.35 million), West Bengal (0.82 million), Jharkhand
(0.73 million) and Nagaland (0.70 million). Most of the pig population is again in the tribal
belts of the country where the people are non-vegetarian.
Table-3: Current status of pig production in India
Sr No Pig production trends India
1 Total pig 10.29 million
2 Indigenous pig 7.84 million
3 Exotic/cross bred 2.45million
4 Household rearing pigs 25.50 lakhs
5 Pig enterprises (No) 4889
6 Pork production 4,53,050 tons
7 % share of pork to total meat 7.62
8 Annual pig slaughter rate (%) 114
9 Average carcass yield (kg) 38.50

Over the last census period (2007-2012) total pig population has shown a decreasing trends
in major pork consuming eastern and north eastern states Odisha (54.17%) followed by
Nagaland (27.82 %), West Bengal (20.44%0, Assam (18.22%) and Manipur (11.68%).

This might be due to higher slaughter rate (114 %) than birth rate. Whereas total and
indigenous pig population has decreased over this time period but exotic and cross bred pig
has increased.

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 % change in pig population between 2007-2012 ( 18th and 19th
60
inter census period

37.48
40 31.38

20
8.59 6.29
3.63 2.79 0.21
0
-0.3 -1.14
-20 -10.1 -11.68
-18.22-20.44
-27.82
-40

-60 -54.17

These facts indicate continuous increase in domestic pork demands and farmers are adopting
pig farming at scientific levels with good quality exotic breed. Additionally pork is only
meat which is imported in India between 2010 and 2015. India’s imports of pig meat
increased at an average annual rate of 11% (USDA Foreign Agricultural Service). An Annual
import growth rate of 5.26 % and 18.6 % was recorded during last 2014-15 and 2016-17.

16000
14000 13520
12788 13292
Pigs ( X1000)

12000
10939 11043 11340 11133
10000 10293
8744 Indegenous pigs
8000 7837 Exotic/CB pigs
6000
Total Pigs
4000
2000 2249 2180 2389 2456
1849
0
1992 1997 2003 2007 2012

Figure : Pig population trends over inter census period (years)

Prospectus of pig farming: Currently eight states in north east India (Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura) and Goa,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Kerala in southern India and a small Chinese
community in Kolkata (West Benagal) constitute major pork consuming geographical market
areas in India. Demographically, schedule tribe (8%) and schedule caste (14%) are
traditionally pork consuming population in India, additionally christian population also does
not has any inhibition in pork consumption. As per Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR) an adult human daily requires minimum 20 g animal protein (from meat, egg or
milk). According to a highly conservative estimate, If out of total 121 billion human
population (2011 census data), if only 20 % (242 million) people consume only 2 g pork

245
 protein (10 g pork meat) then as against annual availability of 0.45 million ton pork, total
estimated annual pork requirement is 0.88 million ton. So, at present, there is still a minimum
gap of 0.43 million ton (49 %) in domestic demand and supply of pork. Average carcass yield
of pork is only 38.50 Kg, but considering improvement in average carcass yield up to 45 Kg
due to scientific feeding, breeding and management interventions there is still need of annual
production of additional 9.6 million finisher pigs to meet this gap. For this as against
current 10.29 million pig population, optimum pig population should be 19.89 million with
national pig population density of 16.44 pigs per thousand human head.

Organizational set up for pig farming:

Pig fattener units: For production of 19.89 million finisher pigs of marketable weight of
100 kg per year.
 Fattening unit size: 80 piglets per batch
 Batches per year: 2 batches per year
 Production cycle: Raising of 2-3 months piglets upto 8-9 m of age as finisher pigs.
 Total number of units required: 2.48 lakhs.

Pig breeding units: To supply 19.89 million weaned piglets to fattener units.
 Breeding unit size: 10 sows + 1 boar.
 Production objective: supply 160 weaned piglets per breeding unit.
 Total number of breeding units required: 1.24 lakhs.

Nucleus breeding unit: To supply approximately 4100 good quality breeding boars per year
to 1.24 lakhs breeding units at boar replacement rate of 33% per year.
 Boar selection rate: 5% (50 % female culling rate and 10% voluntary culling rate of males).
 Unit size: 50 sows + 5 boars
 Total nucleus breeding units required: 82 units can be started in public private sector.
This organizational set up for production of 19.89 million finisher pigs to supply only 10 gm
pork to only 121 million human population of India offers an opportunity to generate
employment to a minimum of 3.72 lakhs farm families leaving aside employment potential in
marketing, processing and other allied production activities.
As pig farming requires low initial capital investment, has minimum risk and higher rate of
return margin of profit, therefore in order to tap available domestic opportunities, scientific
pig farming can be propagated for livestock diversification and integrating to deal with
current socio economic agrarian crises.

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 Present Status and Future Prospects of Fisheries in Telangana
M. Kishan Kumar,Ravi Gugulothu, Srinu Rathlavath and Suresh Kummari
College of Fishery Science, Pebbair-509104,
Wanaparthy, Telangana
Abstract:
Telangana state have vast and varied inland water resources in the form of Resevoirs, Rivers, Tanks
and Ponds. It stands 3rd position and 8th position with respect to water resources and production
respectively. Apart from this it generates nutritional, health and livelihood security to the poor
villagers and empowering the welfare of fish farmers. There are 19.04 lakh fish farmers in the state of
which only 3.07 lakh fish farmers actively involving their fishing activities. Fish farmers in Telangana
should train in such a way that they should be self-sufficient in their knowledge with respect to fish
culture practices. Thereby undoubtedly fisheries production can be easily enhanced and living
standards of poor fish farmers can be possible.
Introduction:
Fisheries sector is one of the fastest growing sectors to overcome the need of nutritional food to the
mankind. It generates nutritional security, health and livelihood security to the poor villagers and
empowering the welfare of fish farmers. In India, fisheries sector not only generating employment
opportunities but also getting higher benefits to the extent possible. This sector aims at exploitation of
all the possible resources under capture and culture fishery for increasing fish production and
productivity through sustainable development. In India there are several states which are having
higher water spreading area includes West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
Telangana also have much water spreading area i.e., reservoirs with an water spreading area of 1.85
lakh hectare, 4324 number of tanks under fisheries department has an water spreading area of 2.62
lakh, and 19,480 ponds under grama panchayat with an water spreading area of 1.56 lakh
hectare.During 2015-16 Telangana obtain 2.34 lakh tonnesof productivity from the reservoirs. There
are about 19 lakhs fishermens depending upon reservoir fisheries as their primary livelihood in
Telangana. So that upliftment of fish farmers and development of fisheries sector in the state is very
much essential to enhance the productivity of fisheries in reservoirs and ponds.

