How to make one’s communication ambiguity-free?

A critical study in the

light of Structural Linguistics in ESL context

S. Joseph Arul Jayraj, India

S. Joseph Arul Jayraj is the Head & Associate Professor of English, at St. Joseph’s College
(Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli-620 002, Tamil Nadu, India. He is interested in teaching and
doing research in English Language and Literature. He has written two books and co-written
three books. His current professional interests are literary criticism, theories, and creative
writing. He can be contacted at 6jayraj@gmail.com

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Abstract
Introduction
How does language function?
Understanding the terms ‘Sign’, ‘Signifier’ and ‘Signified’
How to make one’s communication ambiguity-free?
Grammatically well-formed sentences which convey wrong meaning or the meaning which cannot
be true
The notional and formal sentences
Ambiguous sentences
Lexical ambiguity
Syntactic ambiguity
Reduced relative clauses
Scope of ambiguity due to anaphora resolution
Change in the order of adjectives
Avoidance of fronting or stranding a “prepositional phrase”
Compound use
Parallel sentence
Combinational complexity
Incremental and local language
Semantic ambiguity
The surface structure and the deep structure
Surface structure
Deep structure
What is grammar?
The need to study grammatical structures
What is to be taught and studied under grammar?
When to teach grammar?
The important points that need to be borne in mind while teaching grammar
The procedure that has to be adopted in analyzing the errors committed by the learners
The analysis
Action-plan proposed to make one’s communication ambiguity-free by rectifying errors
Conclusion
References
Abstract

This research paper critically studies words and sentences which are uttered in isolated contexts
during social interactions. It analyses the elements of ambiguities bestowed on the language used
in specific contexts of communication with a variety of linguistic structures such as lexical,
syntactic, semantic, contextual and pragmatic. It makes the readers aware of the various
language-related issues which exist with regard to its structure and the varied uses of language in
human communication. It also proposes the strategies and action-plan to eradicate errors which
create various types of ambiguities in one’s communication and underscores the necessity to
make the learners understand the rules of grammar and use them effectively in communication in
ESL context.

Key Words:
Ambiguities, lexical, syntactic, semantic, contextual, pragmatic, and ESL context.

Introduction

Every human language is composed of certain specific components such as phonemes (the
smallest units of sound that may cause a change of meaning within a language but that do not
have meaning by themselves), morphemes (the smallest units of a word that provide a specific
meaning to a string of alphabets/letters, which are called phonemes), lexemes (the sets of all the
inflected forms of a single word), syntax (the set of rules by which a person can construct
sentences), semantics (the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences), context (that
explains how all these components within a language work together to convey a particular
meaning, to a particular person, at a particular place, at a particular time), and pragmatics
(meaning that happens in the context of discourse). All languages have these intrinsic structural
rules that make meaningful communication possible. If any mismatch creeps into existence
among these innate components of a language, it will lead to the committing of extrinsic
mistakes, lapses and errors, which occur due to breach of codes or errors in the use of codes, in
the process of reception and expression of communication among individuals and groups of
communicators. Mistakes, lapses, errors, and breach of codes or errors in the use of codes do
occur because of the lack of ‘grammatical competence’, and get manifested in the form of the
lack of ‘communicative competence’ of the users of the target language. This process of
communication starts gradually from speech perception to speech production. Language
acquisition is the process by which a person acquires the capacity/competence to perceive and
comprehend the message conveyed through the phonic and graphic signs used by the
communicator. The reciprocator also uses the same signs to respond to one’s communication.
Therefore, it is the bounding duty of a teacher of English as a Second/Foreign language to train
the learners to be effective communicators.

Human language happens as a byproduct of a series of interactions between man and his
environment. Language is used by a variety of people in a variety of contexts. The context or
situation in which a sentence is uttered is very important in deciding its meaning. For example,
‘Could you show me the way to the Church, please?’ The given sentence is interrogative in form
but expresses a polite request. The construction of these types of sentences creates room for
misinformation due to the inbuilt elements of ambiguity and ultimately results in confusion and
misunderstanding between the speaker/writer and the listener/reader.

How does language function?

Structural linguistics has its roots in Saussurean linguistics. A good knowledge of Saussurean
thinking is indispensable to grasp the structures that underlie language and the role they play in
deciding the meaning of one’s communication. Language is not a name to refer to things which
already existed, but a set of labels because language existed before the existence of independent
signs. It makes things intelligible by differentiating between the meaning of a word with the help
of the graphical and the sound forms of the same word. According to Saussure, language is a
system of signs. The connection between language as a sign and its meaning is arbitrary because
the language is based on random choice or personal whim, rather than any reason or system. It is
a convention accepted by all users of a given language (signifier) to refer to the thing/animal
(signified) that is referred to. It is the verbal sign that necessitates a systematic structure for
language. Linguistics is not based on a ‘diachronic’ study which deals with the way a language
has developed over a period of time, but on a ‘synchronic’ study which is concerned with a
language as it exists at one point of time.