Status of fisheries in world and India:

Global fisheries production during the year 2014 was 167.2 MT with 93.4 MT from capture and
73.8 MTfrom aquaculture. Fisheries is a sunrise sector with varied resources and potential,
engaging over 14.50 million people at the primary level and many more along the value
chain.In view of fisheries production India has secured second place in capture fisheries and
culture fisheries as well after China. The total fish production during 2015-16 is at 10.79
million metric tonne (MMT) with a contribution of 7.21 MMT from inland sector and 3.58
MMT from marine sector.
India has 8129 kilometers of marine coastline, comprising 3,830 fishing villages and 1,914 traditional
fish landing centers. India's fresh water resources consists of 1,95,210 kilometers of riversand canals,
3.15 million hectares of reservoirs, 2.4 million hectares of ponds and lakes, and about 0.8 million
hectares of flood plain wetlands. As per 2010 the marine and freshwater resources offered a combined
sustainable fishing potential of over 4 MMT of fish. In addition to this India's water and natural
resources offer a tenfold growth potential in aquaculture from 2010 harvest levels of 3.9 MMT of fish,
if India were to adopt fishing knowledge, regulatory reforms, and sustainability policies adopted
by China over the last two decades. India is going to be one of the major suppliers of fish in the world.
In the year 2015-16 the country exported over 10,50,000MT of fish, to 75 countries, earning over
foreign exchange worth of $5.51 million. It indicates that how the fisheries production is increasing

247
day by day in our country. Although rapid growth in total fish production, a fish farmer’s average
annual production in India is only 2 tonnes per person, compared to 172 tonnes in Norway, 72 tonnes
inChile, and 6 tonnes in China.
Table-1: Inland water resources of India
Water resources Area (hectare)
Inlandwaterbodies 7,30,59,000
Rivers andcanals 1,90,000
Reservoirs 30,15,000
Tanks and ponds 20,36,000
Flood plain lakes / Derelict waters 7,98,000
Brackish water 10,24,000

Fish production in Telangana:

Though Telangana ranks 3rd position in inland water resources in India with a water
spreading area of 5.87 lakh ha but production wise Telangana stands 8th position in the
country.It indicates that there is a lot of possibility to enhance the fish production in the state.
The total fish production in Telangana state during the year 2014-15 was 2.86 lakh tones and in 2015-
16 it decline to 2.37 lakh tones.
Table-2:Water resources in Telangana - water spread area
Description Number Water spread area (in lakh hect)
Reservoirs (in Ha.)
Large > 5000 8 1.35
Medium 1000-5000 17 0.28
Small < 1000 53 0.22
Total 78 1.85
Tanks
Perennial 438 0.38
Long seasonal 3212 1.20
Short seasonal tanks 31381 2.43
Total 35,031 4.01
Aquaculture ponds 474 781hect.
Rivers and canal - 5,573 kms

Table-3: Fishermen Co-operative Societies in Telangana

Fishermen Co-operative Societies No Membership
Fishermen Co-operative Societies 3513 2,84,844
Fisherwomen Societies 437 20,420
Fishermen Marketing Co-operative Societies 07 3307
District Fishermen Co-operative Societies 10 2736
Total 3967 3,13,307

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 Table-4:Major water resources in Telangana
Mainrivers Godavari, Krishna
Main Manjira, Pranahitha, Indravathi, Penganga, Sabari, Maneru, Haridra, Kadam, Dindi,
tributaris Kagna, Kinnerasani, Musi, Bhima, Thungabadra etc.,
Reservoirs Rajolibanda(Mahabubnagar),Sathnala(Adilabad),Manjira(Medak),Dindi(Nalgonda),
Himayathsagar(Rangareddy),Dharamsagar(Warangal),Lankasagr(Khammam),Palair(
Khammam),Wyra(Khammam),laknavaram(Khammam),Swarnajalaashayam(Adilaba
d),Kinnerasani(Khammam),Pakhala(Warangal),Alisagar(Nizamabad),Vemuleeri
Project(Suryapeta), Mylaram(Warangal), etc.,
Major Dams Koilsagar(Mahabubnagar), Srisailam dam(Kurnool, Mahabubnagar), Jurala
and dam(Mahabubnagar), Nagarjunasagar(Nalgonda, Guntur),Sriramsagar(Nizamabad),
Reservoirs Nizamsagar(Nizamabad), Ramappa(Warangal), Singur(Medak), Kadem
dam(Adilabad), Sripadsagar(yellampally), Maneru dam(Karimnagar).

Scope for the growth of Fisheries in Telangana:

Generally, the water resources in Telangana are in the form of reservoirs and tanks. Most of the
fish farmers in Telangana depend on only capture fisheries and earning income for their
livelihood. These days fish farmers not only depending on capture fisheries but also adopting
some aquaculture techniques to generate the revenue.The resource based fisheries in the State
include 78 reservoirs having water spread area about 1.85 lakh hectares, 35,031 tanks have water
spread area of 4.01 lakh hectares.Fisheries sector contributing 3.47 percent of GSDP from
agriculture and 0.6 percent to the GSDP during 2014-15 at current prices.
Reservoir are classified into three categories i.e., Out of 78 reservoirs in the state 53 reservoirs are
considered as small reservoirs and having an water spread area of less than 1000 hectares, 17
reservoirs are considered as medium reservoirs having an water spread area of 1000 to 5000
hectares and 8 reservoirs considered as Large reservoirs having an water spread area of more than
5000 hectares. Totally there are 35031 tanks in the State among these more than 600 are found in
Warangal, Medak, Karimnagar and Mahabubnagar districts. So far there is no development
through culture practices has been taken up to enhance the fish production. Hence empowerment
fisheries sector can be made by maximum utilization of aquaculture pond. Khammam district has
highest number of aquaculture ponds, whereas fisheries communities belonging to districts of
Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda and Adilabad are much interest to culture prawns rather than fish
culture.
During 2014-15, 1.69 Lakh tonnes of fish and prawn is produced in Telangana as against target of
2.92 Lakh tonnes. For the year 2015-16, the target for Fish and Prawn production is 3.21 Lakh
tonnes and during 2015-16, 1.71 Lakh tonnes of fish and prawn is produced in Telangana as
against target of 3.20 Lakh tonnes.The average productivity of tank is 350 to 400 kgs per hectare
water spread area. Similarly, in reservoirs, the productivity is 30 kgs per hectare water spread
area as compared to the actual potential of 150 kgs per hectare. Thus, more attention needs to be
given to reservoir and tank fisheries to improve their productivity in the state.There are 19.04 lakh
fishermen in the State in that maximum numbers i.e., 65 percent of fishermen are belonging to
Warangal, Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda and Karimnagar districts.
Initiatives for the growth of fisheries in Telangana :
Stocking density in perennial water bodies:
Whilepurchasingfish seed utmost care should be taken that whether the fish seed is good at size and
quality. We must not give much preference to size rather than quality. If the quality of fish seed is not
good the percentage of mortality will be higher and the production may not be as that of expectations.

249
In perennial waters Catla, Rohu and Mrigala at each species with 80-100 mm size and the percentage
of species should be 40%, 50%, 10% stocked accordingly. So that better yield can be obtained. The
quantity of fish seed for hectare water spreading area should be stocked 2000, 1000 and 500 for 1000,
1000 to 5000 and .5000 hectare respectively.
Stocking density in seasonal water bodies:
In these water bodies the size and quantity of fish seed at 35-40 mm size in the ratio of 50%, 25% and
25% i.e., catla, rohu and bangaru theega respectively. The stocking density per hectare water
spreading area should be 3000 in numbers. So that better yield can be achieved.
Implementing certainschemes provided by Govt. of Telangana:
The State has been implementing several centrally sponsored programmes that include strengthening
the data base and network, registration of fresh water aquaculture, group accident insurance for fish
farmers, supply of fish seed and ice boxes under State Plan and under the Special Component Plan for
SC/STs that includes supply of inputs to ST fishermen, supply of boats and nets, establishment of fish
/prawn pond and fish seed farm for STs, vending units with mobile and luggage autos. In order to
encourage freshwater aquaculture in the state, the Government simplified the procedures for
registration through the issuance of simplified guidelines. So far 474 ponds covering an area of 781
Ha has been issued with certificate of registration. As far as fisheries are concern, the Government of
Telangana mainly focusing on fisheries not only important source of food but alsoa traditional and
important occupation in Telangana.The Government of Telangana aims at
 To increase the fish production and productivity through increasing water resources.
 Achieve self- sufficiency in fish seed production
 Supply of fish at an affordable price and in hygienic condition
 To improve the living standards of people depending on fisheries through welfare
programmes.
Conclusion:
Though Telangana ranks 3rd position in inland water resources in India with a water spreading area of
5.87 lakh ha but production wise Telangana stands 8th position in the country. It shows that there is a
scope to enhance the fish production in the state. Owing to this, there is urgent need to create
awareness among the fishermen communities regarding management of fisheries in reservoirs,
cultivation of fish in ponds and to empower knowledge about modern culture practices are very much
essential to utilize all the water resources in Telangana. While releasing the seed into the ponds and
reservoirs utmost care should be taken i.e., in case selection of fish seed, density of fish seed and
quality of seed etc are plays a pivotal role. At the time of breeding season particularly in reservoirs
fishermen’s should not be entertained to go for fishing. So that production can be enhanced. The gear
which they are using while fishing is also impact the production and only good size fish should be
harvested so that higher benefits can be possible.To inculcate interest among fish farmers with regard
to modern culture practices in reservoirs such as cages, pens and guiding them regarding benefits of
these culture practices without polluting the environment. There are opportunities to generate higher
profits with less investment can be possible through these culture methods in reservoir. If we develop
the awareness about modern culture practices among fish farmers of Telangana definitely greater fish
production can be possible and we can see the state in a first position in the country. In this way living
standards of fish farmers can be progressing.
References:
References are available on request from editor.

250
 ICTs in Livestock and Dairy Sectors : An Indian Scenario
H. B. Patel, R. D. Singh, V. N. Sarvaiya and S. K. Modi
S D Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar
Email : drhitesh2002@rediffmail.com
Introduction :
The direct influence of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) industry on the
competitiveness can be seen in the success of information technology (IT) industry. The IT sector
has succeeded in achieving global competitiveness and provides global platform to other sectors
for same. The success of IT industry has also raised the awareness of benefits of ICTs within
country (Dutta et al., 2003). The present era of has influenced agriculture and animal husbandry
sector. The information technology in agriculture and animal husbandry occupies 1.3 percent
share (Sireesha et al., 2014).
The ICT includes any communication device or application encompassing electronic
communication. It includes use of cellular phones, radio, television, computer and network
software and hardware and satellite systems, as well as various services and applications
associated with them (Kukreja and Chakrabarti, 2013). ICTs are a diverse set of technological
tools and resources to create, disseminate, store, bring value addition and manage information. In
order to transform livestock sector into information driven, modern and competitive sector
(Sireesha et al., 2014). The adoption and investment in ICT have been growing in service as well
manufacturer sectors. There are many cases where, an innovative and effective use of ICT to
enhance the competitiveness of dairy industry and to provide benefits to animal owners,
consumers, traders, etc. can be claimed (Dutta et al., 2003).

Scope :
ICT is an umbrella term that includes anything ranging from radio to satellite imagery to mobile
phones or electronic money transfers. Second, these ICTs and others have gained traction even in
impoverished regions. The increases in their affordability, accessibility, and adaptability have
resulted in their use even within rural homesteads relying on agriculture. New, small devices
(such as multifunctional mobile phones and nanotechnology for food safety), infrastructure (such
as mobile telecommunications networks and cloud computing facilities), and especially
applications (for example, that transfer money or track an item moving through a global supply
chain) have proliferated. Many of the questions asked by farmers (including questions on how to
increase yields, access markets, and adapt to weather conditions) can now be answered faster,
with greater ease, and increased accuracy. Many of the questions can also be answered with a
dialogue—where farmers, experts, and government can select best solutions based on a diverse
set of expertise and experience (The World Bank, 2011).