Understanding the terms ‘Sign’, ‘Signifier’ and ‘Signified’

Sign
(the word ‘chair’)
↙ ↘
Signifier
Signified
(graphical & acoustic forms of the word
(the meaning of the word ‘chair’)
‘chair’)

Ferdinand de Saussure was the first to elaborate on the tripartite relationship among ‘sign’ =
‘signifier’ + ‘signified’. He perceived a word/phrase/sentence/a work of art as a sign. The term
sign has a ‘double’ entity namely ‘Signifier’ and ‘Signified’. For example, as soon as one hears
the word ‘chair’, it acts as a sign/an indicator of the object one refers to. In other words, the
meaning of the word ‘chair’ is embedded in the ‘Signifier’ which refers to the combination of the
graphical and the acoustic forms of the word ‘chair’, and the ‘Signified’ refers to the meaning of
the word ‘chair’. Neither of these entities exists outside the construct called sign. They are
separated or shown as two different entities in this paper for sake of the convenience of the
readers. Literature and culture are embedded in language. All in the same culture share the same
language. Claude Lévi-Strauss, a French social anthropologist, viewed cultures as systems of
communication. His reorientation of linguistics underscores the fact that language must be
considered a social phenomenon and a structured system of signs. According to him, though the
function of a sign is basic to both language and literature, the meaning of the language varies
according to the context and time in which it is used. For example, one is always “confused by
the terms washroom, restroom, bathroom, lavatory, toilet and toilet room. …The Canadians use
the word washroom to refer to a toilet while the Americans colloquially refer to it as bathroom
or Saint John’s in the same situation” (http://english.stackexchange.com/Questions/8281/
washroom-restroombathroom -lavatory-toilet-or-toilet-room). Therefore, Semiotics is relevant to
the study of literature because literature uses language which is the primary system of sign in
human culture. Symbol is a mark or character used as a conventional representation of an object,
function, or process. The letter or letters that stand for a chemical element or a character in
musical notation are the examples. Symbol refers to a thing or a word which denotes or stands
for the referent. Saussure deliberately ignores the referent, which, in other words, is the thing that
is referred to because a word which refers to a specific object in one cultural context refers to
either the same object with the same word or a different cultural object with a different word as
in the afore-cited example.

The basic elements of Semiology

Saussurean terms namely ‘langue’, which means “language considered as an abstract system or a
social institution, being the common possession of a speech community” (http://dictionary.
reference.com/browse/langue) and ‘parole’, which means language as manifested in the actual
utterances produced by speakers of a language (http://www.dictionary.com/browse/parole) play
pivotal roles in a semiotic analysis of any text. Furthermore, all texts/signs consist of lexical
(word), graphic (written/printed) and phonic (sound) units and gain their meaning via the
constant clashes between these systems. Therefore, Semiological analysis aims to identify the
principle at work in the message or text, and ties together all the elements to determine the
rhetoric or the grammar.

The use of an image of a thing, a letter of the alphabet, word, hieroglyph, and character in
literature

Example-1: A successive use of a letter of the alphabet such as XXX is used as an acronym or
abbreviation for WWW which means World Wide Web.

Example-2: Ecclesiastically, the word ‘Gospel’ means “the good news of salvation in Jesus
Christ” (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/gospel), which is epitomised by John in his gospel
with the help of the following words: “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only
begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life”
(http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/John-3-16/). The Phonemes in the passage are italicised
and underscored for emphasis. The italicised and underscored phonemes in the passage quoted
above can be grouped together and the word ‘Gospel’ can be coined as an acronym from them.

Example-3: The image of a thing known as ‘Cross’ is considered a symbol for redemption and
the symbol of the ‘Holy Ash’ on one’s forehead is considered a mark of impermanence of
worldly life which is emphasised in “Genesis” as follows: “In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat
bread, till thou return unto the ground; for out of it wast thou taken: for dust thou art, and unto
dust shalt thou return” (http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Genesis-3-19/).
Example-4: The word ‘hieroglyph’ means a system of writing in which pictorial symbols 
are used to represent meaning or sounds or a combination of meaning and sound
(http://www.the freedictionary.com/hieroglyphic). It is an artistic and pictographic
representation of an ‘esoteric idea’ which is intended for or likely to be understood by only a
small number of people with a specialized knowledge or interest.

Example-5: The character like Judas is notoriously known for his kiss and betrayal of Jesus. His
name is often invoked to accuse someone of betrayal. Judas is still somewhat of an ambivalent
figure in Christian history. Judas’ betrayal, for instance, set in motion the events that led to
Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection, which, according to traditional Christian theology,
brought salvation to humanity.  Some theological scholars praise Judas for his role in triggering
humanity’s alleged salvation, and view Judas as the best of the apostles (http://medlibrary.org/
medwiki/Judas). The relational nature of language implied by Saussure’s system rejects the
concept that a word or symbol corresponds to an outside object or referent. Instead, meaning is
the interpretation of a sign which can exist only in relationship with other signs. In other words, a
word does not refer to any object because meaning is not embedded in the object that is referred
to, but in the word which is used as a sign to refer to the object.

People use their own language to put labels on all observable phenomena and they are
conditioned to see only the object and ideas that can be expressed in the language. In other
words, though ‘Syntax’ of a language presents the graphic form of a language, it does not
provide any information about the meaning of the language in itself. It is the society which
assigns meaning to these graphic forms of language according to the context in which these
graphic symbols are used (Yule, 2014, pp.96-111). For example, ‘How does one identify a
cow?’ The word ‘cow’ is used by people of the world after an agreement that this word can be
used to identify an animal called ‘cow’. When someone pronounces the word ‘cow’, the hearer is
able to recollect from his mind the image of the animal and correlate the image with that of the
sound and graphic symbols of the word ‘cow’ and identify it as the animal referred to.

How to make one’s communication ambiguity-free?

Stanley Eugene Fish in his essay “Is There a Text in this Class?” is of the opinion that the
instability of the text means that no text can mean anything in particular. Others may believe that
words in the texts undeniably have meaning. But the meaning of the text is not embedded in the
language. Every text or utterance has an infinite plurality of meaning. Because of referential
meaning of language, several situations and contexts can be attached to a single utterance. One
of the valid reasons for the texts or statements to be understood or misunderstood differently by
different persons at different contexts is that the readers of the texts or the listeners of the
statements are able to construct meaning because the text that is read or the words that are heard
are already embedded in contexts. There are as many meanings as possible for the text as there
are readers. But the meanings are available to those who know the context in which the statement
is uttered or the text is written.

Fish says that it is impossible to think of a sentence independently of a context. In other words,
language cannot happen in isolation. It can happen only in contexts. The meaning of a text or a
statement does not lie in the text, but in the contexts wherein the statement is uttered or the text is
written. Therefore, the context is essential for proper understanding of the statement or the text.
The listeners/readers are not free to confer any meaning on any utterance they like. Sometimes,
the listeners/readers assume what the meaning would be. But the assumption of meaning can be
challenged by another hearer or reader. Thus, the misunderstanding of the meaning of an
utterance or the text becomes possible. There is one more reason that some listeners or readers
may ‘mishear’ the utterance or ‘misread’ the text. Some others may ‘misprehear’ the utterance or
‘mispreread’ the text. Thus, according to Fish, the construing of sense leads to the identification
of the context of the utterance or text. These reasons give vent to a question whether the context
has come into existence first or the meaning. The answer, according to Fish, is that they occur
simultaneously. Fish’s another question is that if the speaker’s words do not lead the hearer to
the context of the speaker’s utterance, how the listener is able get there. The answer Fish gives is
that it is due to the hearer’s preparation for organizing the world and its events. When the
speaker and the listener agree on the statement and its meaning, it is a sign that the words are
spoken and heard within the same system of intelligibility or frequency of understanding from
which the statement and its meaning emerge. It is possible because the structures of words or
sentences are not abstract and independent, but social. Fish shares the opinion of Derrida that
texts are empty containers waiting to be filled with meaning. The reader assigns meaning to
words and sentences of the text. The meaning assigned is not at all based on the reader’s private
views, but on the shared agreement of the society in which the reader lives. Therefore, the
meaning of words or sentences becomes the voice of the society. Thus, the speaker and the
hearer indulge in communication confidently and their confidence has its source in a set of
beliefs which are not individual but societal and conventional (Sethuraman, 1989, pp. 276-292).
Therefore, the teachers of English and the students of ESL classes have to define their objectives
of communication very clearly.

In spite of all the precautions taken by the speaker and the hearer, and the writer and the reader,
ambiguities of various kinds do occur in one’s communication. They are:

Grammatically well-formed sentences which convey wrong meaning or the meaning which
cannot be true

Communicators assign specific meaning to a sentence in a specific context. The sentence may be
a grammatically well-formed one but still can convey a wrong meaning. For example, ‘Honey is
bitter’. The meaning of the sentence is not true. The sentence is grammatically well-framed but
expresses the meaning that is not true.

The notional and formal sentences

The term ‘syntax’ is derived from the Greek word “‘syntassein’ which means ‘to put in order,
arrange’”. It also means “Sentence structure: the arrangement of word forms to show their
mutual relations in the sentence” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Vol. III, 1971,
p. 2321). It can also mean “the arrangement of words in sentences, and the codified rules
explaining this system” (Sylvia Chalker & Edmund Weiner, 2011, p.391). Therefore, syntax is a
branch of Linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering
of its components (Abrams, 2000, pp.141-142; Yule, 2014, pp.96-111). One of the tasks of
syntactic analysis is to explain the arrangement of different parts of a sentence. As a general rule,
a sentence is described as a group of words arranged in such a way to convey a complete sense.
Nevertheless, in practice, especially in oral communication, the basic concept of a sentence
undergoes a sea change. Sometimes, the thoughts expressed are not in the form of fully
developed sentence. For example, ‘Come’, ‘Sit’, ‘Eat’, ‘Drink’, ‘Stand’, ‘Go’, etc. ‘You’ is
implied before these imperative sentences. These sentences cannot be divided into patterns of
elements of a sentence, because they are constructed in ‘unusual’ patterns of sentences and they
do not follow the rules of a sentence pattern. Therefore, the linguists have developed two
different approaches to define sentences. The first approach is known as ‘notional’ which
characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea/concept, and the second approach is
known as ‘formal’. The second approach explains the manner in which the sentences are
constructed.

Some sentences can be constructed with single clause. For example, ‘The passenger wanted II
class ticket’ (Main Clause). It is a simple sentence. It can also be modified or sub-divided further
into different patterns of sentences which consist of multiple clauses as follows:
 The passenger enquired at the booking counter (Main Clause) whether (Subordinating
Conjunction) a berth was available in the Grand Trunk Express of the 1st January 2016
(Subordinate Clause). It is a complex sentence.
 The Clerk at the booking counter wanted to know (Main Clause) whether (Subordinating
Conjunction) the passenger wished to travel by II class A.C (Subordinate Clause). It is a
complex sentence.
 The Clerk at the booking counter informed the passenger of the availability of the ticket
(Main Clause) and (Coordinating Conjunction) directed him to Counter Number: 6 (Main
Clause). It is a compound sentence.

This kind of examples and analyses enables the ESL (English as a Second Language) learners in
constructing meaningful sentences according to the rules of the language and transform them
from one sentence structure to another. For example,
 Positive statement in active voice: ‘Ms. J. Winfan Celes joins Ph. D programme in
Biotechnology.’ From the above-constructed Positive Statement which is written in
Active Voice, a variety of sentences can be created.
 Positive statement in passive voice: ‘Ph. D programme in Biotechnology is joined by Ms.
J. Winfan Celes.’
 Negative statement: ‘Ms. J. Winfan Celes does not join Ph. D programme in
Biotechnology.’
 Interrogative sentence: ‘Does Ms. J. Winfan Celes join Ph. D programme in
Biotechnology?’
 Question tag: ‘Ms. J. Winfan Celes joins Ph. D programme in Biotechnology, doesn’t
she?’