The ICTs are being continuously used to deliver a variety of services including information on
new crop options and which seed varieties to use for their location, market prices, demand
indicators and logistical information, information on diseases/plant protection, pesticides, direct
procurement, transparent pricing by connecting the farmer directly with supplier using e-
Commerce, training of farmers regarding production technologies in local language by both audio
and video broadcasts using radio and television, details and forms for government policies and
schemes related to agriculture and value-added products of different crops (Kukreja and
Chakrabarti, 2013). The animal husbandry and dairying provides diversified area of farm and
business operation for implementation of ICTs. The different areas where ICTs can be deployed

251
or are being used frequently includes animal breeding, animal feeding, animal management,
animal health care, development programs, project proposal submission, evaluation and sanction,
marketing of livestock produce and dairy products, disaster management, administration,
planning, policy making, information, procurement of milk, veterinary consultancy etc.
Increasing the adoption of ICTs and their success is opening new avenues for ICTs use in animal
husbandry and dairy sector in India (Sireesha et al., 2014).

There are many success stories of ICTs in Animal Husbandry and Dairy Sectors. The most
striking example is story of AMUL in Gujarat. The co-operative have ICT enabled milk
collecting centres. These computerised milk collection centres provide an effective interface with
producers and also acts as information kiosk providing other information services to its members.
The each member with punch cards can see the volume of milk and fat contents on display and
also information of payments. This adoption ensures transparency and saves processing time for
farmers. Many stake holders in dairy and animal husbandry sectors especially co-operative dairies
started delivering information on epidemics affecting dairy animals, vaccination schedule,
weather forecasting, pricing of products, services offered by various agency, best practices in
animal husbandry. It is evident that the ICTs projects and initiatives are successful because of end
to end connectivity/computerization to deliver service in local languages to establish proper link
between researchers, extension workers, farmers, co-operative dairies and other stake holders.

IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL), another information service for farmers, is a joint venture
between the telecom network operator Airtel and the Indian Farmer’s Fertilizer Cooperative
Limited (IFFCO, from which the initiative takes part of its name). In addition to crop advice and
the weather, IKSL provides advice on animal husbandry, rural health initiatives, and the
availability of products such as fertilizer. Unlike RML, IKSL’s information arrives via voice
rather than text message (The World Bank, 2011).

ICT application in dairy and livestock sectors provides common interaction platforms for stake
holders especially dairy farmers, animal health experts, extension workers, market regulators,
pricing authority etc. Such interacting multi-stake holder platforms enables farmers to access
timely and relevant information, exchange opinions, experiences, good practices and resources
related to dairy breeding. It is well known fact that access to information is a potential avenue for
improving yield among the small holder dairy farmers. The farmer’s access to information helps
them to know about improved technologies and enhance the adoption of new innovations.
Diffused and scattered availability of information is major hindrance for precise access to
information by farmers. These hurdles can be easily removed by employing ICTs among dairy
and livestock farmers (Bore et al., 2015).

With regard to farmer organizations or co-operatives, ICTs currently offer guaranteed

improvements in enhanced connections to members and improved accounting and administration,
and stronger collective voice. Mobile phone systems appear to be the most flexible technology
for improving connections within farmer organizations and providing a wider range services.
Technologies that do not depend on literacy (digital photography and video clips) are extremely
effective for sharing information within and between farmer organizations. The glaring examples
includes SMS-Based Service in Zambia’s National Farmer Organization, ICTs to Share New

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Production, Processing, and Marketing Skill among Burkina Faso Farmers, the SOUNONG
Search Engine for Farmer Organizations in China, m-Kishan and e-khedut portals in India etc.

The major constraints in adoption and investment in ICTs in India are regulation, lack of local
application, lack of economic scale and unfavourable economics. The stringent government
regulation in economy proves to have negative effects on growth of ICTs. The government policy
to promote the use of ICTs in Dairy and animal husbandry sectors needs to provides some
incentives and imperatives to industry especially farmer oriented ICTs. If such regulations are
adopted, the company are exposed to more competitiveness and would spend more on ICTs. The
needs of India with respect to ICTs in Dairy and animal husbandry is highly specific requiring
investment of high amount. The paying capacity is limited. So local service providers, though
they are competent enough are not interested in domestic business. The numbers and quality of
local ICTs have been inadequate. The dairy industries and animal husbandry have not realized the
power of economic of scale. A higher scale provides flexibility to invest higher in ICTs and to
achieve higher efficiency. The large numbers of dairy industries and animal husbandry farms are
small to medium sized enterprise and not organized fully, these prevents higher investments and
global competitiveness. The tariff structures in India makes the prices of hardware more high
requiring higher initial investment. Additionally Indian service providers have priority to
international customers, while not satisfying local needs completely. This has created detrimental
effects on interest of stake holders in using ICTs. Despite of all odds, few success stories of ICTs
in dairy and animal husbandry are evident in the country like AMUL. The use of information
communication technologies (ICT) in the rural areas of Gujarat by Gujarat Cooperative Milk
Marketing Federation Ltd. (GCMMFL) has made the operation of the dairy industry different
despite of many arguments related to investments in ICT in rural India (Bowonder et al., 2005).

There is increased demand to strengthen and re-orient the information and communication
network for dissemination information to farmers using new technologies, availability of better
quality inputs and price, demand and supply for various products, disease situation, benefits
available from various programmes etc. Traditionally radio, television and news papers being the
major media for information dissemination; Animal Husbandry and Dairy Sectors needs to
establish close coordination using ICTs in rural area (Hedge, 2012). The circumstances and
conditions are very challenging for small holder dairy and livestock farmers and sustainable dairy
farming can be established by linking production system to consumer demand. Focused efforts in
the areas of feed and nutrition management, improved breeding and health care systems, financial
inclusion, dedicated extension services and procurement infrastructure development with ICT
support is required (Hemme et al., 2015).

References:
References are available on request from editor.