Taking into account the difficulties of learning the syntactic structures of English language, it
can be reduced into a formula which will enable the learners to construct sentences with ease.
The formulae for constructing sentences in Present Tense are as follows:
 Subject + am/is/are + Object/Complement/Adjunct.
 For example, I am a teacher.
SV O

 Subject (I/We/You/They) + First Form of Main Verb+ Object/ Complement/Adjunct.

For example, We like sweets.
S V O

 Subject (He/ She/ It) + First Form of Main Verb (+s/ +es/ +ies) + Object/Complement/
Adjunct.
For example,
He eats an ice-cream cone.
S V O

The Mother kisses her baby.

S V O

It tries to fly away from the cage.

S V O

I write a letter to my friend.

S V DO IO

It did not rain, last night.

S V A

I am an Indian.
S V C

We elected her Prime Minister.

S V O C

They named their baby Chriss in the Church.

S V O C A

Ambiguous sentences

In theoretical linguistics, grammaticality is the quality of a linguistic utterance of being

grammatically well-formed. A judgment on whether a sentence or constituent is grammatically
well-formed is based on whether the sentence is produced and interpreted in accordance with the
relevance of grammar. If the rules of the particular language are followed, then the sentence is
considered to be grammatical. In contrast, an ungrammatical sentence is one that violates the
rules of a given language. Meaning is only divided into smaller structural units of words which
happen in concrete social interactions based on certain specific contexts. These words are best
presented in a sequence of sentences and in suitable contexts of interaction but certainly not in
isolation. If a language is used outside the specific contexts of interactions, language will cause
ambiguity of meaning. The term ‘ambiguous’ means “indefinite; capable of being understood in
more than one way” (Tim, 2003, p.19). Different types of ambiguity may arise in one’s
communication. The following are the examples of various types of ambiguous sentences.

Lexical ambiguity

The term “‘lexeme’ means a meaningful speech form that is an item of the vocabulary of a
language. … ‘Lexical’ relating to words” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Vol.
III, 1961, p.1301). For example, in the sentences given below, ambiguity of meaning arises
because of the order of the arrangement of words.
 Never drink a drink when the drink drinks you.
 When the drinker drinks the drink (alcohol) and enjoys the intoxication of it, the
drinker keeps the drink under his control.
 When the drinker drinks the drink (alcohol) and crosses the limit, the drink (alcohol)
starts drinking the drinker.

The following sentence has two layers of meaning. For example, “Rose rose to put rose roes on
her rows of roses”. The given sentence can be interpreted in a meaningful way as follows: Rose
[Name of a person] rose [stood, past tense of rise, meaning to get up] to put rose roes [a roe is a
fish egg, and rose here is referring to a colour on her rows of roses] on the rows of roses [on the
rows of flowers she has planted]. Therefore, the above-cited sentence means: Rose got up to put
red fish eggs on her rows of rose flowers (https://prezi.com/rweuiaxhqjuc/ ambiguity/). The
successive sidings of words which have different spellings and meaning but have same
pronunciation and multiple meanings may happen in certain contexts. In the sentences given
below, “ambiguity arises out of a word or phrase having more than one meaning” (Sylvia
Chalker & Edmund Weiner, 2011, p.21).

Syntactic ambiguity

The given sentence is ambiguous because of its structure. For example, ‘The lady kissed the man
with spectacles’. Such sentences are said to have syntactic ambiguity. The phrase ‘with
spectacles’ is the cause for ambiguity. “There is often considerable doubt as to what the phrase
refers to” (Sylvia Chalker & Edmund Weiner, 2011, p.21). The meaning of the sentence is
ambiguous because it is not clear whether the lady used spectacles to kiss a man or she kissed a
man who was with spectacles.

Though syntax and meaning interact, a sentence may be syntactically valid. Sometimes, all the
words of a sentence may be meaningful, but the sentence as a whole may not be meaningful. For
example, ‘About meaningless rhetoric this article is’. The words used in the sentence are all
meaningful. But the change in the order of words in the sentence structure results in
meaninglessness and confusion. The correct order of the words in the sentence is: ‘This article is
about meaningless rhetoric.’

Demonstrations of ambiguity between alternative syntactic structures may arise as in the case of
the following sentence. An ungrammatical sentence such as the following admits of no meaning.
For example, ‘Neither of them and either of them sees them.’
Reduced relative clauses

In the absence of a personal pronoun followed by a comma in a sentence of relative clause, the
meaning becomes ambiguous. For example, ‘While the boy was stoning the dog was running
through the street’. The correct syntax of the sentence would be: ‘While the boy was stoning the
dog [,] [it] was running through the street’.

Scope of ambiguity due to anaphora resolution

Anaphora is the repetition of a certain word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines of
writing or speech. For example, in A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Puck sings: “Over hill, over
dale,/ Through hush, through briar,/Over park, over pale,/Through flood, through fire,/I do
wander everywhere…” (A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 1975, Act 2, Scene1, ll.2-6, p.47). The
reader can note the point that the repetitions of not only certain words like ‘over’ and ‘through’,
but also the repetition of grammatical constructions, prepositions and nouns which give the song
the movement.

Similarly, John Milton, in Samson Agonistes, imagines Samson, blind and dejected, saying these
words: “O dark, dark, dark, amid the blaze of noon,/Irrecoverably dark,  total eclipse” (Samson
Agonistes, 2016, ll.80-81, p.6). The reader can understand the point that the repetition of the
word ‘dark’ in the lines conveys to the reader the complete dejection of Samson and also the
hopelessness of everlasting blindness.