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 Rabbit Farming for Employment and Nutritional Security for
Disadvantage Regions of India
A.K. Srivastava, A.P. Chaudhary, H.D. Chauhan and D.V. Joshi
College of Veterinary Science and AH
SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar
Rabbits can be raised in any type of environment, whether be it rural, suburb, or city. It is a small
sized, friendly and low- maintenance family pet animal for children as well as adults to care for.
Introduction:
Best known for being prolific, rabbits are also herbivores which efficiently convert fodder into food.
The ‘micro livestock’ species, as described by Viet Meyer (1985), contributes meat, wool, fur, pelt
and manure for human being. It has immense potential sustainable food production for the ever-
increasing human population. There is tremendous scope for rural development through this profitable
enterprise. Enormous potential of this species can serve the nation by income and employment
generation, food security and family nutrition, poverty alleviations and socio-economic upliftment of
rural unemployed youth, women, old aged and retired personnel as well as physically disabled
persons.
Rabbits can be raised successfully in a backyard rearing system for meat for the family, small surplus
for sale or as a large scale commercial enterprise (Gulyani and Karim, 2008).There is need to give
serious thought on the importance of rabbit farming and to provide the species its due place in our
Agricultural system. The species introduced in the beginning of 19th century in many countries where
it was unknown, such as Australia and New Zealand and were fed mainly on green forage picked
daily, kept in the backyard, with the poultry, and reproduction (2-3 litters/year) was extensive (Lebas,
1986).

Rabbit farming : Indian scenario:

Rabbit rearing in India, started long back as pet animals. Before independence, wild stock (non-
angoras) was reared in Mukteshwar in early thirties. Later on, during 1940’s NZW rabbits were
introduced in Southern part of the country. In post independent era, British Angora rabbits were
reared around Dharamsala, Kullu and Kangra of Himachal Pradesh as well as of Nilgiri Hills of Tamil
Nadu. The introduction of German Angora breed in early sixties brought a revolution in the
popularization of rabbit farming in India, although it has been confined to cooler hilly areas mostly.
The pioneer research work started at North Temperate Regional Station Garsa, Kullu of Central Sheep
and Wool research Institute, with the import of meat breeds i.e. NZW, White Giant form UK in 1978
and wool breeds namely Rusian Angora from erstwhile USSR in the year 1979. Later on in 1986 and
1997 German Angora were also introduced at the station (Gulyani and Karim, 2008). It has generated
tremendous interest among the farmers to adopt rabbit farming as a full time vocation or sometimes as
a supplementary enterprise.

The population of Rabbit in India has increased from 4.24 lakhs in 2007 to 5.92 lakhs in 2012 (19th
Livestock Census) with an increase of 39.55% and first time rabbits have been considered as livestock
in 19th Census.. India produces around 80- 100 tones of Angora wool per annum at present which is
quite low still to meet the installed capacity of Angora spinning industry in the country and their
requirement is met out from the import from developed countries, indicating a lot of scope for Angora
rabbit farming in India.
Sustainability of rabbit rearing:
Cuniculture has some unique features and has edge over other livestock activities especially for
employment generation and socio-economic upliftment of rural masses as it is relatively easy,

254
rewarding and takes little space compared to other livestock activities. It can also provide a very
valuable additional source of income in the hilly areas where opportunities of employment are very
limited. Another important consideration is food production cycle, which shows that rabbit need not
be in competition with man for its food. The wool from Angora Rabbits is of very high quality and it's
blending with carpet wool of sheep and silk improves the quality of wool to a great extent (Rajeshwari
et al., 2011). Rabbit rearing is sustainable due to less investment, docile and small size, high feed
conversion ratio, suitable for slaughtering purpose with high plane of nutrition and grow very fast as
one doe can add 40-45 young ones / year. It has biological productivity of 20-25 times of its body
weights in offspring’s as compared to cow with 0.6 times and an ewe 0.8 times as body weight during
one year period. The cost of animal, hutches, sheds, feed etc, is comparatively less expensive. Rabbit
farming is also very pleasuring and entertaining.

Rabbit Production Systems:

The exact way in which people keep rabbits differs from country to country, but there are two main
systems of production.

Backyard Rabbitry: It is rabbit keeping on a small, family scale. A few does and one or two bucks
may be kept in a home- built rabbitry just next to the house.
The small commercial rabbitry: May have from 10-50 breeding does in a well-built rabbitry. The
aim of this type of rabbit production is to sell rabbit meat / fur for a profit. These rabbits are usually
fed on concentrates as well as bulky foods which cost money.

Breeds of rabbits
There are over 20 breeds of rabbits as classified by the American Rabbit Breeders Association based
on size i.e. large breeds (Flemish Giant), medium breeds (Californian) and the smaller breeds (Dutch).
Generally two types of rabbits are available in India. One is for wool production and popularly known
as Angora and second one is for meat as well as for fur production and commonly known as
broiler/meat rabbit. The examples for different breeds of broiler rabbits that are commonly reared in
India are White Giant, Grey Giant, Flemish Giant, NZW, New Zealand Red, Californian, Soviet
Chinchilla, Dutch, etc., whereas German Angora, British Angora , Russian Angora and their A-1
crosses are popular fur breeds (Rajeshwari et al., 2011, Anonymous, 2005).

Breeding and reproduction:

Selection of breeding stock:
Angora Rabbits: In angora rabbits breeding stocks are selected on the basis of production i.e. wool
yield and reproduction performance. Wool yield (preferably 2nd and 3rd clip) and fibre characteristics
i.e. staple length, fibre diameter, and guard hair percent combined with reproductive performance
(litter size at birth) and mothering ability (litter size at weaning) are the criteria to select the individual
for breeding. Breeding buck should good in size, health, best wool producer based on both quantity
and quality.
Broiler Rabbit: In Broiler rabbits, 12 weeks body weight (slaughter weight), reproductive efficiency
of females (litter size at birth) and mothering ability (litter size at weaning), sexual ability in males
and fur quality are important trait for selection of the individual. Breeding doe and buck should not be
fatty and should be selected when they achieve 2 kg body weight. Besides the physical appearance
the doe must have at least 8 teats so that she could nurture the young kits properly. Selection of
breeding bucks is very important as it passes inherent characters to several litters in his lifetime. His
near relatives should have good commercial characteristics. Apart from the physical appearance, he