Another example of anaphora occurs in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice: “My daughter!
O my ducats! O my daughter,/ Fled with a Christian! O my Christian ducats!/Justice, the law, my
ducats, and my daughter!/A sealèd bag, two sealèd bags of ducats,/ Of double ducats, stol’n from
me by my daughter/ (The Merchant of Venice, Act II, Scene Viii, ll:15-19, p.30) Solanio informs
Salarino of the words blabbered by Shylock on the streets. It also echoes the disturbed frame
work of the mind of Shylock who is under the influence of hysteria on having heard the news
that his daughter Jessica has eloped with Lorenzo with all the properties of Shylock.

Therefore, from these examples, the reader can understand that anaphora is a fundamental
rhetorical unit employed in a poem wherein the words and sounds are repeated merely for the
pleasure they give the ear. In songs and choruses, a series of nonsense syllables are repeated at
times (http://study.com/academy/lesson/anaphora-in-literature-definition-effect-examples.html).

Change in the order of adjectives

Note the order of adjectives in the following sentences. The adjectives are used as adverbs in the
following sentences:
a. I’ve no doubt absolutely.
b. We’ve understood the theory completely.
c. The explanation is useless utterly.

Note: The afore-drafted sentences should have been written as follows:

a. I’ve absolutely no doubt.
b. We’ve completely understood the theory.
 c. The explanation is utterly useless.

Avoidance of fronting or stranding a “prepositional phrase”

The following sentence not only demonstrates the absurdity of fronting a “prepositional phrase”
instead of stranding, but also illustrates the ungrammaticality resulting from fronting a
“prepositional phrase” that is not a component of a proper syntax of the statement. For example,
‘This sort of nonsense which I will not put up with’. Rather, the sentence should have been
stated as ‘I will not put up with this sort of nonsense’.

Compound use

For example, “Being at once an inside-outsider and an outside-insider to the cultural geographies
of his times, Jesus inhabited an “in-between” space that uniquely privileged him to see and
appreciate the best and worst of the cultures that prevailed in ancient Judea” (Anthony B. Pinn
and Benjamin Valentin, 2009, p. 47)

Parallel sentence

A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another
pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the
parallelism. For example, ‘The teacher told the students that they should get a lot of sleep, that
they should not eat too much, and that they should do some reading before the examination.’
The noun phrases and verb phrases in the following sentence are parallel with respect to
structure. ‘The teacher taught grammar to the boy and the boy learnt grammar from the teacher.’

Combinational complexity

The following sentences are grammatically correct but are based on semantic combinations that
are contradictory and therefore they would not normally occur. The sentences end in an unusual
or unexpected manner. Although the following sentences are unlikely to have ever been said, the
combinatorial complexity of the linguistic system makes them possible. For example, ‘One day,
a big fish encountered a small fish. The small fish laughed at the big fish and said: “I’ll swallow
you!” The small fish swallowed the big fish! ‘

Incremental and local language

A syntactic analysis of incremental and local language helps one to find out whether a sentence

conforms to the rules of a formal grammar. The term ‘parsing’ means part of speech that leads to
infelicitous constructions and interpretations. ‘Infelicitous’ means inappropriate and unpleasing
manner or style of expression. The following example explains how incremental and (at least
partially) local syntactic parsing can lead to infelicitous construction and interpretation. For
example, if one says: ‘I express my hearty condolences’, the sentence is considered an
infelicitous expression. The sentence should be constructed as follows: ‘I express my heart-felt
condolences’.
A locally ambiguous sentence is one that contains an ambiguous phrase but has only one
interpretation. The ambiguity in a locally ambiguous sentence briefly persists and is resolved by
the end of the utterance. For example, ‘Jim: “Call me a dog.”/ Jill: “Ok, you’re a dog.” ’

Semantic ambiguity

“The Greek ‘semantikos’ means ‘the study of meaning’” (Webster’s Third New International
Dictionary, Vol.III, 1971, p.2062). In Linguistics, ‘semantics’ means the study of meaning of
words, phrases and sentences that are used to understand human expression of concepts through
language. According to George Yule (2014), it is concerned with the conventional or traditional
meaning and not the associative meaning (p.114). Sylvia Chalker and Edmund Weiner (2011)
opine that semantics is “the study or analysis of the relationships between linguistic forms and
meaning” (p.355). Semantics is different from ‘Pragmatics’. Pragmatics is a study of the
understanding of the implied meaning of interactions (Abrams, 2000, p.142). For example, ‘The
room is warm’. The sentence is self-explanatory and literal meaning of the sentence is: ‘The
room is not airy’. The implied meaning of the sentence is: ‘Open the window and allow the air to
come in or Switch the fan on.’

The surface structure and the deep structure

Noam Chomsky underscores the difference between the ‘surface structure’ and the ‘deep
structure’ of a sentence. What he calls the ‘surface structure’ of a sentence is its grammatical
form, and the ‘deep structure’ is understood as the meaning of a sentence (Abrams, 2000, p.145).
Furthermore, construction of identifiable parts of speech gives a definite structure and meaning
to a sentence to one’s communication. Sentence structures have defined boundaries within which
(a) each part of speech is physically or functionally connected to the other parts of speech, and
(b) the parts of speech themselves have their relationships with the other.

‘Surface structure’

It refers to a sentence in a specific structure that is heard and spoken. In transformational

grammar, it refers to the formal structure of a sentence as it actually occurs in speech. For
example, the surface structure of the opening line of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice reads in
Chapter-I as follows:  “IT is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of
a good fortune must be in want of a wife” (p.1).

i) The surface level meaning of the surface structure of the opening line of Jane Austen’s Pride
and Prejudice indicates how Austen is going to assemble the idea of social conventions having a
role in how individuals are “supposed” to act. Such a line indicates the idea that a single man is
going to marry.  This social expectation is placed upon women in that their function is
“supposed” to compete for such a man’s affection.  The fact that Austen uses the words
“universally” and “truth” to describe such a condition indicates that social conventions are
something that are meant to be upheld under all circumstances, just as universal truths are to be
upheld in all circumstances. 
ii) The surface level meaning of the surface structure of the following words: “How can this be,
since I do not know a man?” (Luke, 1:34). The literal meaning of the surface structure of the
sentence is that the speaker is wondering how she can bear a child being a spinster.

‘Deep structure’

In transformational grammar, it refers to the abstract syntactic pattern and meaning underlying
the construction in the surface structure of a sentence. In other words, it does not refer to the
formal structure of a sentence and its meaning as it actually occurs in speech, on the other hand,
it refers to the abstract intentions with which the words are uttered or arranged in a sentence
structure.

The deeper level meaning of the deep structure of the opening line of Jane Austen’s Pride and
Prejudice indicates how Austen uses this line to open her novel which will question socially
dictated notions, stratification within a social order, and tells men and women what to do
(“universally acknowledged truth”) as opposed to allowing them what they wish to do.  As one
reads the novel, it will be interesting for him/her to compare this line to the situations that he/she
will encounter and test its validity.  In doing so, one will understand why Austen begins with
such a notion.

The deeper level meaning of the deep structure of the following words: “How can this be, since
I do not know a man?” (Luke 1:34). Note that this sentence does not have any syntactical
difference at the surface level, but it does have semantic difference in its deep level as follows:
Mary, understanding the angel to imply an immediate conception, objected to the marriage-
relationship and she was not allowed to get married to Joseph till the year of espousal was
completed.

A commonly held opinion among the catholic exegetes holds that Mary had made a vow of
perpetual virginity even before her espousal to Joseph; Joseph accepted marriage under this most
unusual condition. Mary decided upon perpetual virginity at the time of the annunciation, either
because of the demands of Isaiah 7:14 “Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign: The virgin 
will conceive and give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel” (http://www.biblegateway.com/
passage/?Search= Isaiah+7% 3A14&version=NIV) [The quote is mine] or because of the
impelling necessity of the mystery of the divine maternity (A. Joseph Fitzmyer SJ & E. Raymond
Brown, 1968, pp.122-123).

What is grammar?

“The study of grammar is an exercise in logical thinking; therefore, it trains the mind” (Frisby,
1966, p.267). So, teaching of grammar undertakes a scientific study of its rules, and of the use of
these rules, and analyses the components of a language. John M. Kean and Carl Personke (1976)
distinguish the grammar of a language from its ‘concept’ and ‘use’ as follows: “Grammar is a
description of the expression system of a language, including rules for manipulation of that
system” (p.16).
Grammar can be classified into two types: formal and functional grammar’. ‘Formal Grammar’
refers to grammar which is taught in a formal way. It is also called the ‘Prescriptive Grammar’
or the ‘Traditional Grammar’, which deals with the definitions and rules of the language. In this
type of grammar, there are set rules. The learners first learn rules and then practise the rules in
speech and writing. Normally, in almost all the educational institutions in India, the first type of
teaching grammar is followed in ESL classes. ‘Formal Grammar’ develops the learners’ ability
to describe the language. The second type of teaching grammar is known as ‘Functional
Grammar’, which is also called ‘Incidental Grammar’. The learners learn this type of grammar
when language learning is the first concern of the learners and knowing the rules of the language
is secondary. ‘Formal Grammar’ develops the learners’ ability to describe the language, whereas
‘Functional Grammar’ develops the learners’ ability to use the language. If it is taught
inductively through activities without using technical words and rules, then grammar can be
learnt with a lot of interest.

“Otto Jesperson’s (1904) How to Teach a Foreign Language advocates the use of contextualized
learning material” (Krishnaswamy, 1992, p.204). According to Kelly and Titone, ‘Form-focused’
language teaching lays stress on “the rules of grammar, structures, the development of
vocabulary and the sounds of language” (Methods of Teaching English, 1995, p.65). ‘Meaning-
focused’ language teaching “emphasizes language use, communication or fluency, and
appropriacy of expression in different situations” (Methods of Teaching English, 1995, p.65).
‘Form-focused teaching’ (Formal/Prescriptive/Traditional Grammar) is the basic foundation on
which the superstructure namely ‘Meaning-focused teaching’ (Functional/Incidental Grammar)
can be built. So, the objectives of teaching and learning English need to be modified suitably. It
is also advisable to use grammar not only in contexts but also in a full sentence pattern. It should
not be taught and learnt in isolation.

Michael Swan, while reviewing S. Thornbury’s How to Teach Grammar (1999), states “… that a
bit of grammar practice is probably all right if it is done tastefully in appropriate communicative
contexts...for instance, when embedded in tasks” (The Journal of English Language Teaching,
Vol.55 / 2, pp.203 - 204). Skinner perceives grammar as a necessary discipline, which can be
made fascinating. As language is basically meant for communication, teaching of the
grammatical rules helps the language learners to use language effectively. Any language course
must be organized on the skeleton of grammar, which the language teacher must be conscious of
throughout the course. But a care must be taken by the teachers in teaching grammar because
according to Comenius (1592-1670), “...language should not be the object of learning but the
outcome, the product” (Krishnaswamy, 1992, p.201).