255
must have two testicles and should be in good health. It is always advisable to procure a breeding
buck from reputed and reliable source.
Mating plan and mating system: The mating plan should be prepared in such a way that the close
relatives are not mated; in order to avoid the harmful effect of in-breeding in the stock. The sire line
should be maintained separately and rotational mating among them should be practiced. Based on
production cycle, mating systems has been classified in three groups extensive, semi intensive and
intensive system. In a wet tropical climate, with balanced feeding, it is possible for a doe to produce
40-50 weaned young a year by a combination of intensive and semi-intensive rates. Using the
extensive rate the best breeders may obtain 30-35 weaned young per doe per year (Annonymous,
2005).
Puberty and age at first mating:
Rabbits attain puberty and sexual maturity when they achieve 75-80 and 80-85% adult weight the
breed. Usually rabbits attains puberty at the age of 4-5 months while becomes sexually mature at the
age of 6-8 months with higher body weight. Both age and body weight should be taken into
consideration prior to breed the rabbits first time in his/her life. The desirable age at first mating is
between 4 to 6 months for small breeds, 5 to 7 months for medium breeds and 8 to 10 months for
large breeds. Age at first mating in broiler doe vary considerably (between 5 ½ to 8 months) among
the breeds under Indian climate. At Sardarkrushinagar, the minimum 2.7 kg body weight and 7
months of age both criteria are followed for first mating in broiler rabbits.

Estrous cycle and mating management:

Rabbits differ with most of the mammals in respect of reproduction that female doe not show a true
and regular estrous cycle. Ovulation is induced rather than the spontaneous; these differences help
breeders to exploit this species as per their requirement. Doe is considered to be in estrous more or
less permanently and are able to breed throughout the year. Ovulation occurs 12-13hr, following the
mating. One male can serve 10-15 females. The active breeding life of a buck is 2-3 years. Twice a
week service allow the buck to stay in good condition. Commercial meat rabbits can be bred
throughout the year and with best possible management doe can be bred only 5- 7 times in a year.
Mating management is an essential component for successful rabbit farming. Since rabbits are very
sensitive/ susceptible to high temperature, hence it is always advisable to breed them in cool hours of
the day i.e. early morning and evening hours. Female is brought to the male for mating and not vice
versa. As soon as mating takes place the buck falls on one side making a squeal.
Gestation Period and Pregnancy Diagnosis:
The gestation length varies between 30-32 days in broiler breeds and 28-38 in German Angoras
under Indian climate. The average gestation length in rabbits is 31 days. Pregnancy diagnosis can be
performed at 14-16 days by abdominal palpation. Foetus appears as the size of large marbles. The test
mating of pregnant doe may also be attempted but is not reliable test. Pseudo- pregnancy occurs in
females which are not served for a long time after kindling or from unsuccessful mating. It is advised
to keep males at a distance in the vicinity of the females. Pseudo pregnancy lasts for 15-18 days and
following the state, the doe is high fertile.

Kindling: The process of delivering kits/offspring is termed as Kindling. It usually occurs during
early morning or late night hours. The process normally takes less than 30 minutes. Keeping the doe
on wire floor, increases chances of dead litter. The litter size ranges from 1 to 12, with an average 6-8
kits per litter. The new born kits are blind, deaf and devoid of fur. The doe cleans them and put them
in to the nest and nurture. Generally, litter size increases by 10-20% from 1st to 2nd kindling, slight
increase from 2nd to 3rd kindling, negligible change from 3rd to 4th kindling and later on it decreases.

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Maternal and kit care: Pregnant doe should be shifted to kindling or nest box 2-3 days prior to the
expected date of kindling. Adequate supply of good quality hay or straw should be provided for doe to
make her nest. It is advisable to make a bed using jute wool /gunny bag and keep some cotton wool in
the cage for covering the kits. Doe should be left undisturbed for 2-3 days after the kindling unless
there is some problem. The litter should be inspected everyday to make sure that young ones are well
fed and comfortable. Fur development starts after 5th day and about 10-11th day, the ears and eyes
starts functioning and kits crawl within the nest. At 12-15 days, they start to come out of the nest box
and can take feed themselves.
Nutrition and feeding of rabbits:
Rabbits are monogastric, hindgut fermenters that practice cecotrophy. Normally, the rabbit diet should
contain 12 – 19 % protein, 2 % fat, and 16 – 25 % fibre. It consumes most types of grains, oil seed
cakes, brans, greens and hay. Diets provided, whether home grown or commercially prepared, consist
almost entirely of ingredients from plant sources. Fibrous carbohydrates have special role in rabbit
nutrition, Bulky feeds like grass, vegetables, green leaves and hay are of lower energy value than
cereals but they are important in rabbit feeding as they contains lots of fibre. Fiber is essential for
proper functioning of rabbit digestive system. Lack of enough fibre in the diet will lead to diarrhea,
constipation and auto intoxicity. Rabbits ration must contain 10-14% fibre. Non-producing rabbits
may be given diet containing fibre upto 20%. A high fiber diet should be given to prevent obesity and
hair chewing. Fur eating tendency becomes prominent when fibre level falls below 10% and resulting
in hairball formation in the digestive tract leading to impaction. A practical feeding schedule followed
at Sardarkrushinagar is given in Table 1.
Although, the producers / farmers mostly rely on home grown feeds, a good portion of the rabbit feed
presently used is commercial pelleted feed. Since the rabbit can utilize a certain amount of forage, it
has a place in food production by making use of some non-competitive feeds. Habitually rabbits
practice coprophagy, sometimes referred to as pseudo rumination. It refers to the production of two
kinds of faecal matter, one hard and one soft, the latter being consumed directly from the anus as it is
excreted at night. The soft feces in the rabbit are low in fiber and high in protein and B-vitamins. The
protein content of soft feces is about 28.5%, while the hard feces contained 9.2% protein. Similarly
the concentration of vitamin B-12 in the feces of rabbits is 221 times that in the diet. This practice
begins in rabbits mostly after they begin eating solid feed at about 4 to 6 weeks of age. Fermentation
in the large intestine and practice of coprophagy probably provides necessary amounts of most B
complex vitamins, some quantity of microbial (bacterial) protein and may permit further digestion of
some nutrients by multiple passage through the digestive tract (Uden 1978). Adults approximately,
drink 150 ml of water although consumption can increase to 900 ml for a lactating doe.

Rabbit starts eating/ smelling feed as soon as it opens the eyes i.e. 12-15 days of age. Young rabbits
must be given feed in ground form instead of pellet. Rabbit can be solely reared on mash ration
instead of pelleted feed but it need water treatment before feeding to avoid snuffle problem. Growth
rate and efficiency of feed utilization were better with the pelleted diets. Concentrate to roughage ratio
must be 70:30 for growers and lactating, however, for adult this ratio can be increased to 60:40 or
50:50.using good quality hay. Grasses must always be fed in wilted form instead of fresh to avoid the
digestive disorder caused by excessive moisture. Concentrate feeding must be done in coolers hours
during summer to avoid feed wastage and for better intake. Left over feed should be withdrawn from
feeder before giving the fresh feed. During monsoon season it is recommended that feed should not be
stored beyond 15 days. During summer there is a need to give high energy and high protein ration to
avoid nutrient deficiency due to reduced feed intake.

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 Table 1. Practical feeding schedule
Sr. Age Approx. Amount (gm) Roughages (gm) Total Dry Total DE Total
No. Body wt in of Conc. (90% (wilted green matter K.cal DCP
gm. DM)** 20% DM)*** gm/day /day gm/day
1 20-50 days 500-700 30 50-80 39 113 4.2
2 50-70 days 700-1400 50 100-150 80 195 7.2
3 70-120 days 1400-2000 80 150-200 122 303 11.3
4 120-180 days 2000-2700 110 200-250 165 411 15.4
5 Adult 2700-3700 140 250-300 206 519 19.4
6 Adv. Pregnant/ 2700-4000 Ad. lib (at Ad. lib (at least 332 984 37.4
Lactating least 280 gm) 300-500 gm)
** DE 2800 Kcal /kg, CP 20%; *** DE 1800 Kcal /kg, CP 8%
** for wool producing rabbits, use oilcakes / protein supplements containing amino acid Methionine,
Cystine, Lysine etc. (available in soya flakes, ground nut cake, fish meal etc.) and crude fibre should
not be below 12 %.

Rabbit rearing system:

1. Deep litter system: Broiler rabbits are kept on the floor 3-4 inch deep litter made of saw dust.
The system is adopted with a caution for broiler rabbit only and is generally not recommended for
rabbit rearing due to burrowing habbit leading to sore hocks and fighting among males due to the
tendency of cannibalism.
2. Cage system: This is scientifically more hygienic rearing system for rabbits. The initial
investment for making cages is high, yet it is preferred for lower disease incidence. Different types of
cages are required as per the size and psychological stage of rabbits such as, kindling cages, cages
for young one, adult cages and breeding cages. Galvanized wire use is preferred to avoid rusting
problem. For making rabbit cages, the wire should be of 12 gauges. The wire mesh size of the base
of rabbit cage should be ¾’’ x ¾”; side of the cage 1.0”x0.5” or 1.0”x1.0” and top of the cage
2.0”x1.0”. The mesh size of young ones chamber in kindling should be ¾’’ x ¾” for all the sides as
well as the shutter. Small mesh size is kept to prevent entry of rats, snakes which attacks the young
kits (Anonymous, 2005).

Care and management of young one’s

Efficient and careful management throughout the life is essential for profitable rabbit farming. As the
rabbit is prone to the tendency of cannibalism, therefore, there is a need of constant supervision of
pregnant doe at the time of kindling and it is advised that the kindling shed must be constructed in the
silent and calm corner of the rabbitry and frequency of movement of worker should be minimum. As
soon as the kindling takes place, the doe must be separated from the young ones. There must be
sufficient feed, fodder and water in the cage. The young one should be kept in the jute wool or in the
nest made by the doe.
First time kindled does are hesitant and don’t allow suckiling by the young one. As soon as the young
one try to suckle teats of the mother, due to this sensation she moves here and their in the cage. These
females sometime trample the young one causing sudden death. It is, therefore, needed that these
females should be held from the back and kept stretched on the nest for proper milking. After milking
the young one should be checked for proper milk intake. The weight of new born rabbits varies from
40-60g. The young one, which is below 40g of body weight, needs immediate attention for milking.

In the temperate climate, special care should be given to protect the young kits from cold shocks and
if it remains outside the nest for half an hour, it will died due to cold shock as the new born kits are
born totally naked, with their eyes closed and have little store of energy. On 4-5th day small hair
coming out on the skin can be observed. On 12-13th day the rabbit generally opens its eye and start

258
searching for the feed and fodder. At this time small quantity of feed in crushed form along with good
quality roughage should be offered to the kits. Young kits generally 8-10g of concentrate/ day during
12-19th day, the quantity is doubled every week. At the 28th day, the amount of conc. offered is per
day 30g.