The need to study grammatical structures

At this juncture, one feels the need to make the teaching grammar mandatory because it plays a
pivotal role in ESL context. Grammatical competence empowers the learners to communicate
accurately and fluently in phonic as well as graphic modes of expression accurately. It is the
need of the hour to learn both ‘usage’ and ‘use’ in the target language. In teaching and learning
of English in ESL context, grammar has been ignored, slighted, bungled, mismanaged or barely
managed. Of course, for the multifarious injustice done to grammar, all the academicians and
students are to be blamed. So it is high time to restore the teaching of grammar to its full due in
order to enable the learners to get on to a surer footing when they are required to express
themselves in either mode—phonic or graphic. The neglect of grammar, in particular, hampers
the learners’ accuracy not only at the level of language production but also at the level of
assimilation. This is only too true because the core of language (‘langage’), even as Ferdinand de
Saussure has affirmed, is ‘langue’ and knowledge of langue-grammar determines the myriad
modes of parole manifesting ‘langue’. In order to avoid the above-mentioned ambiguities that are
likely to happen in one’s communication, the teachers of English need:
 To emphasize the necessity and prudence of teaching relevant grammar and teaching it
delightfully to the students.
 To make the students aware of the elements of ambiguity that may arise during
interpersonal communication.
 To re-position the language teaching securely on foundations of the learners’ cognitive
activities such as i) pattern-detection ii) insight-formation iii) hypothesis-formulation iv)
rule generalization and v) the eventual internalization of grammatical rules and
regulations synthesizing the different activities mentioned and implied.
 To extend, update and so augment the grammatical competence and performance of the
teachers and the students by re-acquainting them with a plurality of grammar theories and
models.
 To moderate and correct the excessive and exclusive emphasis on ‘fluency’ and
harmonize it with accuracy so as to achieve genuine fluency in lieu of the currently
pursued pseudo-fluency.
 To highlight the relevance of Structural Method for ‘accuracy’ development and
Communicative Language Teaching for ‘fluency’ development so as to work out a
suitable blend or balance.
 To propose strategies to teach and learn grammar successfully.

What is to be taught and studied under grammar?

A rapid revision of basic grammar can be done inductively, if needed, deductively. It will
increase the confidence of the learners to indulge in communicative language activities and also
enhance the learners to start with speaking and writing competencies and performance. Language
is a means of communication. In L1 situation, one learns to speak informally at home. In L2
situation, one is taught grammar and trained to listen, speak, read and write formally only at
school (Jayraj, 2009, p.350).

If the user of a language has only knowledge of language rules and forms, he/she is said to have
‘linguistic competence’. If he/she also has the knowledge to communicate functionally and
interactively, then he/she is said to have ‘communicative competence’. “Communicative
competence includes: (i) knowledge of grammar and vocabulary of the language, … (ii) knowing
how to use and respond to different types of speech acts such as requests, apologies, and thanks
at different contexts, and (iii) knowing how to use the language appropriately” (Jayraj, 2009,
p.350).

An “implicit” grammatical knowledge is a prerequisite to enable a second language learner to

communicate in English. But in a second language situation, experience shows that learners
spend years to learn English in vain irrespective of the continuous composition, corrections and
suggestions. It is a bitter experience for the learners to learn English, especially if the learners do
not have fluency and accuracy in using English. It may be due to i) the learners’ aversion to
formal instruction of grammar, ii) the intellectual laziness of the learners, and iii) lack of
language teaching atmosphere in the classrooms.

A learner can learn English as a second language easily by learning grammar well. Learning of
grammar rests on the assertion of the learner’s Will. The training of the Will of the learner is not
taken into consideration in the language teaching pedagogy because most teachers do not believe
in it. But classroom experience shows that a learner can learn any skill at any time provided
English is taught continuously in a formal way. If anyone wants to learn how to ride a bicycle,
the art of riding a bicycle can be learned by constant use. Similarly, English can also be learnt
through trial and error method.

If a learner does not systematically train his/her mind in the logic of using grammar accurately
when he/she is young, it will be very difficult to train the mind of the learner in using English
fluently and accurately. The best shortcut method to learn English is to learn it formally. For
example, if a learner wants to learn English, let the learner try to pick up English Grammar for a
stipulated period every day. By doing so, the learner can learn the pattern of English language.

If a teacher teaches English Grammar to a learner who has an internal motivation, the learner can
learn it by all means. If anyone thinks that learning formal grammar will be boring, so would any
other linguistic activity. One cannot write many interesting sentences with ease during the
beginning of a language learning programme. So, the learners should not worry about trying to
learn English. The learners should know how to use the parts of speech in grammatically correct
sentences. Gradually, more such language using activities can be added as the learners get more
and more efficient in forming them.

When to teach grammar?

Stage-1: During the primary school years, an informal way of teaching English grammar is very
much suitable. The learners need to be taught the parts of speech, but they can be presented
without being too technical. So, formal grammar has to be taught gradually and systematically.

Stage-2: During the middle school years, a learner is quite young and it is easy for the learner to
learn grammar. So, grammar can be taught intensively through plenty of composition and drill.

Stage-3: During the high school years, the learners become adults. If grammar is taught at a later
stage, still a learner can learn it. But, he/she has to exert himself/herself to learn it. But normally,
a learner will find it more difficult when he/she grows older.

The important points that need to be borne in mind while teaching grammar

Close attention to formal grammar accelerates the process of learning it effectively. For example,
formal instruction in phonetics and mathematics accelerates the pace by which decoding and
reproduction becomes easy to the learners.
Learning English Grammar is a skill like learning to swim, paint, etc. Teachers do “teach”
children to swim, paint, etc. So, one can learn English Grammar through constant practice.

Teaching remedial grammar will play a decisive role in training the minds of the learners to think
logically and empowering them to acquire language skills effectively.

Scholars who support formal study of grammar are of the opinion that the study of grammar
accelerates language acquisition with good speed. Interest is the strongest catalyst in effective
language acquisition, and dry grammar rules, drills and test-taking push the excitement and fear
out of the minds of the learners.

Language is an innate psychological as well as physical skill that all learners have to acquire
consciously over a period of time. Only then, the learners can speak confidently and fluently.
Provision can be made to enable the learners to have participatory learning experience. A sense
of curiosity, an urge or a desire can be created in the learners in order to help them find out and
learn on their own. For example,
Statement: I go to Church.
Negative: I do not go to Church.
Question: Do I go to Church?
Question Tag: I go to Church, don’t I?

The procedure that has to be adopted in analyzing the errors committed by the learners

RECOGNITION  DESCRIPTION  EXPLANATION

The analysis is based on Pit Corder’s three stages of error analysis as shown in the following
diagram:

The first stage, Recognition, is “crucially dependent upon correct interpretation of the learner’s
intentions.”

The second stage, Description, places the erroneous entity after the correct form of the target
language and makes a description of the error.

The third stage, Explanation, is regarded as a linguistic problem, i.e., “a statement of the way in
which the learner has deviated from the realization of rules of the target language in the
derivation of the sentence, that is, what rules he has broken, substituted or discarded” (Corder,
1971, pp.127).

The analysis

Given below is an erroneous sentence. It is followed by its plausible reconstruction in the target
language. The learner intended to convey the message in the Simple Present Tense. For example,
‘He goes to the Church.’
Recognition of the erroneous form of the sentence:
The definite article ‘the’ brings about a change of meaning to the sentence. The statement means
that he goes to Church not for worship, but for some other purpose.

Description of the correct form of the sentence

‘He goes to Church.’ The statement means that he goes to Church for worship.

Explanation
When he was asked for an explanation for the mistake he had committed, the learner was able to
identify and correct the mistake. He has the habit of using the definite article unnecessarily.

Thus, in ESL context, an account of the context in which the lexical, syntactic, and semantic
errors committed by the learners can be analyzed. The sentences that are uttered or written by the
learner in spelling and form have to be taken for careful scrutiny and analysis. The errors need to
be identified and described by comparing them with the appropriate forms. Based on the appropriate
structures of sentences, explanations of the errors can be offered. The reason and the manner in
which they occur can be found out. The correct interpretation of the learner’s intentions can be
made known to the learners.

Action-plan proposed to make one’s communication ambiguity free by rectifying errors

The class can be allowed to do the grammatical activity after a model presented by the teacher.
Individual learners can be invited to do it. The learners can be encouraged to take part in the
learning process. The learners can learn more readily, if they are encouraged to use the rules of
grammar that they are learning.

The learners should not only be involved in doing the grammar activities but also be encouraged
to carry out correction of the mistakes that they have committed after completing the activities.
What matters is whether the learners enjoy them, no matter whether they are artificial or
authentic (Andrew Wright as qtd. in Holden, 1980, p.65).

If the activities are presented in proper and known contexts, they can motivate the learners to
participate in grammar learning activities. If a learner is rewarded or encouraged by a round of
applause, a smile or a word of appreciation, greater learning will take place. It can be done both
in the beginning and after taking part in the language activities. The grammatical activities
designed need to be interesting and relevant to the learners. They also need to be presented in a
language that is simple and understandable, and the learners can be made to believe that they can
do the exercises on their own initiative with ease. The exercises can be designed in such a way
that they should be made to build up the confidence and standard of the learners. Gradually the
learners can be guided to move from simple repetition of grammatical activities to more free
use of sentence patterns.

The grammar-teaching programme and the materials produced can be made realistic by taking
into consideration the entry level of the learners to a carefully worked out final level. Otherwise,
the teacher will be teaching above the heads of the learners. Remedial materials can be used to
enable the slow learners to rise to the level of participating confidently in language activities. A
good teacher can get good results by whatever approach, method and technique he is using
(Abercrombie, 1956, p.16).

Conclusion

The emotions and feelings one has in one’s mind on anything are expressed through specific
language structures that exist in the form of words, phrases, and sentences which are approved of
and used by the society in specific contexts of communication. The underlying elements in a
language that are used in various contexts to develop general conclusions about the individual
words, phrases, and sentences which are part and parcel of a specific linguistic system from
which they emerge are underscored. Certain systems that underlie the linguistic structures are
classified and how an individual structure belongs to a particular structural category is
demonstrated. The meanings the language structures convey are explained and the points are
elucidated with apt examples. The reasons that are embedded in the conveyed thoughts in the
form of specific linguistic structures which are responsible for creating rooms for understanding
or misunderstanding in one’s communication are explained. The readers of the paper are enabled
to indulge in structuralist activity when he/she examines the structure of words, phrases, and
sentences to discover how their composition demonstrates the underlying principles of a
structural system of a specific language. The ways and means to make one’s communication
ambiguity free and effective are proposed.

Thus, the elements of ambiguities which happen while using language in specific contexts of
communication in lexical, syntactic, semantic, contextual and pragmatic structures, words and
sentences which are created in specific contexts of communication are brought out. The different
purposes with which these words and sentences are used are analyzed. The readers are made
aware of the different language-related issues which exist with regard to its form and function in
communicative contexts. The strategies to teach grammar are mentioned and an action-plan is
proposed to eradicate errors which create various types of ambiguities in one’s communication.
The teacher’s role to make the learners understand the rules of the language and the methods to
enable the learners to use them effectively in communication in ESL context is emphasized.

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