Weaning: At four to six weeks old, the litter is separated from the doe. In broiler rabbits, kits are
weaned on 28th day whereas, in Angora rabbits and in colder climate, the weaning is practiced late i.e.
either at 35th or 42nd day. It is better to take the doe away from the young than the vice versa. After
weaning the doe should be allowed to recover her lost body weight before remating a rest of at least 4
weeks should be given (Rajeshwari et al., 2009).
Rabbits for meat production: Rabbits which are kept for meat production can be kept in groups in
large hutches. Males and females should be kept apart to avoid fighting and pregnancies. Several does
can kept together in a large hutch until the time of slaughter. Sometimes several young bucks can be
kept together in a large hutch until about three old. After this age, they will often start fighting. This
can stopped by separating the bucks and keeping them bit keepers castrate young bucks, because it is
difficult procedure and because bucks which are not castrated grow quicker and produce better
carcasses for meat (Singh, 2005).
Value addition of rabbit products:
Wool production: In Angora rabbits shearing is done at 75 days interval of after first shearing which
is carried out one week after the weaning. It is the time when hairs attains a length of 5-6 cm. keeping
the rabbit unsheared beyond this leading to mating of wool and thereby deterioration in quality. The
wool production potential of Angora rabbit is much higher than that of sheep when expressed per unit
body weight. The other advantage with Angora wool is that the scouring losses are almost negligible
as compared to 50% in sheep wool. The rabbit hair have no cutaneous secretions and thus are thus are
superior in quality. An adult rabbit gives the wool 5 times in a year when it is shorn at an interval of
75 days. Per shearing wool production varies from 175-225 g. from an adult rabbit. In India the
shearing is generally done manually. Although the production is somewhat higher in Angora breed
reared in other temperate countries but in Indian situation, 800-900 g wool/animal could be exploited
in the best possible managemental practices (Risam and Das, 2004). Angora wool is blended with
other natural and synthetic fibres to produce yarn. The processing of angora wool is carried out in
Khadi, woolens, worsted, friction and cotton spinning system. Rabbit hairs can be satisfactorily
blended with Acrylic shrinkable, non shrinkable, Bharat Meriono wool and other fibres.
Rabbit meat and value addition: Rabbit meat is white, wholesome, fine grained, delicious flavoured
and pleasant in taste. It is rich in protein, certain vitamins and minerals as compared with the meat of
other species. It is low in fat, Cholesterol, sodium and chloric contents. Rabbit meat is considered to
be highly digestible, nutritious and appetizing. The meat to bone ratio is higher in rabbit meat than
chicken. It is soft, needs easy cooking and easier to remove carcass (Risham and Bhatt, 2005). The
traditional products such as Tandoori rabbits amd Kababs from minced meat have been found very
similar to chicken with regard to colour, appearance, texture, aroma, taste and overall acceptability.
Rabbit skin : The pelt of Angora rabbit is thin and become soft upon processing can not be used for
garment preparation it is only the broiler rabbit skin which is processed for garment making, to make
the broiler rabbit more profitable, the skin is to be processed to convert into a valuable garment. The
various garments viz. cap, cushions, purses, glove, jackets can be prepared from rabbit pelt.
Manure: The weight of rabbit manure varies between about 450 to 640 kg per cubic meter, and a
large breed doe with young can produce 0.34 cubic meter manure per year i.e. about 150 and 200 kg.

259
On a dry matter basis the manure contains approximately 2.7% nitrogen, 1.5% phosphoric acid, and
1% potash.

Marketing of rabbit and products:

Marketing is still a big problem for commercial rabbit farming in India as there is no well-organized
market for rabbit meat. Although various government and non-government organizations are inspiring
rabbit farming business even though the problem is not still solved.. For direct marketing a retail
outlet can be opened in the farm premises. Rabbits may be sold on live weight basis or dressed. In this
way a market for may be created in the local area. In places where there is no establishment of
markets or in small towns an outlet for rabbit meat may be developed by sales to neighbours and
friends. Roadside marketing of rabbit meat especially during festival occasions is also found to highly
satisfactory.

Conclusion:
Rabbit farming is another livestock activity with great scope as it is relatively easy, rewarding and
takes little space compared to other livestock activities. It can also provide a very valuable additional
source of income in the hilly areas where opportunities of employment are very limited. Another
important consideration is food production cycle, which shows that rabbit need not be in competition
with man for its food. Rabbit farming in India can also be a great source of income and employment.
Unemployed educated young people can create an income and employment opportunities by raising
rabbits commercially. And women can also raise some rabbits with other household animals or birds
to earn some extra income or to fulfill their daily family nutrition demand. Research studies
conducted in temperate regions are generally not appropriate for tropical production systems because
of differences in climate, diet, housing and management, and the genetic stocks used. For projects in
developing countries to be successful, more research should be carried out under local conditions,
taking into account economic, social, breeding stock and forage resource factors.

References:
References are available on request from editor.

260
 Authors Index

Adil, S. 69 Lathwal, S. S. 42
Ankuya K.J 219 Mahender, M. 173
Baba, F. A. 69 Misra, S. S. 25
Banday, M. T. 69, 75 Modi, R. J. 156
Bharti, P. K. 63 Modi, S. K. 123, 251
Bumla, N. A. 69 Pan, Subhransu 9
Chandra, A. Sarat 173 Panchasara, H. H. 38
Chandel, B. S. 229 Pandey, H. O. 63
Chaudhary, J. L. 139 Patel, B. R. 123
Chaudhary, R. K. 146 Patel, H. B. 123, 251
Chauhan, H. D. 219, 229 Patel, M. P. 38
Chauhan, H. C. 227 Phondba, Bhupendra T. 182
Chauhan, P. M. 146 Prajapati, A. S. 224
Chaudhary, A. P. 219,229, 236,254 Rathalavat, Srinu 247
Choudhary, Bishwa Bhaskar 126 Rathod, B. S. 38
Datta, K. K. 193 Reddy, K. Sarjan 102
Devi, Indu 42 Reddy, Vijaybhaskar 102
Desai, M. C. 236 Saini, A. L. 54
Dogra, Pardeep Kumar 209 Sankhyan, Varun 209
Dudi, Kuldeep 42 Sastry, N. S. R. 205
Gami, Y. M. 38 Sarvaiya, V. N. 123, 251
Gandhi, R. S. 1, Sharma, Amit 243
Gaur, G. K. 63 Sharma, R. C. 25
Gowane, G. R. 25 Sharma, Sanjita 152
Gugulothu, Ravi 247 Sharma, Vishal 117
Gulati, Harish K. 117 Sharma, Vishnu 152
Hamadani, Henna 75 Sheikh, Asraf H. 182
Haque, Nilufar 236 Sherasia, Pankaj L. 182
Islam, M. M. 156 Singh, K. P. 17
Jadhav, K. M. 224 Singh, Mukesh 63
Joshi D.V. 254 Shiv Raj Singh 193
Kachhiapatel, A. J. 31 Singla, M. 54
Kaswan, Sandeep 54, 243 Singh, R. D. 123
Kaswan, S. 53 Singh, S. V. 157
Kishankumar, M. 247 Sirohi, Smita 126
Khan, Azmat Alam 75 Srivastava, A. K. 219,254
Khan, H. M. 69 Sultana J. Razia 173
Kochewad, S. A. 63 Sutaria, T. V. 146
Kumar, Anil 133 Suthar, A. N. 224
Kumar, Arun 25 Thakur, Ankaj 209
Kumar, Narendra 209 Wadhwani, K. N. 156
Kumar, Sunil 157 Varma, C. G. 102
Kumari, Anjali 209 Vidhyarthi Vinod kumar 82
Kummari, Suresh 247

261
IMPORTANT NOTES

262